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Sir Galahad ( ; sometime referred to as Galeas or Galath ) , in Arthurian legend , is a knight of King Arthur 's Round Table and one of the three achievers of the Holy Grail . He is the illegitimate son of Sir Lancelot and Elaine of Corbenic , and is renowned for his gallantry and purity . Emerging quite late in the medieval Arthurian tradition , Sir Galahad first appears in the Lancelot–Grail cycle , and his story is taken up in later works such as the Post-Vulgate Cycle and Sir Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur . Life Conception and birth The circumstances surrounding the conception of the boy Galahad are explained by Sir Thomas Malory and derive from the Lancelot-Grail cycle . Lancelot mistakes Elaine for his mistress Guinevere . According to Malory , King Pelles has already received magical foreknowledge that Lancelot will give his daughter a child and that this little boy will grow to become the greatest knight in the world , the knight chosen by God to achieve the Holy Grail . King Pelles also knows that Lancelot will only lie with his one true love , Queen Guinevere . Destiny will have to be helped along a little , therefore ; a conclusion which prompts Pelles to seek out `` one of the greatest enchantresses of the time '' , Dame Brusen , who gives King Pelles a magic ring that will make Elaine take on the appearance of Queen Guinevere . Sir Lancelot and Elaine sleep together , but on discovering the deception , Lancelot then gets his clothes on and runs leaving Elaine , but when he finds out that they have conceived a son together , he is immediately forgiving ; however he does not marry Elaine or even wish to be with her anymore and returns to King Arthur 's court . The young Galahad is born and placed in the care of a great aunt , who is an abbess at a nunnery , to be raised there . According to the thirteenth century Old French Prose Lancelot ( part of the interconnected set of romances known as the Vulgate Cycle ) `` Galahad '' was Lancelot 's original name , but it was changed when he was a child . At his birth , therefore , Galahad is given his father 's own original name . Merlin prophesies that Galahad will surpass his father in valor and be successful in his search for the Holy Grail . King Pelles , Galahad 's maternal grandfather , is portrayed as a descendant of Bron , Joseph of Arimathea 's brother-in-law , whose line was entrusted with the Grail by Joseph . Quest for the Holy Grail Upon reaching adulthood , Galahad is reunited with his father Sir Lancelot , who knights him . Sir Galahad is then brought to King Arthur 's court at Camelot during Pentecost , where he is accompanied by a very old knight who immediately leads him over to the Round Table and unveils his seat at the Siege Perilous , an unused chair that has been kept vacant for the sole person who will accomplish the quest of the Holy Grail . For all others who have aspired to sit there , it has proved to be immediately fatal . Sir Galahad survives this test , witnessed by King Arthur who , upon realizing the greatness of this new knight , leads him out to the river where a sword lies in a stone with an inscription reading “ Never shall man take me hence but only he by whose side I ought to hang ; and he shall be the best knight of the world. ” ( The embedding of a sword in a stone is also an element of the legends of Arthur 's original sword , The sword in the stone . ) Galahad accomplishes this test with ease , and King Arthur swiftly proclaims him to be the greatest knight ever . Sir Galahad is promptly invited to become a Knight of the Round Table , and soon afterwards , King Arthur 's court witnesses an ethereal vision of the Holy Grail . The quest to seek out this holy object is begun at once . All of the Knights of the Round Table set out to find the Grail . Galahad for the most part travels alone , smiting his enemies , rescuing Sir Percival from twenty knights and saving maidens in distress , until he is finally reunited with Sir Bors and Sir Percival . These three knights then come across Sir Percival ’ s sister who leads them to the grail ship . They cross the sea in this ship and when they arrive on a distant shore , Percival ’ s sister is forced to die to save another . Sir Bors departs from the company in order to take her body back to her own country for a proper burial . After many adventures , Sir Galahad and Sir Percival find themselves at the court of King Pelles and Eliazar , his son . These men are very holy and they bring Galahad into a room where he is finally allowed to see the Holy Grail . Galahad is asked to take the vessel to the holy city Sarras . Ascension to heaven After seeing the grail , Galahad makes the request that he may die at the time of his choosing . So it is , while making his way back to Arthur ’ s court , Sir Galahad is visited by Joseph of Arimathea , and thus experiences such glorious rapture that he makes his request to die . Galahad bids Percival and Bors farewell , and angels take him to heaven , an ascension witnessed by Sir Bors and Percival . While it is not explicit that The Holy Grail is never to be seen again on earth , it is stated ( in Le Morte D'Arthur ) that there has since then been no knight capable of obtaining the Holy Grail . Medieval characterization The story of Sir Galahad and his quest for the Holy Grail is a relatively late addition to the Arthurian legend . Sir Galahad does not feature in any romance by Chrétien de Troyes , or in Robert de Boron 's Perceval , or in any of the continuations of Chrétien 's story of the mysterious castle of the Fisher King . Sir Galahad first appears in the early-thirteenth century Old French Vulgate Cycle . Perhaps it was because King Arthur and the established knights of his kingdom were not deemed to be fit enough for such a holy endeavor , that Sir Galahad was introduced to redeem King Arthur and his knights , and to show that there was one knight alone who was worthy to achieve the quest for the Holy Grail . It is Sir Galahad who takes the initiative to begin the search for the Grail ; the rest of the knights follow him . King Arthur is sorrowful that all the knights have embarked thus , for he discerns that many will never be seen again , dying in their quest . Arthur fears that it is the beginning of the end of the Round Table . This might be seen as a theological statement that concludes that earthly endeavors must take second place to the pursuit of the holy . Galahad , in some ways , mirrors Arthur , drawing a sword from a stone in the way that King Arthur did . In this manner , Sir Galahad is declared to be the chosen one . Victorian portrayals Alfred Lord Tennyson In Sir Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur , Galahad 's incredible prowess and fortune in the quest for the Holy Grail are traced back to his piety . According to the legend , only pure knights may achieve the Grail . While in a specific sense , this `` purity '' refers to chastity , Galahad appears to have lived a generally sinless life and so as a result , he lives and thinks on a level entirely apart from the other knights around him . This quality is reflected in Alfred Lord Tennyson 's poem `` Sir Galahad '' : `` My good blade carves the casques of men , My tough lance thrusteth sure , My strength is as the strength of ten , Because my heart is pure . `` Tennyson , Alfred Lord : Wordsworth Poetry Library , 1994 . The Works of Alfred Lord Tennyson . Wordsworth Editions Limited . Sir Galahad , published 1834. pp181–182 . Beginning of the first stanza . [ http : //www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/Galahad.htm Camelot Project ] Galahad is able to conquer all of his enemies because he is pure . In the next verse of this poem , Tennyson continues to glorify Galahad for remaining pure at heart , by putting these words into his mouth : `` I never felt the kiss of love , Nor maiden 's hand in mine . ” Sir Galahad pursues a single-minded and lonely course , sacrificing much in his determination to aspire to a higher ideal : `` Then move the trees , the copses nod , Wings flutter , voices hover clear ' O just and faithful knight of God ! Ride on ! the prize is near . '' Tennyson ’ s poem follows Galahad 's journey to find the Holy Grail but ends while he is still riding , still seeking , still dreaming ; as if to say that the quest for the Holy Grail is an ongoing task . Unlike many other portrayals of the legend of Sir Galahad , Tennyson has Sir Galahad speak in the first person , gives the reader his thoughts and feelings as he rides on his quest , rather than just the details of his battles , as in Malory . William Morris Sir Galahad ’ s thoughts and aspirations have been explored as well by William Morris in his poem Sir Galahad , a Christmas Mystery , published in 1858 . In this poem , written more than twenty years after Tennyson 's Sir Galahad , Galahad is `` fighting an internal battle between the ideal and the human '' , believing that he is like God and that he is able to be a `` saviour capable of imparting grace '' , following a dream in which he saves a dying knight with a kiss . Galahad isolates himself because he is a “ self-centred figure '' . Morris ’ poem places this emotional conflict at centre stage , rather than concentrating upon Galahad ’ s prowess for defeating external enemies , and the cold and the frost of a Christmas period serve to reinforce his “ chilly isolation '' . The poem opens on midwinter 's night ; Sir Galahad has been sitting for six hours in a chapel , staring at the floor . He muses to himself : `` Night after night your horse treads down alone The sere damp fern , night after night you sit Holding the bridle like a man of stone , Dismal , unfriended : what thing comes of it ? '' Twentieth century Thomas de Beverly A poem by Thomas de Beverly published in 1925 , the Birth of Sir Galahad , tells of the events leading up to the conception of Sir Galahad , his birth and a visit soon afterwards by Sir Bors , to see Elaine and the baby Galahad . Sir Bors sees a vision of the Holy Grail whilst in a chapel with the baby and his mother . The poem begins with Sir Lancelot attending a banquet given by King Pellas , the father of Elaine . The king decides that he wants Sir Lancelot to lie with his daughter . De Beverly says that “ High God was urging him to this ” ; he claims that God is behind the union of Lancelot and Elaine because He knows that from it Galahad will be born . Galahad will be : `` the best of Arthour 's Knights , Who should achieve the quest of the Sangrael Which only they shall see whose lives are pure . No bravery is such a virtue as the Graele may gain . ” King Arthur and Sir Lancelot can never achieve this honour because their lives have not remained pure . Of the three knights who are untainted by sin – Sir Perceval , Sir Bors , and Sir Galahad – Galahad is the only one predestined to achieve this honor of attaining the Holy Grail . Novels Edmund Wilson 's story `` Galahad '' , published in 1927 , presents a humorous story about the attempted seduction of a virginal high school student by a debutante . In John Erskine 's novel Galahad : Enough of His Life to Explain His Reputation , Galahad ’ s main tutor for his knightly training is not his father Lancelot or King Arthur , but in fact Queen Guinevere . Erskine follows Malory ’ s text through Galahad ’ s childhood . Just as in Le Morte d'Arthur , Galahad grows up in the court of his mother Elaine and travels to King Arthur ’ s court to be reunited with his father and to become a knight . When Galahad arrives at the court , Guinevere is upset with Lancelot because he does not want to be her lover anymore and she takes an interest in the young knight , persuading him to go above and beyond regular knightly duties . At first Galahad seems content with just being an ordinary Knight of the Round Table , going out on quests and saving maidens in distress . Guinivere is the main contributor to Galahad ’ s destiny in this work . She says “ you ’ ll waste your life if you don ’ t accomplish something new , something entirely your own '' . This is Galahad ’ s motivation to seek the Grail . Matt Cohen satirises Galahad ’ s virtuous character in his short story Too Bad Galahad . Cohen describes Galahad as the “ perfect knight ” who does no harm . In part , “ Galahad ’ s virtue is a compensation for Lancelot ’ s indiscretion '' . However , Cohen , instead of glorifying Galahad 's virtuous character , makes it into a weakness . He writes that Galahad tried to “ swear and kill and wench with the rest of the knights but he could never really get into it '' . Cohen 's Galahad is not well liked by the other knights because he is so perfect and seems unapproachable . Cohen pokes fun at Galahad 's “ calling ” by saying that his life would be wasted if he failed to remain pure and holy in order to be the bearer of the Holy Grail . Thomas Berger ’ s Arthur Rex portrays Galahad differently . In most works , Galahad is depicted as an emblem of perfection . Berger shows Galahad ’ s arrival to court in a more satirical light . Gawain comments that he can not tell whether he is male or female . Berger shows that even though Galahad is in fact the greatest knight in the world , he does not appear to be . Appearance versus reality is a common theme throughout this novel . In most versions of the story of Sir Galahad , Galahad 's death comes about after his greatest achievement , that of the Holy Grail . In Arthur Rex , however , Galahad is killed in a battle where he mistakes his own father Lancelot for a Saxon . Galahad is too weak and sleeps through most of the battle and , when he does wake up , he kills his father as well as being killed himself . Just like the Grail , perfection is unattainable ; only glimpses of the Grail and of perfection can be seen . Music Joan Baez uses the legend metaphorically in her song `` Sweet Sir Galahad '' , which is about the courtship of her sister . The band America mentions Galahad ( `` ... or the tropic of Sir Galahad '' ) in the chorus for the song `` Tin Man '' . Josh Ritter has a song called `` Galahad , '' which jokes about Galahad 's chastity and the 'virtue ' of his supposed purity . To the Yet Unknowing World . Film and Television Galahad is portrayed by Michael Palin in Monty Python and The Holy Grail . His chastity and purity is put to the test when he finds a castle full of sexually charged nuns . Galahad is portrayed by Hugh Dancy in the 2004 action adventure King Arthur . John Larroquette plays Jenkins , a character who is actually Sir Galahad , on The Librarians . Colin Firth plays Galahad in the 2014 film `` The Kingsmen '' . Cistercian inspiration The original conception of Sir Galahad , whose adult exploits are first recounted in the fourth book of the thirteenth century Old French Arthurian epic the Vulgate Cycle , may derive from the Cistercian Order . According to many interpreters , the philosophical inspiration of the celibate , otherworldly character of the monastic knight Galahad came from this monastic order set up by St. Bernard of Clairvaux . The Cistercian-Bernardine concept of Catholic warrior-asceticism that so distinguishes the character of Sir Galahad also informs St. Bernard 's projection of ideal chivalry in his work on the Knights Templar , De laude novae militiae . Significantly , in the narratives , Galahad is associated with a white shield with a vermilion cross , the very same emblem given to the Knights Templar by Pope Eugene III . God 's Knight Sir Galahad ’ s success in the high religious endeavour that was the search for the Holy Grail was predicted before his birth , not only by King Pelles but by Merlin : Merlin had told Uther Pendragon that there was one who would fill the place at the “ table of Joseph ” , but that he was not yet born . At first this knight was believed to be Perceval ; however it is later discovered to be Galahad . Galahad 's conception is later glossed by Malory : `` And so by enchantment [ Elaine ] won the love of Sir Lancelot , and certainly she loved him again passing well. ” Galahad was conceived for the divine purpose of seeking the Holy Grail . But Galahad 's conception happened through pure deceit ; under a cloak of deception that was very similar , in fact , to that which led to the conception of Arthur and of Merlin himself . Despite this , Galahad is the knight who is chosen to find the Holy Grail . Galahad , in the Lancelot-Grail cycle and in Malory 's retelling , is exalted above all the other knights ; he is the one worthy enough to have the Holy Grail revealed to him and to be taken into heaven .

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According to Arthurian legend, who was Sir Galahad's father?

The sixth and final season of the American serial drama television series Lost commenced airing in the United States and Canada on February 2 , 2010 . The sixth-season premiere was the first to climb in the ratings year-over-year since the second season , drawing 12.1 million viewers . The season aired Tuesdays at 9:00 pm from February 2 to May 18 . The series finale aired on Sunday , May 23 , 2010 . The finale ran two-and-a-half hours starting at 9:00 pm ; pushing the local news back a half-hour , followed by the previously announced post-finale special , Jimmy Kimmel Live : Aloha to Lost , at 12:05 am . The season continues the stories of the survivors of the fictional September 22 , 2004 crash of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 on a mysterious island in the South Pacific . The survivors must deal with two outcomes of the detonation of a nuclear bomb on the island in the 1970s . While the on-island story continues , `` flash sideways '' show a second timeline , in which Flight 815 never crashes . The season was released on DVD and Blu-ray on August 24 , 2010 alongside a complete series boxset . Included in the special features was `` The New Man in Charge , '' a previously unaired shortened episode that serves as an epilogue following the events of the finale . Production On May 7 , 2007 , ABC Entertainment President Stephen McPherson announced that Lost would end during the 2009–2010 season with a `` highly anticipated and shocking finale . '' `` We felt that this was the only way to give Lost a proper creative conclusion , '' McPherson said . Beginning with the 2007–2008 television season , the final 48 episodes would have been aired as three seasons with 16 episodes each , with Lost concluding in its sixth season . Due to 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike , the fourth season featured 14 episodes , and season 5 had 17 episodes . Season six was planned to have 17 episodes , too . However , on June 29 , 2009 it was announced that the final season would feature an additional hour , making the number of episodes 18 . Executive producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse stated that they `` always envisioned Lost as a show with a beginning , middle , and end , '' and that by announcing when the show would end that viewers would `` have the security of knowing that the story will play out as we 've intended . '' Lindelof and Cuse stated that securing the 2010 series-end date `` was immensely liberating '' and helped the series rediscover its focus . Lindelof noted , `` We 're no longer stalling . '' The producers planned to wrap up mysteries , such as the reason the Dharma periodic resupply drops continue after the purge , Walt 's unusual abilities , and the `` bird '' from `` Exodus '' and `` Live Together , Die Alone '' . Though these mysteries , among others , were left unresolved in the season , all three were answered or touched upon in the series epilogue , `` The New Man in Charge . '' Matthew Fox said in an interview that in the final season , the characters of Jack Shephard and John Locke `` will come head to head . '' It was also claimed that a third of the way through the final season , the two timelines would be `` solidified into one '' and `` will be very linear – no more flashbacks , nothing ; '' however this did not become the case . He also claimed to be the only cast member to know the ending of the series , though Lindelof has clarified that Fox only knew things that were relevant to his character . During the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con , numerous sixth-season reports were made . Carlton Cuse stated both the time travel and flash-forward seasons were over , and they were moving into something different for the sixth season . Josh Holloway stated his character Sawyer would revert to his old self after the loss of Juliet . Cuse and Lindelof stated that the Dharma Initiative would no longer play a large role in the show , but the `` Dharma-Michigan connection '' would play a significant role in season six . However , this did not happen . Lindelof stated that the producers had a direct hand in the production of the season six promotional poster that was first displayed at Comic-Con , and that everything in it was intentional ; he also made a reference to the Abbey Road cover in connection to the poster . Season six was the first and only season of Lost ever to not feature any kind of preview or official promotional material such as sneak peeks and promo pictures for future episodes since the Lost producers considered any single frame from the first episodes to be too revealing . According to Lindelof , `` even a single scene from the show would basically tip what it is we 're doing this year , and what it is we 're doing this year is different than what we 've done in other years . '' Lindelof has also emphasized that the flashes-sideways are important , stating `` People are saying [ they ] do n't need these stories and all we can say is they 're absolutely 100 percent necessary to tell the story of Lost , and hopefully by the end of the season it will be more obvious as to why . '' He also noted that the term `` flash-sideways '' was deliberately used instead of `` alternate reality '' because viewers might otherwise `` infer that one of them is n't real , or one of them is real and the other is the alternate to being real . '' When asked to describe the last three episodes , Lindelof said `` Water . '' ABC charged advertisers $ 900,000 USD for a 30-second commercial during the series finale , in contrast to the standard 2010 season price of $ 214,000 . Cast The cast features 15 major roles with star billing : 11 return from the fifth season , one returns from the fourth season after a year 's absence , and three are new regular cast members . Unlike the latter half of the previous season , in which the cast was divided into two groups following two separate storylines , Season Six features an alternate universe scenario which the producers call `` flash-sideways , '' and almost all the main characters participate in both storylines . Returning from the fifth season are the survivors ' leader Dr. Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) ; former fugitive Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) ; millionaire Hugo `` Hurley '' Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) ; former torturer Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) ; con artist James `` Sawyer '' Ford ( Josh Holloway ) ; medium Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) ; former mob-enforcer Jin-Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) and his privileged wife Sun Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) ; leader of the island 's native population , known as the `` Others , '' Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) ; deceased crash survivor John Locke , who lives on in the sideways timeline but has been impersonated in the original timeline by the mysterious Man In Black ( Terry O'Quinn ) ; and former islander Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) , who starts the season off the island . Emilie de Ravin reprises her role as Claire Littleton , a new mother who was absent for one season after disappearing on the Island . The new main cast roles are pilot Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) , Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , an ageless advisor to the Others , and mysterious Flight 316 leader Ilana Verdansky ( Zuleikha Robinson ) . Carbonell was named a main cast member by the executive producers at Comic-Con 2009 , after guest starring in the previous three seasons , and Fahey and Robinson were confirmed after appearing in recurring roles in the fourth and fifth seasons . Several former cast members also returned to the show for the final season . Elizabeth Mitchell returns as fertility specialist Dr. Juliet Burke , Dominic Monaghan returns as deceased rock star Charlie Pace , and Jeremy Davies returns as deceased physicist Daniel Faraday . Ian Somerhalder reprises his role as deceased Flight 815 crash survivor Boone Carlyle , as does Rebecca Mader as anthropologist Charlotte Lewis . Harold Perrineau and Cynthia Watros , who portray Michael Dawson and Libby Smith , respectively , return in the second half of the season . About the return of Libby , Cuse stated , `` Finally , all of your questions [ about Libby ] will be answered '' , however , Lindelof jokingly responded , `` No , they will not '' . Michelle Rodriguez , another second season star , returns as police officer Ana Lucia Cortez , following a brief cameo in the fifth season . Maggie Grace , who portrays Shannon Rutherford , Boone 's stepsister , was asked to return at the beginning of the season , but Grace was unable due to her schedule ; though she eventually did make an appearance in one episode . Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje , who played the deceased Mr. Eko , was in negotiations to return , but these negotiations failed because of difficulties with fees . Furthermore , the producers wished to bring back the character of Walt Lloyd , however Malcolm David Kelley , who portrays Walt , had aged significantly and the producers were unable to overcome this obstacle . Kelley eventually appeared in the epilogue of the series , `` The New Man in Charge . '' Numerous recurring characters who reprised their roles for the final season include : Jack and Claire 's father , Dr. Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) , wealthy industrialist and former Other Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) , Desmond 's wife Penny Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) , former Other Eloise Hawking ( Fionnula Flanagan ) , Locke 's ex-girlfriend , Helen Norwood ( Katey Sagal ) , Hurley 's former boss , Randy Nations ( Billy Ray Gallion ) , mysterious Flight 316 passenger Bram ( Brad William Henke ) , Sayid 's wife , Nadia ( Andrea Gabriel ) , deceased Frenchwoman Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) , science teacher Leslie Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) , deceased one-eyed Other Mikhail Bakunin ( Andrew Divoff ) , the Others ' doctor Ethan Rom ( William Mapother ) , Ben Linus ' father Roger ( Jon Gries ) , mercenaries Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) and Omar ( Anthony Azizi ) , and Vincent , a dog who survived the crash of Flight 815 and lives on the island . Furthermore , Greg Grunberg briefly reprises his role as Flight 815 pilot Seth Norris in a voice over in the season premiere . Mark Pellegrino reprises his role as Jacob , the mysterious figure in charge of the island , while Titus Welliver also reprises his role as the mysterious unnamed character , known only as `` The Man in Black '' , who appeared to be antagonistic to him in the season 5 finale . L. Scott Caldwell and Sam Anderson reprised their roles as Rose and Bernard respectively , as does Kimberley Joseph who plays 815 stewardess-turned-Other Cindy . Also , Academy Award-winner Fisher Stevens returns as communications officer George Minkowski from the first few episodes of the fourth season in the eleventh episode . Kevin Tighe returns as Anthony Cooper , Locke 's father . Also , minor characters such as Lynn Karnoff ( Suzanne Krull ) and Dr. Douglas Brooks ( Bruce Davison ) return . Several new recurring characters were introduced in the sixth season . Deadwood actor John Hawkes was cast to portray a character named Lennon and Japanese actor Hiroyuki Sanada obtained the role of ; both men are Others stationed at the temple . Also , William Atherton was cast in a guest role as the principal of the school where Ben works . Sheila Kelley was cast in a recurring role that was initially described as `` Kendall '' and later confirmed to be `` Zoe '' . Kelley appeared in five episodes , starting with `` Recon '' . Reception The season premiere was watched by 12 million American viewers and the series finale was watched by 13.5 million American viewers . The entire season averaged 10 million viewers . The sixth and final season was nominated for twelve Emmy Awards at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , including Outstanding Drama Series , Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof for the series finale , `` The End '' , Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for Jack Bender for `` The End '' , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for Matthew Fox , Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Michael Emerson and Terry O'Quinn , Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for Elizabeth Mitchell , Outstanding Art Direction for a Single Camera Series for `` Ab Aeterno '' , Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic Score ) for Michael Giacchino for `` The End '' , Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series for `` The End '' , and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( One Hour ) for `` The End '' . It won only one Emmy , for Outstanding Single Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series for `` The End '' . Episodes The season premiered on February 2 , 2010 , with a double-length episode ( two hours including commercials ) preceded by a one-hour clip show , titled `` Lost : Final Chapter '' . The show continued from February 9 in its new timeslot of Tuesdays at 9:00 pm , with a total of 18 episodes airing in 16 broadcasts , ending with a two-and-a-half-hour series finale , which aired Sunday , May 23 , 2010 , preceded by a one-hour clip show , titled `` Lost : The Final Journey '' . Additionally , the first hour of the premiere episode was screened to an estimated 15,000 fans on Waikiki Beach on January 30 . In the following table , the number in the `` No . in series '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the `` No . in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . `` U.S. viewers ( million ) '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episode as it was aired . Home media release

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The cult TV series Lost which began in 2004 features 'Oceanic Flight ...' what?

The United Nations ( UN ) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation . A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations , the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict . At its founding , the UN had 51 member states ; there are now 193 . The headquarters of the United Nations is in Manhattan , New York City , and experiences extraterritoriality . Further main offices are situated in Geneva , Nairobi , and Vienna . The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states . Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security , promoting human rights , fostering social and economic development , protecting the environment , and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine , natural disaster , and armed conflict . The United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April–June 1945 ; this charter took effect 24 October 1945 , and the UN began operation . The UN 's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies . The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo , as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947 . The organization 's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s , and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping . After the end of the Cold War , the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success . The UN has six principal organs : the General Assembly ( the main deliberative assembly ) ; the Security Council ( for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security ) ; the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) ( for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development ) ; the Secretariat ( for providing studies , information , and facilities needed by the UN ) ; the International Court of Justice ( the primary judicial organ ) ; and the United Nations Trusteeship Council ( inactive since 1994 ) . UN System agencies include the World Bank Group , the World Health Organization , the World Food Programme , UNESCO , and UNICEF . The UN 's most prominent officer is the Secretary-General , an office held by South Korean Ban Ki-moon since 2007 . Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN 's work . The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 , and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize . Other evaluations of the UN 's effectiveness have been mixed . Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development , while others have called the organization ineffective , corrupt , or biased . History Background In the century prior to the UN 's creation , several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations , such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War , the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries . This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail , aviation , and opium control , some of which would later be absorbed into the UN . However , the League lacked representation for colonial peoples ( then half the world 's population ) and significant participation from several major powers , including the US , USSR , Germany , and Japan ; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 , the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935 , the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 , and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War . 1942 `` Declaration of United Nations '' by the Allies of World War II The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939 . The text of the `` Declaration by United Nations '' was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins , while meeting at the White House , 29 December 1941 . It incorporated Soviet suggestions , but left no role for France . `` Four Policemen '' was coined to refer four major Allied countries , United States , United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and China , which was emerged in Declaration by United Nations . Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries . `` On New Year 's Day 1942 , President Roosevelt , Prime Minister Churchill , Maxim Litvinov , of the USSR , and T. V. Soong , of China , signed a short document which later came to be known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of twenty-two other nations added their signatures . '' The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration . One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom , which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted . By 1 March 1945 , 21 additional states had signed . A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND , THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS , CHINA , AUSTRALIA , BELGIUM , CANADA , COSTA RICA , CUBA , CZECHOSLOVAKIA , DOMINICAN REPUBLIC , EL SALVADOR , GREECE , GUATEMALA , HAITI , HONDURAS , INDIA , LUXEMBOURG , NETHERLANDS , NEW ZEALAND , NICARAGUA , NORWAY , PANAMA , POLAND , SOUTH AFRICA , YUGOSLAVIA The Governments signatory hereto , Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14 , 1941 , known as the Atlantic Charter , Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life , liberty , independence and religious freedom , and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands , and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world , DECLARE : ( 1 ) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources , military or economic , against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war . ( 2 ) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies . The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are , or which may be , rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism . During the war , the United Nations became the official term for the Allies . To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis . Founding the UN 1945 The United Nations was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Soviet Union , the UK , the US and China at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 . After months of planning , the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco , 25 April 1945 , attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter . `` The heads of the delegations of the sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings : Anthony Eden , of Britain , Edward Stettinius , of the United States , T. V. Soong , of China , and Vyacheslav Molotov , of the Soviet Union . At the later meetings , Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden , Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong , and Mr Gromyko for Mr . Molotov . '' The UN officially came into existence 24 October 1945 , upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council—France , the Republic of China , the Soviet Union , the UK and the US—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories . The first meetings of the General Assembly , with 51 nations represented , and the Security Council took place in London beginning 6 January 1946 . The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the United Nations , and the facility was completed in 1952 . Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi—is designated as international territory . The Norwegian Foreign Minister , Trygve Lie , was elected as the first UN Secretary-General . Cold War era Though the UN 's primary mandate was peacekeeping , the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization , generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War . ( A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea , passed in the absence of the USSR . ) In 1947 , the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine , approving the creation of the state of Israel . Two years later , Ralph Bunche , a UN official , negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict . In 1956 , the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis ; however , the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR 's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country 's revolution . In 1960 , the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo ( UNOC ) , the largest military force of its early decades , to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga , restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964 . While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict , Dag Hammarskjöld , often named as one of the UN 's most effective Secretaries-General , died in a plane crash ; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . In 1964 , Hammarskjöld 's successor , U Thant , deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus , which would become one of the UN 's longest-running peacekeeping missions . With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s , the organization 's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations . In 1960 alone , 17 new states joined the UN , 16 of them from Africa . On 25 October 1971 , with opposition from the United States , but with the support of many Third World nations , the mainland , communist People 's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan ; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization . Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria , which briefly became a dominant power at the UN . In 1975 , a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution , over strenuous US and Israeli opposition , declaring Zionism to be racism ; the resolution was repealed in 1991 , shortly after the end of the Cold War . With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East , Vietnam , and Kashmir , the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange . By the 1970s , the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget . Post-Cold War After the Cold War , the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties , taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades . Between 1988 and 2000 , the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled , and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold . The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War , launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia , and oversaw democratic elections in post-apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer Rouge Cambodia . In 1991 , the UN authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . Brian Urquhart , Under-Secretary-General from 1971 to 1985 , later described the hopes raised by these successes as a `` false renaissance '' for the organization , given the more troubled missions that followed . Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another , in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous , serious crises within nations such as Somalia , Haiti , Mozambique , and the former Yugoslavia . The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu , and the UN mission to Bosnia faced `` worldwide ridicule '' for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing . In 1994 , the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council . Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War , American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption . In 1984 , the US President , Ronald Reagan , withdrew his nation 's funding from UNESCO ( the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization , founded 1946 ) over allegations of mismanagement , followed by Britain and Singapore . Boutros Boutros-Ghali , Secretary-General from 1992 to 1996 , initiated a reform of the Secretariat , reducing the size of the organization somewhat . His successor , Kofi Annan ( 1997–2006 ) , initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues . In the late 1990s and 2000s , international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms . The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991–2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines , and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003 , the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization , prompting a new round of questioning of the organization 's effectiveness . Under the current Secretary-General , Ban Ki-moon , the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War . In 2013 , an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered `` systemic failure '' . One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake , the worst loss of life in the organization 's history . Structure The United Nations ' system is based on five principal organs : the General Assembly , the Security Council , the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) , the Secretariat , and the International Court of Justice . A sixth principal organ , the Trusteeship Council , suspended operations in 1994 , upon the independence of Palau , the last remaining UN trustee territory . Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City . The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague , while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi . Other UN institutions are located throughout the world . The six official languages of the United Nations , used in intergovernmental meetings and documents , are Arabic , Chinese , English , French , Russian , and Spanish . On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations , the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate , safeguarding the UN 's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries . Below the six organs sit , in the words of the author Linda Fasulo , `` an amazing collection of entities and organizations , some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it '' . These include specialized agencies , research and training institutions , programmes and funds , and other UN entities . The United Nations obey the Noblemaire principle , which is binding on any organization that belongs to the united nations system . This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest , and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee 's nationality . Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations . General Assembly The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations . Composed of all United Nations member states , the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions , but emergency sessions can also be called . The assembly is led by a president , elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis , and 21 vice-presidents . The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51 nations . When the General Assembly votes on important questions , a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required . Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security ; election of members to organs ; admission , suspension , and expulsion of members ; and budgetary matters . All other questions are decided by a majority vote . Each member country has one vote . Apart from approval of budgetary matters , resolutions are not binding on the members . The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN , except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council . Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by eight committees : * General Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly 's president , vice-president , and committee heads * Credentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation 's UN representatives * First Committee ( Disarmament and International Security ) * Second Committee ( Economic and Financial ) * Third Committee ( Social , Humanitarian , and Cultural ) * Fourth Committee ( Special Political and Decolonization ) * Fifth Committee ( Administrative and Budgetary ) * Sixth Committee ( Legal ) Security Council The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries . While other organs of the United Nations can only make `` recommendations '' to member states , the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out , under the terms of Charter Article 25 . The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions . The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states , consisting of five permanent members—China , France , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States—and ten non-permanent members—Angola ( term ends 2016 ) , Chad ( 2015 ) , Chile ( 2015 ) , Jordan ( 2015 ) , Lithuania ( 2015 ) , Malaysia ( 2016 ) , New Zealand ( 2016 ) , Nigeria ( 2015 ) , Spain ( 2016 ) , and Venezuela ( 2016 ) . The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions , allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution , though not debate . The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms , with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis . The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month . Secretariat The UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General , assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide . It provides studies , information , and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings . It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council , the General Assembly , the Economic and Social Council , and other UN bodies . The Secretary-General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN . The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization 's `` chief administrative officer '' . Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council 's attention `` any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security '' , a phrase that Secretaries-General since Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage . The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues . The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly , after being recommended by the Security Council , where the permanent members have veto power . There are no specific criteria for the post , but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years , that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation , and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states . The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon , who replaced Kofi Annan in 2007 and was elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016 . International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , located in The Hague , in the Netherlands , is the primary judicial organ of the UN . Established in 1945 by the UN Charter , the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice . The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9-year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly ; every sitting judge must be from a different nation . It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague , sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law , a private centre for the study of international law . The ICJ 's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states . The court has heard cases related to war crimes , illegal state interference , ethnic cleansing , and other issues . The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions . Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co-operation and development . ECOSOC has 54 members , which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term . The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC . The council has one annual meeting in July , held in either New York or Geneva . Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co-ordinates , ECOSOC 's functions include information gathering , advising member nations , and making recommendations . Owing to its broad mandate of co-ordinating many agencies , ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant . ECOSOC 's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples ; the United Nations Forum on Forests , which co-ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management ; the United Nations Statistical Commission , which co-ordinates information-gathering efforts between agencies ; and the Commission on Sustainable Development , which co-ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working toward sustainable development . ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non-governmental organizations ; by 2004 , more than 2,200 organizations had received this status . Specialized agencies The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfill its duties . Some best-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Food and Agriculture Organization , UNESCO ( United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) , the World Bank , and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) . The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies . Examples include mass vaccination programmes ( through WHO ) , the avoidance of famine and malnutrition ( through the work of the WFP ) , and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people ( for example , by UNHCR ) . Membership With the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011 , there are United Nations member states , including all undisputed independent states apart from Vatican City . The UN Charter outlines the rules for membership : In addition , there are two non-member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly : the Holy See ( which holds sovereignty over Vatican City ) and the State of Palestine . The Cook Islands and Niue , both states in free association with New Zealand , are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their `` full treaty-making capacity '' recognized by the Secretariat . Group of 77 The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations , designed to promote its members ' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations . Seventy-seven nations founded the organization , but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries . The group was founded 15 June 1964 by the `` Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries '' issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) . The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967 , where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures . Objectives Peacekeeping and security The UN , after approval by the Security Council , sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities . Since the UN does not maintain its own military , peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states . These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed `` Blue Helmets '' for their distinctive gear . The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 . In September 2013 , the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions . The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( MONUSCO ) , which included 20,688 uniformed personnel . The smallest , United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan ( UNMOGIP ) , included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir . UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization ( UNTSO ) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948 , the longest-running active peacekeeping mission . A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts . It compared efforts at nation-building by the United Nations to those of the United States , and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace , as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace . Also in 2005 , the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars , genocides , and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War , and presented evidence , albeit circumstantial , that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period . Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War ( 1950–53 ) and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War ( 1990–91 ) . The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures . In many cases , member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions . Disagreements in the

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In which Netherlands city does the United Nations International Court of Justice sit?

Gilbert and Sullivan refers to the Victorian-era theatrical partnership of the librettist W. S. Gilbert ( 1836–1911 ) and the composer Arthur Sullivan ( 1842–1900 ) and to the works they jointly created . The two men collaborated on fourteen comic operas between 1871 and 1896 , of which H.M.S . Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado are among the best known.Davis , Peter G. [ http : //nymag.com/nymetro/arts/music/classical/reviews/5596/ Smooth Sailing ] , New York magazine , 21 January 2002 , accessed 6 November 2007 Gilbert , who wrote the words , created fanciful `` topsy-turvy '' worlds for these operas where each absurdity is taken to its logical conclusion—fairies rub elbows with British lords , flirting is a capital offence , gondoliers ascend to the monarchy , and pirates emerge as noblemen who have gone astray.Leigh , Mike . [ http : //books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0 , ,1938719,00.html `` True anarchists '' ] , The Guardian , 4 November 2007 , accessed 6 November 2007 Sullivan , six years Gilbert 's junior , composed the music , contributing memorable melodies that could convey both humour and pathos . Their operas have enjoyed broad and enduring international success and are still performed frequently throughout the English-speaking world . Hewett , Ivan . [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/opera/5931987/The-magic-of-Gilbert-and-Sullivan.html `` The Magic of Gilbert and Sullivan '' ] . The Telegraph , 2 August 2009 , accessed 14 April 2010 . Gilbert and Sullivan introduced innovations in content and form that directly influenced the development of musical theatre through the 20th century . [ Downs , Peter . `` Actors Cast Away Cares '' , Hartford Courant , 18 October 2006 The operas have also influenced political discourse , literature , film and television and have been widely parodied and pastiched by humourists . Producer Richard D'Oyly Carte brought Gilbert and Sullivan together and nurtured their collaboration.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/articles/html/quarrel.html `` The Carpet Quarrel Explained '' ] , The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , 28 June 1997 , accessed 6 November 2007 He built the Savoy Theatre in 1881 to present their joint works ( which came to be known as the Savoy Operas ) and founded the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which performed and promoted Gilbert and Sullivan 's works for over a century . Beginnings Gilbert before Sullivan Gilbert was born in London on 18 November 1836 . His father , William , was a naval surgeon who later wrote novels and short stories , some of which included illustrations by his son.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/gilbert/life/long_bio.html The Life of W. S. Gilbert , ] The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 21 August 2012 . In 1861 , to supplement his income , the younger Gilbert began writing illustrated stories , poems and articles of his own , many of which would later be mined as inspiration for his plays and operas , particularly Gilbert 's series of illustrated poems , the Bab Ballads . In the Bab Ballads and his early plays , Gilbert developed a unique `` topsy-turvy '' style in which humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Director and playwright Mike Leigh described the `` Gilbertian '' style as follows : Gilbert developed his innovative theories on the art of stage direction , following theatrical reformer Tom Robertson . At the time Gilbert began writing , theatre in Britain was in disrepute . Gilbert helped to reform and elevate the respectability of the theatre , especially beginning with his six short family-friendly comic operas , or `` entertainments '' , for Thomas German Reed . At a rehearsal for one of these entertainments , Ages Ago ( 1869 ) , the composer Frederic Clay introduced Gilbert to his friend , the young composer Arthur Sullivan.Crowther , Andrew . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/gilbert/plays/ages_ago/crowther_analysis.html Ages Ago—Early Days , ] The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 21 August 2012 Two years later , Gilbert and Sullivan would write their first work together . Those two intervening years continued to shape Gilbert 's theatrical style . He continued to write humorous verse , stories and plays , including the comic operas Our Island Home ( 1870 ) and A Sensation Novel ( 1871 ) , and the blank verse comedies The Princess ( 1870 ) , The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , and Pygmalion and Galatea ( 1871 ) . Sullivan before Gilbert Sullivan was born in London on 13 May 1842 . His father was a military bandmaster , and by the time Arthur had reached the age of eight , he was proficient with all the instruments in the band . In school he began to compose anthems and songs . In 1856 , he received the first Mendelssohn Scholarship and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then at Leipzig , where he also took up conducting . His graduation piece , completed in 1861 , was a suite of incidental music to Shakespeare 's The Tempest . Revised and expanded , it was performed at the Crystal Palace in 1862 and was an immediate sensation . He began building a reputation as England 's most promising young composer , composing a symphony , a concerto , and several overtures , among them the Overture di Ballo , in 1870 . [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/interviews/lawrence.html `` An Illustrated Interview with Sir Arthur Sullivan , by Arthur H Lawrence , Part 1 '' ] , The Strand Magazine , Volume xiv , No.84 ( December 1897 ) . See also [ http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/letters/001.html Sullivan 's Letter to The Times ] , 27 October 1881 , Issue 30336 , pg . 8 col C His early major works for the voice included The Masque at Kenilworth ( 1864 ) ; an oratorio , The Prodigal Son ( 1869 ) ; and a dramatic cantata , On Shore and Sea ( 1871 ) . He composed a ballet , L'Île Enchantée ( 1864 ) and incidental music for a number of Shakespeare plays . Other early pieces that were praised were his Symphony in E , Concerto for Cello and Orchestra , and Overture in C ( In Memoriam ) ( all three of which premiered in 1866 ) . These commissions , however , were not sufficient to keep Sullivan afloat . He worked as a church organist and composed numerous hymns , popular songs , and parlour ballads . [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20060901130842/http : //diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/html/sullivan2a.html Stephen Turnbull 's Biography of W. S. Gilbert ] , The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive , accessed 22 November 2006 Sullivan 's first foray into comic opera was Cox and Box ( 1866 ) , written with librettist F. C. Burnand for an informal gathering of friends . Public performance followed , with W. S. Gilbert ( then writing dramatic criticism for the magazine Fun ) saying that Sullivan 's score `` is , in many places , of too high a class for the grotesquely absurd plot to which it is wedded . '' Nonetheless , it proved highly successful , and is still regularly performed today . Sullivan and Burnand 's second opera , The Contrabandista ( 1867 ) was not as successful . Operas First collaborations Thespis In 1871 , producer John Hollingshead brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to produce a Christmas entertainment , Thespis , at his Gaiety Theatre , a large West End house . The piece was an extravaganza in which the classical Greek gods , grown elderly , are temporarily replaced by a troupe of 19th-century actors and actresses , one of whom is the eponymous Thespis , the Greek father of the drama . Its mixture of political satire and grand opera parody mimicked Offenbach 's Orpheus in the Underworld and La belle Hélène , which ( in translation ) then dominated the English musical stage.Tillett , Selwyn and Spencer , Roderic . `` Forty Years of Thespis Scholarship '' , text of talk delivered at the Sir Arthur Sullivan Society Festival weekend , Cirencester , 21 September 2002 . Thespis opened on Boxing Day and ran for 63 performances . It outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , but no one at the time anticipated that this was the beginning of a great collaboration . Unlike the later Gilbert and Sullivan works , it was hastily prepared , and its nature was more risqué , like Gilbert 's earlier burlesques , with a broader style of comedy that allowed for improvisation by the actors . Two of the male characters were played by women , whose shapely legs were put on display in a fashion that Gilbert later condemned . The musical score to Thespis was never published and is now lost , except for one song that was published separately , a chorus that was re-used in The Pirates of Penzance , and the Act II ballet music . Over the next three years , Gilbert and Sullivan did not have occasion to work together again , but each man became more eminent in his field . Gilbert worked with Frederic Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , and wrote The Wicked World ( 1873 ) Sweethearts ( 1874 ) and several other libretti , farces , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , dramas and adaptations . Sullivan completed his Festival Te Deum ( 1872 ) ; another oratorio , The Light of the World ( 1873 ) ; his only song cycle , The Window ; or , The Song of the Wrens ( 1871 ) ; incidental music to The Merry Wives of Windsor ( 1874 ) ; and more songs , parlour ballads , and hymns , including `` Onward , Christian Soldiers '' ( 1872 ) . At the same time , the audience for theatre was growing because of the rapidly expanding British population ; improvement in education and the standard of living , especially of the middle class ; improving public transportation ; and installation of street lighting , which made travel home from the theatre safer . The number of pianos manufactured in England doubled between 1870 and 1890 as more people began to play parlour music at home and more theatres and concert halls opened . Trial by Jury In 1874 , Gilbert wrote a short libretto on commission from producer–conductor Carl Rosa , whose wife would have played the leading role , but her death in childbirth cancelled the project . Not long afterwards , Richard D'Oyly Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . Carte knew about Gilbert 's libretto for Rosa and suggested that Sullivan write a score for it . Gilbert read the piece to Sullivan in February 1875 , and the composer was delighted with it ; Trial by Jury was composed and staged in a matter of weeks . The piece is one of Gilbert 's humorous spoofs of the law and the legal profession , based on his short experience as a barrister . It concerns a breach of promise of marriage suit . The defendant argues that damages should be slight , since `` he is such a very bad lot , '' while the plaintiff argues that she loves the defendant fervently and seeks `` substantial damages . '' After much argument , the judge resolves the case by marrying the lovely plaintiff himself . With Sullivan 's brother , Fred , as the Learned Judge , the opera was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole . Provincial tours and productions at other theatres quickly followed . Fred Sullivan was the prototype for the `` patter '' ( comic ) baritone roles in the later operas . F. C. Burnand wrote that he `` was one of the most naturally comic little men I ever came across . He , too , was a first-rate practical musician ... As he was the most absurd person , so was he the very kindliest ... '' Fred 's creation would serve as a model for the rest of the collaborators ' works , and each of them has a crucial comic little man role , as Burnand had put it . The `` patter '' baritone ( or `` principal comedian '' , as these roles later were called ) would often assume the leading role in Gilbert and Sullivan 's comic operas , and was usually allotted the speedy patter songs . After the success of Trial by Jury , Gilbert and Sullivan were suddenly in demand to write more operas together . Over the next two years , Richard D'Oyly Carte and Carl Rosa were two of several theatrical managers who negotiated with the team but were unable to come to terms . Carte proposed a revival of Thespis for the 1875 Christmas season , which Gilbert and Sullivan would have revised , but he was unable to obtain financing for the project . In early 1876 , Carte requested that Gilbert and Sullivan create another one-act opera on the theme of burglars , but this was never completed . Early successes The Sorcerer Carte 's real ambition was to develop an English form of light opera that would displace the bawdy burlesques and badly translated French operettas then dominating the London stage . He assembled a syndicate and formed the Comedy Opera Company , with Gilbert and Sullivan commissioned to write a comic opera that would serve as the centrepiece for an evening 's entertainment . Gilbert found a subject in one of his own short stories , `` The Elixir of Love , '' which concerned the complications arising when a love potion is distributed to all the residents of a small village . The leading character was a Cockney businessman who happened to be a sorcerer , a purveyor of blessings ( not much called for ) and curses ( very popular ) . Gilbert and Sullivan were tireless taskmasters , seeing to it that The Sorcerer opened as a fully polished production , in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed Thespis . While The Sorcerer won critical acclaim , it did not duplicate the success of Trial by Jury . Nevertheless , Carte and his syndicate were sufficiently encouraged to commission another full-length opera from the team . H.M.S . Pinafore Gilbert and Sullivan scored their first international hit with H.M.S . Pinafore ( 1878 ) , satirising the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority and poking good-natured fun at the Royal Navy and the English obsession with social status ( building on a theme introduced in The Sorcerer , love between members of different social classes ) . As with many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a surprise twist changes everything dramatically near the end of the story . Gilbert oversaw the designs of sets and costumes , and he directed the performers on stage . He sought realism in acting , shunned self-conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a standard of characterisation where the characters were never aware of their own absurdity.Cox-Ife , William . W. S. Gilbert : Stage Director . Dobson , 1978 ISBN 0-234-77206-9 . Gilbert insisted that his actors know their words perfectly and obey his stage directions , which was something new to many actors of the day . Sullivan personally oversaw the musical preparation . The result was a new crispness and polish in the English musical theatre . As Jessie Bond wrote later : H.M.S . Pinafore ran in London for 571 performances , the second longest run of any musical theatre piece in history up to that time ( after the operetta Les cloches de Corneville ) . Hundreds of unauthorised , or `` pirated '' , productions of Pinafore appeared in America . During the run of Pinafore , Richard D'Oyly Carte split up with his former investors . The disgruntled former partners , who had invested in the production with no return , staged a public fracas , sending a group of thugs to seize the scenery during a performance . Stagehands successfully managed to ward off their backstage attackers . This event cleared the way for Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan to form the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company , which then produced all of their succeeding operas . The libretto of H.M.S . Pinafore relied on stock character types , many of which were familiar from European opera ( and some of which grew out of Gilbert 's earlier association with the German Reeds ) : the heroic protagonist ( tenor ) and his love-interest ( soprano ) ; the older woman with a secret or a sharp tongue ( contralto ) ; the baffled lyric baritone—the girl 's father ; and a classic villain ( bass-baritone ) . Gilbert and Sullivan added the element of the comic patter-singing character . With the success of H.M.S . Pinafore , the D'Oyly Carte repertory and production system was cemented , and each opera would make use of these stock character types . Before The Sorcerer , Gilbert had constructed his plays around the established stars of whatever theatre he happened to be writing for , as had been the case with Thespis and Trial by Jury . Building on the team he had assembled for The Sorcerer , Gilbert no longer hired stars ; he created them . He and Sullivan selected the performers , writing their operas for ensemble casts rather than individual stars . The repertory system ensured that the comic patter character who performed the role of the sorcerer , John Wellington Wells , would become the ruler of the Queen 's navy as Sir Joseph Porter in H.M.S . Pinafore , then join the army as Major-General Stanley in The Pirates of Penzance , and so on . Similarly , Mrs. Partlet in The Sorcerer transformed into Little Buttercup in Pinafore , then into Ruth , the piratical maid-of-all-work in Pirates . Relatively unknown performers whom Gilbert and Sullivan engaged early in the collaboration would stay with the company for many years , becoming stars of the Victorian stage . These included George Grossmith , the principal comic ; Rutland Barrington , the lyric baritone ; Richard Temple , the bass-baritone ; and Jessie Bond , the mezzo-soprano soubrette . The Pirates of Penzance The Pirates of Penzance ( New Year 's Eve , 1879 ) also poked fun at grand opera conventions , sense of duty , family obligation , the `` respectability '' of civilisation and the peerage , and the relevance of a liberal education . The story also revisits Pinafores theme of unqualified people in positions of authority , in the person of the `` modern Major-General '' who has up-to-date knowledge about everything except the military . The Major-General and his many daughters escape from the tender-hearted Pirates of Penzance , who are all orphans , on the false plea that he is an orphan himself . The pirates learn of the deception and re-capture the Major-General , but when it is revealed that the pirates are all peers , the Major-General bids them : `` resume your ranks and legislative duties , and take my daughters , all of whom are beauties ! '' The piece premiered first in New York rather than London , in an ( unsuccessful ) attempt to secure the American copyright , and was another big success with both critics and audiences . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , without success . Nevertheless , Pirates was a hit both in New York , again spawning numerous imitators , and then in London , and it became one of the most frequently performed , translated and parodied Gilbert and Sullivan works , also enjoying successful 1981 Broadway and 1982 West End revivals by Joseph Papp that continue to influence productions of the opera . In 1880 , Sullivan wrote the cantata The Martyr of Antioch , presented at the Leeds Triennial Music Festival , with a libretto modified by Gilbert from an 1822 epic poem by Henry Hart Milman concerning the martyrdom of St. Margaret of Antioch in the 3rd century . Sullivan became the conductor of the Leeds festival beginning in 1880 and conducted the performance . It could be said that Martyr was the 15th opera of the partnership , since the Carl Rosa Opera Company presented the work as an opera in 1898 . Savoy Theatre opens Patience Patience ( 1881 ) satirised the aesthetic movement in general and its colourful poets , in particular , combining aspects of Algernon Charles Swinburne , Dante Gabriel Rossetti , Oscar Wilde , James McNeill Whistler and others in the rival poets Bunthorne and Grosvenor . Grossmith , who created the role of Bunthorne , based his makeup , wig and costume on Swinburne and especially Whistler , as seen in the adjacent photo . The work also lampoons male vanity and chauvinism in the military . The story concerns two rival `` aesthetic '' poets , who attract the attention of the young ladies of the village , who had been engaged to the members of a cavalry regiment . But both poets are in love with Patience , the village milkmaid , who detests one of them and feels that it is her duty to avoid the other despite her love for him . Richard D'Oyly Carte was the booking manager for Oscar Wilde , a then lesser-known proponent of aestheticism , and dispatched Wilde on an American lecture tour in conjunction with the opera 's U.S. run , so that American audiences might better understand what the satire was all about . During the run of Patience , Carte built the large , modern Savoy Theatre , which became the partnership 's permanent home . It was the first theatre ( indeed the world 's first public building ) to be lit entirely by electric lighting . Patience moved into the Savoy after six months at the Opera Comique and ran for a total of 578 performances , surpassing the run of H.M.S . Pinafore and becoming the second longest-running work of musical theatre up to that time in history.The longest was the operetta Les Cloches de Corneville , which held the title until Dorothy in 1886 . See [ http : //www.dgillan.screaming.net/stage/th-longr.html this article on longest runs in the theatre up to 1920 ] Iolanthe Iolanthe ( 1882 ) was the first of the operas to open at the Savoy . The fully electric Savoy made possible numerous special effects , such as sparkling magic wands for the female chorus of fairies . The opera poked fun at English law and the House of Lords and made much of the war between the sexes . The critics felt that Sullivan 's work in Iolanthe had taken a step forward . The Daily Telegraph wrote , `` The composer has risen to his opportunity , and we are disposed to account Iolanthe his best effort in all the Gilbertian series . '' Similarly , the Theatre asserted that `` the music of Iolanthe is Dr Sullivan 's chef d'oeuvre . The quality throughout is more even , and maintained at a higher standard , than in any of his earlier works ... '' Iolanthe is one of a number of Gilbert 's works , including The Wicked World ( 1873 ) , Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) , Princess Ida ( 1884 ) and Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ) , where the introduction of men and `` mortal love '' into a tranquil world of women wreaks havoc with the status quo . Gilbert had created several `` fairy comedies '' at the Haymarket Theatre in the early 1870s . These plays , influenced by the fairy work of James Planché , are founded upon the idea of self-revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference . In 1882 , Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study . Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878 , only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service . Sullivan had one installed as well , and on 13 May 1883 , at a party to celebrate the composer 's 41st birthday , the guests , including the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII ) , heard a direct relay of parts of Iolanthe from the Savoy . This was probably the first live `` broadcast '' of an opera . During the run of Iolanthe , in 1883 , Sullivan was knighted by Queen Victoria . Although it was the operas with Gilbert that had earned him the broadest fame , the honour was conferred for his services to serious music . The musical establishment , and many critics , believed that this should put an end to his career as a composer of comic opera—that a musical knight should not stoop below oratorio or grand opera . Sullivan , despite the financial security of writing for the Savoy , increasingly viewed his work with Gilbert as unimportant , beneath his skills , and repetitious . Furthermore , he was unhappy that he had to simplify his music to ensure that Gilbert 's words could be heard . But paradoxically , in February 1883 , just after Iolanthe opened , Sullivan had signed a five-year agreement with Gilbert and Carte requiring him to produce a new comic opera on six months ' notice . Princess Ida Princess Ida ( 1884 ) spoofed women 's education and male chauvinism and continued the theme from Iolanthe of the war between the sexes . The opera is based on Tennyson 's poem The Princess : A Medley . Gilbert had written a blank verse farce based on the same material in 1870 , called The Princess , and he reused a good deal of the dialogue from his earlier play in the libretto of Princess Ida . Ida is the only Gilbert and Sullivan work with dialogue entirely in blank verse and is also the only one of their works in three acts . Lillian Russell had been engaged to create the title role , but Gilbert did not believe that she was dedicated enough , and when she missed a rehearsal , he dismissed her . Princess Ida was the first of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas that , by the partnership 's previous standards , was not a success . A particularly hot summer in London did not help ticket sales . The piece ran for a comparatively short 246 performances and was not revived in London until 1919 . Sullivan had been satisfied with the libretto , but two months after Ida opened , Sullivan told Carte that `` it is impossible for me to do another piece of the character of those already written by Gilbert and myself . '' As Princess Ida showed signs of flagging , Carte realised that , for the first time in the partnership 's history , no new opera would be ready when the old one closed . On 22 March 1884 , he gave Gilbert and Sullivan contractual notice that a new opera would be required in six months ' time . In the meantime , when Ida closed , Carte produced a revival of The Sorcerer . Dodging the magic lozenge The Mikado The most successful of the Savoy Operas was The Mikado ( 1885 ) , which made fun of English bureaucracy , thinly disguised by a Japanese setting . Gilbert initially proposed a story for a new opera about a magic lozenge that would change the characters , which Sullivan found artificial and lacking in `` human interest and probability '' , as well as being too similar to their earlier opera , The Sorcerer . As dramatised in the film Topsy-Turvy , the author and composer were at an impasse until 8 May 1884 , when Gilbert dropped the lozenge idea and agreed to provide a libretto without any supernatural elements . The story focuses on a `` cheap tailor , '' Ko-Ko , who is promoted to the position of Lord High Executioner of the town of Titipu . Ko-Ko loves his ward , Yum-Yum , but she loves a musician , who is really the son of the emperor of Japan ( the Mikado ) , and who is in disguise to escape the attentions of the elderly and amorous Katisha . The Mikado has decreed that executions must resume

wh_3150--Gilbert_and_Sullivan.txt

'The Slave of Duty' is the alternative name for which Gilbert and Sullivan opera?

Herman Achille , Count Van Rompuy ( ; born 31 October 1947 ) is a Belgian politician , who formerly served as Prime Minister of Belgium and then as the first President of the European Council . A politician from Belgium 's Christian Democratic and Flemish party , Van Rompuy served as the 66th prime minister of Belgium from 30 December 2008 until Yves Leterme ( who was also his predecessor ) succeeded him on 25 November 2009 . On 19 November 2009 Van Rompuy was selected by the members of the European Council , which is the institution of the European Union ( EU ) comprising the heads of state or government of the EU member states , as the first full-time President of that Council under the Treaty of Lisbon . He was appointed for the period from 1 December 2009 until 31 May 2012 , though he only took up his position officially on 1 January 2010 . On 1 March 2012 he was re-elected for a second ( and last ) term , to last from 1 June 2012 until 30 November 2014 . Early life , career and family Early life Born in Etterbeek , Brussels , to Dr ( later Professor ) Vic Van Rompuy and Germaine Geens , http : //www.tinevanrompuy.be Short Tine Van Rompuy biography . Retrieved 11 January 2010 [ http : //www.tinevanrompuy.be/spip.php ? article1 ] ( nl ) he attended Sint-Jan Berchmanscollege in Brussels ( until 1965 ) , where Ancient Greek and Latin were his main subjects . During his early teens , he was an avid rock and roll fan , especially of US singer Elvis Presley . Later he studied at the and received a bachelor 's degree in philosophy ( 1968 ) and a master 's degree in applied economics ( 1971 ) .Herman Van Rompuy biography on the European Council website [ http : //www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Van % 20Rompuy-CV-EN-R2.pdf ] . Retrieved 4 January 2010 . He worked at the Belgian central bank from 1972 to 1975 . From 1980 to 1987 he was a lecturer at the Handelshogeschool Antwerpen ( now Lessius University College ) ; from 1982 he was also a lecturer at the Vlaamse Economische Hogeschool Brussel ( VLEKHO now Hogeschool Universiteit Brussel ) . Family Van Rompuy is married to Geertrui Windels , with whom he has four children : Peter ( born 1980 ) , Laura ( born 1981 ) , Elke ( born 1983 ) and Thomas ( born 1986 ) . His eldest son , Peter , is active in the Christian Democratic and Flemish ( CD & V ) party and stood as a candidate in the Belgian regional elections of 2009 . His younger brother , Eric Van Rompuy , is also a politician in the CD & V and was a minister in the Flemish Government from 1995 to 1999 . His sister , Tine Van Rompuy , is a member of the Workers Party of Belgium . He has another sister , Anita Van Rompuy , who is not politically active . His father , Vic Van Rompuy , was an economics professor . Political career Early career Van Rompuy was the chairman of the national Christian People 's Party 's ( CVP ) youth council ( 1973–1977 ) . From 1975 to 1980 he worked in the ministerial cabinets of and . In 1978 he was elected a member of the national CVP 's bureau ( 1978–present ) . He first was elected to the Belgian Senate in 1988 and served until 1995 . In 1988 he shortly served as Secretary of State for Finance and for Small and Medium Enterprises before becoming the national chairman of the CVP ( 1988–1993 ) . Belgian Minister of Budget ( 1993–1999 ) Van Rompuy was Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Budget from September 1993 to July 1999 in the two governments led by Jean-Luc Dehaene . As budget minister , together with finance minister Philippe Maystadt , he helped drive down Belgium 's debt from a peak of 135 % of gross domestic product ( GDP ) in 1993 . It fell to below 100 % of GDP in 2003 . Member of the Belgian Chamber of Representatives ( 1995–2009 ) He was elected to the Belgian Chamber of Representatives in the 1995 general election , but as he remained a minister , he was barred from taking the seat while holding that office . After his party 's defeat in the 1999 Belgian general election , he became a member of the Chamber of Representatives . He was re-elected in 2003 and 2007 . In 2004 , he was designated Minister of State . Position on Turkish accession to the union Before he was President , Van Rompuy expressed reticence about possible Turkish membership of the EU . In 2004 , he stated `` An enlargement [ of the EU ] with Turkey is not in any way comparable with previous enlargement waves . Turkey is not Europe and will never be Europe . '' He continued `` But it 's a matter of fact that the universal values which are in force in Europe , and which are also the fundamental values of Christianity , will lose vigour with the entry of a large Islamic country such as Turkey . '' As President , Van Rompuy has avoided opposing Turkish membership . On 23 December 2010 , he said `` Turkish reform efforts have delivered impressive results . '' He continued `` Turkey plays an ever more active role in its neighbourhood . Turkey is also a full-standing member of the G-20 , just like five EU countries and the EU itself . In my view , even before an outcome of the negotiations , the European Union should develop a close partnership with the Turkish Republic . '' President of the Belgian Chamber of Representatives ( 2007–2008 ) After eight years in opposition , CD & V ( formerly known as CVP ) returned to government . On 12 July 2007 , was elected as the President of the Belgian Chamber of Representatives , succeeding Herman De Croo . Prime Minister of Belgium On 28 December 2008 , following the 2007–2008 Belgian political crisis , was asked by King Albert II to form a new government after he was reluctant to take up the role of prime minister . He was sworn in as Belgian prime minister on 30 December 2008 . Taxes On 13 October 2009 Bloomberg reported that the government of would seek to tax banks and nuclear power to tame the deficit . Quote on financial recovery `` We are in the early stages of a recovery and at this time it is important not to weaken burgeoning confidence and to lay the foundations of a sustainable recovery , ” said in a speech to parliament in Brussels . `` Most important is to keep the direction . That will also provide stability and support . `` Belgium Will Tax Banks , Nuclear Power to Tame Deficit ( Update2 ) . www.bloomberg.com 13 October 2009 . Retrieved 13 January 2010 . [ http : //www.bloomberg.com/apps/news ? pid 20601085 & sid=aWc3BM6JABEo ] Policy on government debt On 13 October Bloomberg reported the following about Government Debt Policy : `` Belgium will trim its budget deficit to 5.3 % of gross domestic product in 2011 from almost 5.7 % both this year and next , according to a slide presentation handed out by State Secretary for the Budget . told Parliament earlier today that the deficit would widen to 5.4 % of GDP this year . Belgium 's deficit will be little changed next year as the shortfall at the level of regional governments and municipalities will widen to 1.5 % of GDP from 0.7 % , offsetting efforts by the federal government to trim its deficit . Government debt will start exceeding one year 's worth of national output , according to European Commission forecasts . Belgium had trimmed debt to as little as 84 % of GDP in 2007 , before bailouts of Fortis , Dexia SA , KBC Group NV and mutual insurer Ethias Group increased the nation 's borrowing costs and inflated the debt ratio to 89.6 % at the end of last year . '' Negotiations and dispute with GDF Suez On 22 October 2009 Reuters reported that the government had signed a commitment with GDF Suez for nuclear power fees to Belgium . The outstanding dispute with GDF concerns the €250 million fee that Belgium is attempting to charge GDF for 2009 as part of its `` Renewable Energy Fund '' as stated in the article : `` Belgium has also charged nuclear producers a total of 250 million euros for 2008 and the same for 2009 , as well as 250 million euros this year payable to a renewable energy fund . These fees remain in dispute . The producers are challenging the 2008 payment in Belgium 's constitutional court . A spokesman for said the government would pass a law to enforce the 500 million euro charge for this year , adding that this could also be contested by GDF Suez . '' President of the European Council On 19 November 2009 , Van Rompuy was chosen unanimously by the European Council , at an informal meeting in Brussels , to be the first full-time President of the European Council ; for the period of 1 December 2009 ( the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon ) until 31 May 2012 . He took up his position officially on 1 January 2010 . Gordon Brown also praised Van Rompuy as `` a consensus-builder '' who had `` brought a period of political stability to his country after months of uncertainty '' . This opinion is shared by others ; he has been described as the painstaking builder of impossible compromises ( l'horloger des compromis impossibles ) A statement made by Van Rompuy at a news conference after his selection illustrates his approach : Not all parties and fractions had positive words when Herman Van Rompuy took office . Nigel Farage of the UK Independence Party attacked the freshly appointed president by saying : `` you have the charisma of a damp rag and the appearance of a low grade bank clerk '' . He was fined 3000 Euros ( ten days pay ) for this by the Bureau of the European Parliament . In a November 2009 press conference , Van Rompuy related to global governance by stating : `` 2009 is also the first year of global governance with the establishment of the G20 in the middle of a financial crisis ; the climate conference in Copenhagen is another step towards the global management of our planet . '' Van Rompuy referred to the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 . In or just before the first months of his presidency Van Rompuy visited all EU member states , he also organised an informal meeting of the heads of state of the EU . The meeting took place on 11 February 2010 in the Solvay Library ( Brussels ) , topics to be discussed were the future direction of the economic policies of the EU , the outcome of the Copenhagen Conference and the then recent earthquake in Haiti . In fact , the meeting was in part taken over by the growing sovereign debt crisis ( at that time , Greece ) , which was to become the hall mark of Van Rompuy 's first two years as President . With EU member states holding divergent positions on this issue , he had to find compromises , not least between France and Germany , at subsequent European Council meetings and summits of Eurozone heads of state or government leading to the establishment of the three-year European Financial Stability Mechanism ( EFSM ) and the European Financial Stability Facility ( EFSF ) in May 2010 to provide loans to Greece ( and later Ireland and Portugal ) to help stabilise their borrowing costs , but subject to strict conditions . The European Council also gave him the assignment of chairing a task force on economic governance , composed of personal representatives ( mostly ministers of finance ) of the heads of government , which reported ahead of schedule to the October 2010 European Council . Its report , which proposed stronger macro-economic co-ordination within the EU in general and the Eurozone in particular and also a tightening of the Stability and Growth Pact was endorsed by the European Council . The latter also charged him with preparing , by December 2010 , a proposal for a limited change to the Treaty required to enable a more permanent financial stability mechanism . His draft – for an addition to Article 136 TFEU , pertaining to the Eurozone – was endorsed by the European Council at its December 2010 meeting . His second year in office , 2011 , was also marked by a deterioration of the Greek debt crisis , leading to Van Rompuy calling an extraordinary meeting of the Eurozone heads of state or government in July to adopt a first package of further measures ( notably longer term loans at lower interest rates , private sector debt-writedown , further fiscal consolidation in Greece ) and again in October ( in conjunction with full European Council meetings ) to contain contagion from Greece to other countries ( through bank recapitalisation across Europe and by leveraging the firepower of the EFSF to about €1 trillion ) . His first two years were also marked by his role in co-ordinating European positions on the world stage at G8 and G20 summits and bilateral summits , such as the tense 5 October 2010 EU-China summit . He called a special European Council at short notice in early 2011 on the emerging Libya crisis , which , in agreeing conditions for military intervention , made it impossible for Germany to oppose such intervention once the conditions were fulfilled . On 1 March 2012 Herman Van Rompuy was re-elected unanimously as President of the European Council by the heads of state or government of the 27 EU member states . President Van Rompuy 's second term has lasted for two and a half years , from 1 June 2012 to 30 November 2014 . After this second mandate he could not have been re-elected because the European Council President 's term of office can only be extended once . Herman Van Rompuy was also appointed as the first President of the Euro Summit , and this for the same term of office as his Presidency of the European Council . The Euro Summit meetings are to take place at least twice a year . In 2014 , Van Rompuy was awarded the International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen for his EU role . Honours and awards * Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold ( Belgium ) * Grand Officier of the Légion d'honneur ( France ) * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George ( United Kingdom ) * Knight with the Collar of the Order of Pius IX ( Holy See ) * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus ( Italy ) * Knight of the Order of the White Eagle ( Russian Empire ) * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion ( Netherlands ) * Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog ( Denmark ) * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown ( Romania ) * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Christ ( Portugal ) * Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer ( Greece ) * Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown ( Luxembourg ) * Order of the Rising Sun , 1st class ( Japan ) * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Zähringer Lion ( Grand Duchy of Baden ) * Croix de Guerre ( France ) * Croix de guerre ( Belgium ) * In 2010 , he received Collier award of the Fondation du Mérite européen from Jacques Santer on the occasion of 40th anniversary of the Fondation for his role as President of the European Council * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau ( 10 October 2014 ; Netherlands ) * Gold Medal of the Jean Monnet Foundation for Europe , in 2014 . * By Royal Decree of 8 July 2015 , Van Rompuy was ennobled with the personal non-hereditary title of count President 's cabinet Although the European Council is , under the terms of the Lisbon treaty , a separate institution of the EU , it does not have its own administration . The administrative support for both the European Council and its president is provided by the General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union . The president does have , however , his own private office ( cabinet ) of close advisers . Van Rompuy chose as his chief of staff ( chef de cabinet ) Baron Frans van Daele , formerly Belgian ambassador to , variously , the USA , the UN , the EU and NATO and chief of staff of several Belgian foreign ministers . Also in his team are the former UK Labour MEP Richard Corbett , former Hungarian Ambassador to NATO Zoltan Martinusz , former head of the EU 's economic & financial committee Odile Renaud-Basso , Luuk van Middelaar , his main speech writer , and Van Rompuy 's long standing press officer Dirk De Backer . In 2013 Frans Van Dale retired both as a diplomat and as chief of Staff of Van Rompuy , and was appointed chief of cabinet to king Philippe . He was succeeded as chief of staff of Herman Van Rompuy by Didier Seeuws .

bb_8792--Herman_Van_Rompuy.txt

Herman Van Rompuy became first Permanent President of what?

The Land Rover Burghley Horse Trials is an annual three-day event held at Burghley House near Stamford , Lincolnshire , England , currently in early September . The Land Rover Freelander Burghley Horse Trial is classified by the FEI as one of the six leading three-day events in the world ( the others being the Badminton Horse Trials , the Rolex Kentucky Three Day , the Australian International Three Day Event , the Luhmühlen Horse Trials and the Étoiles de Pau ) . It has competition at CCI * * * * ( four star ) level . The prize for first place is currently £50,000 . Prize money is given down to 20th place . Burghley is also one of the three events in the Grand Slam of Eventing . Run in conjunction with the event since 1990 is the Burghley Young Event Horse final , which judges 4 and 5 year old horses on their potential as future Olympic mounts . History Horse trials have been held at Burghley House since 1961 when its owner the 6th Marquess of Exeter , an Olympic gold medalist in athletics and IOC member , heard that a three-day event at Harewood House could no longer be held . Since then no other international horse trials site has staged as many championships , a record ten in all including the first World Championship in 1966 . It is the longest continuous running international event . Up to 2006 there have been six course designers : Bill Thomson , M.R.C.V.S . 1961 – 1983 , Lt-Col. Henry Nicoll , D.S.O. , O.B.E. , 1975 , Philip Herbert 1984 – 1988 , Captain Mark Phillips , C.V.O. , 1989 – 1996 and 1998 – 2000 , Mike Tucker 1997 and 2001 , Wolfgang Feld 2002 – 2004 and Capt . Mark Phillips , C.V.O. , 2005 - . Past winners * 2015 - Michael Jung on La Biosthetique-Sam FBW * 2014 - Andrew Nicholson on Avebury * 2013 - Andrew Nicholson on Avebury * 2012 – Andrew Nicholson on Avebury * 2011 – William Fox-Pitt on Parklane Hawk * 2010 – Caroline Powell on Lenamore * 2009 – Oliver Townend on Carousel Quest * 2008 – William Fox-Pitt on Tamarillo * 2007 – William Fox-Pitt on Parkmore Ed * 2006 – Lucinda Fredericks on Headley Britannia * 2005 – William Fox-Pitt on Ballincoola * 2004 – Andrew Hoy on Moon Fleet * 2003 – Pippa Funnell on Primmore 's Pride * 2002 – William Fox-Pitt on Highland Lad * 2001 – Blyth Tait on Ready Teddy * 2000 – Andrew Nicholson on Mr. Smiffy * 1999 – Mark Todd on Diamond Hall Red * 1998 – Blyth Tait on Chesterfield * 1997 – Mark Todd on Broadcast News * 1996 – Mary King on Star Appeal * 1995 – Andrew Nicholson on Buckley Province * 1994 – William Fox-Pitt on Chaka * 1993 – Stephen Bradley on Sassy Reason * 1992 – Charlotte Hollingsworth on The Cool Customer * 1991 – Mark Todd on Welton Greylag * 1990 – Mark Todd on Face the Music * 1989 – Virginia Leng on Master Craftsman * 1988 – Jane Thelwell on King 's Jester * 1987 – Mark Todd on Wilton Fair * 1986 – Virginia Leng ( née Holgate ) on Murphy Himself * 1985 – Virginia Holgate on Priceless * 1984 – Virginia Holgate on Night Cap II * 1983 – Virginia Holgate on Priceless * 1982 – Richard Walker on Ryan 's Cross * 1981 – Lucinda Prior-Palmer on Beagle Bay * 1980 – Richard Walker on John of Gaunt * 1979 – Andrew Hoy on Davey * 1978 – Lorna Clarke on Greco * 1977 – Lucinda Prior-Palmer on George * 1976 – Jane Holderness-Roddam on Warrior * 1975 – Aly Pattinson on Carawich * 1974 – Bruce Davidson on Irish Cap * 1973 – Captain Mark Phillips on Maid Marion * 1972 – Janet Hodgson on Larkspur * 1971 – H.R.H . Princess Anne on Doublet * 1970 – Judy Bradwell on Don Camillo * 1969 – Gillian Watson on Shaitan * 1968 – Sheila Willcox on Fair and Square * 1967 – Lorna Sutherland on Popadom * 1966 – Captain Carlos Moratorio on Chalan * 1965 – Captain J.J. Beale on Victoria Bridge * 1964 – Richard Meade on Barberry * 1963 – Captain Harry Freeman-Jackson on St. Finbarr * 1962 – Captain James Templer on M'Lord Connolly * 1961 – Anneli Drummond-Hay on Merely-A-Monarch

wh_52--Burghley_Horse_Trials.txt

Which rider won the ladies European Three Day event Championship at Burghley in 1971?

Bugs Bunny is an animated cartoon character , created by the staff of Leon Schlesinger Productions ( later Warner Bros. Cartoons ) and voiced originally by the `` Man of a Thousand Voices , '' Mel Blanc . Bugs is best known for his starring roles in the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of animated short films , produced by Warner Bros. during the golden age of American animation . His popularity during this era led to his becoming an American cultural icon , as well as a corporate mascot of Warner Bros. Entertainment . Bugs is an anthropomorphic gray hare or rabbit who is famous for his flippant , insouciant personality ; a pronounced New York accent ; his portrayal as a trickster ; and his catch phrase `` Eh ... What 's up , doc ? `` , usually said while chewing a carrot . Though a similar rabbit character began appearing in the Warner Bros. cartoon shorts during the late 1930s , the definitive character of Bugs Bunny is widely credited to have made his debut in director Tex Avery 's Oscar-nominated film A Wild Hare ( 1940 ) . Since his debut , Bugs has appeared in various short films , feature films , compilations , TV series , music records , comic books , video games , award shows , amusement park rides and commercials . He has also appeared in more films than any other cartoon character , is the ninth most-portrayed film personality in the world , and has his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . History Development According to Chase Craig , who was a member of Tex Avery 's cartoon unit and later wrote and drew the first Bugs Bunny comic Sunday pages and the first Bugs comic book ; `` Bugs was not the creation of any one man but rather represented the creative talents of perhaps five or six directors and many cartoon-writers . In those days the stories were often the work of a group who suggested various gags , bounced them around and finalized them in a joint story conference . '' A rabbit with some of the personality of Bugs , though looking very different , was originally featured in the film Porky 's Hare Hunt , released on April 30 , 1938 . It was co-directed by Ben `` Bugs '' Hardaway and an uncredited Cal Dalton ( who was responsible for the initial design of the rabbit ) . This cartoon has an almost identical plot to Avery 's Porky 's Duck Hunt ( 1937 ) , which had introduced Daffy Duck . Porky Pig is again cast as a hunter tracking a silly prey who is more interested in driving his pursuer insane and less interested in escaping . Hare Hunt replaces the little black duck with a small white rabbit . The rabbit introduces himself with the odd expression `` Jiggers , fellers , '' and Mel Blanc gave the character a voice and laugh much like those he would later use for Woody Woodpecker . Hare Hunt also gives its rabbit the famous Groucho Marx line , `` Of course you realize , this means war ! '' The rabbit character was popular enough with audiences that the Termite Terrace staff decided to use it again . According to Friz Freleng , Hardaway and Dalton had decided to dress the duck in a rabbit suit . The white rabbit had an oval head and a shapeless body . In characterization , he was `` a rural buffoon '' . He was loud , zany with a goofy , guttural laugh . Blanc provided him with a hayseed voice . The rabbit returns in Prest-O Change-O ( 1939 ) , directed by Chuck Jones , where he is the pet rabbit of unseen character Sham-Fu the Magician . Two dogs , fleeing the local dogcatcher , enter his absent master 's house . The rabbit harasses them , but is ultimately bested by the bigger of the two dogs . This version of the rabbit was cool , graceful , and controlled . He retained the guttural laugh but was otherwise silent . The rabbit 's third appearance comes in Hare-um Scare-um ( 1939 ) , directed again by Dalton and Hardaway . This cartoon—the first in which he is depicted as a gray bunny instead of a white one—is also notable as the rabbit 's first singing role . Charlie Thorson , lead animator on the film , gave the character a name . He had written `` Bugs ' Bunny '' on the model sheet that he drew for Hardaway . In promotional material for the cartoon , including a surviving 1939 presskit , the name on the model sheet was altered to become the rabbit 's own name : `` Bugs '' Bunny ( quotation marks only used , on and off , until 1944 ) . In his autobiography , Blanc claimed that another proposed name for the character was `` Happy Rabbit . '' In the actual cartoons and publicity , however , the name `` Happy '' only seems to have been used in reference to Bugs Hardaway . In Hare-um Scare-um , a newspaper headline reads , `` Happy Hardaway . '' Thorson had been approached by Tedd Pierce , head of the story department , and asked to design a better rabbit . The decision was influenced by Thorson 's experience in designing hares . He had designed Max Hare in Toby Tortoise Returns ( 1936 ) . For Hardaway , Thorson created the model sheet previously mentioned , with six different rabbit poses . Thorson 's model sheet is `` a comic rendition of the stereotypical fuzzy bunny '' . He had a pear-shaped body with a protruding rear end . His face was flat and had large expressive eyes . He had an exaggerated long neck , gloved hands with three fingers , oversized feet , and a `` smart aleck '' grin . The end result was influenced by Walt Disney Animation Studios ' tendency to draw animals in the style of cute infants . He had an obvious Disney influence , but looked like an awkward merger of the lean and streamlined Max Hare from The Tortoise and the Hare ( 1935 ) , and the round , soft bunnies from Little Hiawatha ( 1937 ) . In Jones ' Elmer 's Candid Camera ( 1940 ) the rabbit first meets Elmer Fudd . This time the rabbit looks more like the present-day Bugs , taller and with a similar face—but retaining the more primitive voice . Candid Cameras Elmer character design is also different : taller and chubbier in the face than the modern model , though Arthur Q. Bryan 's character voice is already established . Official debut While Porky 's Hare Hunt was the first Warner Bros. cartoon to feature a Bugs Bunny-like rabbit , A Wild Hare , directed by Tex Avery and released on July 27 , 1940 , is widely considered to be the first official Bugs Bunny cartoon . It is the first film where both Elmer Fudd and Bugs ( both redesigned by Bob Givens ) are shown in their fully developed forms as hunter and tormentor , respectively ; the first in which Mel Blanc uses what would become Bugs ' standard voice ; and the first in which Bugs uses his catchphrase , `` What 's up , Doc ? '' A Wild Hare was a huge success in theaters and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Cartoon Short Subject . For the film Avery asked Givens to remodel the rabbit . The result had a closer resemblance to Max Hare . He had a more elongated body , stood more erect , and looked more poised . If Thorson 's rabbit looked like an infant , Givens ' version looked like an adolescent . Blanc gave Bugs the voice of a city slicker . The rabbit was as audacious as he had been in Hare-um Scare-um and as cool and collected as in Prest-O Change-O . Immediately following on A Wild Hare , Bob Clampett 's Patient Porky ( 1940 ) features a cameo appearance by Bugs , announcing to the audience that 750 rabbits have been born . The gag uses Bugs ' Wild Hare visual design , but his goofier pre-Wild Hare voice characterization . The second full-fledged role for the mature Bugs , Chuck Jones ' Elmer 's Pet Rabbit ( 1941 ) , is the first to use Bugs ' name on-screen : it appears in a title card , `` featuring Bugs Bunny , '' at the start of the film ( which was edited in following the success of A Wild Hare ) . However , Bugs ' voice and personality in this cartoon is noticeably different , and his design was slightly altered as well ; Bugs ' visual design is based on the prototype rabbit in Candid Camera , but with yellow gloves and no buck teeth , has a lower-pitched voice and a more aggressive , arrogant and thuggish personality instead of a fun loving personality . After Pet Rabbit , however , subsequent Bugs appearances returned to normal : the Wild Hare visual design and personality returned , and Blanc re-used the Wild Hare voice characterization . Hiawatha 's Rabbit Hunt ( 1941 ) , directed by Friz Freleng , became the second Bugs Bunny cartoon to receive an Academy Award nomination . The fact that it did n't win the award was later spoofed somewhat in What 's Cookin ' Doc ? ( 1944 ) , in which Bugs demands a recount ( claiming to be a victim of `` sa-bo-TAH-gee '' ) after losing the Oscar to Jimmy Cagney and presents a clip from Hiawatha 's Rabbit Hunt to prove his point . World War II By 1942 , Bugs had become the number one star of Merrie Melodies . The series was originally intended only for one-shot characters in films after several early attempts to introduce characters ( Foxy , Goopy Geer and Piggy ) failed under Harman–Ising . By the mid-1930s , under Leon Schlesinger , Merrie Melodies started introducing newer characters . Bugs Bunny Gets the Boid ( 1942 ) shows a slight redesign of Bugs , with less-prominent front teeth and a rounder head . The character was reworked by Robert McKimson , then an animator in Clampett 's unit . The redesign at first was only used in the films created by Clampett 's unit , but in time it would be taken up by the other directors , with Freleng and Frank Tashlin the first . When McKimson was himself promoted to director , he created yet another version , with more slanted eyes , longer teeth and a much larger mouth . He used this version until 1949 ( as did Art Davis for the one Bugs Bunny film he directed ) when he started using the version he had designed for Clampett . Jones would come up with his own slight modification , and the voice had slight variations between the units . Bugs also made cameos in Avery 's final Warner Bros. cartoon , Crazy Cruise . Since Bugs ' debut in A Wild Hare , he appeared only in color Merrie Melodies films ( making him one of the few recurring characters created for that series in the Schlesinger era prior to the full conversion to color ) , alongside Elmer predecessor Egghead , Inki , Sniffles , and Elmer himself . While Bugs made a cameo in Porky Pig 's Feat ( 1943 ) , this was his only appearance in a black-and-white Looney Tunes film . He did not star in a Looney Tunes film until that series made its complete conversion to only color cartoons beginning in 1944 . Buckaroo Bugs was Bugs ' first film in the Looney Tunes series , and was also the last Warner Bros. cartoon to credit Schlesinger ( as he had retired and sold his studio to Warner Bros. that year ) . [ http : //www.davemackey.com/animation/wb/1944.html Warner Bros . Cartoon Releases - 1944 ] Bugs ' popularity soared during World War II because of his free and easy attitude , and he began receiving special star billing in his cartoons by 1943 . By that time Warner Bros. had become the most profitable cartoon studio in the United States . In company with cartoon studios such as Disney and Famous Studios , Warners pitted its characters against Adolf Hitler , Benito Mussolini , and the Japanese . Bugs Bunny Nips the Nips ( 1944 ) features Bugs at odds with a group of Japanese soldiers . This cartoon has since been pulled from distribution due to its depiction of Japanese people . He also faces off against Hermann Göring and Hitler in Herr Meets Hare ( 1945 ) , which introduced his well-known reference to Albuquerque as he mistakenly winds up in the Black Forest of 'Joimany ' instead of Las Vegas , Nevada . Bugs also appeared in the 1942 two-minute U.S. war bonds commercial film Any Bonds Today ? , along with Porky and Elmer . At the end of Super-Rabbit ( 1943 ) , Bugs appears wearing a United States Marine Corps dress blue uniform . As a result , the Marine Corps made Bugs an honorary Marine Master Sergeant . From 1943 to 1946 , Bugs was the official mascot of Kingman Army Airfield , Kingman , Arizona , where thousands of aerial gunners were trained during World War II . Some notable trainees included Clark Gable and Charles Bronson . Bugs also served as the mascot for 530 Squadron of the 380th Bombardment Group , 5th Air Force , U.S. Air Force , which was attached to the Royal Australian Air Force and operated out of Australia 's Northern Territory from 1943 to 1945 , flying B-24 Liberator bombers . Bugs riding an air delivered torpedo served as the squadron logo for Marine Torpedo/Bomber Squadron 242 in the Second World War . Additionally , Bugs appeared on the nose of B-24J # 42-110157 , in both the 855th Bomb Squadron of the 491st Bombardment Group ( Heavy ) and later in the 786th BS of the 466th BG ( H ) , both being part of the 8th Air Force operating out of England . In 1944 , Bugs Bunny made a cameo appearance in Jasper Goes Hunting , a Puppetoons film produced by rival studio Paramount Pictures . In this cameo ( animated by McKimson , with Blanc providing the usual voice ) , Bugs ( after being threatened at gunpoint ) pops out of a rabbit hole , saying his usual catchphrase ; after hearing the orchestra play the wrong theme song , he realizes `` Hey , I 'm in the wrong picture ! '' and then goes back in the hole . Bugs also made a cameo in the Private Snafu short Gas , in which he is found stowed away in the titular private 's belongings ; his only spoken line is his usual catchphrase . Although it was usually Porky Pig who brought the Looney Tunes films to a close with his stuttering , `` That 's all , folks ! `` , Bugs replaced him at the end of Hare Tonic and Baseball Bugs , bursting through a drum just as Porky did , but munching on a carrot and saying in his Bronx-Brooklyn accent , `` And that 's the end ! '' Post-war era After World War II , Bugs continued to appear in numerous Warner Bros. cartoons , making his last `` Golden Age '' appearance in False Hare ( 1964 ) . He starred in over 167 theatrical short films , most of which were directed by Friz Freleng , Robert McKimson and Chuck Jones . Freleng 's Knighty Knight Bugs ( 1958 ) , in which a medieval Bugs trades blows with Yosemite Sam and his fire-breathing dragon ( which has a cold ) , won an Academy Award for Best Cartoon Short Subject ( becoming the first Bugs Bunny cartoon to win said award ) . Three of Jones ' films — Rabbit Fire , Rabbit Seasoning , and Duck ! Rabbit , Duck ! — compose what is often referred to as the `` Rabbit Season/Duck Season '' trilogy and are famous for originating the `` historic '' rivalry between Bugs and Daffy Duck . Jones ' classic What 's Opera , Doc ? ( 1957 ) , casts Bugs and Elmer Fudd in a parody of Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen . It was deemed `` culturally significant '' by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1992 , becoming the first cartoon short to receive this honor . [ http : //www.loc.gov/film/titles.html National Film Registry : 1989-2007 ] In the fall of 1960 , ABC debuted the prime-time television program The Bugs Bunny Show . This show packaged many of the post-1948 Warners cartoons with newly animated wraparounds . After two seasons , it was moved from its evening slot to reruns on Saturday mornings . The Bugs Bunny Show changed format and exact title frequently , but remained on network television for 40 years . The packaging was later completely different , with each cartoon simply presented on its own , title and all , though some clips from the new bridging material were sometimes used as filler . Later years Bugs did not appear in any of the post-1964 Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies films produced by DePatie-Freleng Enterprises or Seven Arts Productions , nor did he appear in the lone Looney Tunes TV special produced by Filmation . He would not appear in new material on-screen again until Bugs and Daffy 's Carnival of the Animals aired in 1976 . From the late 1970s through the early 1990s , Bugs was featured in various animated specials for network television , such as Bugs Bunny 's Thanksgiving Diet , Bugs Bunny 's Looney Christmas Tales and Bugs Bunny 's Bustin ' Out All Over . Bugs also starred in several theatrical compilation features during this time , including the United Artists-distributed documentary Bugs Bunny : Superstar ( 1975 ) and Warner Bros. ' own efforts The Bugs Bunny/Road Runner Movie ( 1979 ) , The Looney Looney Looney Bugs Bunny Movie ( 1981 ) , Bugs Bunny 's 3rd Movie : 1001 Rabbit Tales ( 1982 ) and Daffy Duck 's Quackbusters ( 1988 ) . In the 1988 live-action/animated comedy , Who Framed Roger Rabbit , Bugs appeared as one of the inhabitants of Toontown . However , since the film was being produced by Disney , Warner Bros. would only allow the use of their biggest star if he got an equal amount of screen time as Disney 's biggest star , Mickey Mouse . Because of this , both characters are always together in frame when onscreen . Roger Rabbit was also one of the final productions in which Mel Blanc voiced Bugs ( as well as the other Looney Tunes characters ) before his death in 1989 . Bugs later appeared in another animated production featuring numerous characters from rival studios : the 1990 drug prevention TV special Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue . This special is notable for being the first time that someone other than Blanc voiced Bugs and Daffy ( both characters were voiced by Jeff Bergman for this ) . Bugs also made guest appearances in the early 1990s television series Tiny Toon Adventures , as the principal of Acme Looniversity and the mentor of Buster Bunny . He made further cameos in Warner Bros. ' subsequent animated TV shows Taz-Mania , Animaniacs and Histeria ! Bugs returned to the silver screen in Box-Office Bunny ( 1990 ) . This was the first Bugs Bunny cartoon since 1964 to be released in theaters and it was created for Bugs ' 50th anniversary celebration . It was followed by ( Blooper ) Bunny , a cartoon that was shelved from theaters , but later premiered on Cartoon Network in 1997 and has since gained a cult following among animation fans for its edgy humor . In 1996 , Bugs and the other Looney Tunes characters appeared in the live-action/animated film , Space Jam , directed by Joe Pytka and starring NBA superstar Michael Jordan . The film also introduced the character Lola Bunny , who becomes Bugs ' new love interest . Space Jam received mixed reviews from critics , but was a box office success ( grossing over $ 230 million worldwide ) . The success of Space Jam led to the development of another live-action/animated film , Looney Tunes : Back in Action , released in 2003 and directed by Joe Dante . Unlike Space Jam , Back in Action was a box-office bomb , though it did receive more positive reviews from critics . In 1997 , Bugs appeared on a U.S. postage stamp , the first cartoon to be so honored , beating the iconic Mickey Mouse . The stamp is number seven on the list of the ten most popular U.S. stamps , as calculated by the number of stamps purchased but not used . The introduction of Bugs onto a stamp was controversial at the time , as it was seen as a step toward the 'commercialization ' of stamp art . The postal service rejected many designs , and went with a postal-themed drawing . Avery Dennison printed the Bugs Bunny stamp sheet , which featured `` a special ten-stamp design and was the first self-adhesive souvenir sheet issued by the U.S . Postal Service . '' A younger version of Bugs is the main character of Baby Looney Tunes , which debuted on Kids ' WB in 2001 . In the action comedy Loonatics Unleashed , his definite descendant Ace Bunny is the leader of the Loonatics team and seems to have inherited his ancestor 's Brooklyn accent and comic wit . Modern era In 2011 , Bugs Bunny and the rest of the Looney Tunes gang returned to television in the Cartoon Network sitcom , The Looney Tunes Show , with Jeff Bergman returning to voice both Bugs and Daffy Duck for the first time in almost 20 years . The characters feature new designs by artist Jessica Borutski . Among the changes to Bugs ' appearance were the simplification and enlargement of his feet , as well as a change to his fur from gray to a shade of mauve ( though in the second season , his fur was changed back to gray ) . In the series , Bugs and Daffy are portrayed as best friends as opposed to their usual pairing as rivals or frenemies . At the same time , Bugs is more openly annoyed at Daffy 's antics in the series ( sometimes to the point of aggression ) , compared to his usual carefree personality from the original cartoons . Bugs and Daffy are close friends with Porky Pig in the series , although Bugs tends to be a more reliable friend to Porky than Daffy is . Bugs also dates Lola Bunny in the show , although at first he finds her to be `` crazy '' and a bit too talkative ( he later learns to accept her personality quirks , similar to his tolerance for Daffy ) . Unlike the original cartoons , Bugs lives in a regular home , which he shares with Daffy , Taz ( whom he treats as a pet dog ) and Speedy Gonzales , in the middle of a cul-de-sac with their neighbors Yosemite Sam , Granny and Witch Lazeh . In 2015 , Bugs starred in the direct-to-video film Looney Tunes : Rabbits Run , and later returned to television yet again as the star of Cartoon Network and Boomerang 's new comedy series Wabbit . A Looney Tunes Production . Bugs has also appeared in numerous video games , including the Bugs Bunny 's Crazy Castle series , Bugs Bunny Birthday Blowout , Bugs Bunny : Rabbit Rampage , Bugs Bunny in Double Trouble , Looney Tunes B-Ball , Looney Tunes Racing , Looney Tunes : Space Race , Bugs Bunny Lost in Time , Bugs Bunny and Taz Time Busters , Loons : The Fight for Fame , Looney Tunes : Acme Arsenal and Scooby Doo and Looney Tunes : Cartoon Universe . Personality and catchphrases Bugs Bunny is characterized as being clever and capable of outsmarting anyone who antagonizes him , including Elmer Fudd , Yosemite Sam , Tasmanian Devil , Marvin the Martian , Wile E. Coyote , Cecil Turtle , Witch Hazel , Rocky and Mugsy , The Crusher , Beaky Buzzard , Willoughby the dog , Count Blood Count and a host of others . Bugs almost always wins these conflicts , a plot pattern which recurs in Looney Tunes films directed by Chuck Jones . Concerned that viewers would lose sympathy for an aggressive protagonist who always won , Jones arranged for Bugs to be bullied , cheated , or threatened by the antagonists while minding his own business , justifying his subsequent antics as retaliation or self-defense . He 's also been known to break the fourth wall by `` communicating '' with the audience , either by explaining the situation ( e.g . `` Be with you in a minute , folks ! `` ) , describing someone to the audience ( e.g . `` Feisty , ai n't they ? `` ) , clueing in on the story ( e.g . `` That happens to him all during the picture , folks . `` ) , explaining that one of his antagonists ' actions have pushed him to the breaking point ( `` Of course you realize , this means war . `` ) , admitting his own deviousness toward his antagonists ( `` Gee , ai n't I a stinker ? `` ) , etc . Bugs will usually try to placate the antagonist and avoid conflict , but when an antagonist pushes him too far , Bugs may address the audience and invoke his catchphrase `` Of course you realize this means war ! '' before he retaliates , and the retaliation will be devastating . This line was taken from Groucho Marx and others in the 1933 film Duck Soup and was also used in the 1935 Marx film A Night at the Opera . Bugs would pay homage to Groucho in other ways , such as occasionally adopting his stooped walk or leering eyebrow-raising ( in Hair-Raising Hare , for example ) or sometimes with a direct impersonation ( as in Slick Hare ) . Other directors , such as Friz Freleng , characterized Bugs as altruistic . When Bugs meets other successful characters ( such as Cecil Turtle in Tortoise Beats Hare , or the Gremlin in Falling Hare ) , his overconfidence becomes a disadvantage . Bugs ' nonchalant carrot-chewing standing position , as explained by Freleng , Jones and Bob Clampett , originated in a scene from the 1934 film It Happened One Night , in which Clark Gable 's character Peter Warne leans against a fence , eating carrots rapidly and talking with his mouth full to Claudette Colbert 's character . This scene was well known while the film was popular , and viewers at the time likely recognized Bugs Bunny 's behavior as satire . Coincidentally , the film also features a minor character , Oscar Shapely , who addresses Peter Warne as `` Doc '' , and Warne mentions an imaginary person named `` Bugs Dooley '' to frighten Shapely . The carrot-chewing scenes are generally followed by Bugs ' most well-known catchphrase , `` What 's up , Doc ? `` , which was written by director Tex Avery for his first Bugs Bunny film , A Wild Hare ( 1940 ) . Avery explained later that it was a common expression in his native Texas and that he did not think much of the phrase . When the cartoon was first screened in theaters , the `` What 's up , Doc ? '' scene generated a tremendously positive audience reaction . As a result , the scene became a recurring element in subsequent cartoons . The phrase was sometimes modified for a situation . For example , Bugs says `` What 's up , dogs ? '' to the antagonists in A Hare Grows in Manhattan , `` What 's up , Duke ? '' to the knight in Knight-mare Hare and `` What 's up , prune-face ? '' to the aged Elmer in The Old Grey Hare . He might also greet Daffy with `` What 's up , Duck ? '' He used one variation , `` What 's all the hub-bub , bub ? '' only once , in Falling Hare . Another variation is used in Looney Tunes : Back

odql_10997--Bugs_Bunny.txt

Which film studio produced the 'Bugs Bunny' cartoons?

Cork ( , , from corcach , meaning `` marsh '' ) is a city in Ireland , located in the South-West Region , in the province of Munster . It has a population of 119,230 , and is the second largest city in the state and the third most populous on the island of Ireland . The greater Metropolitan Cork area ( which includes a number of satellite towns and suburbs ) has a population exceeding 300,000 . In 2005 , the city was selected as the European Capital of Culture . The city is built on the River Lee which splits into two channels at the western end of the city ; the city centre is divided by these channels . They reconverge at the eastern end where the quays and docks along the river banks lead outwards towards Lough Mahon and Cork Harbour , one of the world 's largest natural harbours . The city 's cognomen of `` the rebel city '' originates in its support for the Yorkist cause during the English 15th century Wars of the Roses . Corkonians often refer to the city as `` the real capital '' in reference to the city 's role as the centre of anti-treaty forces during the Irish Civil War . History Cork was originally a monastic settlement , reputedly founded by Saint Finbarr in the 6th century . Cork achieved an urban character at some point between 915 and 922 when Norseman ( Viking ) settlers founded a trading port . It has been proposed that , like Dublin , Cork was an important trading centre in the global Scandinavian trade network . The ecclesiastical settlement continued alongside the Viking longphort , with the two developing a type of symbiotic relationship ; the Norsemen providing otherwise unobtainable trade goods for the monastery , and perhaps also military aid . The city 's charter was granted by Prince John , as Lord of Ireland , in 1185 . The city was once fully walled , and some wall sections and gates remain today . For much of the Middle Ages , Cork city was an outpost of Old English culture in the midst of a predominantly hostile Gaelic countryside and cut off from the English government in the Pale around Dublin . Neighbouring Gaelic and Hiberno-Norman lords extorted `` Black Rent '' from the citizens to keep them from attacking the city . The present extent of the city has exceeded the medieval boundaries of the Barony of Cork City ; it now takes in much of the neighbouring Barony of Cork . Together , these baronies are located between the Barony of Barrymore to the east , Muskerry East to the west and Kerrycurrihy to the south . The city 's municipal government was dominated by about 12–15 merchant families , whose wealth came from overseas trade with continental Europe — in particular the export of wool and hides and the import of salt , iron and wine . The medieval population of Cork was about 2,100 people . It suffered a severe blow in 1349 when almost half the townspeople died of plague when the Black Death arrived in the town . In 1491 , Cork played a part in the English Wars of the Roses when Perkin Warbeck a pretender to the English throne , landed in the city and tried to recruit support for a plot to overthrow Henry VII of England . The then mayor of Cork and several important citizens went with Warbeck to England but when the rebellion collapsed they were all captured and executed . The title of Mayor of Cork was established by royal charter in 1318 , and the title was changed to Lord Mayor in 1900 following the knighthood of the incumbent Mayor by Queen Victoria on her Royal visit to the city . Since the nineteenth century , Cork had been a strongly Irish nationalist city , with widespread support for Irish Home Rule and the Irish Parliamentary Party , but from 1910 stood firmly behind William O'Brien 's dissident All-for-Ireland Party . O'Brien published a third local newspaper , the Cork Free Press . In the War of Independence , the centre of Cork was burnt down by the British Black and Tans , and the city saw fierce fighting between Irish guerrillas and UK forces . During the Irish Civil War , Cork was for a time held by anti-Treaty forces , until it was retaken by the pro-Treaty National Army in an attack from the sea . Climate The climate of Cork , like the rest of Ireland , is mild oceanic and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes . Cork lies in plant Hardiness zone 9b . Met Éireann maintains a climatological weather station at Cork Airport , a few kilometres south of the city . It should be noted that the airport is at an altitude of 151 m and temperatures can often differ by a few degrees between the airport and the city itself . There are also smaller synoptic weather stations at UCC and Clover Hill . Temperatures below 0 °C or above 25 °C are rare . Cork Airport records an average of of precipitation annually , most of which is rain . The airport records an average of 7 days of hail and 11 days of snow or sleet a year ; though it only records lying snow for 2 days of the year . The low altitude of the city , and moderating influences of the harbour , mean that lying snow very rarely occurs in the city itself . There are on average 204 `` rainy '' days a year ( over of rainfall ) , of which there are 73 days with `` heavy rain '' ( over 5 mm ) . Cork is also a generally foggy city , with an average of 97 days of fog a year , most common during mornings and during winter . Despite this , however , Cork is also one of Ireland 's sunniest cities , with an average of 3.9 hours of sunshine every day and only having 67 days where there is no `` recordable sunshine '' , mostly during and around winter . Culture The Cork School of Music and the Crawford College of Art and Design provide a throughput of new blood , as do the active theatre components of several courses at University College Cork ( UCC ) . Highlights include : Corcadorca Theatre Company , of which Cillian Murphy was a troupe member prior to Hollywood fame ; the Institute for Choreography and Dance , a national contemporary dance resource ; the Triskel Arts Centre ( capacity c.90 ) , which includes the Triskel Christchurch independent cinema ; dance venue the Firkin Crane ( capacity c.240 ) ; the Cork Academy of Dramatic Art ( CADA ) and Graffiti Theatre Company ; and the Cork Jazz Festival , Cork Film Festival , and Live at the Marquee events . The Everyman Palace Theatre ( capacity c.650 ) and the Granary Theatre ( capacity c.150 ) both play host to dramatic plays throughout the year . Cork is home to the RTÉ Vanbrugh Quartet , and to many musical acts , including John Spillane , The Frank And Walters , Sultans of Ping , Simple Kid , Microdisney , Fred , Mick Flannery and the late Rory Gallagher . Singer songwriter Cathal Coughlan and Sean O'Hagan of The High Llamas also hail from Cork . The opera singers Cara O'Sullivan , Mary Hegarty , Brendan Collins , and Sam McElroy are also Cork born . Ranging in capacity from 50 to 1,000 , the main music venues in the city are the Cork Opera House ( capacity c.1000 ) , The Everyman , Cyprus Avenue , Triskel Christchurch , the Roundy , the Savoy and Coughlan 's . The city 's literary community centres on the Munster Literature Centre and the Triskel Arts Centre . The short story writers Frank O'Connor and Sean O'Faoláin hailed from Cork , and contemporary writers include Thomas McCarthy , Gerry Murphy , and novelist and poet William Wall . Cork has been culturally diverse for many years , from Huguenot communities in the 17th century , through to Eastern European communities and a smaller numbers from African and Asian nations in the 20th and 21st centuries . This is reflected in the multi-cultural restaurants and shops , including specialist shops for East-European or Middle-Eastern food , Chinese and Thai restaurants , French patisseries , Indian buffets , and Middle Eastern kebab houses . Cork saw some Jewish immigration from Lithuania and Russia in the late 19th century . Jewish citizens such as Gerald Goldberg ( several times Lord Mayor ) , David Marcus ( novelist ) and Louis Marcus ( documentary maker ) played notable roles in 20th century Cork . Today , the Jewish community is relatively small in population , although the city still has a Jewish quarter and synagogue . Cork also features various Christian churches , as well as a mosque . Some Catholic masses around the city are said in Polish , Filipino , Lithuanian , Romanian and other languages , in addition to the traditional Latin and local Irish and English language services . More recent additions to the arts infrastructure include modern additions to Cork Opera House and the Crawford Municipal Art Gallery . The Lewis Glucksman Gallery opened in the Autumn of 2004 at UCC , was nominated for the Stirling Prize in the United Kingdom , and the building of a new €60 million School of Music was completed in September 2007 . Cork was the European Capital of Culture for 2005 , and in 2009 was included in the Lonely Planet 's top 10 `` Best in Travel 2010 '' . The guide described Cork as being `` at the top of its game : sophisticated , vibrant and diverse '' . There is a rivalry between Cork and Dublin , similar to the rivalry between London and Manchester , Sydney and Melbourne or Madrid and Barcelona . Some Corkonians view themselves as different from the rest of Ireland , and refer to themselves as `` The Rebels '' ; the county is known as the Rebel County . This view has in recent years manifested itself in humorous references to the Real Capital and the sale of T-shirts with light-hearted banners celebrating The People 's Republic of Cork . Food The city has many local traditions in food , including crubeens , tripe and drisheen . Cork 's English Market sells locally produced foods , including fresh fish , meats , fruit and vegetables , eggs and artisan cheeses and breads . During certain city festivals , food stalls are also sometimes erected on city streets such as St. Patrick 's Street or Grand Parade . Accent The Cork accent , part of the Southwest dialect of Hiberno-English , displays various features which set it apart from other accents in Ireland . Patterns of tone and intonation often rise and fall , with the overall tone tending to be more high-pitched than other Irish accents . English spoken in Cork has a number of dialect words that are peculiar to the city and environs . Like standard Hiberno-English , some of these words originate from the Irish language , but others through other languages Cork 's inhabitants encountered at home and abroad . The Cork accent displays varying degrees of rhoticity , usually depending on the social-class of the speaker . Media Broadcasting The city 's FM radio band features RTÉ Radio 1 , RTÉ 2fm , RTÉ lyric fm , RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta , Today FM , 4fm , Newstalk and the religious station Spirit Radio . There are also local stations such as Cork 's 96FM , Cork 's Red FM , C103 , CUH 102.0FM , UCC 98.3FM ( formerly Cork Campus Radio 97.4fm ) and Christian radio station Life 93.1FM . Cork also has a temporary licensed city-wide community station 'Cork FM Community Radio ' on 100.5FM , which is currently on-air on Saturdays and Sundays only . Cork has also been home to pirate radio stations , including South Coast Radio and ERI in the 1980s . Today some small pirates stations remain . A number of neighbouring counties radio stations can be heard in parts of Cork City including Radio Kerry at 97.0 and WLR FM on 95.1 . RTÉ Cork has television and radio studios , and production facilities at its centre in Father Matthew Street in the city centre . Print Cork is home to one of Ireland 's main national newspapers , the Irish Examiner ( formerly the Cork Examiner ) . It also prints the Evening Echo , which for decades has been connected to the Echo Boys , who were poor and often homeless children who sold the newspaper . Today , the shouts of the vendors selling the Echo can still be heard in various parts of the city centre . One of the biggest free newspapers in the city is the Cork Independent . The city 's University publishes the UCC Express and Motley magazine . Places of interest Cork features architecturally notable buildings originating from the Medieval to Modern periods . The only notable remnant of the Medieval era is the Red Abbey . There are two cathedrals in the city ; St. Mary 's Cathedral and Saint Fin Barre 's Cathedral . St Mary 's Cathedral , often referred to as the North Cathedral , is the Catholic cathedral of the city and was begun in 1808 . Its distinctive tower was added in the 1860s . St Fin Barre 's Cathedral serves the Protestant faith and is possibly the more famous of the two . It is built on the foundations of an earlier cathedral . Work began in 1862 and ended in 1879 under the direction of architect William Burges . St. Patrick 's Street , the main street of the city which was remodelled in the mid-2000s , is known for the architecture of the buildings along its pedestrian-friendly route and is the main shopping thoroughfare . It is dominated at its north end by the landmark statue of Father Mathew . The reason for its curved shape is that it originally was a channel of the River Lee that was built over on arches . The General Post Office , with its limestone façade , is on Oliver Plunkett Street , on the site of the Theatre Royal which was built in 1760 and burned down in 1840 . The English circus proprietor Pablo Fanque rebuilt an amphitheatre on the spot in 1850 , which was subsequently transformed into a theatre and then into the present General Post Office in 1877 . The Grand Parade is a tree-lined avenue , home to offices , shops and financial institutions . The old financial centre is the South Mall , with several banks whose interior derive from the 19th century , such as the Allied Irish Bank 's which was once an exchange . Many of the city 's buildings are in the Georgian style , although there are a number of examples of modern landmark structures , such as County Hall tower , which was , at one time the tallest building in Ireland until being superseded by another Cork City building : The Elysian . Outside the County Hall is the landmark sculpture of two men , known locally as 'Cha and Miah ' . Across the river from County Hall is Ireland 's longest building ; built in Victorian times , Our Lady 's Psychiatric Hospital has now been renovated and converted into a residential housing complex called Atkins Hall , after its architect William Atkins . Cork 's most famous building is the church tower of Shandon , which dominates the North side of the city . It is widely regarded as the symbol of the city . The North and East sides are faced in red sandstone , and the West and South sides are clad in the predominant stone of the region , white limestone . At the top sits a weather vane in the form of an eleven-foot salmon . Cork City Hall , another notable building of limestone , replaced the previous one which was destroyed by the Black and Tans during the War of Independence in an event known as the `` Burning of Cork '' . The cost of this new building was provided by the UK Government in the 1930s as a gesture of reconciliation . Other notable places include Elizabeth Fort , the Cork Opera House , Christ Church on South Main Street ( now the Triskel Arts Centre and original site of early Hiberno-Norse church ) , St Mary 's Dominican Church on Popes Quay and Fitzgerald 's Park to the west of the city , which contains the Cork Public Museum . Other popular tourist attractions include the grounds of University College Cork , through which the River Lee flows , the angling lake known as The Lough , the Women 's Gaol at Sundays Well ( now a heritage centre ) and the English Market . This covered market traces its origins back to 1610 , and the present building dates from 1786 . Up until April 2009 , there were also two large commercial breweries in the city . The Beamish and Crawford on South Main Street closed in April 2009 and transferred production to the Murphy 's brewery in Lady 's Well . This brewery also produces Heineken for the Irish market . There is also the Franciscan Well brewery , serving the local market with a variety of lagers , ales and stouts . In May 2008 it was awarded as the `` Best Microbrewery in Ireland '' by Food and Wine Magazine . Local government and politics With a population of 119,230 , Cork is the second-most populous city in the State and the 16th-most populous area of local government . Per the Local Government Act 2001 , Cork City Council is a tier-1 entity of local government with the same status in law as a county council . While local government in Ireland has limited powers in comparison with other countries , the council has responsibility for planning , roads , sanitation , libraries , street lighting , parks , and a number of other important functions . Cork City Council has 31 elected members representing six electoral wards . The members are affiliated to the following political parties : Fine Gael ( 5 members ) , Fianna Fáil ( 10 members ) , Sinn Féin ( 8 members ) , Anti-Austerity Alliance ( 3 members ) , Workers ' Party ( 1 member ) , Independents ( 4 members ) . Certain councillors are co-opted to represent the city at the South-West Regional Authority . A new Lord Mayor of Cork is chosen in a vote by the elected members of the council under a D'Hondt system count . The administrative offices for Cork County Council are also located within the city limits . For the purposes of elections to Dáil Éireann , the city is part of two constituencies : Cork North-Central and Cork South-Central which each returns four TDs . Following the 2016 general election , these constituencies together returned two TDs for the Fine Gael party , three for Fianna Fáil , two for Sinn Féin and one for the Anti-Austerity Alliance-People Before Profit . Economy Retail The retail trade in Cork city includes a mix of both modern , state of the art shopping centres and family owned local shops . Department stores cater for all budgets , with expensive boutiques for one end of the market and high street stores also available . Shopping centres can be found in many of Cork 's suburbs , including Blackpool , Ballincollig , Douglas , Ballyvolane , Wilton and Mahon Point . Others are available in the city centre . These include the recently completed development of two large malls The Cornmarket Centre on Cornmarket Street , and new the retail street called `` Opera Lane '' off St. Patrick 's Street/Academy Street . The Grand Parade scheme , on the site of the former Capitol Cineplex , was planning-approved for 60000 sqft of retail space , with work commencing in 2016 . Cork 's main shopping street is St. Patrick 's Street and is the most expensive street in the country per sq . metre after Dublin 's Grafton Street . this area has been impacted by the post-2008 downturn , with many retail spaces available for let . Other shopping areas in the city centre include Oliver Plunkett St. and Grand Parade . Cork is also home to some of the country 's leading department stores with the foundations of shops such as Dunnes Stores and the former Roches Stores being laid in the city . Outside the city centre is Mahon Point Shopping Centre . Industry Cork City is at the heart of industry in the south of Ireland . Its main area of industry is pharmaceuticals , with Pfizer Inc. and Swiss company Novartis being big employers in the region . The most famous product of the Cork pharmaceutical industry is Viagra . Cork is also the European headquarters of Apple Inc. where over 3,000 staff are involved in manufacturing , R & D and customer support . Logitech and EMC Corporation are also important IT employers in the area . Three hospitals are also among the top ten employers in the city ( see table below ) . The city is also home to the Heineken Brewery that brews Murphy 's Irish Stout and the nearby Beamish and Crawford brewery ( taken over by Heineken in 2008 ) which have been in the city for generations . 45 % of the world 's Tic Tac sweets are manufactured at the city 's Ferrero factory . For many years , Cork was the home to Ford Motor Company , which manufactured cars in the docklands area before the plant was closed in 1984 . Henry Ford 's grandfather was from West Cork , which was one of the main reasons for opening up the manufacturing facility in Cork . But technology has replaced the old manufacturing businesses of the 1970s and 1980s , with people now working in the many I.T . centres of the city – such as Amazon.com , the online retailer , which has set up in Cork Airport Business Park . Cork 's deep harbour allows ships of any size to enter , bringing trade and easy import/export of products . Cork Airport also allows easy access to continental Europe and Cork Kent railway station in the city centre provides good rail links for domestic trade . Employment According to the 2011 Cork City Employment & Land Use Survey 2011 , the single largest employers in the city ( all with over 1,000 employees ) include Cork University Hospital , Apple Inc , University College Cork , Boston Scientific , Cork City Council , Cork Institute of Technology , Bon Secours Hospital , Cork , retailers Supervalu and Centra , the Irish Defence Forces at Collins Barracks , and the Mercy University Hospital . Transport Air Cork Airport is one of Ireland 's main airports . It is situated on the south side of Cork City in an area known as Ballygarvan . Over 15 airlines fly to over 68 destinations with over 60 flights a day . Scheduled Airlines using Cork airport include Aer Lingus , Aer Lingus Regional operated by Stobart Air , CityJet , Flybe , Iberia Express , and Ryanair . Bus Public bus services within the city are provided by the national bus operator Bus Éireann . City routes are numbered from 201 through to 219 and connect the city centre to the principal suburbs , colleges , shopping centres and places of interest . Two of these bus routes provide orbital services across the Northern and Southern districts of the city respectively . Buses to the outer suburbs , such as Ballincollig , Glanmire , Midleton and Carrigaline are provided from the city 's bus terminal at Parnell Place in the city centre . Suburban services also include shuttles to Cork Airport , and a park and ride facility in the south suburbs only . Long distance buses depart from the bus terminal in Parnell Place to destinations throughout Ireland . Hourly services run to Killarney/Tralee , Waterford , Athlone and Shannon Airport/Limerick/Galway and there are six services daily to Dublin . There is also a daily Eurolines bus service that connects Cork to Victoria Coach Station in London via South Wales and Bristol . Private operators include Irish Citylink , Aircoach and Dublin Coach . Irish Citylink serves Limerick and Galway . Aircoach operates an Express non-stop service which serves Dublin City Centre and Dublin Airport 18 times daily in each direction . Dublin Coach serve Dublin via Dungarvan , Waterford and Kilkenny . Ferry The Cross River Ferry , from Rushbrooke to Passage West , links the R624 to R610 . This service is useful when trying to avoid traffic congestion in Jack Lynch tunnel and Dunkettle area . The Port of Cork is situated at Ringaskiddy , 16 km SE via the N28 . There are Direct services to France and the United Kingdom . A Water Taxi has also been proposed to link the city with towns in the lower harbour . Road The Cork area has seen improvements in road infrastructure in recent years . For example , the Cork South Link dual carriageway was built in the early 1980s , to link the Kinsale Road roundabout with the city centre . Shortly afterwards , the first sections of the South Ring dual carriageway were opened . Work continued through the 1990s on extending the N25 South Ring Road , with the opening of the Jack Lynch Tunnel under the River Lee being a significant addition . The Kinsale Road flyover opened in August 2006 to remove a bottleneck for traffic heading to Cork Airport or Killarney . Other projects completed at this time include the N20 Blackpool bypass and the N20 Cork to Mallow road projects . The N22 Ballincollig dual carriageway bypass , which links to the Western end of the Cork Southern Ring road was opened in September 2004 . City Centre road improvements include the Patrick Street project - which reconstructed the street with a pedestrian focus . The M8 motorway links Cork with Dublin . Cork City Council supports a car sharing scheme operated by Mendes GoCar in partnership with cambio Mobility Services . There are several bases in Cork . From 2012 , cycle paths and bike stands were added in a number of areas , making the city more cycle friendly . Subsequently , in 2014 , a public bicycle rental scheme was launched . The scheme is operated by An Rothar Nua on behalf of the National Transport Authority , with funding supplemented by an advertising sponsor . Rail Railway and tramway heritage Cork was one of the most rail-oriented cities in Ireland , featuring eight stations at various times . The main route , still much the same today , is from Dublin Heuston . Originally terminating on the city 's outskirts at Blackpool , the route now reaches the city centre terminus of Kent Station via Glanmire tunnel . Now a through station , the line through Kent connects the towns of Cobh and Midleton east of the city . This also connected to the seaside town of Youghal , until the 1980s . Other rail routes terminating or traversing Cork city were the Cork , Blackrock and Passage Railway , a line to Macroom , the Cork and Muskerry Light Railway to Blarney , Coachford and Donoughmore , as well as the Cork , Bandon and South Coast Railway connecting Bantry , Skibbereen , Clonakilty and many other West Cork towns . West Cork trains terminated at Albert Quay , across the river from Kent Station ( though an on-street rail system connected the two for rolling stock and cargo movement ) . Within the city there have been two tram networks in operation . A proposal to develop a horse-drawn tram ( linking the city 's railway termini ) was made by American George Francis Train in the 1860s , and implemented in 1872 by the Cork Tramway Company . However , the company ceased trading in 1875 after Cork Corporation refused permission to extend the line , mainly because of objections from cab operators to the type of tracks which – although they were laid to the Irish national railway gauge of

sfq_15329--Cork_(city).txt

Which river flows through Cork City where it splits in two for a short distance, creating an island on which Cork's city centre is built?

A natural satellite or moon is a celestial body that orbits another celestial body of greater mass ( e.g . a planet , star , or dwarf planet ) , called its primary . For example , the Moon is a natural satellite of Earth , and Earth is a natural satellite of the Sun . In the Solar System there are 173 known natural satellites which orbit within 6 planetary satellite systems . In addition , several other objects are known to have satellites , including three IAU-listed dwarf planets : Pluto , Haumea , and Eris . , over 200 minor-planet moons have been discovered . There are 76 known objects in the asteroid belt with satellites ( five with two each ) , four Jupiter trojans , 39 near-Earth objects ( two with two satellites each ) , and 14 Mars-crossers . There are also 84 known natural satellites of trans-Neptunian objects . Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the rings of Saturn , but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits . Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well , and although numerous candidates have been detected to date , none have yet been confirmed . Of the inner planets , Mercury and Venus have no natural satellites ; Earth has one large natural satellite , known as the Moon ; and Mars has two tiny natural satellites , Phobos and Deimos . The giant planets have extensive systems of natural satellites , including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth 's Moon : the four Galilean moons , Saturn 's Titan , and Neptune 's Triton . Saturn has an additional six mid-sized natural satellites massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium , and Uranus has five . It has been suggested that some satellites may potentially harbour life . The Earth–Moon system is unique in that the ratio of the mass of the Moon to the mass of Earth is much greater than that of any other natural-satellite–planet ratio in the Solar System ( although there are minor-planet systems with even greater ratios , notably the Pluto–Charon system ) . Among the identified dwarf planets , Ceres has no known natural satellites . Pluto has the relatively large natural satellite Charon and four smaller natural satellites ; Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Haumea has two natural satellites , and Eris and Makemake have one . The Pluto–Charon system is unusual in that the center of mass lies in open space between the two , a characteristic sometimes associated with a double-planet system . Origin and orbital characteristics The natural satellites orbiting relatively close to the planet on prograde , uninclined circular orbits ( regular satellites ) are generally thought to have been formed out of the same collapsing region of the protoplanetary disk that created its primary . In contrast , irregular satellites ( generally orbiting on distant , inclined , eccentric and/or retrograde orbits ) are thought to be captured asteroids possibly further fragmented by collisions . Most of the major natural satellites of the Solar System have regular orbits , while most of the small natural satellites have irregular orbits . The Moon and possibly Charon are exceptions among large bodies in that they are thought to have originated by the collision of two large proto-planetary objects ( see the giant impact hypothesis ) . The material that would have been placed in orbit around the central body is predicted to have reaccreted to form one or more orbiting natural satellites . As opposed to planetary-sized bodies , asteroid moons are thought to commonly form by this process . Triton is another exception ; although large and in a close , circular orbit , its motion is retrograde and it is thought to be a captured dwarf planet . Tidal locking Most regular moons ( natural satellites following relatively close and prograde orbits with small orbital inclination and eccentricity ) in the Solar System are tidally locked to their respective primaries , meaning that the same side of the natural satellite always faces its planet . The only known exception is Saturn 's natural satellite Hyperion , which rotates chaotically because of the gravitational influence of Titan . In contrast , the outer natural satellites of the giants planet ( irregular satellites ) are too far away to have become locked . For example , Jupiter 's Himalia , Saturn 's Phoebe , and Neptune 's Nereid have rotation periods in the range of ten hours , whereas their orbital periods are hundreds of days . Satellites of satellites No `` moons of moons '' ( natural satellites that orbit a natural satellite of a planet ) are currently known as of . In most cases , the tidal effects of the planet would make such a system unstable . However , calculations performed after the recent detection of a possible ring system around Saturn 's moon Rhea indicate that satellites orbiting Rhea could have stable orbits . Furthermore , the suspected rings are thought to be narrow , a phenomenon normally associated with shepherd moons . However , targeted images taken by the Cassini spacecraft failed to detect rings around Rhea . It has also been proposed that Saturn 's moon Iapetus had a satellite in the past ; this is one of several hypotheses that have been put forward to account for its equatorial ridge . Trojan satellites Two natural satellites are known to have small companions at their and Lagrangian points , sixty degrees ahead and behind the body in its orbit . These companions are called trojan moons , as their orbits are analogous to the Trojan asteroids of Jupiter . The trojan moons are Telesto and Calypso , which are the leading and following companions , respectively , of Tethys ; and Helene and Polydeuces , the leading and following companions of Dione . Asteroid satellites The discovery of 243 Ida 's natural satellite Dactyl in the early 1990s confirmed that some asteroids have natural satellites ; indeed , 87 Sylvia has two . Some , such as 90 Antiope , are double asteroids with two comparably sized components . Shape Neptune 's moon Proteus is the largest irregularly shaped natural satellite . All other known natural satellites that are at least the size of Uranus 's Miranda have lapsed into rounded ellipsoids under hydrostatic equilibrium , i.e . are `` round/rounded satellites '' . The larger natural satellites , being tidally locked , tend toward ovoid ( egg-like ) shapes : squat at their poles and with longer equatorial axes in the direction of their primaries ( their planets ) than in the direction of their motion . Saturn 's moon Mimas , for example , has a major axis 9 % greater than its polar axis and 5 % greater than its other equatorial axis . Methone , another of Saturn 's moons , is only around 3 km in diameter and visibly egg-shaped . The effect is smaller on the largest natural satellites , where their own gravity is greater relative to the effects of tidal distortion , especially those that orbit less massive planets or , as in the case of the Moon , at greater distances . Geological activity Of the nineteen known natural satellites in the Solar System that are massive enough to have lapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium , several remain geologically active today . Io is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System , while Europa , Enceladus , Titan and Triton display evidence of ongoing tectonic activity and cryovolcanism . In the first three cases , the geological activity is powered by the tidal heating resulting from having eccentric orbits close to their giant-planet primaries . ( This mechanism would have also operated on Triton in the past , before its orbit was circularized . ) Many other natural satellites , such as Earth 's Moon , Ganymede , Tethys and Miranda , show evidence of past geological activity , resulting from energy sources such as the decay of their primordial radioisotopes , greater past orbital eccentricities ( due in some cases to past orbital resonances ) , or the differentiation or freezing of their interiors . Enceladus and Triton both have active features resembling geysers , although in the case of Triton solar heating appears to provide the energy . Titan and Triton have significant atmospheres ; Titan also has hydrocarbon lakes , and presumably methane rain . Four of the largest natural satellites , Europa , Ganymede , Callisto , and Titan , are thought to have subsurface oceans of liquid water , while smaller Enceladus may have localized subsurface liquid water . Natural satellites of the Solar System The seven largest natural satellites in the Solar System ( those bigger than 2,500 km across ) are Jupiter 's Galilean moons ( Ganymede , Callisto , Io , and Europa ) , Saturn 's moon Titan , Earth 's moon , and Neptune 's captured natural satellite Triton . Triton , the smallest of these , has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together . Similarly in the next size group of nine natural satellites , between 1,000 km and 1,600 km across , Titania , Oberon , Rhea , Iapetus , Charon , Ariel , Umbriel , Dione , and Tethys , the smallest , Tethys , has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together . As well as the natural satellites of the various planets , there are also over 80 known natural satellites of the dwarf planets , minor planets and other small Solar System bodies . Some studies estimate that up to 15 % of all trans-Neptunian objects could have satellites . The following is a comparative table classifying the natural satellites in the Solar System by diameter . The column on the right includes some notable planets , dwarf planets , asteroids , and trans-Neptunian objects for comparison . The natural satellites of the planets are named after mythological figures . These are predominantly Greek , except for the Uranian natural satellites , which are named after Shakespearean characters . The nineteen bodies massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium are in bold in the table below . Minor planets and satellites suspected but not proven to have achieved a hydrostatic equilibrium are italicized in the table below . Terminology The first known natural satellite was the Moon , but it was considered a `` planet '' until Copernicus ' introduction of heliocentrism in 1543 . Until the discovery of the Galilean satellites in 1610 , however , there was no opportunity for referring to such objects as a class . Galileo chose to refer to his discoveries as Planetæ ( `` planets '' ) , but later discoverers chose other terms to distinguish them from the objects they orbited . Christiaan Huygens , the discoverer of Titan , was the first to use the term moon for such objects , calling Titan Luna Saturni or Luna Saturnia – `` Saturn 's moon '' or `` The Saturnian moon '' , because it stood in the same relation to Saturn as the Moon did to Earth . The first to use of the term satellite to describe orbiting bodies was the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in his pamphlet Narratio de Observatis a se quatuor Iouis satellitibus erronibus ( `` Narration About Four Satellites of Jupiter Observed '' ) in 1610 . He derived the term from the Latin word satelles , meaning `` guard '' , `` attendant '' , or `` companion '' , because the satellites accompanied their primary planet in their journey through the heavens . As additional natural satellites of Saturn were discovered the term `` moon '' was abandoned . Giovanni Domenico Cassini sometimes referred to his discoveries as planètes in French , but more often as satellites . The term satellite thus became the normal one for referring to an object orbiting a planet , as it avoided the ambiguity of `` moon '' . In 1957 , however , the launching of the artificial object Sputnik created a need for new terminology . The terms man-made satellite or artificial moon were very quickly abandoned in favor of the simpler satellite , and as a consequence , the term has become linked primarily with artificial objects flown in space – including , sometimes , even those not in orbit around a planet . Because of this shift in meaning , the term moon , which had continued to be used in a generic sense in works of popular science and in fiction , has regained respectability and is now used interchangeably with natural satellite , even in scientific articles . When it is necessary to avoid both the ambiguity of confusion with Earth 's natural satellite the Moon and the natural satellites of the other planets on the one hand , and artificial satellites on the other , the term natural satellite ( using `` natural '' in a sense opposed to `` artificial '' ) is used . To further avoid ambiguity , the convention is to capitalize the word Moon when referring to Earth 's natural satellite , but not when referring to other natural satellites . The definition of a moon There is not an established lower limit on what is considered a `` moon '' . Every natural celestial body with an identified orbit around a planet of the Solar System , some as small as a kilometer across , has been considered a moon , though objects a tenth that size within Saturn 's rings , which have not been directly observed , have been called moonlets . Small asteroid moons ( natural satellites of asteroids ) , such as Dactyl , have also been called moonlets . The upper limit is also vague . Two orbiting bodies are sometimes described as a double body rather than primary and satellite . Asteroids such as 90 Antiope are considered double asteroids , but they have not forced a clear definition of what constitutes a moon . Some authors consider the Pluto–Charon system to be a double ( dwarf ) planet . The most common dividing line on what is considered a moon rests upon whether the barycentre is below the surface of the larger body , though this is somewhat arbitrary , because it depends on distance as well as relative mass . Visual summary

bb_1551--Natural_satellite.txt

The moons of which planet are named after Shakespearian characters?

The Elgin Marbles , also known as the Parthenon Marbles , are a collection of Classical Greek marble sculptures ( made by the citizens of Athens under the supervision of the renowned architect and sculptor Phidias and his assistants ) , inscriptions , and architectural pieces that were originally part of the temple of the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis of Athens . Thomas Bruce , 7th Earl of Elgin obtained in 1801 a controversial permit from the Sublime Porte , which then ruled Greece . From 1801 to 1812 , Elgin 's agents removed about half of the surviving sculptures of the Parthenon , as well as sculptures from the Propylaea and Erechtheum.Encyclopædia Britannica , Elgin Marbles , 2008 , O.Ed . The Marbles were transported by sea to Britain . In Britain , the acquisition of the collection was supported by some , while others , such as Lord Byron , likened Elgin 's actions to vandalismEncyclopædia Britannica , The Acropolis , p.6/20 , 2008 , O.Ed . or looting . Following a public debate in Parliament and the subsequent exoneration of Elgin , the marbles were purchased from Elgin by the British government in 1816 and were passed to the British Museum , where they are on display in the purpose-built Duveen Gallery . After gaining its independence from the Ottoman Empire , Greece began major projects for the restoration of the country 's monuments , and has expressed its disapproval of Elgin 's removal of the Marbles from the Acropolis and the Parthenon , which is regarded as one of the world 's greatest cultural monuments . Greece disputes the subsequent purchase of the Marbles by the British Government and urges the return of the marbles to Greece for their unification . In 2014 , UNESCO offered to mediate between Greece and the United Kingdom in resolving the dispute of the Elgin Marbles , although this was later turned down by the UK . Acquisition In November of 1798 the Earl of Elgin was appointed as `` Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of His Britannic Majesty to the Sublime Porte of Selim III , Sultan of Turkey '' ( Greece was then part of the Ottoman Empire ) . Before his departure to take up the post he had approached officials of the British government to inquire if they would be interested in employing artists to take casts and drawings of the sculptured portions of the Parthenon . According to Lord Elgin , `` the answer of the Government ... was entirely negative . '' Lord Elgin decided to carry out the work and employed artists to take casts and drawings under the supervision of the Neapolitan court painter Giovani Lusieri . According to a Turkish local , marble sculptures that fell were burned to obtain lime for building . Although the original intention was only to document the sculptures , in 1801 Lord Elgin began to remove material from the Parthenon and its surrounding structures under the supervision of Lusieri . Pieces were also removed from the Acropolis , the Erechtheion , the Propylaia , and the Temple of Athena Nike . The excavation and removal was completed in 1812 at a personal cost of around £70,000 . Elgin intended to use the marbles to decorate his private house in Scotland , [ http : //www.nytimes.com/1989/08/19/books/books-of-the-times-refueling-the-elgin-marbles-debate.html ] but a costly divorce suit forced him to sell them to settle his debts . He sold the Parthenon Marbles to the British government for less than the cost to procure them , declining higher offers from other potential buyers , including Napoleon . Description The Parthenon Marbles acquired by Elgin include some 21 figures from the statuary from the east and west pediments , 15 of an original 92 metope panels depicting battles between the Lapiths and the Centaurs , as well as 247 feet ( or 75m ) of the Parthenon Frieze which decorated the horizontal course set above the interior architrave of the temple . As such , they represent more than half of what now remains of the surviving sculptural decoration of the Parthenon . Elgin 's acquisitions also included objects from other buildings on the Athenian Acropolis : a Caryatid from Erechtheum ; four slabs from the parapet frieze of the Temple of Athene Nike ; and a number of other architectural fragments of the Parthenon , Propylaia , Erechtheum , the Temple of Athene Nike , and the Treasury of Atreus . Legality of the removal from Athens As the Acropolis was still an Ottoman military fort , Elgin required special permission to enter the site , including the Parthenon and the surrounding buildings . He stated that he had obtained from the Sultan a firman to allow his artists access to the site , but was unable to produce the original documentation . However , a document claimed to be an English translation of an Italian copy made at the time was presented by Elgin in its stead , and this document is now kept in the British Museum . Its authenticity has been questioned , as it lacked the formalities characterising edicts from the sultan . Vassilis Demetriades , Professor of Turkish Studies at the University of Crete , has argued that `` any expert in Ottoman diplomatic language can easily ascertain that the original of the document which has survived was not a firman '' . It The document was recorded in an appendix of an 1816 parliamentary committee report . [ https : //books.google.gr/books ? idNwUFAAAAYAAJ & lpg RA1-PR1 & otsGiMElOqrbf & dq lord % 20elgin % 20testified % 201816 % 20british % 20parliamentary % 20committee & hlel & pg PA35 # vonepage & q lord % 20elgin % 20testified % 201816 % 20british % 20parliamentary % 20committee & ffalse 'The committee permission ' ] had convened to examine a request by Elgin asking the British government to purchase the marbles . The report said that the document in the appendix was an accurate translation in English of an Ottoman firman dated July 1801 . In Elgin 's view it amounted to an Ottoman authorisation to remove the marbles . The committee was told that the original document was given to Ottoman officials in Athens in 1801 . Researchers have so far failed to locate it despite the fact that the Ottoman archives in Istanbul still hold a number of similar documents dating from the same period . The parliamentary record shows that the Italian copy of the firman was not presented to the committee by Elgin himself but by one of his associates , the clergyman Rev . Philip Hunt . Hunt , who at the time resided in Bedford , was the last witness to appear before the committee and stated that he had in his possession an Italian translation of the Ottoman original . He went on to explain that he had not brought the document , because , upon leaving Bedford , he was not aware that he was to testify as a witness . The English document in the parliamentary report was filed by Hunt , but the committee was not presented with the Italian translation in Hunt 's possession . William St. Clair , a contemporary biographer of Lord Elgin , said he possessed Hunt 's Italian document and `` vouches for the accuracy of the English translation '' . The committee report states on page 69 `` ( Signed with a signet . ) Seged Abdullah Kaimacan '' - however , the document presented to the committee was `` an English translation of this purported translation into Italian of the original firman '' , and had neither signet nor signature on it , a fact corroborated by St. Clair . The document allowed Elgin and his team to erect scaffolding so as to make drawings and mouldings in chalk or gypsum , as well as to measure the remains of the ruined buildings and excavate the foundations which may have become covered in the [ ghiaja ( meaning gravel , debris ) ] ; and `` ... that when they wish to take away [ qualche ( meaning 'some ' or ' a few ' ) ] pieces of stone with old inscriptions or figures thereon , that no opposition be made thereto '' . The interpretation of these lines has been questioned even by non-restitutionalists , particularly the word qualche , which in modern language should be translated as a few but can also mean any . According to non-restitutionalists , further evidence that the removal of the sculptures by Elgin was approved by the Ottoman authorities is shown by a second firman which was required for the shipping of the marbles from the Piraeus . Many have questioned the legality of Elgin 's actions , including the legitimacy of the documentation purportedly authorising them . A study by Professor David Rudenstine of the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law concluded that the premise that Elgin obtained legal title to the marbles , which he then transferred to the British government , `` is certainly not established and may well be false '' . Rudenstine 's argumentation is partly based on a translation discrepancy he noticed between the surviving Italian document and the English text submitted by Hunt to the parliamentary committee . The text from the committee report reads `` We therefore have written this Letter to you , and expedited it by Mr. Philip Hunt , an English Gentleman , Secretary of the aforesaid Ambassador '' but according to the St. Clair Italian document the actual wording is `` We therefore have written this letter to you and expedited it by N.N . `` . In Rudenstine 's view , this substitution of `` Mr. Philip Hunt '' with the initials `` N.N . '' can hardly be a simple mistake . He further argues that the document was presented after the committee 's insistence that some form of Ottoman written authorisation for the removal of the marbles be provided , a fact known to Hunt by the time he testified . Thus , according to Rudenstine , `` Hunt put himself in a position in which he could simultaneously vouch for the authenticity of the document and explain why he alone had a copy of it fifteen years after he surrendered the original to Ottoman officials in Athens '' . On two earlier occasions , Elgin stated that the Ottomans gave him written permissions more than once , but that he had `` retained none of them . '' Hunt testified on March 13 , and one of the questions asked was `` Did you ever see any of the written permissions which were granted to [ Lord Elgin ] for removing the Marbles from the Temple of Minerva ? '' to which Hunt answered `` yes '' , adding that he possessed an Italian translation of the original firman . Nonetheless , he did not explain why he had retained the translation for 15 years , whereas Elgin , who had testified two weeks earlier , knew nothing about the existence of any such document . English travel writer Edward Daniel Clarke , an eyewitness , wrote that the Disdar , the Ottoman official on the scene , attempted to stop the removal of the metopes but was bribed to allow it to continue . In contrast , Professor John Merryman , Sweitzer Professor of Law and also Professor of Art at Stanford University , putting aside the discrepancy presented by Rudenstine , argues that since the Ottomans had controlled Athens since 1460 , their claims to the artefacts were legal and recognisable . The Ottoman sultan was grateful to the British for repelling Napoleonic expansion , and the Parthenon marbles had no sentimental value to him . Further , that written permission exists in the form of the firman , which is the most formal kind of permission available from that government , and that Elgin had further permission to export the marbles , legalises his ( and therefore the British Museum 's ) claim to the Marbles . He does note , though , that the clause concerning the extent of Ottoman authorisation to remove the marbles `` is at best ambiguous '' , adding that the document `` provides slender authority for the massive removals from the Parthenon ... The reference to 'taking away any pieces of stone ' seems incidental , intended to apply to objects found while excavating . That was certainly the interpretation privately placed on the firman by several of the Elgin party , including Lady Elgin . Publicly , however , a different attitude was taken , and the work of dismantling the sculptures on the Parthenon and packing them for shipment to England began in earnest . In the process , Elgin 's party damaged the structure , leaving the Parthenon not only denuded of its sculptures but further ruined by the process of removal . It is certainly arguable that Elgin exceeded the authority granted in the firman in both respects '' . The issue of firmans of this nature , along with universally required bribes , was not unusual at this time : In 1801 for example , Edward Clarke and his assistant Cripps , obtained an authorisation from the governor of Athens for the removal of a statue of Demeter which was at Eleusis , with the intervention of Italian artist Giovanni Lusieri who was Lord Elgin 's assistant at the time . Prior to Clarke , the statue had been discovered in 1676 by the traveller George Wheler and since then several ambassadors had submitted unsuccessful applications for its removal , but Clarke had been the one to remove the statue by force , after bribing the waiwode of Athens and obtaining a firman , despite the objections and a riot , of the local population who unofficially , and against the traditions of the iconoclastic Church , worshiped the statue as the uncanonised Saint Demetra ( Greek : Αγία Δήμητρα ) . The people would adorn the statue with garlands , and believed that the goddess was able to bring fertility to their fields and that the removal of the statue would cause that benefit to disappear . Clarke also removed other marbles from Greece such as a statue of Pan , a figure of Eros , a comic mask , various reliefs and funerary stelæ , amongst others . Clarke donated these to the University of Cambridge and subsequently in 1803 the statue of Demeter was displayed at the library . The collection was later moved to the Fitzwilliam Museum where it formed one of the two main collections of the institution . Contemporary reaction When the marbles were shipped to England , they were `` an instant success among many '' who admired the sculptures and supported their arrival , but both the sculptures and Elgin also received criticism from detractors . Lord Elgin began negotiations for the sale of the collection to the British Museum in 1811 , but negotiations failed despite the support of British artists after the government showed little interest . Many Britons opposed purchase of the statues because they were in bad condition and therefore did not display the `` ideal beauty '' found in other sculpture collections . The following years marked an increased interest in classical Greece , and in June 1816 , after parliamentary hearings , the House of Commons offered £35,000 in exchange for the sculptures . Even at the time the acquisition inspired much debate , although it was supported by `` many persuasive calls '' for the purchase . Lord Byron strongly objected to the removal of the marbles from Greece , denouncing Elgin as a vandal . His point of view about the removal of the Marbles from Athens is also reflected in his poem `` Childe Harold 's Pilgrimage '' : Dull is the eye that will not weep to see Thy walls defaced , thy mouldering shrines removed By British hands , which it had best behoved To guard those relics ne'er to be restored . Curst be the hour when from their isle they roved , And once again thy hapless bosom gored , And snatch 'd thy shrinking gods to northern climes abhorred ! Byron was not the only one to protest against the removal at the time : `` The Honourable Lord has taken advantage of the most unjustifiable means and has committed the most flagrant pillages . It was , it seems , fatal that a representative of our country loot those objects that the Turks and other barbarians had considered sacred , '' said Sir John Newport . Edward Daniel Clarke witnessed the removal of the metopes and called the action a `` spoliation '' , writing that `` thus the form of the temple has sustained a greater injury than it had already experienced from the Venetian artillery , '' and that `` neither was there a workman employed in the undertaking ... who did not express his concern that such havoc should be deemed necessary , after moulds and casts had been already made of all the sculpture which it was designed to remove . '' A parliamentary committee investigating the situation concluded that the monuments were best given `` asylum '' under a `` free government '' such as the British one . In 1810 , Elgin published a defence of his actions which silenced most of his detractors , although the subject remained controversial . John Keats viewed them when privately exhibited in London , hence his two sonnets about the marbles . Notable supporters of Elgin included the painter Benjamin Robert Haydon . A public debate in Parliament followed Elgin 's publication , and Elgin 's actions were again exonerated . Parliament purchased the marbles for the nation in 1816 by a vote of 82-30 for £35,000 . They were deposited in the British Museum , where they were displayed in the Elgin Saloon ( constructed in 1832 ) , until the Duveen Gallery was completed in 1939 . Crowds packed the British Museum to view the sculptures , setting attendance records for the museum . William Wordsworth viewed the marbles at the museum and commented favourably on their aesthetics . Damage Morosini Prior damage to the marbles was sustained during successive wars , and it was during such conflicts that the Parthenon and its artwork sustained , by far , the most extensive damage . In particular , an explosion ignited by Venetian gun and cannon-fire bombardment in 1687 , whilst the Parthenon was used as a munitions store during the Ottoman rule , destroyed or damaged many pieces of Parthenon art , including some of that later taken by Lord Elgin . It was this explosion that sent the marble roof , most of the cella walls , 14 columns from the north and south peristyles and carved metopes and frieze blocks flying and crashing to the ground and thus destroyed much of the artwork . Further damage to the Parthenon 's artwork occurred when the Venetian general Francesco Morosini looted the site of its larger sculptures . The tackle he was using to remove the sculptures proved to be faulty and snapped , dropping an over-life-sized Poseidon and the horses of Athena 's chariot from the west pediment on to the rock of the Acropolis 40 ft below . War of Independence The Erechtheum was used as a munitions store by the Ottomans during the Greek War of Independence ( 1821–1833 ) which ended the 355-year Ottoman rule of Athens . The Acropolis was besieged twice during the Greek War of Independence , once by the Greeks and once by the Ottoman forces . During the first siege the Greeks offered the besieged Ottoman forces , who were attempting to melt the lead in the columns to cast bullets , bullets of their own if they would leave the Parthenon undamaged.Hitchens Christopher , The Elgin Marbles : Should They Be Returned to Greece ? , 1998 , p.viii , ISBN 1-85984-220-8 Elgin Elgin consulted with sculptor Antonio Canova in 1803 about how best to restore the marbles . Canova was considered by some to be the world 's best sculptural restorer of the time ; Elgin wrote that Canova declined to work on the marbles for fear of damaging them further . To facilitate transport by Elgin , the columns ' capitals and many metopes and freize slabs were either hacked off the main structure or sawn and sliced into smaller sections , causing irreparable damage to the Parthenon itself . One shipload of marbles on board the British brig Mentor was caught in a storm off Cape Matapan and sank near Kythera , but was salvaged at the Earl 's personal expense ; it took two years to bring them to the surface . British Museum The artefacts held in London suffered from 19th-century pollution which persisted until the mid-20th century and have suffered irreparable damage by previous cleaning methods employed by British Museum staff . As early as 1838 , scientist Michael Faraday was asked to provide a solution to the problem of the deteriorating surface of the marbles . The outcome is described in the following excerpt from the letter he sent to Henry Milman , a commissioner for the National Gallery . The marbles generally were very dirty ... from a deposit of dust and soot . ... I found the body of the marble beneath the surface white . ... The application of water , applied by a sponge or soft cloth , removed the coarsest dirt . ... The use of fine , gritty powder , with the water and rubbing , though it more quickly removed the upper dirt , left much embedded in the cellular surface of the marble . I then applied alkalies , both carbonated and caustic ; these quickened the loosening of the surface dirt ... but they fell far short of restoring the marble surface to its proper hue and state of cleanliness . I finally used dilute nitric acid , and even this failed . ... The examination has made me despair of the possibility of presenting the marbles in the British Museum in that state of purity and whiteness which they originally possessed . A further effort to clean the marbles ensued in 1858 . Richard Westmacott , who was appointed superintendent of the `` moving and cleaning the sculptures '' in 1857 , in a letter approved by the British Museum Standing Committee on 13 March 1858 concluded I think it my duty to say that some of the works are much damaged by ignorant or careless moulding – with oil and lard – and by restorations in wax , and wax and resin . These mistakes have caused discolouration . I shall endeavour to remedy this without , however , having recourse to any composition that can injure the surface of the marble . Yet another effort to clean the marbles occurred in 1937–38 . This time the incentive was provided by the construction of a new Gallery to house the collection . The Pentelic marble , from which the sculptures are made , naturally acquires a tan colour similar to honey when exposed to air ; this colouring is often known as the marble 's `` patina '' but Lord Duveen , who financed the whole undertaking , acting under the misconception that the marbles were originally white probably arranged for the team of masons working in the project to remove discolouration from some of the sculptures . The tools used were seven scrapers , one chisel and a piece of carborundum stone . They are now deposited in the British Museum 's Department of Preservation . The cleaning process scraped away some of the detailed tone of many carvings . According to Harold Plenderleith , the surface removed in some places may have been as much as one-tenth of an inch ( 2.5 mm ) . The British Museum has responded with the statement that `` mistakes were made at that time . '' On another occasion it was said that `` the damage had been exaggerated for political reasons '' and that `` the Greeks were guilty of excessive cleaning of the marbles before they were brought to Britain . '' During the international symposium on the cleaning of the marbles , organised by the British Museum , Dr Ian Jenkins , deputy keeper of Greek and Roman antiquities , remarked that `` The British Museum is not infallible , it is not the Pope . Its history has been a series of good intentions marred by the occasional cock-up , and the 1930s cleaning was such a cock-up '' . Nonetheless , he pointed out that the prime cause for the damage inflicted upon the marbles was the 2000-year-long weathering on the Acropolis Dorothy King , in a newspaper article , wrote that techniques similar to the ones used in 1937–1938 were applied by Greeks as well in more recent decades than the British , and maintained that Italians still find them acceptable . The British Museum said that a similar cleaning of the temple of Hephaistos in the Athenian Agora was carried out by the conservation team of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens in 1953 using steel chisels and brass wire . According to the Greek ministry of Culture , the cleaning was carefully limited to surface salt crusts . The 1953 American report concluded that the techniques applied were aimed at removing the black deposit formed by rain-water and `` brought out the high technical quality of the carving '' revealing at the same time `` a few surviving particles of colour '' . Documents released by the British Museum under the Freedom of Information Act revealed that a series of minor accidents , thefts and acts of vandalism by visitors have inflicted further damage to the sculptures . This includes an incident in 1961 when two schoolboys knocked off a part of a centaur 's leg . In June 1981 , a west pediment figure was slightly chipped by a falling glass skylight , and in 1966 four shallow lines were scratched on the back of one of the figures by vandals . In 1970 letters were scratched on to the upper right thigh of another figure . Four years later , the dowel hole in a centaur 's hoof was damaged by thieves trying to extract pieces of lead . Athens Air pollution and acid rain have caused damage to marble and stonework at the Parthenon . The last remaining slabs from the western section of the Parthenon frieze were removed from the monument in 1993 for fear of further damage . They have now been transported to the New Acropolis Museum . Until cleaning of the remaining marbles was completed in 2005 , black crusts and coatings were present on the marble surface . The laser technique applied on the 14 slabs that Elgin did not remove revealed a surprising array of original details , such as the original chisel marks and the veins on the horses ' bellies . Similar features in the British Museum collection have been scraped and scrubbed with chisels to make the marbles look white . Between January 20 and the end of March 2008 , 4200 items ( sculptures , inscriptions small terracotta objects ) , including some 80 artefacts dismantled from the monuments in recent years , were removed from the old museum on the Acropolis to the new Parthenon Museum . Natural disasters have also affected the Parthenon . In 1981 , an earthquake caused damage to the east façade . Since 1975 , Greece has been restoring the Acropolis . This restoration has included replacing the thousands of rusting iron clamps and supports that had previously been used , with non-corrosive titanium rods ; Smith , Helena . [ http : //www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/jun/10/arts.artsnews Repair of Acropolis started in 1975 - now it needs 20 more years and £47m ] , The Guardian , 10 June 2005 . Retrieved 6 March 2010. removing surviving artwork from the building into storage and subsequently into a new museum built specifically for the display of the Parthenon art ; and replacing the artwork with high-quality replicas . This process has come under fire from some groups as some buildings have been completely dismantled , including the dismantling of the Temple of Athena Nike and for the unsightly nature of the site due to the necessary cranes and scaffolding . But the hope is to restore the site to some of its former glory , which may take another 20 years and 70 million euros , though the prospect of the Acropolis being `` able to withstand the most extreme weather conditions – earthquakes '' is `` little consolation to the tourists visiting the Acropolis '' according to The Guardian . Directors of the British Museum have not ruled out temporarily loaning the marbles to the new museum , but state that it would be under the condition of Greece

sfq_21879--Elgin_Marbles.txt

The Elgin Marbles were originally part of which building?

Captain James Cook ( 7 November 1728Old style date : 27 October - 14 February 1779 ) was a British explorer , navigator , cartographer , and captain in the Royal Navy . Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean , during which he achieved the first recorded European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands , and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand . Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 . He saw action in the Seven Years ' War , and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec . This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society . This notice came at a crucial moment in both Cook 's career and the direction of British overseas exploration , and led to his commission in 1766 as commander of for the first of three Pacific voyages . In three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe . He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously achieved . As he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features , and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time . He displayed a combination of seamanship , superior surveying and cartographic skills , physical courage and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions . Cook was attacked and killed in a confrontation with Hawaiians during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779 . He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him . Early life and family James Cook was born on 27 October 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 3 November in the local church of S. Cuthbert , where his name can be seen in the church register . He was the second of eight children of James Cook , a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire , and his locally born wife , Grace Pace , from Thornaby-on-Tees . In 1736 , his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton , where his father 's employer , Thomas Skottowe , paid for him to attend the local school . In 1741 , after five years schooling , he began work for his father , who had by now been promoted to farm manager . For leisure , he would climb a nearby hill , Roseberry Topping , enjoying the opportunity for solitude . Cooks ' Cottage , his parents ' last home , which he is likely to have visited , is now in Melbourne , having been moved from England and reassembled , brick by brick , in 1934 . In 1745 , when he was 16 , Cook moved 20 mi to the fishing village of Staithes , to be apprenticed as a shop boy to grocer and haberdasher William Sanderson . Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window . After 18 months , not proving suitable for shop work , Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sanderson 's , John and Henry Walker . The Walkers were prominent local ship-owners and Quakers , and were in the coal trade . Their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum . Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels , plying coal along the English coast . His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove , and he spent several years on this and various other coasters , sailing between the Tyne and London . As part of his apprenticeship , Cook applied himself to the study of algebra , geometry , trigonometry , navigation and astronomy—all skills he would need one day to command his own ship . His three-year apprenticeship completed , Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea . After passing his examinations in 1752 , he soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks , starting with his promotion in that year to mate aboard the collier brig Friendship . In 1755 , within a month of being offered command of this vessel , he volunteered for service in the Royal Navy , when Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years ' War . Despite the need to start back at the bottom of the naval hierarchy , Cook realised his career would advance more quickly in military service and entered the Navy at Wapping on 17 June 1755 . Cook married Elizabeth Batts ( 1742–1835 ) , the daughter of Samuel Batts , keeper of the Bell Inn , Wapping and one of his mentors , on 21 December 1762 at St Margaret 's Church in Barking , Essex . The couple had six children : James ( 1763–94 ) , Nathaniel ( 1764–80 , lost aboard which foundered with all hands in a hurricane in the West Indies ) , Elizabeth ( 1767–71 ) , Joseph ( 1768–68 ) , George ( 1772–72 ) and Hugh ( 1776–93 ) , the last of whom died of scarlet fever while a student at Christ 's College , Cambridge . When not at sea , Cook lived in the East End of London . He attended St Paul 's Church , Shadwell , where his son James was baptised . Cook has no known direct descendants—all his recorded children either pre-deceased him or died without issue . Start of Royal Navy career Cook 's first posting was with , serving as able seaman and master 's mate under Captain Joseph Hamar for his first year aboard , and Captain Hugh Palliser thereafter . In October and November 1755 he took part in Eagles capture of one French warship and the sinking of another , following which he was promoted to boatswain in addition to his other duties . His first temporary command was in March 1756 when he was briefly master of the Cruizer , a small cutter attached to the Eagle while on patrol . In June 1757 Cook passed his master 's examinations at Trinity House , Deptford , which qualified him to navigate and handle a ship of the King 's fleet . He then joined the frigate as master under Captain Robert Craig . Conquest of Canada ( 1758–63 ) During the Seven Years ' War , Cook served in North America as master of . In 1758 he took part in the major amphibious assault that captured the Fortress of Louisbourg from the French , after which he participated in the siege of Quebec City and then the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759 . He showed a talent for surveying and cartography , and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege , thus allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack on the Plains of Abraham . Cook 's surveying ability was put to good use mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland in the 1760s , aboard . He surveyed the north-west stretch in 1763 and 1764 , the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766 , and the west coast in 1767 . At this time Cook employed local pilots to point out the `` rocks and hidden dangers '' along the south and west coasts . During the 1765 season , four pilots were engaged at a daily pay of 4 shillings each : John Beck for the coast west of `` Great St Lawrence '' , Morgan Snook for Fortune Bay , John Dawson for Connaigre and Hermitage Bay , and John Peck for the `` Bay of Despair '' . His five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island 's coasts and were the first scientific , large scale , hydrographic surveys to use precise triangulation to establish land outlines . They also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying , achieved under often adverse conditions , and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his career and in the direction of British overseas discovery . Cook 's map would be used into the 20th century—copies of it being referenced by those sailing Newfoundland 's waters for 200 years . Following on from his exertions in Newfoundland , it was at this time that Cook wrote that he intended to go not only `` farther than any man has been before me , but as far as I think it is possible for a man to go . '' Voyages of exploration First voyage ( 1768–71 ) In 1766 , Admiralty engaged Cook to command a scientific voyage to the Pacific Ocean . The purpose of the voyage was to observe and record the transit of Venus across the Sun for the benefit of Royal Society inquiry into a means of determining longitude . Cook , at the age of 39 , was promoted to lieutenant to grant him sufficient status to take the command . For its part the Royal Society agreed that Cook would receive a one hundred guinea gratuity in addition to his Naval pay . The expedition sailed from England on 26 August 1768 , rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at Tahiti on 13 April 1769 , where the observations of the Venus Transit were made . However , the result of the observations was not as conclusive or accurate as had been hoped . Once the observations were completed , Cook opened the sealed orders which were additional instructions from the Admiralty for the second part of his voyage : to search the south Pacific for signs of the postulated rich southern continent of Terra Australis . Cook then sailed to New Zealand and mapped the complete coastline , making only some minor errors . He then voyaged west , reaching the south-eastern coast of Australia on 19 April 1770 , and in doing so his expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline.At this time , the International Date Line had yet to be established , so the dates in Cook 's journal are a day earlier than those accepted today . On 23 April he made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point , noting in his journal : `` …and were so near the Shore as to distinguish several people upon the Sea beach they appear 'd to be of a very dark or black Colour but whether this was the real colour of their skins or the C [ l ] othes they might have on I know not . '' On 29 April Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the Kurnell Peninsula . Cook originally christened the area as `` Stingray Bay '' , but he later crossed it out and named it `` Botany Bay '' after the unique specimens retrieved by the botanists Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander . It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal . After his departure from Botany Bay he continued northwards . On 11 June a mishap occurred when ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef , and then `` nursed into a river mouth on 18 June 1770 '' . The ship was badly damaged and his voyage was delayed almost seven weeks while repairs were carried out on the beach ( near the docks of modern Cooktown , Queensland , at the mouth of the Endeavour River ) . The voyage then continued , sailing through Torres Strait and on 22 August Cook landed on Possession Island , where he claimed the entire coastline that he had just explored as British territory . He returned to England via Batavia ( modern Jakarta , Indonesia where many in his crew succumbed to malaria ) , the Cape of Good Hope , and arriving on the island of Saint Helena on 12 July 1771 . Interlude Cook 's journals were published upon his return , and he became something of a hero among the scientific community . Among the general public , however , the aristocratic botanist Joseph Banks was a greater hero . Banks even attempted to take command of Cook 's second voyage , but removed himself from the voyage before it began , and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster were taken on as scientists for the voyage . Cook 's son George was born five days before he left for his second voyage . Second voyage ( 1772–75 ) Shortly after his return from the first voyage , Cook was promoted in August 1771 , to the rank of commander . In 1772 he was commissioned to lead another scientific expedition on behalf of the Royal Society , to search for the hypothetical Terra Australis . On his first voyage , Cook had demonstrated by circumnavigating New Zealand that it was not attached to a larger landmass to the south . Although he charted almost the entire eastern coastline of Australia , showing it to be continental in size , the Terra Australis was believed to lie further south . Despite this evidence to the contrary , Alexander Dalrymple and others of the Royal Society still believed that a massive southern continent should exist . Cook commanded on this voyage , while Tobias Furneaux commanded its companion ship , . Cook 's expedition circumnavigated the globe at an extreme southern latitude , becoming one of the first to cross the Antarctic Circle ( 17 January 1773 ) . In the Antarctic fog , Resolution and Adventure became separated . Furneaux made his way to New Zealand , where he lost some of his men during an encounter with Māori , and eventually sailed back to Britain , while Cook continued to explore the Antarctic , reaching 71°10 'S on 31 January 1774 . Cook almost encountered the mainland of Antarctica , but turned towards Tahiti to resupply his ship . He then resumed his southward course in a second fruitless attempt to find the supposed continent . On this leg of the voyage he brought a young Tahitian named Omai , who proved to be somewhat less knowledgeable about the Pacific than Tupaia had been on the first voyage . On his return voyage to New Zealand in 1774 , Cook landed at the Friendly Islands , Easter Island , Norfolk Island , New Caledonia , and Vanuatu . Before returning to England , Cook made a final sweep across the South Atlantic from Cape Horn and surveyed , mapped and took possession for Britain of South Georgia , which had been explored by Anthony de la Roché in 1675 . Cook also discovered and named Clerke Rocks and the South Sandwich Islands ( `` Sandwich Land '' ) . He then turned north to South Africa , and from there continued back to England . His reports upon his return home put to rest the popular myth of Terra Australis . Cook 's second voyage marked a successful employment of Larcum Kendall 's K1 copy of John Harrison 's H4 marine chronometer , which enabled Cook to calculate his longitudinal position with much greater accuracy . Cook 's log was full of praise for this time-piece which he used to make charts of the southern Pacific Ocean that were so remarkably accurate that copies of them were still in use in the mid-20th century . Upon his return , Cook was promoted to the rank of post-captain and given an honorary retirement from the Royal Navy , with a posting as an officer of the Greenwich Hospital . He reluctantly accepted , insisting that he be allowed to quit the post if an opportunity for active duty should arise . His fame now extended beyond the Admiralty ; he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society , and awarded the Copley Gold Medal for completing his second voyage without losing a man to scurvy . Nathaniel Dance-Holland painted his portrait ; he dined with James Boswell ; he was described in the House of Lords as `` the first navigator in Europe '' . But he could not be kept away from the sea . A third voyage was planned and Cook volunteered to find the Northwest Passage . He travelled to the Pacific and hoped to travel east to the Atlantic , while a simultaneous voyage travelled the opposite route . Third voyage ( 1776–79 ) On his last voyage , Cook again commanded HMS Resolution , while Captain Charles Clerke commanded . The voyage was ostensibly planned to return the Pacific Islander , Omai to Tahiti , or so the public were led to believe . The trip 's principal goal was to locate a Northwest Passage around the American continent . After dropping Omai at Tahiti , Cook travelled north and in 1778 became the first European to begin formal contact with the Hawaiian Islands . After his initial landfall in January 1778 at Waimea harbour , Kauai , Cook named the archipelago the `` Sandwich Islands '' after the fourth Earl of Sandwich—the acting First Lord of the Admiralty . From the Sandwich Islands Cook sailed north and then north-east to explore the west coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements in Alta California . He made landfall on the Oregon coast at approximately 44°30′ north latitude , naming his landing point Cape Foulweather . Bad weather forced his ships south to about 43° north before they could begin their exploration of the coast northward . He unknowingly sailed past the Strait of Juan de Fuca , and soon after entered Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island . He anchored near the First Nations village of Yuquot . Cook 's two ships remained in Nootka Sound from 29 March to 26 April 1778 , in what Cook called Ship Cove , now Resolution Cove , at the south end of Bligh Island , about 5 mi east across Nootka Sound from Yuquot , lay a Nuu-chah-nulth village ( whose chief Cook did not identify but may have been Maquinna ) . Relations between Cook 's crew and the people of Yuquot were cordial if sometimes strained . In trading , the people of Yuquot demanded much more valuable items than the usual trinkets that had worked in Hawaii . Metal objects were much desired , but the lead , pewter , and tin traded at first soon fell into disrepute . The most valuable items which the British received in trade were sea otter pelts . During the stay , the Yuquot `` hosts '' essentially controlled the trade with the British vessels ; the natives usually visited the British vessels at Resolution Cove instead of the British visiting the village of Yuquot at Friendly Cove . After leaving Nootka Sound , Cook explored and mapped the coast all the way to the Bering Strait , on the way identifying what came to be known as Cook Inlet in Alaska . In a single visit , Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline on world maps for the first time , determined the extent of Alaska , and closed the gaps in Russian ( from the West ) and Spanish ( from the South ) exploratory probes of the Northern limits of the Pacific . By the second week of August 1778 Cook was through the Bering Strait , sailing into the Chukchi Sea . He headed north-east up the coast of Alaska until he was blocked by sea ice . His furthest north was 70 degrees 44 minutes . Cook then sailed west to the Siberian coast , and then south-east down the Siberian coast back to the Bering Strait . By early September 1778 he was back in the Bering Sea to begin the trip to the Sandwich ( Hawaiian ) Islands . He became increasingly frustrated on this voyage , and perhaps began to suffer from a stomach ailment ; it has been speculated that this led to irrational behaviour towards his crew , such as forcing them to eat walrus meat , which they had pronounced inedible . Return to Hawaii Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779 . After sailing around the archipelago for some eight weeks , he made landfall at Kealakekua Bay , on 'Hawaii Island ' , largest island in the Hawaiian Archipelago . Cook 's arrival coincided with the Makahiki , a Hawaiian harvest festival of worship for the Polynesian god Lono . Coincidentally the form of Cook 's ship , HMS Resolution , or more particularly the mast formation , sails and rigging , resembled certain significant artefacts that formed part of the season of worship . Similarly , Cook 's clockwise route around the island of Hawaii before making landfall resembled the processions that took place in a clockwise direction around the island during the Lono festivals . It has been argued ( most extensively by Marshall Sahlins ) that such coincidences were the reasons for Cook 's ( and to a limited extent , his crew 's ) initial deification by some Hawaiians who treated Cook as an incarnation of Lono . Though this view was first suggested by members of Cook 's expedition , the idea that any Hawaiians understood Cook to be Lono , and the evidence presented in support of it , were challenged in 1992 . Death After a month 's stay , Cook attempted to resume his exploration of the Northern Pacific . Shortly after leaving Hawaii Island , however , the Resolutions foremast broke , so the ships returned to Kealakekua Bay for repairs . Tensions rose , and a number of quarrels broke out between the Europeans and Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay . An unknown group of Hawaiians took one of Cook 's small boats . The evening when the cutter was taken , the people had become `` insolent '' even with threats to fire upon them . Cook was forced into a wild goose chase that ended with his return to the ship frustrated . He attempted to kidnap and ransom the King of Hawaiʻi , Kalaniʻōpuʻu . That following day , 14 February 1779 , Cook marched through the village to retrieve the King . Cook took the King ( aliʻi nui ) by his own hand and led him willingly away . One of Kalaniʻōpuʻu 's favorite wives , Kanekapolei and two chiefs approached the group as they were heading to boats . They pleaded with the king not to go until he stopped and sat where he stood . An old Kahuna ( priest ) , chanting rapidly while holding out a coconut , attempted to distract Cook and his men as a large crowd began to form at the shore . The king began to understand that Cook was his enemy . As Cook turned his back to help launch the boats , he was struck on the head by the villagers and then stabbed to death as he fell on his face in the surf . He was first struck on the head with a club by a chief named Kalaimanokahoʻowaha or Kanaʻina ( namesake of Charles Kana'ina ) and then stabbed by one of the king 's attendants , Nuaa . The Hawaiians carried his body away towards the back of the town , still visible to the ship through their spyglass . Four marines , Corporal James Thomas , Private Theophilus Hinks , Private Thomas Fatchett and Private John Allen , were also killed and two others were wounded in the confrontation . Aftermath The esteem which the islanders nevertheless held for Cook caused them to retain his body . Following their practice of the time , they prepared his body with funerary rituals usually reserved for the chiefs and highest elders of the society . The body was disembowelled , baked to facilitate removal of the flesh , and the bones were carefully cleaned for preservation as religious icons in a fashion somewhat reminiscent of the treatment of European saints in the Middle Ages . Some of Cook 's remains , thus preserved , were eventually returned to his crew for a formal burial at sea . Clerke assumed leadership of the expedition , and made a final attempt to pass through the Bering Strait . He died from tuberculosis on 22 August 1779 and John Gore , a veteran of Cook 's first voyage , took command of Resolution and of the expedition . James King replaced Gore in command of Discovery . The expedition now returned home , reaching England in October 1780 . After their arrival in England , King completed Cook 's account of the voyage . David Samwell , who sailed with Cook on Resolution , wrote of him : `` He was a modest man , and rather bashful ; of an agreeable lively conversation , sensible and intelligent . In temper he was somewhat hasty , but of a disposition the most friendly , benevolent and humane . His person was above six feet high : and , though a good looking man , he was plain both in dress and appearance . His face was full of expression : his nose extremely well shaped : his eyes which were small and of a brown cast , were quick and piercing ; his eyebrows prominent , which gave his countenance altogether an air of austerity . '' Legacy Ethnographic collections The Australian Museum acquired its Cook Collection in 1894 from the Government of New South Wales . At that time the collection consisted of 115 artefacts collected on Cook 's three voyages throughout the Pacific Ocean , during the period 1768–80 , along with documents and memorabilia related to these voyages . Many of the ethnographic artifacts were collected at a time of first contact between Pacific Peoples and Europeans . In 1935 most of the documents and memorabilia were transferred to the Mitchell Library in the State Library of New South Wales . The provenance of the collection shows that the objects remained in the hands of Cook 's widow Elizabeth Cook , and her descendants , until 1886 . In this year John Mackrell , the great-nephew of Isaac Smith , Elizabeth Cook 's cousin , organised the display of this collection at the request of the NSW Government at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London . In 1887 the London-based Agent-General for the New South Wales Government , Saul Samuel , bought John Mackrell 's items and also acquired items belonging to the other relatives Reverend Canon Frederick Bennett , Mrs Thomas Langton , H. M. C. Alexander , and William Adams . The collection remained with the Colonial Secretary of NSW until 1894 , when it was transferred to the Australian Museum . Navigation and science Cook 's 12 years sailing around the Pacific Ocean contributed much to European knowledge of the area . Several islands such as Sandwich Islands ( Hawaii ) were encountered for the first time by Europeans , and his more accurate navigational charting of large areas of the Pacific was a major achievement . To create accurate maps , latitude and longitude must be accurately determined . Navigators had been able to work out latitude accurately for centuries by measuring the angle of the sun or a star above the horizon with an instrument such as a backstaff or quadrant . Longitude was more difficult to measure accurately because it requires precise knowledge of the time difference between points on the surface of the earth . The Earth turns a full 360 degrees relative to the sun each day . Thus longitude corresponds to time : 15 degrees every hour , or 1 degree every 4 minutes . Cook gathered accurate longitude measurements during his first voyage due to his navigational skills , the help of astronomer Charles Green and by using the newly published Nautical Almanac tables , via the lunar distance method—measuring the angular distance from the moon to either the sun during daytime or one of eight bright stars during night-time to determine the time at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich , and comparing that to his local time determined via the altitude of the sun , moon , or stars . On his second voyage Cook used the K1 chronometer made by Larcum Kendall , which was the shape of a large

odql_9934--James_Cook.txt

Who was the renowned English botanist who accompanied Capt. James Cook on his first voyage in 1768 and is credited with introducing Eucalyptus, Mimosa and Acacia to Europe?

Anne , Princess Royal , ( Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise ; born 15 August 1950 ) is the second child and only daughter of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh . At the time of her birth , she was third in the line of succession , behind her mother and elder brother Charles . She rose to second after her mother 's accession , but is currently 12th in line . Princess Anne is the seventh holder of the title Princess Royal . She is known for her charitable work , and is patron of over 200 organizations . She is also known for equestrian talents ; she won two silver medals ( 1975 ) and one gold medal ( 1971 ) at the European Eventing Championships , and is the first member of the British Royal Family to have competed in the Olympic Games . Anne was married to Captain Mark Phillips in 1973 ; they divorced in 1992 . They have two children and three grandchildren . In 1992 , within months of her divorce , Anne married Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence , whom she had met while he served as her mother 's equerry between 1986 and 1989 . Early life and education Anne was born at Clarence House on 15 August 1950 at 11:50 am , as the second child and only daughter of Princess Elizabeth , Duchess of Edinburgh , and Philip , Duke of Edinburgh . She was the second grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth . Anne was baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 21 October 1950 , by Archbishop of York , Cyril Garbett . Her godparents were the Queen—later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother ( her maternal grandmother ) ; the Princess Margarita , Hereditary Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ( her paternal aunt ) ; Princess Alice of Greece and Denmark ( her paternal grandmother ) ; Earl Mountbatten of Burma ( her paternal great-uncle ) ; and Rev the Hon Andrew Elphinstone ( her first cousin once removed ) . By letters patent of Anne 's great-grandfather , George V , the titles of a British prince or princess , and the style Royal Highness , were to be conferred only on children and male-line grandchildren of the sovereign , as well as the eldest son of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales . However , on 22 October 1948 , Anne 's grandfather issued new letters patent granting these honours to any children of Princess Elizabeth and Prince Philip ; in this way , the children of the heir presumptive had a royal and princely status . Otherwise , Anne would have been titled by courtesy at birth as Lady Anne Mountbatten . A governess , Catherine Peebles , was appointed to look after the Princess and was responsible for her early education at Buckingham Palace ; Peebles also served as early governess for Anne 's older brother , Charles . After the death of George VI and the ascension to the throne of Anne 's mother Elizabeth , Anne became titled Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne . Given her young age at the time , she did not attend her mother 's coronation . A Girl Guides company , the 1st Buckingham Palace Company to include the Holy Trinity Brompton Brownie pack , was reformed in May 1959 , specifically so that , as her mother and aunt had done as children , Anne could socialise with girls her own age . The Company was active until 1963 , when Anne went to boarding school . Anne enrolled at Benenden School in 1963 . In 1968 she graduated with six GCE O-Levels and two A-Levels . In the next couple of years , Anne started dating . In 1970 her first boyfriend was Andrew Parker Bowles , who later became the first husband of Camilla , Duchess of Cornwall . First marriage On Wednesday , 14 November 1973 ( the twenty-fifth birthday of her brother , Prince Charles ) , Princess Anne married Mark Phillips , a lieutenant in the 1st Queen 's Dragoon Guards , at Westminster Abbey in a ceremony that was televised around the world , with an estimated audience of 100 million . Following the wedding , Anne and her husband lived at Gatcombe Park . He was made acting captain by the start of 1974 when he was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II . By 1989 , however , the Princess Royal and Mark Phillips announced their intention to separate , as the marriage had been under strain for a number of years . The couple divorced on 23 April 1992 . The Queen had offered Phillips an earldom on his wedding day , as was customary for untitled men marrying into the Royal Family . Phillips declined . The couple had two children , Peter Phillips and Zara Phillips . As female-line descendants of royalty , the children have no title despite being the grandchildren of a monarch . ( They are not the only children of a British princess without titles ; the children of Princess Alexandra , the Queen 's cousin , are also untitled . ) The Princess Royal became a grandmother on 29 December 2010 when Peter and his wife Autumn had a daughter , Savannah . On 29 March 2012 , the couple had another daughter , Isla . Anne 's third granddaughter , Mia Grace , was born on 17 January 2014 to Zara and her husband Mike Tindall . Kidnapping attempt As Princess Anne and Mark Phillips were returning to Buckingham Palace on 20 March 1974 , from a charity event on Pall Mall , their Princess IV car was forced to stop on the Mall by a Ford Escort.Daily Express , 21 August 2006 The driver of the Escort , Ian Ball , jumped out and began firing a pistol . Inspector James Beaton , the Princess 's personal police officer , responded by getting out of the car in order to shield the Princess and to attempt to disarm Ball . Beaton 's firearm , a Walther PPK , jammed , and he was shot by the assailant , as was Anne 's chauffeur , Alex Callender , when he tried to disarm Ball . Brian McConnell , a nearby tabloid journalist , also intervened , and was shot in the chest . Ball approached the Princess 's car and told her of his kidnapping plan , which was to hold the Princess for ransom , the sum given by varying sources as £2 million or £3 million , which he claimed he intended to give to the National Health Service . Ball then directed Anne to get out of the car , to which she replied : `` Not bloody likely ! `` , and reportedly briefly considered hitting Ball . Eventually , she exited the other side of the limousine as had her lady-in-waiting , Rowena Brassey . A passing pedestrian , a former boxer named Ron Russell , punched Ball in the back of the head and then led Anne away from the scene . At that point , Police Constable Michael Hills happened upon the situation ; he too was shot by Ball , but not before he called for police backup . Detective Constable Peter Edmonds , who had been nearby , answered and gave chase , finally arresting Ball . Beaton , Hills , Callender and McConnell were hospitalised , and all recovered from their wounds . For his defence of Princess Anne , Beaton was awarded the George Cross , Hills and Russell were awarded the George Medal , and Callender , McConnell and Edmonds were awarded the Queen 's Gallantry Medal . Ball pleaded guilty to attempted murder and kidnapping . He was still detained under the Mental Health Act as of January 2011 , at Broadmoor . The incident was the closest in modern times that any individual has come to kidnapping a member of the Royal Family , and prompted higher security levels for the Royals . It also served as the focus of the 2006 Granada Television produced docu-drama , To Kidnap a Princess , and inspired story lines in the Tom Clancy novel Patriot Games and the Antonia Fraser novel , Your Royal Hostage . Second marriage Anne married Timothy Laurence , then a commander in the Royal Navy , at Crathie Kirk , near Balmoral Castle , on 12 December 1992 . The couple chose to marry in Scotland as the Church of England did not routinely allow divorced persons whose former spouses are still living to remarry in its churches . The Church of Scotland did under certain circumstances . In participating in this ceremony , Anne became the first royal divorcée to remarry since Victoria , Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine , granddaughter of Queen Victoria , married Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich of Russia in 1905 . Like Phillips before him , Laurence received no peerage , and the couple leased a flat in Dolphin Square , London . They later gave up this city home and now reside between an apartment at St James 's Palace and Gatcombe Park . Anne has no children by Laurence . Court sanctions The only reported court sanctions the Princess Royal has was one fine of £400 for speeding in March 2001 , by Cheltenham Magistrate 's Court . In 2002 , under the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991 , her dog , Dotty , attacked two children in Windsor Great Park . The Princess was fined £500 by Berkshire Magistrates ' Court and ordered to give Dotty more training . In both cases , she pleaded guilty . Equestrianism At the age of 21 , Anne won the individual title at the European Eventing Championship , and was voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year in 1971 . For more than five years she also competed with the British eventing team , winning a silver medal in both individual and team disciplines in the 1975 European Eventing Championship , riding the home-bred Doublet . The following year Anne participated in the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal as a member of the British team , riding the Queen 's horse , Goodwill . Princess Anne assumed the Presidency of the Fédération Équestre Internationale from 1986 until 1994 . On 5 February 1987 , she became the first Royal to appear as a contestant on a television quiz-show when she competed on the BBC panel game A Question of Sport . Her daughter , Zara Phillips is also a keen equestrian competitor . Together with her horse , Toytown , she won individual and team gold medals at the 2005 European Eventing Championship as well as individual gold and team silver medals at the 2006 FEI World Equestrian Games . Official duties As Princess Royal , Anne undertakes a number of official duties on behalf of her mother , in support of the Queen 's role as sovereign of the Commonwealth realms . Kevin S. MacLeod , the Canadian Secretary to the Queen , said of Anne in 2014 : `` Her credo is , 'Keep me busy . I 'm here to work . I 'm here to do good things . I 'm here to meet as many people as possible ' . '' Anne began to undertake official royal duties overseas upon leaving secondary school , and accompanied her parents on a state visit to Austria in the same year . She will sometimes stand in for the Queen at the funerals of foreign dignitaries ( which the Queen customarily does not attend ) , and resides at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh each summer , hosting engagements there . The Princess also travels abroad on behalf of the United Kingdom up to three times a year ; she was the first member of the Royal Family to make an official visit to the Soviet Union when she went there as a guest of the government in 1990 . The Princess 's first tour of Australia was with her parents in 1970 , since which she has returned on numerous occasions to undertake official engagements as a colonel-in-chief of an Australian regiment , or to attend memorials and services , such as the National Memorial Service for victims of the Black Saturday bushfires in Melbourne , Australia , on 22 February 2009 . Following the retirement of the Queen Mother in 1981 , Anne was elected by graduates of the University of London as that institution 's Chancellor . Throughout May 1996 , the Princess served as Her Majesty 's High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland , which granted her , for the duration of the appointment , a higher precedence in Scotland , and the alternative style of Her Grace . In 2007 , the Princess Royal had the honour of being appointed by the Queen as Grand Master of the Royal Victorian Order , a position her grandmother had also held . The Princess Royal carries out a full schedule of royal engagements and is involved with over 200 charities and organisations in an official capacity . She works extensively for Save the Children , of which she has been president since 1970 , and she initiated The Princess Royal Trust for Carers in 1991 ; her work for the charity takes her all over the world , including many poverty stricken African nations . She is also the Royal Patron of WISE , an organisation that encourages young women to pursue careers in science , engineering and construction . Her extensive work for St. John Ambulance as Commandant-in-Chief of St. John Ambulance Cadets has helped to develop many young people , as she annually attends the Grand Prior Award Reception . She is also a British representative in the International Olympic Committee as an administrator , and was a member of the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games . She was President of BAFTA from 1973 to 2001 . She maintains a relationship with student sport and is the Patron of British Universities and Colleges Sport . She has been Patron of the Royal National Children 's Foundation since 2002 . She is also a Royal Fellow of the Royal Society and the Academy of Medical Sciences . Royal Fellows are members of the Monarchy who are recommended and elected by the Society 's Council . The Royal Society has only five Royal Fellows , including The Princess Royal herself , The Duke of Edinburgh , The Prince of Wales , The Duke of Kent , and The Duke of Cambridge . She is the Academy of Medical Sciences ' first Royal Fellow . She was elected Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh in 2011 , effective 31 March , succeeding her father , Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh who stepped down from the role in 2010 . Likewise she accepted in 2011 the roles of President of City and Guilds of London Institute , Master of the Corporation of Trinity House and President of the Royal Society of Arts , also in succession to her father . She is also Patron of Edinburgh University ’ s Royal ( Dick ) School of Veterinary Studies , Royal Holloway , University of London , International Students House , London , Acid Survivors Trust International , Townswomen 's Guilds and College of Occupational Therapy . She represented Great Britain in the International Olympic Committee at the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics in Russia . Titles , styles , honours and arms Titles and styles * 15 August 1950 - 6 February 1952 : Her Royal Highness Princess Anne of Edinburgh * 6 February 1952 - 14 November 1973 : Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne * 14 November 1973 - 13 June 1987 : Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne , Mrs Mark Phillips * 13 June 1987 - present : Her Royal Highness The Princess Royal Princess Anne 's style and title in full : Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise , Princess Royal , Royal Lady of the Most Noble Order of the Garter , Extra Lady of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle , Dame Grand Cross and Grand Master of the Royal Victorian Order , Dame Grand Cross of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem . In 1996 , Anne was entitled to be called Her Grace The Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . Anne is the seventh creation of the title Princess Royal , an appellation given only to the eldest daughter of the sovereign , the last holder being George V 's daughter , Princess Mary , Countess of Harewood . Honours See also List of honours of the British Royal Family by country ; Orders * 1969 - : Member of the Royal Family Order of Queen Elizabeth II * 1971 - 1998 : Dame of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of St John of Jerusalem ( DJStJ ) * * 1998 - : Dame Grand Cross of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem ( GCStJ ) * 1974 - : Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order ( GCVO ) – ( Grand Master from 2007 ) * 1990 - : Extra Companion of the Queen 's Service Order ( QSO ) * 23 April 1994 - : Royal Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter ( KG ) * 2000 - : Extra Knight of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle ( KT ) * 29 September 2005 - : Chief Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu ( GCL ) ; Decorations * 1982 : Canadian Forces Decoration ( CD ) * With 3 Clasps ; Medals * 2 June 1953 : Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal * 1977 : Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal * 2002 : Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal * 2005 : Commemorative Medal for the Centennial of Saskatchewan * 2012 : Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal ; Foreign honours * 1969 - : Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria * 1969 - : Commander Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland * 1971 - : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown * 1971 - : Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire * 1972 - : Grand Cross of the Order of the House of Orange * 1972 - : Grand Cross of the Order of the Oak Crown * 1972 - 1992 : Order of the Yugoslav Flag with Sash , 1st Class Appointments ; Fellowships * 1986 - : Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons ( FRCVS ) * 1987 - : Royal Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) * 2011 - : President of the Royal Society of Arts ( RSA ) * 2012 - : Royal Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences ( FMedSci ) ; Academic * 1981 - : University of London , Chancellor * 2011 - : University of Edinburgh , Chancellor * 2012 - : University of the Highlands and Islands , Chancellor * 2013 - : Harper Adams University , Chancellor ; Academic degrees * 2004 : University of Regina , Saskatchewan , Doctor of Laws ( LLD ) * 23 April 2010 : Memorial University of Newfoundland , Doctor of Laws ( LLD ) * 2011 : Cranfield University , Doctor of Science ( DSc ) Honorary military appointments As with other senior royals , Princess Anne holds a number of honorary appointments in the armed forces of several Commonwealth realms : ; Australia * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Australian Corps of Signals * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Australian Corps of Transport ; Canada * Colonel-in-Chief of the Grey and Simcoe Foresters ( 11 June 1977 – present ) * Colonel-in-Chief of the 8th Canadian Hussars ( Princess Louise 's ) * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Canadian Hussars ( 11 November 2014 – present ) * Colonel-in-Chief of the Communications and Electronics Branch ( 11 June 1977 – present ) * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Canadian Medical Service * Colonel-in-Chief of The Royal Regina Rifles * Colonel-in-Chief of Royal Newfoundland Regiment * Commodore-in-Chief of the Royal Canadian Navy ( Fleet Pacific ) ( 2015 – present ) ; New Zealand * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal New Zealand Army Nursing Corps ; United Kingdom * Colonel-in-Chief of the King 's Royal Hussars * Colonel-in-Chief of the Worcestershire and Sherwood Foresters Regiment ( 29/45 Foot ) * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Corps of Signals * Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Logistic Corps * Colonel-in-Chief the Royal Army Veterinary Corps * Colonel of the Blues and Royals * Royal Colonel of the Royal Scots Borderers , 1st Battalion Royal Regiment of Scotland * Royal Colonel of the 52nd Lowland Regiment , 6th Battalion Royal Regiment of Scotland * Royal Honorary Colonel of the University of London OTC * Commandant-in-Chief of the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry ( Princess Royal 's Volunteer Corps ) * Honorary Air Commodore of RAF Lyneham * Honorary Air Commodore of the University of London Air Squadron * Admiral and Chief Commandant for Women in the Royal Navy * Commodore-in-Chief of HMNB Portsmouth Arms Personal standard for Canada The Princess Royal has her own royal banner for Canada , comprising the shield of the Canadian Royal Arms defaced with a blue roundel surrounded by a wreath of gold maple leaves , within which is a depiction of Princess Anne 's cypher ( an `` A '' surmounted by a coronet ) , and with a white label of three points , the centre one charged with a red heart and the other two with red crosses , taken from her coat of arms . Other honours In February 2015 the Princess Royal became one of the first female honorary members of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews . Issue Ancestry Notes

bt_385--Anne,_Princess_Royal.txt

On which TV quiz show was Princess Anne a contestant

St Bartholomew 's Hospital , also known simply as Barts and later more formally as The Royal Hospital of St Bartholomew , is a hospital located at Smithfield in London and founded in 1123 . Today it forms part of Barts Health NHS Trust . History Early history Barts was founded in 1123 by Rahere ( died 1144 , and entombed in the nearby Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great ) , a favourite courtier of King Henry I . The Dissolution of the Monasteries did not affect the running of Barts as a hospital , but left it in a precarious position by removing its income . It was refounded by King Henry VIII in December 1546 , on the signing of an agreement granting the hospital to the Corporation of London , which was reaffirmed by Letters Patent of January 1547 endowing it with properties and income entitlements . The hospital became legally styled as the `` House of the Poore in West Smithfield in the suburbs of the City of London of Henry VIII 's Foundation '' , although the title was never used by the general public . The first Superintendent of the hospital was Thomas Vicary , sergeant-surgeon to King Henry , and an early writer on anatomy . [ http : //www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx ? compid 45108 St Bartholomew 's Hospital ] , Old and New London : Volume 2 ( 1878 ) , pp . 359-363 accessed : 30 January 2009 It was here that William Harvey conducted his research on the circulatory system in the 17th century , Percivall Pott and John Abernethy developed important principles of modern surgery in the 18th century , and Mrs Bedford Fenwick worked to advance the nursing profession in the late 19th century . In 1839 to 1872 , the mortality reports show that surgical trauma and postoperative infection were the greatest causes of death . Tuberculosis , however , remained the most fatal nontraumatic cause of death . Upon the creation of the National Health Service in 1948 , it officially became known as St Bartholomew 's Hospital . Buildings Barts is the oldest hospital in Britain still providing all medical services and which occupies the site it was originally built on , and has an important current role as well as a long history and architecturally important buildings . The so-named Henry VIII entrance to the hospital continues to be the main public entrance ; and the statue of King Henry VIII above the gate is the only remaining statue of him in London . Its main square was designed by James Gibbs in the 1730s . Of the four original blocks only three survive ; they include the block containing the Great Hall and two flanking blocks that contained wards . The first wing to be built was the North Wing , in 1732 , which includes the Great Hall and the Hogarth murals . The South Wing followed in 1740 , the West in 1752 and finally the East Wing in 1769 . In 1859 , a fountain was placed at the square 's centre with a small garden . St Bartholomew 's Hospital has existed on the same site since its founding in the 12th century , surviving both the Great Fire of London and the Blitz . Its museum , which is open Tuesdays to Fridays every week , shows how medical care has developed over this time and explains the history of the hospital . Part-way around the exhibition is a door which opens on to the hospital 's official entrance hall . On the walls of the staircase are two murals painted by William Hogarth , The Pool of Bethesda ( 1736 ) and The Good Samaritan ( 1737 ) . They can only be seen at close quarters on Friday afternoons . Hogarth was so outraged by the news that the hospital was commissioning art from Italian painters that he insisted on doing these murals free of charge , as a demonstration that English painting was equal to the task . The Pool of Bethesda is of particular medical interest , as it depicts a scene in which Christ cures the sick : display material on the first floor speculates in modern medical terms about the ailments from which Christ 's patients in the painting are suffering . The room to which the staircase leads is the hospital 's Great Hall , a double-height room in Baroque-style . Although there are a few paintings inside the Great Hall , nearly all are on movable stands : the walls themselves are mostly given over to the display of the very many large , painted plaques which list , in detail , the sums of money given to the hospital by its benefactors . Some of the donations recorded in £sd ( pounds , shillings , pence ) are odd amounts because they were the remains of an estate after all other bequests had been settled ; other odd amounts were donated as round numbers of guineas but recorded as £sd . After the Dissolution of the Monasteries , the hospital precincts of the ancient priory were redesignated as an Anglican ecclesiastical parish , with St Bartholomew-the-Less becoming the parish church – a unique situation amongst English hospital foundations . St Barts-the-Less is the only survivor of five chapels originally within the hospital 's estate , the others failing to survive the Reformation . The church has a 15th-century tower and vestry , and its connections with the hospital can be seen not only in its early-20th century stained glass window of a nurse , a gift from the Worshipful Company of Glaziers , but also in commemorative plaques adorning its interior . Throughout the whole of the 19th century , the Hardwick family were major benefactors of the hospital . Thomas Hardwick Jr. ( 1752–1825 ) , Philip Hardwick ( 1792–1870 ) , and Philip Charles Hardwick ( 1822–92 ) were all architects/surveyors to Barts Hospital . Philip Hardwick , a Royal Academician , was also engaged in the rebuilding of the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Less in 1823 and donated the fountain in the hospital 's courtyard . By 1872 , Barts contained 676 beds . About 6,000 in-patients were admitted every year , as well as 101,000 out-patients . The average income of the hospital was £40,000 ( derived chiefly from rents and funded property ) and the number of governors exceeded 300 . Threatened closure In 1993 the controversial Tomlinson Review of London hospitals was published and concluded that there were too many hospitals in central London . It recommended that the service should be delivered closer to where people lived . Barts was identified as a hospital with a catchment area that had a low population and the hospital was threatened with closure . A determined campaign was mounted to save the hospital by the Save Barts Campaign , supported by staff , residents , local MPs and the City of London Corporation , the argument being that a general hospital was needed here , to provide for the needs of the City 's daily transient workforce of over 300,000 people . Some facilities were saved , but the accident and emergency department closed in 1995 , Major to minor : the closure of Bart 's A & E department has overshadowed a parallel development at the London hospital - the opening of a nurse-led minor injuries unit Cassidy , Jane Nursing Times ( 1995 ) with facilities relocated to the Royal London Hospital ( a hospital in the same Trust group , but a couple of miles away in Whitechapel ) . A minor injuries unit was established at Barts for small cases ( which often represent a significant part of the workload of A & E services ) but urgent and major work goes to other hospitals . Concerns about the lack of a local service rose , with the 11 September 2001 New York attacks and 7 July 2005 London bombings , as the City remained a significant terrorism target . A plan was formulated for Barts to develop as a centre of excellence in cardiac care and cancer . This development again came under threat in a review of the private finance initiative funding in 2006 leading to the continuance of the Save Barts campaign . These problems have been resolved and Barts now comprises cancer care facilities , the new Barts Heart Centre , and new general wards at the Royal London site . Barts continues to be associated with excellence at its medical school 's significant research and teaching facilities on the Charterhouse Square site . The Queen Mary Wing has now been demolished , and the façade of the George V building has been retained within a new hospital building . Patients will be accommodated in single rooms , and four-bed bays . A new main entrance will be established on King Edward Street . The Gibbs Square will be refurbished and car parking removed from the area . Barts , along with the Royal London Hospital and London Chest Hospital , was part of Barts and The London NHS Trust . There are 388 beds in Barts , 675 beds in the Royal London and 109 in the London Chest Hospital . These hospitals amalgamated with Whipps Cross and Newham hospitals on 1 March 2012 to form the Barts Health NHS Trust . Medical schools In 1843 , St Bartholomew 's Hospital Medical College was established to train medics although considered to have been started by John Abernethy when the hospital built a theatre for his lectures at the beginning of the century . In 1995 the college , along with that attached to the Royal London , merged into Queen Mary University of London , but maintains a distinctive identity to this day . It is now known as Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry . It occupies some space at the Barts site in Smithfield , with a presence a short walk away at Charterhouse Square . The main preclinical teaching domain of the medical school is at Whitechapel in the award-winning Blizard Building . The present School of Nursing and Midwifery was formed in 1994 from merging the Schools from St Bartholomew 's Hospital and the Royal London Hospital to become the St Bartholomew School of Nursing & Midwifery . In 1995 the new School was incorporated into the City University . Both Schools have a strong and respected history dating back over 120 years and have produced many nurse leaders and educators . The School has since been incorporated into the School of Health Sciences , City University . Notable alumni * John Abernethy FRS * Dr Anthony Askew * John Badley * Elizabeth Blackwell MD * Dr Claire Booth ( also Countess of Ulster ) * Graham Chapman ( Monty Python ) * Dr. J.B. Christopherson , CBE ( pioneer in chemotherapy ) * Dr Nina Coltart * Lord Colwyn ( dentist ) * Dr Cyril Elgood * Ethel Gordon Manson ( Matron , later Mrs Bedford Fenwick ) * Sir Archibald Garrod * Dr W. G. Grace ( MCC and England cricketer ) * Captain J. L. Green VC * Dr William Harvey * Dr Kim Holt * Alfredo Kanthack FRCP FRCS * William Lawrence FRS * Sir Trevor Lawrence * Rev Martyn Lloyd-Jones MD * Professor the Lord Kakkar * Robert Morrison FRS * Baroness Murphy MD * Sir James Paget * Sir Percivall Pott * Dame Lesley Rees * Dr Derek Richter * W. H. R. Rivers FRS * Professor George Rolleston * The Hon Dr Bidhan Chandra Roy ( Indian politician ) * Dr Leó Szilárd * Abi Titmuss ( nurse , later television celebrity ) * Sir James Underwood * William John Wills ( explorer ) * Professor the Lord Winston * * John H. Watson ( Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes fictional character Dr. Watson is referred to numerous times as being a Barts alumnus ) Hospital museum The Barts Museum tells the historical narrative of the hospital and its work in caring for the sick and injured . The museum collections include historic surgical instruments , sculptures , medieval archives , and works of art , including paintings by William Hogarth . The museum is located under the North Wing archway and is open from Tuesday to Friday from 10am to 4pm . Admission is free , but donations are welcome . The museum is part of the London Museums of Health & Medicine . Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson A chemical laboratory at Barts was the location of the initial meeting of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson in Arthur Conan Doyle 's 1887 novel A Study in Scarlet . Barts was Watson 's alma mater . This fictional connection led to a donation by the Tokyo `` Sherlock Holmes Appreciation Society '' to the Save Barts Campaign in the 1990s . In 2012 , the final episode of the second series of the BBC drama Sherlock , `` The Reichenbach Fall '' , had Holmes appearing to have deliberately leapt to his death from the roof of St Bartholomew 's as a surrogate for the waterfall of the original story `` The Final Problem '' . The hospital was again used as the location for the resolution to Holmes ' faked suicide , in the first series three episode `` The Empty Hearse '' .

sfq_23426--St_Bartholomew's_Hospital.txt

in which century was St Bartholomew's Hospital located in West Smithfieid, London founded?

The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state on the island of Great Britain from the 10th century—when it emerged from various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms—until 1707 , when it united with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms , united by Æthelstan ( r. 927–939 ) , became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great , a personal union between England , Denmark and Norway . The Norman conquest of England in 1066 led to the transfer of the English capital city and chief royal residence from the Anglo-Saxon one at Winchester to Westminster , and the City of London quickly established itself as England 's largest and principal commercial centre . Histories of the kingdom of England from the Norman conquest of 1066 conventionally distinguish periods named after successive ruling dynasties : Norman 1066–1154 , Plantagenet 1154–1485 , Tudor 1485–1603 and Stuart 1603–1714 ( interrupted by the Interregnum of 1649–1660 ) . Dynastically , all English monarchs after 1066 ultimately claim descent from the Normans ; the distinction of the Plantagenets is merely conventional , beginning with Henry II ( reigned 1154-1189 ) as from that time , the Angevin kings became `` more English in nature '' ; the houses of Lancaster and York are both Plantagenet cadet branches , the Tudor dynasty claimed descent from Edward III via John Beaufort and James VI and I of the House of Stuart claimed descent from Henry VII via Margaret Tudor . The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown . Edward III ( reigned 1327–1377 ) transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe ; his reign also saw vital developments in legislation and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament . From the 1340s the kings of England also laid claim to the crown of France , but after the Hundred Years ' War and the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses in 1455 , the English were no longer in any position to pursue their French claims and lost all their land on the continent , except for Calais . After the turmoils of the Wars of the Roses , the Tudor dynasty ruled during the English Renaissance and again extended English monarchical power beyond England proper , achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales in 1542 . Henry VIII oversaw the English Reformation , and his daughter Elizabeth I ( reigned 1558–1603 ) the Elizabethan Religious Settlement , meanwhile establishing England as a great power and laying the foundations of the British Empire by claiming possessions in the New World . From the accession of James I in 1603 , the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland . Under the Stuarts , the kingdom plunged into civil war , which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649 . The monarchy returned in 1660 , but the Civil War established the precedent that an English monarch can not govern without the consent of Parliament , although this concept became legally established only as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . From this time the kingdom of England , as well as its successor state the United Kingdom , functioned in effect as a constitutional monarchy.The Constitution of the United Kingdom , with the reservation that it is `` uncodified '' , is taken to be based in the Bill of Rights 1689 . On 1 May 1707 , under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707 , the kingdoms of England and Scotland united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Name The Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn , originally names of the Angles . They called their land Engla land , meaning `` land of the English '' , by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia , from an original Anglia vetus , the purported homeland of the Angles ( called Angulus by Bede ) . The name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period ( Engle-land , Engelond ) . The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra , the Old French and Anglo-Norman one Angleterre . By the 14th century , England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain . The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was ' ( `` King of the English '' ) . Canute the Great , a Dane , was the first king to call himself `` King of England '' . In the Norman period ' remained standard , with occasional use of ' ( `` King of England '' ) . The Empress Matilda styled herself ' ( `` Lady of the English '' ) . From the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of ' or ' . In 1604 James I , who had inherited the English throne the previous year , adopted the title ( now usually rendered in English rather than Latin ) King of Great Britain . The English and Scottish parliaments , however , did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707 . History Anglo-Saxon England The kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy : East Anglia , Mercia , Northumbria , Kent , Essex , Sussex , and Wessex . The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms , and native Anglo-Saxon life in general . The English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 . During the Heptarchy , the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda , a high king over the other kings . The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful . It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825 . The kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century . In 827 , Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore . Thus Egbert briefly became the first king to reign over a united England . In 886 , Alfred the Great retook London , which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that `` all of the English people ( all Angelcyn ) not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred . `` [ http : //www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ] Freely licensed version at Gutenberg Project . Note : This electronic edition is a collation of material from nine diverse extant versions of the Chronicle . It contains primarily the translation of Rev . James Ingram , as published in the Everyman edition . Asser added that `` Alfred , king of the Anglo-Saxons , restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more . '' Alfred 's `` restoration '' entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city , building quays along the Thames , and laying a new city street plan . It is probably at this point that Alfred assumed the new royal style 'King of the Anglo-Saxons . ' During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders , but was definitively brought under English control by Eadred in 954 , completing the unification of England . At about this time , Lothian , the northern part of Northumbria ( Roman Bernicia ) , was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland . On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered at Eamont in Cumbria to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English . This can be considered England 's 'foundation date ' , although the process of unification had taken almost 100 years . England has remained in political unity ever since . During the reign of Æthelred the Unready ( 978–1016 ) , a new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated by Sweyn I of Denmark , culminating after a quarter-century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in 1013 . But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014 , and Æthelred was restored to the throne . In 1015 , Sweyn 's son Cnut the Great launched a new invasion . The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Æthelred 's successor , Edmund Ironside , to divide England between them , but Edmund 's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule . This continued for 26 years until the death of Harthacnut in June 1042 . He was the son of Canute and Emma of Normandy ( the widow of Æthelred the Unready ) and had no heirs of his own ; he was succeeded by his half-brother , Æthelred 's son , Edward the Confessor . The Kingdom of England was once again independent . Norman conquest The peace lasted until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066 . His brother-in-law was crowned King Harold , but his cousin William the Conqueror , Duke of Normandy , immediately claimed the throne for himself . William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on 28 September 1066 . Harold and his army were in York following their victory against the Norwegians at the Battle of Stamford Bridge ( 25 September 1066 ) when the news reached him . He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once , despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians . The armies of Harold and William faced each other at the Battle of Hastings ( 14 October 1066 ) , in which the English army , or Fyrd , was defeated , Harold and his two brothers were slain , and William emerged as victor . William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition . He was not , however , planning to absorb the Kingdom into the Duchy of Normandy . As a mere duke , William owed allegiance to Philip I of France , whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference . He was crowned on 25 December 1066 in Westminster Abbey , London . High Middle Ages In 1092 , William II led an invasion of Strathclyde , a Celtic kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria . In doing so , he annexed what is now the county of Cumbria to England ; this final annexation established what would become the traditional borders of England , which have remained largely unchanged since then ( except for occasional and temporary changes ) . In 1124 , Henry I ceded what is now southeast Scotland ( called Lothian ) to the Kingdom of Scotland , in return for the King of Scotland 's loyalty . This area of land had been English since its foundation in 927 AD , and before that had been a part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria . Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital , Edinburgh . This arrangement was later finalised in 1237 by the Treaty of York . The Duchy of Aquitaine came into personal union with the Kingdom of England upon the accession of Henry II , who had married Eleanor , Duchess of Aquitaine . The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy remained in personal union until John Lackland , Henry II 's son and fifth-generation descendant of William I , lost the continental possessions of the Duchy to Philip II of France in 1204 . A few remnants of Normandy , including the Channel Islands , remained in John 's possession , together with most of the Duchy of Aquitaine . Up until the Norman conquest of England , Wales had remained for the most part independent of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms , although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge the Bretwalda . Soon after the Norman conquest of England , however , some Norman lords began to attack Wales . They conquered and ruled parts of it , acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England but with considerable local independence . Over many years these `` Marcher Lords '' conquered more and more of Wales , against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes , who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England . Edward I defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , and so effectively conquered Wales , in 1282 . He created the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son , the future Edward II , in 1301 . Edward I 's conquest was brutal and the subsequent repression considerable , as the magnificent Welsh castles such as Conwy , Harlech , and Caernarfon attest ; but this event re-united under a single ruler the lands of Roman Britain for the first time since the establishment of the Kingdom of the Jutes in Kent in the 5th century , some 700 years before . Accordingly , this was a highly significant moment in the history of medieval England , as it re-established links with the pre-Saxon past . These links were exploited for political purposes to unite the peoples of the kingdom , including the Anglo-Normans , by popularising Welsh legends . The Welsh language—derived from the British language , with significant Latin influences—continued to be spoken by the majority of the population of Wales for at least another 500 years , and is still a majority language in parts of the country . Late Middle Ages Edward III was the first English king to have a claim to the throne of France . His pursuit of the claim resulted in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337–1453 ) , which pitted five kings of England of the House of Plantagenet against five kings of France of the Capetian House of Valois . Though the English won numerous victories , they were unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French and their strategic use of gunpowder weapons . England was defeated at the Battle of Formigny in 1450 and finally at the Battle of Castillon in 1453 , retaining only a single town in France , Calais . During the Hundred Years ' War an English identity began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman lords and their Anglo-Saxon subjects . This was a consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French , whose kings and other leaders ( notably the charismatic Joan of Arc ) used a developing sense of French identity to help draw people to their cause . The Anglo-Normans became separate from their cousins who held lands mainly in France , who mocked the former for their archaic and bastardised spoken French . English also became the language of the law courts during this period . The kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses ( 1455–1487 ) , a series of civil wars over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster ( whose heraldic symbol was the red rose ) and the House of York ( whose symbol was the white rose ) , each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III . The end of these wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster , married to the eldest daughter of the House of York : Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . They were the founders of the Tudor dynasty , which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603 . Tudor period Wales had retained a separate legal and administrative system , which had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century . The country was divided between the Marcher Lords owing feudal allegiance to the crown and the Principality of Wales . Under the Tudor monarchy , Henry VIII replaced the laws of Wales with those of England ( under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 ) . Wales now was incorporated into the Kingdom of England , and henceforth was represented in the Parliament of England . During the 1530s , Henry VIII overthrew the power of the Roman Catholic Church within the kingdom , replacing the pope as head of the English church and seizing the church 's lands , thereby facilitating the creation of a new Protestant religion . This had the effect of aligning England with Scotland , which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion , whereas the most important continental powers , France and Spain , remained Roman Catholic . In 1541 , during Henry VIII 's reign , the Parliament of Ireland proclaimed him king of Ireland , thereby bringing the Kingdom of Ireland into personal union with the Kingdom of England . Calais , the last remaining continental possession of the Kingdom , was lost in 1558 , during the reign of Philip and Mary I . Their successor , Elizabeth I , consolidated the new Protestant Church of England . She also began to build up the Kingdom 's naval strength , on the foundations Henry VIII had laid down . In 1588 , her new navy was strong enough to defeat the Spanish Armada , which had sought to invade England in order to put a Catholic monarch on the throne in her place . Early Modern history The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603 . James I ascended the throne of England and brought it into personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland . Despite the Union of the Crowns , the kingdoms remained separate and independent states : a state of affairs which lasted for more than a century . Civil War and Interregnum The Stuart kings overestimated the power of the English monarchy , and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688 . In the first instance , Charles I 's introduction of new forms of taxation in defiance of Parliament led to the English Civil War ( 1641–45 ) , in which the king was defeated , and to the abolition of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell during the interregnum of 1649–1660 . Henceforth , the monarch could reign only at the will of Parliament . After the trial and execution of Charles I in January 1649 , the Rump Parliament passed an act declaring England to be a Commonwealth on 19 May 1649 . The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished , and so the House of Commons became a unitary legislative chamber with a new body , the Council of State becoming the executive . However the Army remain the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general was Oliver Cromwell . The Commonwealth fought wars in Ireland and Scotland which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation . In April 1653 Cromwell and the other Grandees of the New Model Army , frustrated with the members of the Rump Parliament who would not pass legislation to dissolve the Rump and to allow a new more representative parliament to be elected , stopped the Rumps session by force of arms and declared the Rump dissolved . After an experiment with a Nominated Assembly ( Barebone 's Parliament ) , the Grandees in the Army , through the Council of State imposed a new constitutional arrangement under a written constitution called the Instrument of Government . Under the Instrument of Government executive power lay with a Lord Protector ( an office be held for life of the incumbent ) and there were to be triennial Parliaments , with each sitting for at least five months . Article 23 of the Instrument of Government stated that Oliver Cromwell was to be the first Lord Protector . The Instrument of Government was replaced by a second constitution ( the Humble Petition and Advice ) under which the Lord Protector could nominate his successor . Cromwell nominated his son Richard who became Lord Protector on the death of Oliver on 3 September 1658 . Restoration and Glorious Revolution Richard proved to ineffectual and unable to maintain his rule . He resigned his title and retired into obscurity . The Rump Parliament was recalled and there was a second period where the executive power lay with the Council of state . But this restoration of Commonwealth rule similar to that before the Protectorate , proved to be unstable , and the exiled claimant , Charles II , was restored to the throne in 1660 . Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , an attempt by James II to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , in which he was deposed by Parliament . The Crown was then offered by Parliament to James II 's Protestant daughter and son-in-law/nephew , William III and Mary II . Union with Scotland In the Scottish case , the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through the Alien Act 1705 . The English were more anxious about the royal succession . The death of William III in 1702 had led to the accession of his sister-in-law Anne to the thrones of England and Scotland , but her only surviving child had died in 1700 , and the English Act of Settlement 1701 had given the succession to the English crown to the Protestant House of Hanover . Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland . By 1704 , the Union of the Crowns was in crisis , with the Scottish Act of Security allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch , which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during a major European war . The English establishment did not wish to risk a Stuart on the Scottish throne , nor the possibility of a Scottish military alliance with another power . A Treaty of Union was agreed on 22 July 1706 , and following the Acts of Union of 1707 , which created the Kingdom of Great Britain , the independence of the kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707 . The Acts of Union created a customs union and monetary union and provided that any `` laws and statutes '' that were `` contrary to or inconsistent with the terms '' of the Acts would `` cease and become void . '' The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain , located in Westminster , London . At this point England ceased to exist as a separate political entity , and since then has had no national government . The laws of England were unaffected , with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that of England and Wales , while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts . This continued after the 1801 union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland , forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom , leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Territorial divisions The counties of England were established for administration by the Normans , in most cases based on earlier shires established by the Anglo-Saxons . They ceased to be used for administration only with the creation of the administrative counties in 1889 . Unlike the partly self-governing boroughs that covered urban areas , the counties of medieval England existed primarily as a means of enforcing central government power , enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through their chosen representatives – originally Sheriffs and later the Lord Lieutenants – and their subordinate Justices of the Peace . Counties were used initially for the administration of justice , collection of taxes and organisation of the military , and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation . Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest , some counties were formed considerably later , up to the 16th century . Because of their differing origins the counties varied considerably in size . The county boundaries were fairly static between the 16th century Laws in Wales acts and the Local Government Act 1888 . [ http : //www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp ? t_id Cen_Guide & c_id19 & show ALL Vision of Britain ] — Census Geographies . Retrieved 19 October 2006 . Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government ; for local defence ; and for justice , through assize courts . The power of the feudal barons to control their landholding was considerably weakened in 1290 by the statute of Quia Emptores . Feudal baronies became perhaps obsolete ( but not extinct ) on the abolition of feudal tenure during the Civil War , as confirmed by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660 passed under the Restoration which took away Knights service and other legal rights . Tenure by knight-service was abolished and discharged and the lands covered by such tenures , including once-feudal baronies , were henceforth held by socage ( i.e . in exchange for monetary rents ) . The English Fitzwalter Case in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had been discontinued for many years and any claims to a peerage on such basis , meaning a right to sit in the House of Lords , were not to be revived , nor any right of succession based on them . The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of Wales by Edward I of England . It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title `` Prince of Wales '' as legally part of the lands of England , and established shire counties on the English model over those areas . The Marcher Lords were progressively tied to the English kings by the grants of lands and lordships in England . The Council of Wales and the Marches , administered from Ludlow Castle , was initially established in 1472 by Edward IV of England to govern the lands held under the Principality of Wales.William Searle Holdsworth , `` A History of English Law , '' Little , Brown , and Company , 1912 , pg . 502 Under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 introduced under Henry VIII , the jurisdiction of the marcher lords was abolished in 1536 . The Acts had the effect of annexing Wales to England and creating a single state and legal jurisdiction , commonly referred to as England and Wales .

sfq_14274--Kingdom_of_England.txt

Who was king of England from 1042 to 1066?

Sinology is the academic study of China primarily through Chinese language , literature , and history , and often refers to Western scholarship . Its origin `` may be traced to the examination which Chinese scholars made of their own civilization . '' The field of sinology was historically seen to be equivalent to the application of philology to China , and until the 20th century was generally seen as meaning `` Chinese philology '' ( language and literature ) . Sinology has broadened in modern times to include Chinese history , epigraphy , and other subjects . Terminology The terms `` sinology '' and `` sinologist '' were coined around 1838 , and use `` sino- '' , derived from Late Latin Sinae from the Greek Sinae , from the Arabic Sin which in turn may derive from Qin , as in the Qin Dynasty . In the context of area studies , the European and the American usages may differ . In Europe , Sinology is usually known as Chinese Studies , whereas in the United States , Sinology is a subfield of Chinese Studies . A China watcher is a person who monitors current events and power struggles in the People 's Republic of China . Eastern sinology In East Asia , the studies of China-related subjects began early . In Japan , sinology was known as . In modern China , the studies of China-related subjects is known as `` National Studies '' ( ) , and sinology is translated as `` Han Studies '' ( ) . Western sinology Beginnings to 17th century The earliest Westerners to study the Chinese language were 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish missionaries seeking to spread Roman Catholicism among the Chinese people , and all of them belonged to either the Dominican Order or the Jesuits ( Society of Jesus ) . A Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a printing press , and between 1593 and 1607 produced four works on Catholic doctrine for the Chinese immigrant community , three in Classical Chinese and one in a mixture of Classical Chinese and vernacular Hokkien . Dominican accomplishments among the Chinese diaspora pale in comparison to the success of the Jesuits in Mainland China , led by the renowned pioneer Matteo Ricci . Ricci arrived in Canton ( modern Guangzhou ) in 1583 and spent the rest of his life in China . Unlike most of his predecessors and contemporaries , Ricci did not view the Chinese as `` idolatrous pagans '' , but viewed them as `` like-minded literati approachable on the level of learning . '' He studied the Chinese Confucian classics , just like educated Chinese scholars , in order to present Catholic doctrine and European learning to the Chinese literati in their own language . 18th century During the Age of Enlightenment , sinologists started to introduce Chinese philosophy , ethics , legal system , and aesthetics into the West . Though often unscientific and incomplete , their works inspired the development of Chinoiserie and a series of debates comparing Chinese and Western cultures . At that time , sinologists often described China as an enlightened kingdom , comparing it to Europe , which had just emerged from the Dark Ages . Among those European literati interested in China was Voltaire , who wrote the play L'orphelin de la Chine inspired by The Orphan of Zhao , Leibniz who penned his famous Novissima Sinica ( News from China ) and Giambattista Vico . In France , the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV . In 1711 , he appointed a young Chinese , Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts . Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont , who published an grammar of Chinese in 1742 . In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation `` De propaganda fide '' from the kingdom of Naples , Matteo Ripa ( 1692–1746 ) , created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent : the `` Chinese Institute '' , the first nucleus of what would become today 's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale , or Naples Eastern University . Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723 . Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians , all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China . 19th century The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible ; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics . Chinese texts , perhaps because they did not have these connections , were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France . In 1814 , a chair of Chinese and Manchu was founded at Collège de France . Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat , who taught himself Chinese , filled the position , becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe . By then the first Russian Sinologist , Nikita Bichurin , had been living in Beijing for ten years . Abel-Rémusat 's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd ( 1797–1843 ) and Wilhelm Schott ( 1807–1889 ) respectively , though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz . Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao . Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years , starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833 . He was notable for his translations not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature , and for his knowledge of Manchu . Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893 . Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language . The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times . While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese , most studied written classical Chinese . These scholars were in what is called the “ commentarial tradition ” through critical annotated translation . This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions . One scholar described this type of sinology as “ philological hairsplitting ” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects . Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries , and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities . Twentieth century and after The Paris-based type of sinology dominated learning about China until the Second World War even outside France . Paul Pelliot , Henri Maspero , and Marcel Granet both published basic studies and trained students . Pelliot ’ s knowledge of the relevant languages , especially those of Central Asia , and control of bibliography in those languages , gave him the power to write on a range of topics and to criticize in damning detail the mistakes of other scholars . Maspero expanded the scope of sinology from Confucianism to include Daoism , Buddhism , and popular religion , as well as art , mythology , and the history of science . The contribution of Granet was to apply the concepts of Emile Durkheim , a pioneer sociologist , to the society of ancient China , especially the family and ritual . The Russian school of sinology was focused mainly on learning classical Chinese texts . For example , the contribution of the Russian sinologist Julian Shchutsky was especially valuable . The best full translation of the I Ching ( Book of Changes ) was made by him in 1937 . Later his translation was translated in English and other European languages . After the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , the study of China developed along diverging lines . The rise of Area studies , the role of China watchers , and the growth of university graduate programs has changed the role of sinology . Funding for Chinese studies may come from a variety of sources ; one prominent source is the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation . The Area studies approach , especially in the United States , challenged the dominance of classical Sinology . Scholars such as John King Fairbank promoted the `` study of China within a discipline , '' an approach which downplayed the role of philological Sinology and focused on issues in history and the social sciences . In 1964 , an exchange in the pages of the Journal of Asian Studies debated the continued relevance of Sinology . The anthropologist G. William Skinner called for the social sciences to make more use of China , but wrote “ In recent years the cry has gone up : Sinology is dead ; long live Chinese studies ! ” and concluded that “ Sinology , a discipline unto itself , is being replaced by Chinese studies , a multidisciplinary endeavor with specific research objectives. ” Joseph Levenson , an historian , went further . He doubted that Sinology was a tool which social scientists would still find useful. , while another historian , Benjamin I. Schwartz , on the other hand , replied that the disciplines were too often treated as ends in themselves . Sinology had its backers . Frederick W. Mote , a specialist in traditional China , replying to Skinner , spoke up for Sinology , which he saw as a field or discipline in itself . Another specialist in traditional China , Denis Twitchett , in reply to the back and forth of this debate , issued what he called `` A Lone Cheer for Sinology . '' He did not accept the assumption that there is `` some implicit hostility between 'Sinology ’ and the disciplines of history and social sciences. ” Sinology , he continued , is used in too a wide range of meanings to be so confined : At one extreme it is used to characterize a rather ridiculous caricature compounded of pedantry and preoccupation with peripheral and precious subjects of little general significance .... At the other extreme , the definition used by Prof. Mote is so broad and all-inclusive as to mean little more than the humanistic studies in the Chinese field . During the Cold War , China Watchers centered in Hong Kong , especially American government officials or journalists . Mutual distrust between the United States and China and the prohibition of travel between the countries meant they did not have access to press briefings or interviews . They therefore adopted techniques from Kremlinology , such as the close parsing of official announcements for hidden meanings , movements of officials reported in newspapers , and analysis of photographs of public appearances . But in the years since the opening of China , China watchers can live in China and take advantage of normal sources of information . Towards the end of the century , many of those studying China professionally called for an end to the split between Sinology and the disciplines . The Australian scholar Geremie Barmé , for instance , suggests a `` New Sinology , '' one which `` emphasizes strong scholastic underpinnings in both the classical and modern Chinese language and studies , at the same time as encouraging an ecumenical attitude in relation to a rich variety of approaches and disciplines , whether they be mainly empirical or more theoretically inflected . '' Sinologists Journals * Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême Orient * [ http : //www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/ Chinese Heritage Quarterly ] , China Heritage Project , Australian National University * Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies * Journal of Asian Studies * Journal Asiatique * Late Imperial China * Monumenta Serica * Sino-Platonic Papers * T'oung Pao * [ http : //www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/issue/thgakho.html/ Toho Gakuho ] * [ http : //wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/toyoshi/index.html/ Toyoshi Kenkyu ]

qb_2377--Sinology.txt

Sinology is the study of the language, history and culture of which country?

Richard Wayne `` Dick '' Van Dyke ( born December 13 , 1925 ) is an American actor , comedian , writer , singer , dancer , and producer whose career in entertainment has spanned almost seven decades . He is the older brother of Jerry Van Dyke and father of Barry Van Dyke . Van Dyke starred in the films Bye Bye Birdie ( 1963 ) , Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang ( 1968 ) and in the TV series The Dick Van Dyke Show and Diagnosis : Murder . Beginning in 2006 , he was introduced to a new generation through his role as Cecil Fredericks in the popular Night at the Museum film series . Recipient of five Emmys , a Tony and a Grammy , Van Dyke was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1995 . He received the Screen Actors Guild 's highest honor , the SAG Life Achievement Award , in 2013 . Van Dyke has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard and has also been recognized as a Disney Legend . Early life Dick Van Dyke was born on December 13 , 1925 , in West Plains , Missouri , to Hazel Victoria ( née McCord ; 1896–1992 ) , a stenographer , and Loren Wayne Van Dyke ( 1900–1976 ) , a salesman . He grew up in Danville , Illinois . He is the older brother of actor Jerry Van Dyke , who is best known for a role on the TV series Coach . Van Dyke has Dutch , Scottish , Irish and English ancestry , with a family line that traces back to Mayflower passenger John Alden . Among his high school classmates in Danville were Donald O'Connor and Bobby Short , both of whom would go on to successful careers as entertainers . One of Van Dyke 's closest friends was a cousin of Gene Hackman , the future Oscar-winning actor , who also lived in Danville in those years . Van Dyke 's mother 's family was very religious , and for a brief period in his youth he considered a career in ministry , although a drama class in high school convinced him that his true calling was as a professional entertainer . In his autobiography he wrote , `` I suppose that I never completely gave up my childhood idea of being a minister . Only the medium and the message changed . I have still endeavored to touch people 's souls , to raise their spirits and put smiles on their faces . '' Even after the launch of his career as an entertainer , he taught Sunday school in the Presbyterian Church , where he was an elder , and he continued to read such theologians as Buber , Tillich , and Bonhoeffer , whom he has said helped explain in practical terms the relevance of religion in everyday life . Van Dyke left high school in 1944 , his senior year , intending to join the United States Army Air Forces for pilot training during World War II . Denied enlistment several times for being underweight , he was eventually accepted for service as a radio announcer before transferring to the Special Services and entertaining troops in the Continental United States . ( He received his high school diploma in 2004 . ) Career Radio and stage During the late 1940s , Van Dyke was a radio DJ in Danville , Illinois . In 1947 , Van Dyke was persuaded by Phil Erickson to form a comedy duo with him called `` Eric and Van—the Merry Mutes . '' The team toured the West Coast nightclub circuit , performing a mime act and lip synching to old 78 records . They brought their act to Atlanta , Georgia , in the early 1950s and performed a local television show featuring original skits and music called `` The Merry Mutes '' . In November 1959 , Van Dyke made his Broadway debut in The Girls Against the Boys . He then played the lead role of Albert Peterson in Bye Bye Birdie , which ran from April 14 , 1960 to Oct 7 , 1961 . In a May 2011 interview with Rachael Ray , Van Dyke noted that when he auditioned for a smaller part in the show he had no dance experience , and that after he sang his audition song he did an impromptu soft-shoe out of sheer nervousness . Gower Champion , the show 's director and choreographer , was watching , and promptly went up on stage to inform Van Dyke he had the lead . An astonished Van Dyke protested that he could not dance , to which Champion replied `` We 'll teach you '' . That musical won four Tony awards including Van Dyke 's Best Featured Actor Tony , in 1961 . In 1980 , Van Dyke appeared as the title role in the first Broadway revival of The Music Man . Television Van Dyke 's start in television was with WDSU-TV New Orleans Channel 6 ( NBC ) , first as a single comedian and later as emcee of a comedy program . Van Dyke 's first network TV appearance was with Dennis James on James ' Chance of a Lifetime in 1954 . He later appeared in two episodes of The Phil Silvers Show during its 1957–58 season . He also appeared early in his career on ABC 's The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom and NBC 's The Polly Bergen Show . During this time a friend from the Army was working as an executive for CBS television and recommended Van Dyke to that network . Out of this came a seven-year contract with the network . During an interview on NPR 's Wait Wait ... Do n't Tell Me ! program , Van Dyke said he was the anchorman for the CBS morning show during this period with Walter Cronkite as his newsman . From 1961 to 1966 , Van Dyke starred in the CBS sitcom The Dick Van Dyke Show , in which he portrayed a comedy writer named Rob Petrie . Originally the show was supposed to have Carl Reiner as the lead but CBS insisted on recasting and Reiner chose Van Dyke to replace him in the role . Complementing Van Dyke was a veteran cast of comic actors including Rose Marie , Morey Amsterdam , Jerry Paris , Ann Morgan Guilbert , Richard Deacon , and Carl Reiner ( as Alan Brady ) , as well as 23-year-old Mary Tyler Moore , who played Rob 's wife Laura Petrie . Van Dyke won three Emmy Awards as Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series , and the series received four Emmy Awards as Outstanding Comedy Series . From 1971 to 1974 , Van Dyke starred in an unrelated sitcom called The New Dick Van Dyke Show in which he portrayed a local television talk show host . Although the series was developed by Carl Reiner and starred Hope Lange as his wife , and he received a Golden Globe nomination for his performance , the show was less successful than its predecessor , and Van Dyke pulled the plug on the show after just three seasons . In 1973 , Van Dyke voiced his animated likeness for the October 27 , 1973 installment of Hanna-Barbera 's The New Scooby-Doo Movies , `` Scooby-Doo Meets Dick Van Dyke , '' the series ' final first-run episode . The following year , he received an Emmy Award nomination for his role as an alcoholic businessman in the television movie The Morning After ( 1974 ) . Van Dyke revealed after its release that he had recently overcome a real-life drinking problem . He admits he was an alcoholic for 25 years . That same year he guest-starred as a murdering photographer on an episode of Columbo , Negative Reaction . Van Dyke returned to comedy in 1976 with the sketch comedy show Van Dyke and Company , which co-starred Andy Kaufman and Super Dave Osborne . Despite being canceled after three months , the show won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy-Variety Series . After a few guest appearances on the long-running comedy-variety series The Carol Burnett Show , Van Dyke became a regular on the show , in the fall of 1977 . However , he only appeared in half of the episodes of the final season . For the next decade he appeared mostly in TV movies . One atypical role was as a murdering judge on the second episode of the TV series Matlock in 1986 starring Andy Griffith . In 1987 , he guest-starred in an episode of Airwolf , with his son Barry Van Dyke , who was the lead star of the show 's fourth and final season on USA Network . In 1989 , he guest-starred on the NBC comedy series The Golden Girls portraying a lover of Beatrice Arthur 's character . This role earned him his first Emmy Award nomination since 1977 . His film work affected his TV career : the reviews he received for his role as D.A . Fletcher in Dick Tracy led him to star as the character Dr. Mark Sloan first in an episode of Jake and the Fatman , then in a series of TV movies on CBS that became the foundation for his popular television drama Diagnosis : Murder . The series ran from 1993 to 2001 with son Barry Van Dyke co-starring in the role of Dr. Sloan 's son Lieutenant Detective Steve Sloan . Also starring on the same show was daytime soap actress Victoria Rowell as Dr. Sloan 's pathologist/medical partner , Dr. Amanda Bentley , and Charlie Schlatter in the role of Dr. Sloan 's student , Dr. Jesse Travis . Van Dyke continued to find television work after the show ended , including a dramatically and critically successful performance of The Gin Game , produced for television in 2003 that reunited him with Mary Tyler Moore . In 2003 , he portrayed a doctor on Scrubs . A 2004 special of The Dick Van Dyke Show titled The Dick Van Dyke Show Revisited was heavily promoted as the first new episode of the classic series to be shown in 38 years . Van Dyke and his surviving cast members recreated their roles ; the program was roundly panned by critics . In 2006 he guest-starred as college professor Dr. Jonathan Maxwell for a series of Murder 101 mystery films on the Hallmark Channel . Film Van Dyke began his film career by playing the role of Albert J. Peterson in the film version of Bye Bye Birdie ( 1963 ) . Despite his unhappiness with the adaptation—its focus differed from the stage version in that the story now centered on a previously supporting character —the film was a success . That same year , Van Dyke was cast in two roles : as the chimney sweep Bert , and as bank chairman Mr. Dawes Senior , in Walt Disney 's Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) . For his scenes as the chairman , he was heavily costumed to look much older , and was credited in that role as `` Nackvid Keyd '' ( at the end of the credits , the letters unscramble into `` Dick Van Dyke '' ) . Van Dyke 's attempt at a cockney accent has been lambasted as one of the worst accents in film history , cited by actors since as an example of how not to sound . In a 2003 poll by Empire magazine of the worst-ever accents in film , he came in second ( Sean Connery in The Untouchables came in first despite Connery winning an Academy Award for that performance ) . According to Van Dyke , his accent coach was Irish , who `` did n't do an accent any better than I did '' , and that no one alerted him how bad it was during the production . Still , Mary Poppins was successful upon release and its enduring appeal has made it one of the most famous films of all time . `` Chim Chim Cher-ee '' , one of the songs that Van Dyke performed in Mary Poppins , won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for the Sherman Brothers , the film 's songwriting duo . Many of the comedy films Van Dyke starred in throughout the 1960s were relatively unsuccessful at the box office , including What a Way to Go ! with Shirley MacLaine , Lt. Robin Crusoe , U.S.N. , Fitzwilly , The Art of Love with James Garner and Elke Sommer , Some Kind of a Nut , Never a Dull Moment with Edward G. Robinson , and Divorce American Style with Debbie Reynolds and Jean Simmons . But he also starred as Caractacus Pott ( with his native accent , at his own insistence , despite the English setting ) in the successful musical version of Ian Fleming 's Chitty Chitty Bang Bang ( 1968 ) , which co-starred Sally Ann Howes and featured the same songwriters ( The Sherman Brothers ) and choreographers ( Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood ) as Mary Poppins . In 1969 , Van Dyke appeared in the comedy-drama The Comic , written and directed by Carl Reiner . Van Dyke portrayed a self-destructive Silent film era comedian who struggles with alcoholism , depression , and his own rampant ego . Reiner wrote the film especially for Van Dyke , who often spoke of his admiration for silent-film era comedians such as Charlie Chaplin and his hero Stan Laurel . On Larry King Live , Van Dyke mentioned he turned down the lead role in The Omen which was played by Gregory Peck . He also mentioned his dream role would have been the scarecrow in The Wizard of Oz . Twenty-one years later in 1990 , Van Dyke , whose usual role had been the amiable hero , took a small but villainous turn as the crooked DA Fletcher in Warren Beatty 's film Dick Tracy . Van Dyke returned to motion pictures in 2006 with Curious George as Mr. Bloomsberry and as villain Cecil Fredericks in the Ben Stiller film Night at the Museum . He reprised the role in a cameo for the sequel , Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian ( 2009 ) , but it was cut from the film . It can be found in the special features on the DVD release . He also played the character again in the third film , Night at the Museum : Secret of the Tomb ( 2014 ) . Other projects Van Dyke received a Grammy Award in 1964 , along with Julie Andrews , for his performance on the soundtrack to Mary Poppins . In 1970 , he published Faith , Hope and Hilarity : A Child 's Eye View of Religion a book of humorous anecdotes based largely on his experiences as a Sunday School teacher . Van Dyke was principal in `` KXIV Inc. '' and owned 1400 AM KXIV in Phoenix ( later KSUN ) from 1965 to 1985 . KXIV was at one time an applicant for an FM station in the same area . As an a cappella enthusiast , he has sung in a group called `` Dick Van Dyke and The Vantastix '' since September 2000 . The quartet has performed several times in Los Angeles as well as on Larry King Live , The First Annual TV Land Awards , and sang the national anthem at three Los Angeles Lakers games including a nationally televised NBA Finals performance on NBC . Van Dyke was made an honorary member of the Barbershop Harmony Society in 1999 . Van Dyke became a computer animation enthusiast after purchasing a Commodore Amiga in 1991 . He is credited with the creation of 3D-rendered effects used on Diagnosis : Murder and The Dick Van Dyke Show Revisited . Van Dyke has displayed his computer-generated imagery work at SIGGRAPH , and continues to work with LightWave 3D . In 2010 , Van Dyke appeared on a children 's album titled Rhythm Train , with Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Chad Smith and singer Leslie Bixler . Van Dyke raps on one of the album 's tracks . Personal life In 1948 , while appearing at the Chapman Park Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard in Los Angeles , he and the former Margerie Willett were married on the radio show Bride and Groom . They had four children : Christian ( Chris ) ( born 1949 ) , Barry ( born 1951 ) , Carrie Beth ( born 1952 ) , and Stacy ( born 1954 ) . They divorced in 1984 after a long separation . Van Dyke lived with longtime companion Michelle Triola for more than 30 years , until her death in 2009 . He incorporated his children and grandchildren into his TV endeavors . Son Barry Van Dyke , grandsons Shane Van Dyke and Carey Van Dyke along with other Van Dyke grandchildren and relatives appeared in various episodes of the long-running series Diagnosis : Murder . Although Stacy Van Dyke was not well known in show business , she did make an appearance in a Christmas episode `` Murder in the Family '' of Diagnosis : Murder ( Season 4 , Episode 12 ) as Carol Sloan Hilton , the estranged daughter of Doctor Mark Sloan . All of Van Dyke 's children are married ; he has seven grandchildren . His son Chris was district attorney for Marion County , Oregon in the 1980s . In 1987 , Van Dyke 's granddaughter Jessica Van Dyke died from Reye 's syndrome , which led him to do a series of television commercials to raise public awareness of the danger of aspirin to children . On February 29 , 2012 , Van Dyke married make-up artist Arlene Silver , 40 . They had met six years earlier at the SAG awards . In January 2013 Van Dyke revealed he has been using Nicorette gum for the past ten years . In April 2013 Van Dyke revealed that for seven years he had been experiencing symptoms of a neurological disorder , in which he felt a pounding in his head whenever he lay down ; but despite his undergoing tests , no diagnosis had been made . He had to cancel scheduled appearances due to fatigue from lack of sleep because of the medical condition . In May 2013 , he tweeted that it seemed his titanium dental implants may be responsible . On August 19 , 2013 , it was reported that the 87-year-old Van Dyke was rescued from his Jaguar by a passerby after the car had caught fire on the US 101 freeway in Calabasas , Los Angeles County . He was not injured in the fire , although the car burned down to its frame . Van Dyke publicly endorsed Bernie Sanders as his choice for the Democratic candidate in the 2016 US presidential election . Van Dyke , a New Deal Democrat , had not actively campaigned for a candidate since Eugene McCarthy in 1968 . Filmography Film * Although he is not seen in the regular release of Night at the Museum : Battle of the Smithsonian , Van Dyke 's work can be seen in the `` Deleted Scenes '' section of the film 's DVD , along with Bill Cobbs and Mickey Rooney . Television Other works Stage * The Girls Against the Boys ( November 2 – November 14 , 1959 ) * Bye Bye Birdie ( April 14 , 1960 – October 7 , 1961 ) ( left the show when it moved to the Shubert Theatre ) * The Music Man ( June 5 – June 22 , 1980 ) ( Revival ) * Chita Rivera : The Dancer 's Life ( guest star from January 24 – January 26 , 2006 ) Albums * Bye Bye Birdie ( original cast album ) ( 1960 ) * Bye Bye Birdie ( soundtrack ) ( 1963 ) * Mary Poppins ( soundtrack ) ( 1964 ) * Songs I Like By Dick Van Dyke ( with Enoch Light & his Orchestra/Ray Charles Singers ) ( 1963 ) * Put on a Happy Face ( with Dick Van Dyke and The Vantastix ) ( 2008 ) * Rhythm Train ( with Leslie Bixler and Chad Smith ) ( 2010 ) Books * * * * ( Van Dyke 's memoir ) * Awards and nominations

qb_9361--Dick_Van_Dyke.txt

At the age of 86, which US actor married 40 year old make up artist Arlene Silver in 2012?

Aldo Romeo Luigi Moro ( ; 23 September 1916 – 9 May 1978 ) was an Italian statesman and politician , and a prominent member of the Christian Democracy party . He served as 38th Prime Minister of Italy , from 1963 to 1968 , and then from 1974 to 1976 . He was one of Italy 's longest-serving post-war Prime Ministers , holding power for a combined total of more than six years . A leader of Christian Democracy ( Democrazia Cristiana , DC ) , Moro was considered an intellectual and a patient mediator , especially in the internal life of his party . He was kidnapped on 16 March 1978 by the Red Brigades and killed after 55 days of captivity . Early career Moro was born in Maglie , in the province of Lecce ( Apulia ) , into a family from Ugento . At age 4 , he moved with his family to Milan , but they soon moved back to Apulia , where he gained a classical high school degree at Archita lyceum in Taranto . Until 1939 , he studied Law at the University of Bari , an institution where he was later to hold the post of ordinary professor ( equivalent to a tenured , full professor in the U.S. academic system ) of philosophy of Law and Colonial Policy ( 1941 ) and of Criminal Law ( 1942 ) . In 1935 , he joined the Catholic university students ' association ( Federazione Universitaria Cattolica Italiana ) of Bari . In 1939 , under approval of Giovanni Battista Montini whom he had befriended , Moro was chosen as president of the association ; he kept the post till 1942 , succeeded by Giulio Andreotti . During his university years , Italy was under the Fascist government , and he took part in students competitions ( Littoriali della cultura e dell'arte ) organised by local fascist students ' organisation ( Gioventù Universitaria Fascista ) . He then founded the periodical La Rassegna , published in 1943–1945 . In 1945 , he married Eleonora Chiavarelli ( 1915–2010 ) , with whom he had four children : Maria Fida ( born 1946 ) , Agnese ( 1952 ) , Anna , and Giovanni ( 1958 ) . Political activities Moro developed his interest in politics between 1943 and 1945 . Initially , he seemed to be very interested in the social-democratic component of the Italian Socialist Party , but then his Catholic faith moved him towards the newly constituted Democrazia Cristiana ( DC ) . In the DC , he took part in the work of the leftist trend , headed by Giuseppe Dossetti . In 1945 he became director of the magazine Studium and president of the Graduated Movement of the Azione Cattolica . In 1946 , he was nominated vice-president of the Democrazia Cristiana and elected member of the Constitutional Assembly , where he took part in the work to redact the Italian Constitution . In 1948 he was elected to the Italian Parliament and nominated vice-minister of Foreign Affairs in the 5th De Gasperi cabinet ( 23 May 1948 – 27 January 1950 ) . In 1953 Moro , was re-elected to the Italian Chamber of Deputies , where he held the position of chairman of the DC parliamentary group . He was chosen as Minister of Grace and Justice in the Antonio Segni 1st cabinet in 1955 . Minister of Education in the following Adone Zoli and Amintore Fanfani-II cabinets , he introduced civic education into the national curriculum . In 1959 , at the 6th party 's congress he gained the post of National Secretary of the DC . In 1963 , he was nominated Prime Minister of Italy for the first time . His government was unevenly supported by the DC , but also by the Italian Socialist Party , along with the minor Italian Republican Party and Italian Democratic Socialist Party . The centre-left coalition , a first for the Italian post-war political panorama , stayed in power until the 1968 general elections . His 3rd cabinet ( 1966–68 ) stayed in power for 833 days , a record for Italy 's so-called `` First Republic '' . In the 1968 DC 's congress , Moro yielded the Secretariat and passed to internal opposition , while serving as Foreign Minister between 1969 and 1974 . From 1974 to 1976 , he re-gained the post of Prime Minister , and concluded the Osimo Treaty with Yugoslavia , defining the official partition of the Free Territory of Trieste . In 1976 he was elected President of the DC National Council . A wide range of social reforms were carried out during Moro 's periods as prime minister . The 1967 Ponte Law ( Legge Ponte ) introduced urgent housing provisions as part of an envisioned reform of the entire sector , such as the introduction of minimum standards for housing and environment . A law promulgated on 14 December 1963 introduced an annual allowance for university students with income below a given level . Another law , promulgated on 10 March 1968 , introduced voluntary public pre-elementary education for children aged three to five years . A law promulgated on 21 July 1965 introduced new pension provisions under the general scheme . The legal minima was raised , all current pensions were revalued , seniority pensions ( pensioni d ’ anzianità ) were introduced ( after 35 years of contributions workers could retire even before attaining pensionable age ) , and within the national social security institution ( Istituto nazionale della previdenza sociale ) , a Social Fund ( Fondo Sociale ) was established , ensuring to all members pensioners a basic uniform pension largely financed by state , known as the social pension ( not related to the later social pension introduced in 1968 ) . A law of 22 July 1966 extended pension insurance to small traders . A law of 22 July 1966 extended health insurance to retired traders , and a law of 29 May 1967 extended compulsory health insurance to retired farmers , tenant farmers , and sharecroppers , and extended health insurance to the unemployed in receipt of unemployment benefits . A law of 18 March 1968 introduced the principle of earnings-related pensions within the general scheme , with the pension formula to equal 1.626 % of average earnings in the last 3 years of work multiplied by the number of contribution years ( maximum pension : 65 % of previous earnings ) up to 40 . A law of 5 November 1968 extended family allowances to the unemployed in receipt of unemployment benefits . A law of 9 June 1975 increased the number of eligible occupational diseases and extended the duration of benefits . A law of 3 June 1975 introduced various benefit improvements for pensioners . The multiplying coefficient was raised to 2 % and applied to average earnings of the best 3 years in the last 10 years of work , and automatic annual adjustment of minimum pensions to increase of the minimum contractual wage in the industrial sector ( with a smaller adjustment made for pensions higher than the minima ) . A law of 27 December 1975 introduced ad hoc upgrading of cash benefits for certain diseases and of all flat-rate allowances . A law of 14 July 1967 extended family allowances to self-employed farmers , sharecroppers , and tenant farmers . On 29 April 1976 , pension linkage to the industrial wage was extended to civil servants . Historic compromise Moro was considered a very tenacious mediator , particularly skilled in coordinating the different internal trends of DC . At the beginning of the 1960s , Moro was one of the most convinced supporters of an alliance between the DC and the Italian Socialist Party , in order to widen the majority and integrate the socialists in the government system . In the 1963 party congress in Naples , he was able to convince the whole party directive of the strategy . The same happened in 1978 , when he supported a `` national solidarity '' government with the backing of the Italian Communist Party . Moro 's main aim was to widen the democratic base of the government : the cabinets should have been able to represent a bigger number of voters and parties . He thought of the DC as the fulcrum of a coalition system , on the principles of consociative democracy . Moro faced big challenges , especially , the necessity to conciliate the Christian and popular mission of the Democrazia Cristiana with the rising laicist and liberal values of the Italian society in the 1960s , and the necessity to integrate new important social groups ( youth , women , workers ) in the democratic system . DC 's mission , in Moro 's vision , was intended to recover the popular class that supported Fascism and ferry them in the democratic system . The contradiction of Moro 's political stance was in trying to reconcile the extreme mobility of social transformations with the continuity of the institutions of representative democracy , and the integration of the masses in the State , without falling into autocracy . Following the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , the Italian Socialist Party had taken a definitive distance from the Italian Communist Party , and Pietro Nenni had collaborated with the DC in the early 1960s . After the rise of the Italian Communist Party of Enrico Berlinguer at the 1976 general elections , when the Communists scored 34,4 % of the votes , Moro conceived the idea of a `` national solidarity '' cabinet , whose parliamentary base should include the Italian Communist Party as well . Moro 's idea was openly criticised , as such an `` Historic Compromise '' would have involved an Italian Communist Party which was still under direct influence from Moscow . Berlinguer openly defused the proposition . In 1976–1977 , Berlinguer 's Italian Communist Party broke with Moscow , and convened with the Spanish and French parties to draw the lines of Eurocommunism . Such a move made an eventual collaboration more acceptable for DC voters , and the two parties began an intense parliamentary debate , in a moment of deep social crises . In 1977 , Moro was personally involved in international disputes . He strongly defended Mariano Rumor during the parliamentary debate on the Lockheed scandal , and some in the press reported that he might have been `` Antelope Cobbler '' , an alleged bribe recipient . The accusation , aimed at politically destroying Moro and avoiding the risk of a `` Historic Compromise '' cabinet , failed when Moro was cleared on March 3 , 1978 , 13 days before his kidnapping . The early-1978 proposition by Moro of a Christian Democracy-Italian Socialist Party cabinet supported also by the Italian Communist Party was strongly opposed by both super-powers . The United States feared that the collaboration of an Italian government with the Communists might have allowed these later to gain information on strategic NATO military plans and installations , and pass them to Soviet agents . Moreover , the participation in government of the Communists in a Western country would have represented a cultural failure for the USA . The Soviets considered potential participation by the Italian Communist Party in a cabinet a form of emancipation from Moscow and rapprochement to the Americans , therefore also opposing it . Kidnapping and death Kidnapping On 16 March 1978 , on Via Fani , a street in Rome , a unit of the militant Communist organisation known as the Red Brigades ( ) blocked the two-car convoy transporting Moro and kidnapped him , murdering his five bodyguards . At the time , all of the founding members of the Red Brigades were in jail ; therefore , the organisation led by Mario Moretti that kidnapped Moro is said to be the `` Second Red Brigades '' . On the day of his kidnapping , Moro was on his way to a session of the Chamber of Deputies , where a discussion was to take place regarding a vote of confidence for a new government led by Giulio Andreotti ( DC ) that would have , for the first time , the support of the Communist Party . It was to be the first implementation of Moro 's strategic political vision as defined by the Compromesso storico ( historic compromise ) . In the following days , trade unions called for a general strike , while security forces made hundreds of raids in Rome , Milan , Turin , and other cities searching for Moro 's location . Held for two months , he was allowed to send letters to his family and politicians . The government refused to negotiate , despite demands by family , friends and Pope Paul VI . In fact , Paul VI `` offered himself in exchange … for Aldo Moro … '' During the investigation of Moro 's kidnapping , General Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa reportedly responded to a member of the security services who suggested torturing a suspected brigatista , `` Italy can survive the loss of Aldo Moro . It would not survive the introduction of torture . '' The Red Brigades initiated a secret trial where Moro was found guilty and sentenced to death . Then they sent demands to the Italian authorities , stating that unless 16 Red Guard prisoners were released , Moro would be killed . The Italian authorities responded with a large-scale manhunt . Negotiations The Red Brigades proposed to exchange Moro 's life for the freedom of several prisoners . There has been speculation that during his detention many knew where he was ( in an apartment in Rome ) . When Moro was abducted , the government immediately took a hard line position : the `` State must not bend '' on 'terrorist demands ' . Some contrasted this with the kidnapping of Ciro Cirillo in 1981 , a minor political figure for whom the government negotiated . However , Cirillo was released for a monetary ransom , rather than the release of the imprisoned extremists . Romano Prodi , Mario Baldassarri , and Alberto Clò , of the faculty of the University of Bologna passed on a tip about a safe-house where the Red Brigades might have been holding Moro on 2 April . Prodi claimed he had been given the tip by the founders of the Christian Democrats , from beyond the grave in a séance and a Ouija board , which gave the names of Viterbo , Bolsena and Gradoli . Captivity letters During this period , Moro wrote several letters to the leaders of the Christian Democrats and to Pope Paul VI , who later personally officiated in Moro 's Funeral Mass . Those letters , at times very critical of Andreotti , were kept secret for more than a decade , and published only in the early 1990s . In his letters , Moro said that the state 's primary objective should be saving lives , and that the government should comply with his kidnappers ' demands . Most of the Christian Democrat leaders argued that the letters did not express Moro 's genuine wishes , claiming they were written under duress , and thus refused all negotiation . This was in stark contrast to the requests of Moro 's family . In his appeal to the terrorists , Pope Paul asked them to release Moro `` without conditions '' . Murder When the Red Brigades decided to murder Moro , they placed him in a car and told him to cover himself with a blanket saying that they were going to transport him to another location . After Moro was covered they shot him ten times . According to the official reconstruction after a series of trials , the killer was Mario Moretti . Moro 's body was left in the trunk of a red Renault 4 on Via Michelangelo Caetani towards the Tiber River near the Roman Ghetto . After the recovery of Moro 's body , the Minister of the Interior Francesco Cossiga resigned . Antonio Negri 's 1979 arrest and release On 7 April 1979 , Marxist philosopher Antonio Negri was arrested along with other leaders of Autonomia Operaia ( Oreste Scalzone , E. Vesce , A. Del Re , L. Ferrari Bravo , Franco Piperno and others ) . Pietro Calogero , an attorney close to the Italian Communist Party , accused the Autonomia group of masterminding left-wing `` terrorism '' in Italy . Negri was charged with a number of offences including leadership of the Red Brigades , being behind Moro 's kidnapping and murder , and plotting to overthrow the government . A year later , he was found innocent of Moro 's assassination . In 2003 , Alexander Stille accused Negri of bearing moral but not legal responsibility for the crimes , citing Negri 's words from one year later : and Alternative points of view about Moro 's death Left wing writers have accused the United States as responsible for Moro 's death . The `` Gladio network '' , directed by NATO , has also been accused . Historian Sergio Flamigni , a member of the Communist Refoundation Party , believes Moretti was used by Gladio in Italy to take over the Red Brigades and pursue a strategy of tension . In Red Brigades member Alberto Franceschini 's book , and finally acquitted by the Supreme Court of Cassation in 2003 . `` Sacrifice Aldo Moro to maintain the stability of Italy '' Steve Pieczenik , a former member of the U.S. State Department sent by President Jimmy Carter as a `` psychological expert '' to integrate the Interior Minister Francesco Cossiga 's `` crisis committee '' , was interviewed by Emmanuel Amara in his 2006 documentary Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro ( `` The Last Days of Aldo Moro '' ) , in which he alleged that : `` We had to sacrifice Aldo Moro to maintain the stability of Italy . `` Emmanuel Amara , Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro ( The Last Days of Aldo Moro ) , [ http : //www.dailymotion.com/video/x4ajky_a-propos-de-la-mort-daldo-moro-12_politics Interview of Steve Pieczenik put on-line ] by Rue 89Hubert Artus , [ http : //www.rue89.com/cabinet-de-lecture/pourquoi-le-pouvoir-italien-a-lache-aldo-moro-execute-en-1978 Pourquoi le pouvoir italien a lâché Aldo Moro , exécuté en 1978 ] ( Why the Italian Power let go of Aldo Moro , executed in 1978 ) , Rue 89 , February 6 , 2008 He alleged that the U.S. had to `` instrumentalize the Red Brigades , '' and that the decision to have him killed was taken during the fourth week of Moro 's detention , when he started revealing state secrets through his letters ( allegedly the existence of Gladio ) . Francesco Cossiga also said the `` crisis committee '' also leaked a false statement , attributed to the Red Brigades , saying that Moro was dead . Possible beatification According to media reports on 26 September 2012 , the Holy See has received a file on beatification for Moro . Beatification is the first step to becoming a saint in the Roman Catholic Church . Nicola Giampaolo serves as the postulator for the cause . In April 2015 , it was reported that controversies around Moro could cause the suspension or closing of the cause . The postulator has stated the cause will continue when the discrepancies are cleared up . The halting of proceedings was due to Antonio Mennini - the priest who heard his last confession - being allowed to provide a statement to a tribunal in regards to Moro 's kidnapping and confession . The cause was able to resume its initial investigations following this . Cinematic adaptations A number of films have portrayed the events of Moro 's kidnapping and murder with varying degrees of fictionalization including the following : * Todo modo ( 1975 ) , directed by Elio Petri , based on a novel by Leonardo Sciascia * Il caso Moro ( 1986 ) , directed by Giuseppe Ferrara and starring Gian Maria Volontè as Moro * Year of the Gun ( 1991 ) , directed by John Frankenheimer * Broken Dreams ( Sogni infranti , 1995 ) , a documentary directed by Marco Bellocchio * Five Moons Plaza ( Piazza Delle Cinque Lune , 2003 ) , directed by Renzo Martinelli and starring Donald Sutherland * Good Morning , Night ( Buongiorno , notte , 2003 ) , directed by Marco Bellocchio , portrays the kidnapping largely from the perspective of one of the kidnappers * Romanzo Criminale ( 2005 ) , directed by Michele Placido , portrays the authorities finding Moro 's body * Les derniers jours d'Aldo Moro ( The Last Days of Aldo Moro , 2006 ) * Il Divo ( 2008 ) : La Straordinaria vita di Giulio Andreotti , directed by Paolo Sorrentino , highlighting the responsibility of Giulio Andreotti * Piazza Fontana : The Italian Conspiracy ( 2012 ) ( Romanzo di una strage ) directed by Marco Tullio Giordana , Aldo Moro portrayed by actor Fabrizio Gifuni

qb_5778--Aldo_Moro.txt

Which former Italian Prime Minister was kidnapped by The Red Brigade in 1978, and killed after 55 days in captivity?

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.039 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann . Composition The three major constituents of air , and therefore of Earth 's atmosphere , are nitrogen , oxygen , and argon . Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25 % of the atmosphere by mass . The concentration of water vapor ( a greenhouse gas ) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5 % by volume in hot , humid air masses , and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air ( without water vapor ) . The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases , among which are the greenhouse gases , principally carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds . Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample , including dust of mineral and organic composition , pollen and spores , sea spray , and volcanic ash . Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols , such as chlorine ( elemental or in compounds ) , fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor . Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution . Structure of the atmosphere Principal layers In general , air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere . However , temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude , and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions ( see the temperature section , below ) . Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings , the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers . In this way , Earth 's atmosphere can be divided ( called atmospheric stratification ) into five main layers . Excluding the exosphere , Earth has four primary layers , which are the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , and thermosphere . From highest to lowest , the five main layers are : * Exosphere : 700 to 10,000 km ( 440 to 6,200 miles ) * Thermosphere : 80 to 700 km ( 50 to 440 miles ) * Mesosphere : 50 to 80 km ( 31 to 50 miles ) * Stratosphere : 12 to 50 km ( 7 to 31 miles ) * Troposphere : 0 to 12 km ( 0 to 7 miles ) Exosphere The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's atmosphere ( i.e . the upper limit of the atmosphere ) . It extends from the exobase , which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level , to about 10,000 km ( 6,200 mi ; 33,000,000 ft ) where it merges into the solar wind . This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen , helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen , oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase . The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another . Thus , the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas , and the particles constantly escape into space . These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind . The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible . However , the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere , where they overlap into the thermosphere . The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth . Thermosphere The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere . It extends from the mesopause ( which separates it from the mesosphere ) at an altitude of about 80 km up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500 - . The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity . Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere , it is also referred to as the exobase . The lower part of the thermosphere , from 80 to above Earth 's surface , contains the ionosphere . The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height . Unlike the stratosphere beneath it , wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone , the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules . The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 C , though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful . The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule ( of oxygen , for example ) travels an average of 1 km between collisions with other molecules . Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy , it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact , because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin . This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor . However non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere . The International Space Station orbits in this layer , between 350 and . Mesosphere The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere , occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere . It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km to the mesopause at 80 - above sea level . Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere . It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around . Just below the mesopause , the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds . These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise . They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon . A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES , occasionally form far above tropospheric thunderclouds . The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance . It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons , and too low to permit orbital spacecraft . The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft . Stratosphere The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere . It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause . This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km above Earth 's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to . The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level . It contains the ozone layer , which is the part of Earth 's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas . The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude . This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation ( UV ) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer , which restricts turbulence and mixing . Although the temperature may be at the tropopause , the top of the stratosphere is much warmer , and may be near 0 °C . The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions , so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere . Consequently , the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather . However , polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest . This is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft . Troposphere The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere . It extends from Earth 's surface to an average height of about 12 km , although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator , with some variation due to weather . The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause , a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion ( i.e . a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one ) , and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height . Although variations do occur , the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface . Thus , the lowest part of the troposphere ( i.e . Earth 's surface ) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere . This promotes vertical mixing ( hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος , tropos , meaning `` turn '' ) . The troposphere contains roughly 80 % of the mass of Earth 's atmosphere . The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed . Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km ( 18,000 ft ) of the troposphere . Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere , so it is the layer where most of Earth 's weather takes place . It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation , although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere . Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere , and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft . Other layers Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature , several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties : * The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere . In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million , which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere . It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15 - , though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically . About 90 % of the ozone in Earth 's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere . * The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation . It is responsible for auroras . During daytime hours , it stretches from 50 to and includes the mesosphere , thermosphere , and parts of the exosphere . However , ionization in the mesosphere largely ceases during the night , so auroras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and lower exosphere . The ionosphere forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere . It has practical importance because it influences , for example , radio propagation on Earth . * The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed . The surface-based homosphere includes the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , and the lowest part of the thermosphere , where the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence . This relatively homogeneous layer ends at the turbopause found at about 100 km , which places it about 20 km above the mesopause . Above this altitude lies the heterosphere , which includes the exosphere and most of the thermosphere . Here , the chemical composition varies with altitude . This is because the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing . This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight , with the heavier ones , such as oxygen and nitrogen , present only near the bottom of the heterosphere . The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen , the lightest element . * The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is closest to Earth 's surface and is directly affected by it , mainly through turbulent diffusion . During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed , whereas at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing . The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 meters on clear , calm nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry regions . The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth 's surface is 14 C or 15 C , depending on the reference . Physical properties Pressure and thickness The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 Pa . This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres ( atm ) . Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480×1018 kg ( 1.135×1019 lb ) , about 2.5 % less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth 's area of 51007.2 megahectares , this portion being displaced by Earth 's mountainous terrain . Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured . Thus air pressure varies with location and weather . If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level , it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of . It actually decreases exponentially with altitude , dropping by half every or by a factor of 1/e every , the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km . However , the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature , molecular composition , solar radiation and gravity into account . In summary , the mass of Earth 's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows : * 50 % is below . * 90 % is below 16 km . * 99.99997 % is below 100 km , the Kármán line . By international convention , this marks the beginning of space where human travelers are considered astronauts . By comparison , the summit of Mt . Everest is at 8848 m ; commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km and 13 km where the thinner air improves fuel economy ; weather balloons reach and above ; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached . Even above the Kármán line , significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur . Meteors begin to glow in this region , though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply . The various layers of Earth 's ionosphere , important to HF radio propagation , begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km . By comparison , the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km , within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months . Depending on solar activity , satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km . Temperature and speed of sound The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above . Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level , but variations in this trend begin above 11 km , where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere . In the stratosphere , starting above about 20 km , the temperature increases with height , due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region . Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes , in the aptly-named thermosphere above 90 km . Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density , the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile ( see illustration to the right ) , and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure . Density and mass The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 ( 1.2 g/L , 0.0012 g/cm3 ) . Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature , pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air ( a form of the ideal gas law ) . Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases . This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula . More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites . The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion ( 5 ) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth . According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research , `` The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 kg , depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used ; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate . The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 kg . '' Optical properties Solar radiation ( or sunlight ) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Earth also emits radiation back into space , but at longer wavelengths that we can not see . Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere . Scattering When light passes through Earth 's atmosphere , photons interact with it through scattering . If the light does not interact with the atmosphere , it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun . Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere . For example , on an overcast day when you can not see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you , it has all been scattered . As another example , due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering , shorter ( blue ) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer ( red ) wavelengths . This is why the sky looks blue ; you are seeing scattered blue light . This is also why sunsets are red . Because the Sun is close to the horizon , the Sun 's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye . Much of the blue light has been scattered out , leaving the red light in a sunset . Absorption Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation . For example , O2 and O3 absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers . Water ( H2O ) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm . When a molecule absorbs a photon , it increases the energy of the molecule . This heats the atmosphere , but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation , as discussed below . The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave `` windows '' of low opacity , allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light . The optical window runs from around 300 nm ( ultraviolet-C ) up into the range humans can see , the visible spectrum ( commonly called light ) , at roughly 400–700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm . There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths . For example , the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven-meter waves . Emission Emission is the opposite of absorption , it is when an object emits radiation . Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their `` black body '' emission curves , therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation , with shorter wavelengths . Colder objects emit less radiation , with longer wavelengths . For example , the Sun is approximately 6000 K , its radiation peaks near 500 nm , and is visible to the human eye . Earth is approximately 290 K , so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm , and is much too long to be visible to humans . Because of its temperature , the atmosphere emits infrared radiation . For example , on clear nights Earth 's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights . This is because clouds ( H2O ) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation . This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations . The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect . Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation , but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum . Common examples of these are and H2O . Refractive index The refractive index of air is close to , but just greater than 1 . Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths . One example is that , under some circumstances , observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth 's surface . The refractive index of air depends on temperature , giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large . An example of such effects is the mirage . Circulation Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air through the troposphere , and the means ( with ocean circulation ) by which heat is distributed around Earth . The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year , but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth 's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles . Evolution of Earth 's atmosphere Earliest atmosphere The first atmosphere would have consisted of gases in the solar nebula , primarily hydrogen . In addition , there would probably have been simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants ( Jupiter and Saturn ) , notably water vapor , methane and ammonia . As the solar nebula dissipated , these gases would have escaped , partly driven off by the solar wind . Second atmosphere Outgassing from volcanism , supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids , produced the next atmosphere , consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases . A major part of carbon-dioxide emissions soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments . Researchers have found water-related sediments dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago . About 3.4 billion years ago , nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable `` second atmosphere '' . An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere , because hints of early life-forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago . How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life , if the early Sun put out 30 % lower solar radiance than today , is a puzzle known as the `` faint young Sun paradox '' . The geological record however shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth - with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago . In the late Archean eon an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to develop , apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria ( see Great Oxygenation Event ) , which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago . The early basic carbon isotopy ( isotope ratio proportions ) very much approximates current conditions , suggesting that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago . Ancient sediments in the Republic of Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth 's dynamic oxygenation evolution . These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion . Third atmosphere ] The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores . Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations . Before this time , any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials , notably iron . Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials . This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere . O2 showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15 % by the end of the Precambrian . The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic eon , during the earliest period of which , the Cambrian , oxygen-requiring metazoan life forms began to appear . The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years , reaching a peak of about 30 % around 280 million years ago , significantly higher than today 's 21 % . Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere : Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , releasing oxygen . Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere , which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere . However , volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide , which plants can convert to oxygen . The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known . Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals . Today 's atmosphere contains 21 % oxygen , which is high enough for this rapid development of animals . The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming . Air pollution Air

tc_2973--Atmosphere_of_Earth.txt

What is the second most common gas in the atmosphere?

The 2001 Wimbledon Championships was a tennis tournament played on the outdoor grass courts at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club in Wimbledon , London , England . It was the 115th edition of the Wimbledon Championships and was held from 25 June to 9 July 2001 . The tournament was part of the 2001 ATP and WTA Tours . The tournament was the first in Wimbledon 's 124-year history in which 32 players in the men 's and women 's draws were seeded , instead of the usual sixteen . This move was made to appease clay court players unhappy with the traditional seeding system , which weighs grass court results over those of other surfaces . Pete Sampras was unsuccessful in his defence of the men 's singles title , losing to then little-known 19-year-old Roger Federer in the fourth round . Goran Ivanišević won the title , defeating 2000 runner-up Patrick Rafter in the final in five sets . Ivanišević had previously been runner-up three times ( 1992 , 1994 and 1998 ) , but had fallen to number 125 in the world by 2001 and had only entered the tournament after being granted a wildcard . Venus Williams was successful in her defence of the women 's singles title , beating 19-year-old Justine Henin in the final in three sets . Henin became the first Belgian player to reach a Wimbledon final . Martina Hingis , the top seed , was beaten by Virginia Ruano Pascual in the first round . Seniors Men 's Singles Goran Ivanišević defeated Pat Rafter , 6–3 , 3–6 , 6–3 , 2–6 , 9–7 . * It was Ivanišević 's 1st title of the year , and his 22nd ( and last ) overall . It was his only career Grand Slam title . * This was Ivanišević 's fourth Wimbledon final and Rafter 's second . Ivanišević became the first wildcard , the first Croatian and the lowest ranked player in history ( world No . 125 ) to claim the Wimbledon title . He was also the first Croatian male tennis player to win the Grand Slam final . Women 's Singles Venus Williams defeated Justine Henin , 6–1 , 3–6 , 6–0 * It was Williams ' 3rd title of the year , and her 18th overall . It was her 3rd career Grand Slam title , and her 2nd at Wimbledon . * Henin became the first Belgian player ( male or female ) to reach the Wimbledon singles final . Men 's Doubles Donald Johnson / Jared Palmer defeated Jiří Novák / David Rikl , 6–4 , 4–6 , 6–3 , 7–6 ( 8–6 ) Women 's Doubles Lisa Raymond / Rennae Stubbs defeated Kim Clijsters / Ai Sugiyama , 6–4 , 6–3 Mixed Doubles Daniela Hantuchová / Leoš Friedl defeated Liezel Huber / Mike Bryan , 4–6 , 6–3 , 6–2 Juniors Boys ' Singles Roman Valent defeated Gilles Müller , 3–6 , 7–5 , 6–3 Girls ' Singles Angelique Widjaja defeated Dinara Safina , 6–4 , 0–6 , 7–5 Boys ' Doubles Frank Dancevic / Giovanni Lapentti defeated Bruno Echagaray / Santiago González , 6–1 , 6–4 Girls ' Doubles Gisela Dulko / Ashley Harkleroad defeated Christina Horiatopoulos / Bethanie Mattek , 6–3 , 6–1

qw_72--2001_Wimbledon_Championships.txt

Who was the 2001 Wimbledon Women's Singles Champion?

The Cooper 's Hill Cheese-Rolling and Wake is an annual event held on the Spring Bank Holiday at Cooper 's Hill , near Gloucester in England . [ http : //www.bbc.co.uk/gloucestershire/content/articles/2005/05/30/cheese_rolling_2005_feature.shtml Cheese Rolling . ] BBC Gloucestershire , 2005 . Retrieved 31 May 2013 . [ http : //www.webcitation.org/6H1Y77KlX Archived here ] . It is traditionally done by and for the people who live in the local village of Brockworth , but now people from all over the world take part . The Guardian called it a `` world-famous event '' , and indeed , in 2013 , a 27-year-old American man and a 39-year-old Japanese man each won one of the four races . The event takes its name from the hill on which it occurs . The event is traditional . Until recent years , it was managed in a quasi-official manner , but since 2010 the event has taken place spontaneously without any management . Format From the top of the hill a 9 lb round of Double Gloucester cheese is rolled , and competitors start racing down the hill after it . The first person over the finish line at the bottom of the hill wins the cheese . In theory , competitors are aiming to catch the cheese ; however , it has around a one-second head start and can reach speeds up to 70 mph ( 112 km/h ) , enough to knock over and injure a spectator . In the 2013 competition , a foam replica replaced the actual cheese for reasons of safety . The winner was given the prize after the competition . `` The Cheese Rollers '' pub in the nearby village of Shurdington , about 3 miles from Cooper 's Hill , takes its name from the event . The nearest pubs to the event are The Cross Hands and The Victoria , both of which are in Brockworth , which competitors frequent for some pre-event Dutch courage or discussion of tactics , and after the event for convalescence . History This ceremony originally took place each Whit Monday before it later transferred to the Spring Bank Holiday . Two possible origins have been proposed for the ceremony . The first is said that it evolved from a requirement for maintaining grazing rights on the common . The second proposal is pagan origins for the custom of rolling objects down the hill . It is thought that bundles of burning brushwood were rolled down the hill to represent the birth of the New Year after winter . Connected with this belief is the traditional scattering of buns , biscuits and sweets at the top of the hill by the Master of Ceremonies . This is said to be a fertility rite to encourage the fruits of harvest . Each year the event becomes more and more popular with contestants coming from all across the world to compete or even simply to watch . In 1993 , fifteen people were injured , four seriously , chasing cheeses down the one in three hill . On 24 March 2010 , the organisers faced backlash that included death threats following an announcement of how the 2011 event would be run . The plans had been made to conduct the event under mounting pressure from the local council who stipulated it should include security , perimeter fencing to allow crowd control and spectator areas that would charge an entrance fee . The event proceeded without management . Richard Jefferies commented : The 2011 event took place without management due to safety concerns over the number of people visiting the event , resulting in the 'Save the Cheese Roll ' campaign . Despite the cancellation and lack of paramedics , around 500 people showed up in 2010 to hold some spontaneous races , with six time champion Chris Anderson winning again . No major injuries were reported . Similar events An annual cheese-rolling event has taken place in Chester since about 2002 to promote the town 's food and drink festival . The rolling takes place on the flat down an obstacle course . No injuries have been reported since 2006 . The cheese The cheese currently used in the event is 7–9 lb . Double Gloucester , a hard cheese traditionally made in a wheel shape . Each is protected for the rolling by a wooden casing round the side and is decorated with ribbons at the start of the race . Formerly , three cheeses were presented by parishioners , and the cheeses were usually rolled by them . A collection is usually made now to purchase them as well as sweets and also to provide prize money . The current supplier is local cheesemaker Diana Smart and her son Rod , who have supplied the cheese since 1988 . In May 2013 , a police inspector warned the 86-year-old cheese maker Diana Smart that she could be held responsible for injuries . Chief Superintendent Nigel Avron of Gloucestershire Police also made these comments : `` If you are an organizer in some way or some capacity you could potentially be held liable for something that took place at that event '' . Injuries Due to the steepness and uneven surface of the street there are usually a number of injuries . A first aid service is provided by the local St John Ambulance ( Gloucester , Cheltenham and Stroud Divisions ) at the bottom of the hill , with a volunteer rescue group on hand to carry down to them any casualties who do not end up at the bottom through gravity . A number of ambulance vehicles attend the event , since there is invariably at least one , and often several injuries requiring hospital treatment . Cooper 's Hill Cheese Rolling has been summarised as `` twenty young men chasing a cheese off a cliff and tumbling 200 yards to the bottom , where they are scraped up by paramedics and packed off to hospital . '' Cheese-rolling in popular culture * Dave Allen brought cheese rolling to a wider audience than just locals , when he visited during his 1970s series , Dave Allen At Large . * Cheese Rolling was prominently featured in the first episode of the ( UK ) channel Five series Rory & Paddy 's Great British Adventure , broadcast on 13 August 2008 , and was described as `` the grandaddy of weird sports '' by the titular Rory McGrath and Paddy McGuinness . * Cheese rolling appeared in the television series ER , Season 14 Episode 8 , `` Coming Home '' , where a motley bunch of cheese rolling enthusiasts ( with accents of dubious accuracy ) have a dispute , allowing Morris to demonstrate the Judgment of Solomon . * The Cheese Rolling festival was briefly mentioned in episode 6x03 of Gilmore Girls `` The Ungraduate '' in which Logan Huntzberger speaks of his time in Gloucestershire with his friends Finn and Collin . Logan shows his bandaged hand where he had injured himself during the cheese rolling festival . * Cheese rolling is an online game on the virtual pet site Neopets and carries the same rules . * The Maccabees video for their song `` Can You Give It '' features the 2009 event and winner . * On 28 July 2009 , the ESPN programme E:60 covered a five-race event at Cooper 's Hill which took place on 4 May 2009 . * In March 2010 , a video game which pays homage to the event titled `` Cooper 's Hill '' was released for the iPhone and iPod Touch . * Cheese rolling footage from SoGlos was used in Off the Air at the end of the series premier episode `` Animals '' . * On May 25 , 2015 , the event was featured on Snapchat 's `` live '' function showing multiple races as well as spectators enjoying themselves . It was featured again on May 30 , 2016 . * The NPR news quiz show Wait Wait ... Do n't Tell Me featured cheese-rolling in a `` Not My Job '' segment with skier Mikaela Shiffrin .

wh_1123--Cooper's_Hill_Cheese-Rolling_and_Wake.txt

what is chased down Cooper's Hill in Gloucestershire in a traditional race every Spring Bank Holiday?

Forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws . Forensic scientists collect , preserve , and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation . While some forensic scientists travel to the scene to collect the evidence themselves , others occupy a laboratory role , performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals . In addition to their laboratory role , forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense . While any field could technically be forensic , certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases . Etymology The word forensic comes from the Latin term forēnsis , meaning `` of or before the forum . '' The history of the term originates from Roman times , during which a criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum . Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story . The case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery . This origin is the source of the two modern usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation . In modern use , the term forensics in the place of forensic science can be considered correct , as the term forensic is effectively a synonym for legal or related to courts . However , the term is now so closely associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science . History Early methods The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices , which aided criminals in escaping punishment . Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony . However , ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in forensic science that were developed centuries later . For instance , Archimedes ( 287–212 BC ) invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape . According to Vitruvius , a votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II , who had supplied the pure gold to be used , and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith . Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown , so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density . Instead he used the law of displacement to prove that the goldsmith had taken some of the gold and substituted silver instead . The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu ( translated as Washing Away of Wrongs ) , written in China by Song Ci ( 宋慈 , 1186–1249 ) in 1248 , during the Song Dynasty . In one of the accounts , the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location . ( He realized it was a sickle by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the wound . ) Flies , attracted by the smell of blood , eventually gathered on a single sickle . In light of this , the murderer confessed . The book also offered advice on how to distinguish between a drowning ( water in the lungs ) and strangulation ( broken neck cartilage ) , along with other evidence from examining corpses on determining if a death was caused by murder , suicide or an accident . Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt , as a precursor to the Polygraph test . In ancient India , some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice and spit it back out . Similarly , in Ancient China , those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths . In ancient middle-eastern cultures , the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly . It is thought that these tests had some validity since a guilty person would produce less saliva and thus have a drier mouth ; the accused would be considered guilty if rice was sticking to their mouths in abundance or if their tongues were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva . Origins of forensic science In 16th-century Europe , medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death . Ambroise Paré , a French army surgeon , systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs . Two Italian surgeons , Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia , laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease . In the late 18th century , writings on these topics began to appear . These included A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health by the French physician Francois Immanuele Fodéré and The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German medical expert Johann Peter Frank . As the rational values of the Enlightenment era increasingly permeated society in the 18th century , criminal investigation became a more evidence-based , rational procedure − the use of torture to force confessions was curtailed , and belief in witchcraft and other powers of the occult largely ceased to influence the court 's decisions . Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of logic and procedure in criminal investigations at the time . In 1784 , in Lancaster , John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol . When the dead body of Culshaw was examined , a pistol wad ( crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle ) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms 's pocket , leading to the conviction . In Warwick in 1816 , a farm labourer was tried and convicted of the murder of a young maidservant . She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent assault . The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth near the pool . There were also scattered grains of wheat and chaff . The breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the pool . Toxicology and ballistics A method for detecting arsenious oxide , simple arsenic , in corpses was devised in 1773 by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele . His work was expanded , in 1806 , by German chemist Valentin Ross , who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim 's stomach . James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics . He was called by the prosecution in a murder trial to give evidence as a chemist in 1832 . The defendant , John Bodle , was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic-laced coffee . Marsh performed the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid . While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide , when it was shown to the jury it had deteriorated , allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt . Annoyed by this , Marsh developed a much better test . He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc , resulting in arsine gas . The gas was ignited , and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic , which , when passed to a cold surface , would appear as a silvery-black deposit . So sensitive was the test , known formally as the Marsh test , that it could detect as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic . He first described this test in The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1836 . Henry Goddard at Scotland Yard pioneered the use of bullet comparison in 1835 . He noticed a flaw in the bullet that killed the victim and was able to trace this back to the mold that was used in the manufacturing process . Anthropometry The French police officer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to apply the anthropological technique of anthropometry to law enforcement , thereby creating an identification system based on physical measurements . Before that time , criminals could only be identified by name or photograph . Dissatisfied with the ad hoc methods used to identify captured criminals in France in the 1870s , he began his work on developing a reliable system of anthropometrics for human classification . Bertillon created many other forensics techniques , including forensic document examination , the use of galvanoplastic compounds to preserve footprints , ballistics , and the dynamometer , used to determine the degree of force used in breaking and entering . Although his central methods were soon to be supplanted by fingerprinting , `` his other contributions like the mug shot and the systematization of crime-scene photography remain in place to this day . '' Fingerprints Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects . While working for the Indian Civil Service , he began to use thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858 . In 1877 at Hooghly ( near Calcutta ) , Herschel instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds , and he registered government pensioners ' fingerprints to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a pensioner 's death . In 1880 , Dr. Henry Faulds , a Scottish surgeon in a Tokyo hospital , published his first paper on the subject in the scientific journal Nature , discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink . He established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial . Returning to the UK in 1886 , he offered the concept to the Metropolitan Police in London , but it was dismissed at that time . See also this on-line article on Henry Faulds : Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin with a description of his method , but , too old and ill to work on it , Darwin gave the information to his cousin , Francis Galton , who was interested in anthropology . Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years , Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book Finger Prints . He had calculated that the chance of a `` false positive '' ( two different individuals having the same fingerprints ) was about 1 in 64 billion . Juan Vucetich , an Argentine chief police officer , created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individuals on file . In 1892 , after studying Galton 's pattern types , Vucetich set up the world 's first fingerprint bureau . In that same year , Francisca Rojas of Necochea was found in a house with neck injuries whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut . Rojas accused a neighbour , but despite brutal interrogation , this neighbour would not confess to the crimes . Inspector Alvarez , a colleague of Vucetich , went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door . When it was compared with Rojas ' prints , it was found to be identical with her right thumb . She then confessed to the murder of her sons . A Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta ( Kolkata ) , India , in 1897 , after the Council of the Governor General approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for the classification of criminal records . Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau , before it became the Fingerprint Bureau , were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose . Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor , Sir Edward Richard Henry . The Henry Classification System , co-devised by Haque and Bose , was accepted in England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in Scotland Yard , the Metropolitan Police headquarters , London , in 1901 . Sir Edward Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy . In the United States , Dr. Henry P. DeForrest used fingerprinting in the New York Civil Service in 1902 , and by December 1905 , New York City Police Department Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot , an expert in the Bertillon system and a fingerprint advocate at Police Headquarters , introduced the fingerprinting of criminals to the United States . Uhlenhuth test The Uhlenhuth test , or the antigen–antibody precipitin test for species , was invented by Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood , based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins . The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science . The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the 1960s . DNA DNA fingerprinting was first used in 1984 . It was discovered by Sir Alec Jefferys who realized that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another . The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jefferys in a double murder mystery in a small England town called Narborough , Leicestershire in 1983 . A 15-year-old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital . The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample . In 1986 , Dawn Ashworth , 15 years old , was also raped and strangled in a nearby village of Enderby . Forensic evidence showed that both killers had the same blood type . Richard Buckland became the suspect because he worked at Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital , had been spotted near Dawn Ashworth 's murder scene and knew unreleased details about the body . He later confessed to Dawn 's murder but not Lynda 's . Sir Alec Jefferys was brought into case to analyze the semen samples . He concluded that there was no match between the samples and Buckland , who became the first person to be exonerated using DNA . Jefferys confirmed that the DNA profiles were identical for the two murder semen samples . To find the perpetrator , DNA from entire male population , more than 4,000 aged from 17 to 34 , in town was collected . They all were compared to semen samples from the crime . A friend of Colin Pitchfork was heard saying that he had given his sample to the police claiming to be Colin . Colin Pitchfork was arrested in 1987 and it was found that his DNA profile matched the semen samples from the murder . Because of this case , DNA databases came into being . There is the national ( FBI ) and international databases as well as the European countries ( ENFSI ) . These searchable databases are used to match crime scene DNA profiles to those already in database . Maturation By the turn of the 20th century , the science of forensics had become largely established in the sphere of criminal investigation . Scientific and surgical investigation was widely employed by the Metropolitan Police during their pursuit of the mysterious Jack the Ripper , who had killed a number of prostitutes in the 1880s . This case is a watershed in the application of forensic science . Large teams of policemen conducted house-to-house inquiries throughout Whitechapel . Forensic material was collected and examined . Suspects were identified , traced and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry . Police work follows the same pattern today.Canter , David ( 1994 ) , Criminal Shadows : Inside the Mind of the Serial Killer , London : HarperCollins , pp . 12–13 , ISBN 0-00-255215-9 Over 2000 people were interviewed , `` upwards of 300 '' people were investigated , and 80 people were detained . The investigation was initially conducted by the Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) , headed by Detective Inspector Edmund Reid . Later , Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline , Henry Moore , and Walter Andrews were sent from Central Office at Scotland Yard to assist . Initially , butchers , surgeons and physicians were suspected because of the manner of the mutilations . The alibis of local butchers and slaughterers were investigated , with the result that they were eliminated from the inquiry . Some contemporary figures thought the pattern of the murders indicated that the culprit was a butcher or cattle drover on one of the cattle boats that plied between London and mainland Europe . Whitechapel was close to the London Docks , and usually such boats docked on Thursday or Friday and departed on Saturday or Sunday . The cattle boats were examined , but the dates of the murders did not coincide with a single boat 's movements , and the transfer of a crewman between boats was also ruled out . At the end of October , Robert Anderson asked police surgeon Thomas Bond to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer 's surgical skill and knowledge . The opinion offered by Bond on the character of the `` Whitechapel murderer '' is the earliest surviving offender profile.Canter , pp . 5–6 Bond 's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders.Letter from Thomas Bond to Robert Anderson , 1888 , HO 144/221/A49301C , quoted in Evans and Skinner , The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook , pp . 360–362 and Rumbelow , pp . 145–147 In his opinion the killer must have been a man of solitary habits , subject to `` periodical attacks of homicidal and erotic mania '' , with the character of the mutilations possibly indicating `` satyriasis '' . Bond also stated that `` the homicidal impulse may have developed from a revengeful or brooding condition of the mind , or that religious mania may have been the original disease but I do not think either hypothesis is likely '' . Handbook for Coroners , police officials , military policemen was written by the Austrian criminal jurist Hans Gross in 1893 , and is generally acknowledged as the birth of the field of criminalistics . The work combined in one system fields of knowledge that had not been previously integrated , such as psychology and physical science , and which could be successfully used against crime . Gross adapted some fields to the needs of criminal investigation , such as crime scene photography . He went on to found the Institute of Criminalistics in 1912 , as part of the University of Graz ' Law School . This Institute was followed by many similar institutes all over the world . In 1909 , Archibald Reiss founded the Institut de police scientifique of the University of Lausanne ( UNIL ) , the first school of forensic science in the world . Dr. Edmond Locard , became known as the `` Sherlock Holmes of France '' . He formulated the basic principle of forensic science : `` Every contact leaves a trace '' , which became known as Locard 's exchange principle . In 1910 , he founded what may have been the first criminal laboratory in the world , after persuading the Police Department of Lyon ( France ) to give him two attic rooms and two assistants . Symbolic of the new found prestige of forensics and the use of reasoning in detective work was the popularity of the fictional character Sherlock Holmes , written by Arthur Conan Doyle in the late 19th century . He remains a great inspiration for forensic science , especially for the way his acute study of a crime scene yielded small clues as to the precise sequence of events . He made great use of trace evidence such as shoe and tire impressions , as well as fingerprints , ballistics and handwriting analysis , now known as questioned document examination . Such evidence is used to test theories conceived by the police , for example , or by the investigator himself . All of the techniques advocated by Holmes later became reality , but were generally in their infancy at the time Conan Doyle was writing . In many of his reported cases , Holmes frequently complains of the way the crime scene has been contaminated by others , especially by the police , emphasising the critical importance of maintaining its integrity , a now well-known feature of crime scene examination . He used analytical chemistry for blood residue analysis as well as toxicology examination and determination for poisons . He used ballistics by measuring bullet calibres and matching them with a suspected murder weapon . Late 19th–early 20th centuries figures Hans Gross applied scientific methods to crime scenes and was responsible for the birth of criminalistics . Edmond Locard expanded on Gross ' work with Locard 's Exchange Principle which stated `` whenever two objects come into contact with one another , materials are exchanged between them '' . This means that every contact by a criminal leaves a trace . Locard was also known as the `` Sherlock Holmes of France '' . Alexander Lacassagne , who taught Locard , produced autopsy standards on actual forensic cases . Alphonse Bertillon was a French criminologist and founder of Anthropometry ( scientific study of measurements and proportions of the human body ) . He used anthropometry for identification , saying each individual is unique and by measuring aspect of physical difference , there could be a personal identification system . He created the Bertillon System around 1879 , which was a way to identify criminals and citizens by measuring 20 parts of the body . In 1884 , there was over 240 repeat offenders caught through the Bertillon system . Fingerprinting became more reliable than the Bertillon system . 20th century Later in the 20th century several British pathologists , Mikey Rochman , Francis Camps , Sydney Smith and Keith Simpson pioneered new forensic science methods . Alec Jeffreys pioneered the use of DNA profiling in forensic science in 1984 . He realized the scope of DNA fingerprinting , which uses variations in the genetic code to identify individuals . The method has since become important in forensic science to assist police detective work , and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes . DNA fingerprinting was first used as a police forensic test to identify the rapist and killer of two teenagers , Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth , who were both murdered in Narborough , Leicestershire , in 1983 and 1986 respectively . Colin Pitchfork was identified and convicted of murder after samples taken from him matched semen samples taken from the two dead girls . Forensic science has been fostered by a number of national forensic science learned bodies including the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences , ( founded in 1959 ) , then known as the Forensic Science Society , publisher of Science & Justice ; . American Academy of Forensic Sciences ( founded 1948 ) , publishers of the Journal of Forensic Sciences ; the Canadian Society of Forensic Science ( founded 1953 ) , publishers of the Journal of the Canadian Society of Forensic Science ; the British Academy of Forensic Sciences ( founded 1960 ) , publishers of Medicine , science and the law , and the Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences ( founded 1967 ) , publishers of the Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences . Subdivisions * [ http : //www.iicfip.org/about-us/faqs/224-faq Forensic Investigation ] also known as forensic audit is the examination of documents and the interviewing of people to extract evidence . Forensic investigation is fast emerging as a lucrative professional practice field . With increased sophistication of white collar criminals , there is demand for well trained experts to carry out investigations and also institute preventive , deterrence and detective measures . * Art forensics concerns the art authentication cases to help research the work 's authenticity . Art authentication methods are used to detect and identify forgery , faking and copying of art works , e.g . paintings . * Computational forensics concerns the development of algorithms and software to assist forensic examination . * Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence , trace evidence , impression evidence ( such as fingerprints , footwear impressions , and tire tracks ) , controlled substances , ballistics , firearm and toolmark examination , and other evidence in criminal investigations . In typical circumstances evidence is processed in a crime lab . * Digital forensics is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order to recover data from electronic / digital media . Digital Forensic specialists work in the field as well as in the lab . * Ear print analysis is used as a means of forensic identification intended as an identification tool similar to fingerprinting . An earprint is a two-dimensional reproduction of the parts of the outer ear that have touched a specific surface ( most commonly the helix , antihelix , tragus and antitragus ) . * Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence . * Forensic aerial photography is the study and interpretation of aerial photographic evidence . * Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting , usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains . * Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science , typically in law enforcement . * Forensic astronomy uses methods from astronomy to determine past celestial constellations for forensic purposes . * Forensic botany is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes . * Forensic chemistry is the study of detection and identification of illicit drugs , accelerants used in arson cases , explosive and gunshot residue . * Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints . * Forensic document examination or questioned document examination answers questions about a disputed document using a variety of scientific processes and methods . Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document , or components of the document , with a set of known standards . The most common type of examination involves handwriting , whereby the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship . * Forensic DNA analysis takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual 's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity testing and placing a suspect at a crime scene , e.g . in a rape investigation . * Forensic engineering is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage . * Forensic entomology deals with the examination of insects in , on and around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death . It is also possible to determine if the body was moved after death using entomology . * Forensic geology deals with trace evidence in the form of soils , minerals and petroleum . * Forensic geomorphology is the study of the ground surface to look for potential location ( s ) of buried object ( s ) . * Forensic geophysics is the application of geophysical techniques such as radar for detecting objects hidden underground or underwater . * Forensic intelligence process starts with the collection of data and ends with the integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under investigation . * Forensic Interviews are conducted using the science of professionally using expertise to conduct a variety of investigative interviews with victims , witnesses , suspects or other sources to determine the facts regarding suspicions , allegations or specific incidents in either public or private sector settings . * Forensic limnology is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around fresh-water sources . Examination of biological organisms , in particular diatoms

qg_2066--Forensic_science.txt

Luminol, a chemical that exhibits chemiluminescence, is often used by forensic examiners to try and detect trace amounts of what?

Desmond Mpilo Tutu , CH ( born 7 October 1931 ) is a South African social rights activist and retired Anglican bishop who rose to worldwide fame during the 1980s as an opponent of apartheid . He was the first black Archbishop of Cape Town and bishop of the Church of the Province of Southern Africa ( now the Anglican Church of Southern Africa ) . Tutu 's admirers see him as a great man who , since the demise of apartheid , has been active in the defence of human rights and uses his high profile to campaign for the oppressed . He has campaigned to fight HIV/AIDS , tuberculosis , poverty , racism , sexism , homophobia and transphobia . He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984 ; the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism in 1986 ; the Pacem in Terris Award in 1987 ; the Sydney Peace Prize in 1999 ; the Gandhi Peace Prize in 2007 ; and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009 . He has also compiled several books of his speeches and sayings . Early life Desmond Mpilo Tutu was born in Klerksdorp , Transvaal , the second of four children of Zacheriah Zililo Tutu and his wife , Aletta Tutu , and the only son . Tutu 's family moved to Johannesburg when he was twelve . His father was a teacher and his mother was a cleaner and cook at a school for the blind . Here he met Trevor Huddleston , who was a parish priest in the black slum of Sophiatown . `` One day , '' said Tutu , `` I was standing in the street with my mother when a white man in a priest 's clothing walked past . As he passed us he took off his hat to my mother . I could n't believe my eyes—a white man who greeted a black working class woman ! '' Although Tutu wanted to become a doctor , his family could not afford the training , and he followed his father 's footsteps into teaching . Tutu studied at the Pretoria Bantu Normal College from 1951 to 1953 , and went on to teach at Johannesburg Bantu High School and at Munsienville High School in Mogale City . However , he resigned following the passage of the Bantu Education Act , in protest of the poor educational prospects for black South Africans . He continued his studies , this time in theology , at St Peter 's Theological College in Rosettenville , Johannesburg , and in December 1961 was ordained as an Anglican priest following in the footsteps of his mentor and fellow activist , Trevor Huddleston . Tutu then travelled to King 's College London , ( 1962–1966 ) , where he received his bachelor 's and master 's degrees in theology . During this time he worked as a part-time curate , first at St Alban 's Church , Golders Green , and then at St Mary 's Church in Bletchingley , Surrey . He later returned to South Africa and became chaplain at the University of Fort Hare in 1967 . From 1970 to 1972 , Tutu lectured at the National University of Lesotho . In 1972 , Tutu returned to the UK , where he was appointed vice-director of the Theological Education Fund of the World Council of Churches , at Bromley in Kent . He returned to South Africa in 1975 and was appointed Dean of St Mary 's Cathedral in Johannesburg . Personal life On 2 July 1955 , Tutu married Nomalizo Leah Shenxane , a teacher whom he had met while at college . They had four children : Trevor Thamsanqa Tutu , Theresa Thandeka Tutu , Naomi Nontombi Tutu and Mpho Andrea Tutu , all of whom attended the Waterford Kamhlaba School in Swaziland . In 1975 he moved into what is now known as Tutu House on Soweto 's well known Vilakazi Street which is also the location of the late Nelson Mandela 's previous house . He and his family were still living there in 2005 . It is said to be one of the few streets in the world where two Nobel Prize winners have lived . His son , Trevor Tutu , was arrested in 1989 at East London Airport for falsely claiming there had been a bomb on board a South African Airways ' plane . He was convicted in 1991 of contravening the Civil Aviation Act . The bomb threat delayed the Johannesburg-bound flight for more than three hours , costing South African Airways some R28000 . At the time , Trevor Tutu announced his intention to appeal against his sentence , but failed to arrive for the appeal hearings . He forfeited his bail of R15000 . He was due to begin serving his sentence in 1993 , but failed to hand himself over to prison authorities . He was finally arrested in Johannesburg in August 1997 . He applied for amnesty from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission which was granted in 1997 ; a move that was harshly criticised by some as preferential treatment by a commission that was co-founded and chaired by his father . He was then released from Goodwood Prison in Cape Town where he had begun serving his three-and-a-half-year prison sentence after a court in East London refused to grant him bail . Naomi Tutu founded the Tutu Foundation for Development and Relief in Southern Africa , based in Hartford , Connecticut . She attended the Patterson School of Diplomacy and International Commerce at the University of Kentucky and has followed in her father 's footsteps as a human rights activist . She is currently a graduate student at Vanderbilt University Divinity School , in Nashville , Tennessee . Desmond Tutu 's other daughter , Mpho Tutu , has also followed in her father 's footsteps and in 2004 was ordained an Episcopal priest by her father . She is also the founder and executive director of the Tutu Institute for Prayer and Pilgrimage and the chairperson of the board of the Global AIDS Alliance . In 1997 , Tutu was diagnosed with prostate cancer and underwent successful treatment in the US . He subsequently became patron of the South African Prostate Cancer Foundation , which was established in 2007 . Beginning on his 79th birthday , Tutu entered a phased retirement from public life , starting with only one day per week in his office through February 2011 . On 23 May 2011 in Shrewsbury , Massachusetts , Tutu gave what was said to be his last major public speech outside of South Africa . Tutu honoured his commitments through May 2011 and added no more commitments . However , Tutu subsequently came out of retirement to give a commencement speech at Gonzaga University in Spokane , Washington , on 13 May 2012 , and gave an address at Butler University 's Desmond Tutu Center in Indianapolis , Indiana on 12 September of that year . Role during apartheid In 1976 , the protests in Soweto , also known as the Soweto Riots , against the government 's use of Afrikaans as the compulsory language of instruction in black schools became an uprising against apartheid . From then on Tutu supported an economic boycott of his country . He vigorously opposed the `` constructive engagement '' policy of the Reagan administration in the United States , which advocated `` friendly persuasion '' . Tutu rather supported disinvestment , although it hit the poor hardest , for if disinvestment threw blacks out of work , Tutu argued , at least they would be suffering `` with a purpose '' . Tutu pressed the advantage and organised peaceful marches which brought 30,000 people onto the streets of Cape Town . Tutu was Bishop of Lesotho from 1976 until 1978 , when he became Secretary-General of the South African Council of Churches . From this position , he was able to continue his work against apartheid with agreement from nearly all churches . Through his writings and lectures at home and abroad , Tutu consistently advocated reconciliation between all parties involved in apartheid . Tutu 's opposition to apartheid was vigorous and unequivocal , and he was outspoken both in South Africa and abroad . He often compared apartheid to Nazism ; as a result the government twice revoked his passport , and he was jailed briefly in 1980 after a protest march . It was thought by many that Tutu 's increasing international reputation and his rigorous advocacy of non-violence protected him from harsher penalties . Tutu was also harsh in his criticism of the violent tactics of some anti-apartheid groups such as the African National Congress and denounced terrorism and Communism . When a new constitution was proposed for South Africa in 1983 to defend against the anti-apartheid movement , Tutu helped form the National Forum Committee to fight the constitutional changes . In 1990 , Tutu and the ex-Vice-Chancellor of the University of the Western Cape Professor Jakes Gerwel founded the Desmond Tutu Educational Trust . The Trust – established to fund developmental programmes in tertiary education – provides capacity building at 17 historically disadvantaged institutions . Tutu 's work as a mediator to prevent all-out racial war was evident at the funeral of South African Communist Party leader Chris Hani in 1993 . Tutu spurred a crowd of 120,000 to repeat after him the chants , over and over : `` We will be free ! `` , `` All of us ! `` , `` Black and white together ! '' In 1993 , Tutu was a patron of the Cape Town Olympic Bid Committee . In 1994 , he was an appointed a patron of the World Campaign Against Military and Nuclear Collaboration with South Africa , Beacon Millennium and Action from Ireland . In 1995 , he was appointed a Chaplain and Sub-Prelate of the Venerable Order of Saint John by Queen Elizabeth II , and he became a patron of the American Harmony Child Foundation and the Hospice Palliative Care Association ( HPCA ) of South Africa . Role since apartheid After the fall of apartheid , Tutu headed the Truth and Reconciliation Commission . He retired as Archbishop of Cape Town in 1996 and was made emeritus Archbishop of Cape Town , an honorary title that is unusual in the Anglican church . He was succeeded by Njongonkulu Ndungane . At a thanksgiving for Tutu upon his retirement as Archbishop in 1996 , Nelson Mandela said that Tutu made an `` immeasurable contribution to our nation '' . Tutu is generally credited with coining the term Rainbow Nation as a metaphor for post-apartheid South Africa after 1994 under African National Congress rule . The expression has since entered mainstream consciousness to describe South Africa 's ethnic diversity . Since his retirement , Tutu has worked as a global activist on issues pertaining to democracy , freedom and human rights . He is the patron of the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation , the successor organisation of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission . In this role he presents the annual South African Reconciliation Award . In 2006 , Tutu launched a global campaign , organised by Plan , to ensure that all children are registered at birth , as an unregistered child did not officially exist and was vulnerable to traffickers and during disasters . Tutu is the Patron of the educational improvement charity Link Community Development . Tutu is also a member of the PeaceJam Foundation . Tutu had announced he would retire from public life when he turned 79 in October 2010 . `` Instead of growing old gracefully , at home with my family – reading and writing and praying and thinking – too much of my time has been spent at airports and in hotels , '' the Nobel laureate said in a statement . Role in South Africa Tutu is widely regarded as `` South Africa 's moral conscience '' and was described by former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela as `` sometimes strident , often tender , never afraid and seldom without humour , Desmond Tutu 's voice will always be the voice of the voiceless '' . Since his retirement , Tutu has worked to critique the new South African government . Tutu has been vocal in condemnation of corruption , the ineffectiveness of the ANC-led government to deal with poverty , and the recent outbreaks of xenophobic violence in some townships in South Africa . After a decade of freedom for South Africa , Tutu was honoured with the invitation to deliver the annual Nelson Mandela Foundation Lecture . On 23 November 2004 , Tutu gave an address entitled `` Look to the Rock from Which You Were Hewn '' . This lecture , critical of the ANC-controlled government , stirred a pot of controversy between Tutu and Thabo Mbeki , calling into question `` the right to criticise '' . On 10 May 2013 , Tutu said he would no longer be able to vote for the African National Congress , citing inequality , violence , and corruption . `` The ANC was very good at leading us in the struggle to be free from oppression , '' Archbishop Tutu wrote , `` But it does n't seem to me now that a freedom-fighting unit can easily make the transition to becoming a political party . '' He sharply criticised the decision of the South African government to delay the issuance of a visa to the Dalai Lama , accusing the government of `` kowtowing to China '' . Tutu stated that Nelson Mandela would be dismayed that Afrikaners got excluded from memorial services to commemorate Mandela 's death . The spokesman for Tutu said the cleric changed his plans and would attend the funeral of Mandela , after not originally being officially invited . Continued economic stratification and political corruption Tutu made a stinging attack on South Africa 's political elite , saying the country was `` sitting on a powder keg '' because of its failure to alleviate poverty a decade after apartheid 's end . Tutu also said that attempts to boost black economic ownership were benefiting only an elite minority , while political `` kowtowing '' within the ruling ANC was hampering democracy . Tutu asked , `` What is black empowerment when it seems to benefit not the vast majority but an elite that tends to be recycled ? '' Tutu criticised politicians for debating whether to give the poor an income grant of $ 16 ( £12 ) a month and said the idea should be seriously considered . Tutu has often spoken in support of the Basic Income Grant ( BIG ) which has so far been defeated in parliament . After the first round of volleys were fired , South African Press Association journalist , Ben Maclennan reported Tutu 's response as : `` Thank you Mr President for telling me what you think of me , that I am—a liar with scant regard for the truth , and a charlatan posing with his concern for the poor , the hungry , the oppressed and the voiceless . '' Tutu warned of corruption shortly after the re-election of the African National Congress government of South Africa , saying that they `` stopped the gravy train just long enough to get on themselves . '' In August 2006 Tutu publicly urged Jacob Zuma , the South African politician ( now President ) who had been accused of sexual crimes and corruption , to drop out of the ANC 's presidential succession race . He said in a public lecture that he would not be able to hold his `` head high '' if Zuma became leader after being accused both of rape and corruption . In September 2006 , Tutu repeated his opposition to Zuma 's candidacy as ANC leader due to Zuma 's `` moral failings . '' In November 2013 he warned that politicians and activists were stoking anger which resulted in a spate of sometimes violent protests , that he identified as an assault on South Africa 's democracy . Complications accompanying initiation rituals Initiation rituals amongst the Xhosa people have led to the death of over 825 boys since 1995 , many others suffered complications including penile amputation . Following the death of 43 boys during December 2013 , Tutu urged traditional leadership and government to intervene , and “ to draw on the skills of qualified medical practitioners to enhance our traditional circumcision practices. ” He furthermore emphasized the cultural importance of the ritual as educational institution , preparing initiates “ to contribute to building a better society for all . ” Criticism of Tutu The head of the Congress of South African Students condemned Tutu as a `` loose cannon '' and a `` scandalous man '' – a reaction which prompted an angry Mbeki to side with Tutu . Zuma 's personal advisor responded by accusing Tutu of having double standards and `` selective amnesia '' ( as well as being old ) . Elias Khumalo claims that Tutu `` had found it so easy to accept the apology from the apartheid government that committed unspeakable atrocities against millions of South Africans '' , yet now `` can not find it in his heart to accept the apology from this humble man who has erred '' . Chair of The Elders On 18 July 2007 , in Johannesburg , Nelson Mandela , Graça Machel , and Tutu convened The Elders , a group of world leaders to contribute their wisdom , kindness , leadership and integrity to tackle some of the world 's toughest problems . Mandela announced its formation in a speech on his 89th birthday . `` This group can speak freely and boldly , working both publicly and behind the scenes on whatever actions need to be taken , '' Mandela commented . `` Together we will work to support courage where there is fear , foster agreement where there is conflict , and inspire hope where there is despair . '' Tutu served as Chair of The Elders from the founding of the group in July 2007 to May 2013 . Upon stepping down and becoming an Honorary Elder , he said : `` As Elders we should always oppose presidents for Life . After six wonderful years as Chair , I am sad to say that it was time for me to step down . '' Kofi Annan currently serves as Chair and Gro Harlem Brundtland as Deputy Chair . The other members of the group are Martti Ahtisaari , Ela Bhatt , Lakhdar Brahimi , Fernando Henrique Cardoso , Jimmy Carter , Hina Jilani , Graça Machel , Mary Robinson and Ernesto Zedillo . Several other leaders were previously affiliated with The Elders . Former Elder Muhammad Yunus stepped down as a member of the group in September 2009 , stating that he was unable to do justice to his membership due to the demands of his work . Aung San Suu Kyi is a former honorary Elder . During her period under house arrest , the Elders kept an empty chair at each of their meetings to mark their solidarity with Suu Kyi and Burma ’ s other political prisoners . In line with the requirement that members of The Elders should not hold public office , Suu Kyi stepped down as an honorary Elder following her election to parliament on 1 April 2012 . Li Zhaoxing was present at the launch of The Elders but did not formally join the group . The Elders work globally , on thematic as well as geographically specific subjects . The Elders ' priority issue areas include the Israeli-Palestinian conflict , the Korean Peninsula , Sudan and South Sudan , sustainable development , and equality for girls and women . Tutu led The Elders ' visit to Sudan in October 2007 – their first mission after the group was founded – to foster peace in the Darfur crisis . `` Our hope is that we can keep Darfur in the spotlight and spur on governments to help keep peace in the region , '' said Tutu . He has also travelled with Elders delegations to Cote d ’ Ivoire , Cyprus , Ethiopia , India , South Sudan and the Middle East . Tutu has been particularly involved in The Elders ' initiative on child marriage , attending the Clinton Global Initiative in New York in September 2011 to launch Girls Not Brides : The Global Partnership to End Child Marriage . The Elders are independently funded by a group of donors : Sir Richard Branson and Jean Oelwang ( Virgin Unite ) , Peter Gabriel ( The Peter Gabriel Foundation ) , Kathy Bushkin Calvin ( The United Nations Foundation ) , Jeremy Coller and Lulit Solomon ( J Coller Foundation ) , Niclas Kjellström-Matseke ( Swedish Postcode Lottery ) , Randy Newcomb and Pam Omidyar ( Humanity United ) , Jeff Skoll and Sally Osberg ( Skoll Foundation ) , Jovanka Porsche ( HP Capital Partners ) , Julie Quadrio Curzio ( Quadrio Curzio Family Trust ) , Amy Towers ( The Nduna Foundation ) , Shannon Sedgwick Davis ( The Bridgeway Foundation ) and Marieke van Schaik ( Dutch Postcode Lottery ) . Mabel van Oranje , former CEO of The Elders , sits on the Advisory Council in her capacity as Advisory Committee Chair of Girls Not Brides : The Global Partnership to End Child Marriage . Role in the developing world Tutu has focused on drawing awareness to issues such as poverty , AIDS and non-democratic governments in the Third World . In particular he has focused on issues in Zimbabwe and Palestine . Zimbabwe Tutu has been vocal in his criticism of human rights abuses in Zimbabwe as well as the South African government 's policy of quiet diplomacy towards Zimbabwe . In 2007 he said the `` quiet diplomacy '' pursued by the Southern Africa Development Community ( SADC ) had `` not worked at all '' and he called on Britain and the West to pressure SADC , including South Africa , which was chairing talks between President Mugabe 's Zanu-PF party and the opposition Movement for Democratic Change , to set firm deadlines for action , with consequences if they were not met . Tutu has often criticised Robert Mugabe in the past and he once described the leader as `` a cartoon figure of an archetypical African dictator '' . In 2008 , he called for the international community to intervene in Zimbabwe – by force if necessary . Mugabe , on the other hand , has called Tutu an `` angry , evil and embittered little bishop '' . Tutu has often stated that all leaders in Africa should condemn Zimbabwe : `` What an awful blot on our copy book . Do we really care about human rights , do we care that people of flesh and blood , fellow Africans , are being treated like rubbish , almost worse than they were ever treated by rabid racists ? '' After the Zimbabwean presidential elections in April 2008 , Tutu expressed his hope that Mugabe would step down after it was initially reported that Mugabe had lost the elections . Tutu reiterated his support of the democratic process and hoped that Mugabe would adhere to the voice of the people . Tutu called Mugabe `` someone we were very proud of '' , as he `` did a fantastic job , and it ’ s such a great shame , because he had a wonderful legacy . If he had stepped down ten or so years ago he would be held in very , very high regard . And I still want to say we must honour him for the things that he did do , and just say what a shame . '' Tutu stated that he feared that riots would break out in Zimbabwe if the election results were ignored . He proposed that a peace-keeping force should be sent to the region to ensure stability . Solomon Islands In 2009 , Tutu assisted in the establishing of the Solomon Islands ' Truth and Reconciliation Commission , modelled after the South African body of the same name . He spoke at its official launch in Honiara on 29 April 2009 , emphasising the need for forgiveness to build lasting peace . Israel and Palestine Tutu has acknowledged the significant role Jews played in the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa and has voiced support for Israel 's security concerns , speaking against suicide bombing . He is an adversary of the doctrine of Supersessionism , the biblical interpretation that the Christian Church supersedes or replaces Israel in God 's plan , and that the New Covenant nullifies the biblical promises made to Israel . He is also an active and prominent proponent of the campaign for divestment from Israel , likening Israel 's treatment of Palestinians to the treatment of Black South Africans under apartheid . Tutu drew this comparison on a Christmas visit to Jerusalem in 1989 , when he said that he is a `` black South African , and if I were to change the names , a description of what is happening in Gaza and the West Bank could describe events in South Africa . '' He made similar comments in 2002 , speaking of `` the humiliation of the Palestinians at checkpoints and roadblocks , suffering like us when young white police officers prevented us from moving about '' . In 1988 , the American Jewish Committee noted that Tutu was strongly critical of Israel 's military and other connections with apartheid-era South Africa , and quoted him as saying that Zionism has `` very many parallels with racism '' , on the grounds that it `` excludes people on ethnic or other grounds over which they have no control '' . While the AJC was critical of some of Tutu 's views , it dismissed `` insidious rumours '' that he had made antisemitic statements . ( The exact wording of Tutu 's statement was reported differently in different sources . A Toronto Star article from the period indicates that he described Zionism `` as a policy that looks like it has many parallels with racism , the effect is the same . '' ) Tutu preached a message of forgiveness during a 1989 trip to Israel 's Yad Vashem museum , saying `` Our Lord would say that in the end the positive thing that can come is the spirit of forgiving , not forgetting , but the spirit of saying : God , this happened to us . We pray for those who made it happen , help us to forgive them and help us so that we in our turn will not make others suffer . '' Some found this statement offensive , with Rabbi Marvin Hier of the Simon Wiesenthal Center calling it `` a gratuitous insult to Jews and victims of Nazism everywhere . '' Tutu was subjected to racial slurs during this visit to Israel , with vandals writing `` Black Nazi pig '' on the walls of the St. George 's Cathedral in East Jerusalem , where he was staying . In 2002 , when delivering a public lecture in support of divestment , Tutu said `` My heart aches . I say why are our memories so short . Have our Jewish sisters and brothers forgotten their humiliation ? Have they forgotten the collective punishment , the home demolitions , in their own history so soon ? Have they turned their backs on their profound and noble religious traditions ? Have they forgotten that God cares deeply about the downtrodden ? '' He argued that Israel could never live in security by oppressing another people , and stated , `` People are scared in this country [ the US ] , to say wrong is wrong because the Jewish lobby is powerful – very powerful . Well , so what ? For goodness sake , this is God 's world ! We live in a moral universe . The apartheid government was very powerful , but today it no longer exists . '' The latter statement was criticised by some Jewish groups , including the Anti-Defamation League . When he edited and reprinted parts of his speech in 2005 , Tutu replaced the words `` Jewish lobby '' with `` pro-Israel lobby '' . American attorney Alan Dershowitz referred to Tutu as a `` racist and a bigot '' during the controversial Durban II conference in April 2009 . Global March to Jerusalem As of March 2012 , Tutu was a member of the Advisory Board for Global March to Jerusalem (

bb_5613--Desmond_Tutu.txt

What Swahili word became the South African humanist philosophy popularised by Desmond Tutu in SA's post-apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission, and adopted widely elsewhere?

The Quran ( ; ' , literally meaning `` the recitation '' ; also romanized Qur'an or Koran ) is the central religious text of Islam , which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God ( , Allah ) . It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language . The Quran is divided into chapters called suras , which are then divided into verses called ayahs . Muslims believe the Quran was verbally revealed by God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel ( Jibril ) , gradually over a period of approximately 23 years , beginning on 22 December 609 CE , when Muhammad was 40 , and concluding in 632 , the year of his death.Living Religions : An Encyclopaedia of the World 's Faiths , Mary Pat Fisher , 1997 , page 338 , I.B . Tauris Publishers . Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad , a proof of his prophethood , and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam and ended with Muhammad . The word `` Quran '' occurs some 70 times in the text of the Quran , although different names and words are also said to be references to the Quran . According to the traditional narrative , several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations . Shortly after Muhammad 's death , the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and memorized parts of it . These codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthman 's codex , which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today . There are , however , variant readings , with mostly minor differences in meaning . The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical scriptures . It summarizes some , dwells at length on others and , in some cases , presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events . The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance . It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events , and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence . The Quran is used along with the hadith to interpret sharia law . During prayers , the Quran is recited only in Arabic . Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz . Some Muslims read Quranic ayah ( verse ) with elocution , which is often called tajwid . During the month of Ramadan , Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers . In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse , most Muslims rely on the tafsir . Etymology and meaning The word ' appears about 70 times in the Quran itself , assuming various meanings . It is a verbal noun ( Arabic verbs # Verbal noun ( maṣdar ) | ) of the Arabic verb ' ( ) , meaning `` he read '' or `` he recited '' . The Syriac equivalent is ( ) ' , which refers to `` scripture reading '' or `` lesson '' . While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac , the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is ' itself . Regardless , it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad 's lifetime . An important meaning of the word is the `` act of reciting '' , as reflected in an early Quranic passage : `` It is for Us to collect it and to recite it ( ) . '' In other verses , the word refers to `` an individual passage recited [ by Muhammad ] '' . Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages , for example : `` So when ' is recited , listen to it and keep silent . '' The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel . The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran . Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning , but its use may converge with that of ' in certain contexts . Such terms include ' ( book ) ; ' ( sign ) ; and ' ( scripture ) . The latter two terms also denote units of revelation . In the large majority of contexts , usually with a definite article ( al- ) , the word is referred to as the `` revelation '' ( waḥy ) , that which has been `` sent down '' ( tanzīl ) at intervals . Other related words are : ' ( remembrance ) , used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning , and ' ( wisdom ) , sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it . The Quran describes itself as `` the discernment '' ( al-furqān ) , `` the mother book '' ( umm al-kitāb ) , `` the guide '' ( huda ) , `` the wisdom '' ( hikmah ) , `` the remembrance '' ( dhikr ) and `` the revelation '' ( tanzīl ; something sent down , signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place ) . Another term is ' ( The Book ) , though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures , such as the Torah and the Gospels . The adjective of `` Quran '' has multiple transliterations including `` quranic '' , `` koranic '' , and `` qur'anic '' , or capitalised as `` Qur'anic '' , `` Koranic '' , and `` Quranic '' . The term mus'haf ( 'written work ' ) is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books . Other transliterations of `` Quran '' include `` al-Coran '' , `` Coran '' , `` Kuran '' , and `` al-Qurʼan '' . History Prophetic era Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains . Thereafter , he received revelations over a period of 23 years . According to hadith and Muslim history , after Muhammad immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community , he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws , which were revealed daily . It is related that some of the Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time . Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate . As it was initially spoken , the Quran was recorded on tablets , bones , and the wide , flat ends of date palm fronds . Most suras were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources , relating Muhammad 's use of the Quran as a call to Islam , the making of prayer and the manner of recitation . However , the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad 's death in 632 . There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation . Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as , `` Sometimes it is ( revealed ) like the ringing of a bell '' and Aisha reported , `` I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead ( as the Inspiration was over ) . '' Muhammad 's first revelation , according to the Quran , was accompanied with a vision . The agent of revelation is mentioned as the `` one mighty in power '' , the one who `` grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon . Then he drew nigh and came down till he was ( distant ) two bows ' length or even nearer . '' The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad 's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine , because he was severely disturbed after these revelations . According to Welch , these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad 's inspirations . However , Muhammad 's critics accused him of being a possessed man , a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia . Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad 's initial claim of prophethood . The Quran describes Muhammad as `` ummi '' , which is traditionally interpreted as `` illiterate , '' but the meaning is rather more complex . Medieval commentators such as Al-Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings : first , the inability to read or write in general ; second , the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures ( but they gave priority to the first meaning ) . Muhammad 's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood . For example , according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi , if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors . Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning of `` ummi '' - they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts . Compilation Based on earlier transmitted reports , in the year 632 , after the demise of Muhammad a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in a battle by Musaylimah , the first caliph Abu Bakr ( d. 634 ) decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved . Zayd ibn Thabit ( d. 655 ) was the person to collect the Quran since `` he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah 's Apostle '' . Thus , a group of scribes , most importantly Zayd , collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book . The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died . Zayd 's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments , palm-leaf stalks , thin stones and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives . After Abu Bakr , Hafsa bint Umar , Muhammad 's widow , was entrusted with the manuscript . In about 650 , the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan ( d. 656 ) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula into Persia , the Levant , and North Africa . In order to preserve the sanctity of the text , he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr 's copy and prepare a standard copy of the Quran . Thus , within 20 years of Muhammad 's death , the Quran was committed to written form . That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world , and other versions are believed to have been destroyed . * see section Poetry and Language by Navid Kermani , p.107-120 . * For eschatology , see Discovering ( final destination ) by Christopher Buck , p.30 . * For writing and printing , see section Written Transmission by François Déroche , p.172-187 . * For literary structure , see section Language by Mustansir Mir , p.93 . * For the history of compilation see Introduction by Tamara Sonn p.5-6 * For recitation , see Recitation by Anna M. Gade p.481-493 The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr . According to Shia , Ali ibn Abi Talib ( d. 661 ) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad 's death . The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman 's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order . Despite this , he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation . Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud 's and Ubay ibn Ka ' b 's codex , none of which exist today . * For God in the Quran ( Allah ) , see Allah by Zeki Saritoprak , p. 33-40 . * For eschatology , see Eschatology by Zeki Saritoprak , p. 194-199 . * For searching the Arabic text on the internet and writing , see Cyberspace and the Qur'an by Andrew Rippin , p.159-163 . * For calligraphy , see by Calligraphy and the Qur'an by Oliver Leaman , p 130-135 . * For translation , see Translation and the Qur'an by Afnan Fatani , p.657-669 . * For recitation , see Art and the Qur'an by Tamara Sonn , p.71-81 and Reading by Stefan Wild , p.532-535 . The Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad 's lifetime . Several sources indicate that during Muhammad 's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations . Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran 's early development . The Quran in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants has not yielded any differences of great significance . University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that `` ... there was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission . [ ... ] After the creation of this standardized canonical text , earlier authoritative texts were suppressed , and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established . '' Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted , some still are . There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based . Historically , controversy over the Quran 's content has rarely become an issue , although debates continue on the subject . In 1972 , in a mosque in the city of Sana ' a , Yemen , manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist at the time . The Sana ' a manuscripts contain palimpsests , a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to scarcity of writing material . However , the faint washed-off underlying text ( scriptio inferior ) is still barely visible and believed to be `` pre-Uthmanic '' Quranic content , while the text written on top ( scriptio superior ) is believed to belong to Uthmanic time . Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 AD with a 99 percent probability . In 2015 , fragments of a very early Quran , dating back to 1370 years ago , were discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham , England . According to the tests carried out by Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit , `` with a probability of more than 95 % , the parchment was from between 568 and 645 '' . The manuscript is written in Hijazi script , an early form of written Arabic . This is possibly the earliest extant exemplar of the Quran , but as the tests allow a range of possible dates , it can not be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest . Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later . Significance in Islam In worship Muslims believe the Quran to be the book of divine guidance revealed from God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel over a period of 23 years and view the Quran as God 's final revelation to humanity . Revelation in Islamic and Quranic contexts means the act of God addressing an individual , conveying a message for a greater number of recipients . The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is tanzil ( to send down ) or nuzūl ( to come down ) . As the Quran says , `` With the truth we ( God ) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down . '' The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained . Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them . The Quran refers to a written pre-text , `` the preserved tablet '' , that records God 's speech even before it was sent down . The issue of whether the Quran is eternal or created became a theological debate ( Quran 's createdness ) in the ninth century . Mu'tazilas , an Islamic school of theology based on reason and rational thought , held that the Quran was created while the most widespread varieties of Muslim theologians considered the Quran to be co-eternal with God and therefore uncreated . Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed . Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad , and according to their interpretation of Quran , it is protected from corruption ( `` Indeed , it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed , We will be its guardian . `` ) . Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide , a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion . They argue it is not possible for a human to produce a book like the Quran , as the Quran itself maintains . The first sura of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and in other occasions . This sura , which consists of seven verses , is the most often recited sura of the Quran : Praised be God , Lord of the Universe , the Beneficent , the Merciful and Master of the Day of Judgment , You alone We do worship and from You alone we do seek assistance , guide us to the right path , the path of those to whom You have granted blessings , those who are neither subject to Your anger nor have gone astray . '' Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims , and the Quran is treated with reverence . Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran ( `` none shall touch but those who are clean '' ) , some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water before touching a copy of the Quran , although this view is not universal . Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place , buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery , or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water . In Islam , most intellectual disciplines , including Islamic theology , philosophy , mysticism and jurisprudence , have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings . Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called ajr , thawab or hasanat . In Islamic art The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination . The Quran is never decorated with figurative images , but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page , or between the lines or at the start of suras . Islamic verses appear in many other media , on buildings and on objects of all sizes , such as mosque lamps , metal work , pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums . File : Brooklyn Museum - Calligraphy - 3.jpg|Calligraphy , 18th century . Brooklyn Museum . File : Quran inscriptions on wall , Lodhi Gardens , Delhi.jpg|Quranic inscriptions , Bara Gumbad mosque , Delhi , India . File : Mosque lamp Met 91.1.1534.jpg|Typical glass and enamel mosque lamp with the Ayat an-Nur or `` Verse of Light '' ( 24:35 ) . File : Mausolées du groupe nord ( Shah-i-Zinda , Samarcande ) ( 6016470147 ) .jpg|Quranic verses , Shahizinda mausoleum , Samarkand , Uzebekistan . File : Muhammad ibn Mustafa Izmiri - Right Side of an Illuminated Double-page Incipit - Walters W5771B - Full Page.jpg|Quran page decoration art , Ottoman period . File:4.8-17-1990-Guld-koranside-recto-og-verso.jpg|The leaves from this Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink have a horizontal format . This is admirably suited to classical Kufic calligraphy , which became common under the early Abbasid caliphs . Inimitability Inimitability of the Quran ( or `` I'jaz '' ) is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form . The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims , effective until the Day of Resurrection—and , thereby , the central proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status . The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses opponents are challenged to produce something like the Quran : `` If men and sprites banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another . '' So the suggestion is that if there are doubts concerning the divine authorship of the Quran , come forward and create something like it . From the ninth century , numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content . Medieval Muslim scholars including al-Jurjani ( d. 1078 ) and al-Baqillani ( d. 1013 ) have written treatises on the subject , discussed its various aspects , and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran . Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas , has inner meanings , maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations in individual level and in the history . Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science . The doctrine of miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad 's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran . Text and arrangement The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths , each known as a sura . Suras are classified as Meccan or Medinan , depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina . However , a sura classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa . Sura titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text , or from the first letters or words of the sura . Suras are arranged roughly in order of decreasing size . The sura arrangement is thus not connected to the sequence of revelation . Each sura except the ninth starts with the Bismillah ( ) , an Arabic phrase meaning `` In the name of God '' . There are , however , still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran , due to its presence in Quran as the opening of Solomon 's letter to the Queen of Sheba . Each sura consists of several verses , known as ayat , which originally means a `` sign '' or `` evidence '' sent by God . The number of verses differs from sura to sura . An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines . The total number of verses in the Quran is 6,236 , however , the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately . In addition to and independent of the division into suras , there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading . The 30 juz ' ( plural ajzāʼ ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month . Some of these parts are known by names—which are the first few words by which the juzʼ starts . A juz is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb ( plural aḥzāb ) , and each hizb subdivided into four rubʻ al-ahzab . The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts , manzil ( plural manāzil ) , for it to be recited in a week . A different structure is provided by semantical units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten ayat each . Such a section is called a rukū ` . The Muqattaʿat ( ḥurūf muqaṭṭaʿāt `` disjoined letters '' or `` disconnected letters '' ; also `` mysterious letters '' ) are combinations of between one and five Arabic letters figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 surahs ( chapters ) of the [ Quran just after the basmala.Massey , Keith . `` Mysterious Letters . '' in Jane Dammen McAuliffe ( ed . ) Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān . Vol . 3 ( 205 ) , p. 472 ( [ http : //referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran/mysterious-letters-EQCOM_00128 .brillonline.com ] ) . The letters are also known as fawātih ( ) or `` openers '' as they form the opening verse of their respective suras . Four surahs are named for their muqatta'at , Ṭāʾ-Hāʾ , Yāʾ-Sīn , Ṣād and Qāf . The original significance of the letters is unknown . Tafsir ( exegesis ) has interpreted them as abbreviations for either names or qualities of God or for the names or content of the respective surahs . According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words , 18,994 unique words , 12,183 stems , 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots . Contents The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection . Narratives of the early prophets , ethical and legal subjects , historical events of Muhammad 's time , charity and prayer also appear in the Quran . The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons . Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message . Monotheism The central theme of the Quran is monotheism . God is depicted as living , eternal , omniscient and omnipotent ( see , e.g. , Quran , , ) . God 's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create . He is the creator of everything , of the heavens and the earth and what is between them ( see , e.g. , Quran , , etc . ) . All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God , and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly . The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God . Therefore , the universe is originated and needs an originator , and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence . Besides , the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation : `` It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony . You can not see any fault in God 's creation ; then look again : Can you see any flaw ? '' Eschatology The doctrine of the last day and eschatology ( the final fate of the universe ) may be reckoned as the second great doctrine of the Quran . It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological , dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time . There is a reference to the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in

bb_2383--Quran.txt

Malaikah in the Qur'an, and Mal'akh in the Hebrew Bible?

Dão is a Portuguese wine region situated in the Região Demarcada do Dão with the Dão-Lafões sub region of the Centro , Portugal . It is one of the oldest established wine regions in Portugal . Dão wine is produced in a mountainous region with a temperate climate , in the area of the Rio Mondego and Dão rivers in the north central region of Portugal . The region became a Denominação de Origem Controlada ( DOC ) appellation in 1990 . The Dão region is the origin of the Touriga Nacional vine that is the principal component of Port wine . Climate and geography The wine region is located primarily on a plateau that is sheltered on three sides by the granite mountain ranges of Serra da Estrela , Serra do Caramulo and Serra da Nave . This helps the area maintain its temperate climate away from the effects of the nearby Atlantic Ocean . The region experiences abundant rainfall in the winter months and long , warm dry summers leading up to harvest . The region 's vineyards are planted on sandy well-drained soil on top of granite rock . History The first efforts to have the Dão region recognized as a separate and unique wine region came mainly from the aristocrat and winemaker João de Sacadura Botte Côrte-Real . Considered to be `` the most enlightened viticulturist of his generation '' , he modernized the processes of winemaking and raised the standards of the wine produced in the region . He had many wine estates , in both Portugal and Spain , but the most celebrated were his Quinta da Aguieira and his wife 's Quinta da Bica . The Dão was first officially recognized as a Região Demarcada in 1908 . In the 1940s , to improve the quality of the wine from the region and promote some sort of national identity , the government of Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar instituted new regulations establishing the mandatory use of co-operatives in the region . These co-operatives would have exclusive privilege to the grapes grown in the region and were charged with making the wine that would be sold to private merchants . Despite its intent , the regulations had an adverse effect on the Dão wine region by promoting stagnation due to lack of competition , with some co-operative firms releasing inferior quality wine and even practicing un-hygienic winemaking . In 1979 , Portugal 's application to the European Union prompted authorities to overturn these rules , as the EU discouraged monopolistic practices in the wine industry . Viticulture and wines The area is home to several dozen varieties of indigenous grapes , with the majority of wine production being made from the Touriga Nacional , Tinta Roriz , Jaen , Alfrocheiro Preto and Encruzado . 80 % of the region 's production is in red wines , with DOC regulations stipulating that at least 20 % of the production must be from Touriga Nacional . Some of the top reserve wine may carry the designation Dão nobre ( meaning noble Dão ) . Another reserve designation , Garrafeira , requires wines to be 0.5 % higher in alcohol content then the 12.5 % minimum and to spend at least 2 years in aging in oak . The maximum yield for red wine grapes is 70 hl/ha . The red wines tend to be very tannic due to prolonged periods of maceration during winemaking . Many producers make liberal use of French and Portuguese oak . The style has been improving , with some producers concentrating on making more fruit-forward styles with smoother tannins . Historically , the white wines were known for being over-oxidized and full-bodied , but more modern winemaking has been producing white wines that are fresh , fruity and fragrant . The Encruzado is the principal grape of the area 's whites , with some blends of Malvasia Fina and Bical.Garrafeira white wines require at least 0.5 % more alcohol by volume than the 11.5 % DOC minimum and at least 6 months aging in oak . The maximum allowable yields for white wine grapes is 80 hl/ha . Subregions There are seven subregions within Dão which may be indicated on labels together with Dão : * Alva * Besteiros * Castendo * Serra da Estrela * Silgueiros * Terras de Azurara * Terras de Senhorim

sfq_14561--Dão_DOC.txt

Dao is a region of wine production in which country?

Shetland ( ; ; ) , also called the Shetland Islands , is a subarctic archipelago of Scotland that lies northeast of the island of Great Britain and forms part of the United Kingdom . The islands lie some 80 km to the northeast of Orkney and 280 km southeast of the Faroe Islands and form part of the division between the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the North Sea to the east . The total area is 1466 km2Shetland Islands Council ( 2012 ) p. 4 and the population totalled 23,210 in 2012 . Comprising the Shetland constituency of the Scottish Parliament , Shetland is also one of the 32 council areas of Scotland ; the islands ' administrative centre and only burgh is Lerwick , which is also the capital of Shetland since taking over from Scalloway in 1708 . The largest island , known simply as `` Mainland '' , has an area of 967 km2 , making it the third-largest Scottish island and the fifth-largest of the British Isles . There are an additional 15 inhabited islands . The archipelago has an oceanic climate , a complex geology , a rugged coastline and many low , rolling hills . Humans have lived there since the Mesolithic period , and the earliest written references to the islands date back to Roman times . The early historic period was dominated by Scandinavian influences , especially Norway , and the islands did not become part of Scotland until the 15th century . When Scotland became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 , trade with northern Europe decreased . Fishing has continued to be an important aspect of the economy up to the present day . The discovery of North Sea oil in the 1970s significantly boosted Shetland incomes , employment and public sector revenues . The local way of life reflects the joint Norse and Scottish heritage including the Up Helly Aa fire festival , and a strong musical tradition , especially the traditional fiddle style . The islands have produced a variety of writers of prose and poetry , often in Shetland Scots . There are numerous areas set aside to protect the local fauna and flora , including a number of important seabird nesting sites . The Shetland pony and Shetland Sheepdog are two well known Shetland animal breeds . Other distinguished local breeds include the Shetland sheep , cow , goose , and duck . The Shetland pig , or grice , has been extinct since approximately 1930 . The islands ' motto , which appears on the Council 's coat of arms , is ' . This Icelandic phrase is taken from the Danish 1241 Basic Law , Codex Holmiensis , and is also mentioned in Njáls saga , and means `` By law shall land be built '' . Etymology The name of Shetland is derived from the Old Norse words , ' ( hilt ) , and ' ( land ) . In AD 43 and 77 the Roman authors Pomponius Mela and Pliny the Elder referred to the seven islands they call ' and ' respectively , both of which are assumed to be Shetland . Another possible early written reference to the islands is Tacitus ' report in AD 98 , after describing the discovery and conquest of Orkney , that the Roman fleet had seen `` Thule , too '' . In early Irish literature , Shetland is referred to as '— '' the Isles of Cats '' , which may have been the pre-Norse inhabitants ' name for the islands . The Cat tribe also occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland and their name can be found in Caithness , and in the Gaelic name for Sutherland ( ' , meaning `` among the Cats '' ) . The oldest version of the modern name Shetland is ' , the Latinised adjectival form of the Old Norse name recorded in a letter from Harald count of Shetland in 1190 , becoming Hetland in 1431 after various intermediate transformations . It is possible that the Pictish `` cat '' sound forms part of this Norse name . It then became ' in the 16th century.Gammeltoft ( 2010 ) p. 21-22Sandnes ( 2010 ) p. 9 As Norn was gradually replaced by Scots , ' became ' . The initial letter is the Middle Scots letter , `` yogh '' , the pronunciation of which is almost identical to the original Norn sound , `` '' . When the use of the letter yogh was discontinued , it was often replaced by the similar-looking letter z , hence ' , the misspelt form used to describe the pre-1975 county council . This is also the source of the ZE postcode used for Shetland . Most of the individual islands have Norse names , although the derivations of some are obscure and may represent pre-Norse , possibly Pictish or even pre-Celtic names or elements . Geography and geology Shetland is around 170 km north of mainland Scotland , covers an area of 1468 km2 and has a coastline 2702 km long . Lerwick , the capital and largest settlement , has a population of 6,958 and about half of the archipelago 's total population of 23,167 people live within 16 km of the town . Scalloway on the west coast , which was the capital until 1708 , has a population of less than 1,000 . Only 16 of about 100 islands are inhabited . The main island of the group is known as Mainland , and of the next largest , Yell , Unst , and Fetlar lie to the north and Bressay and Whalsay lie to the east . East and West Burra , Muckle Roe , Papa Stour , Trondra and Vaila are smaller islands to the west of Mainland . The other inhabited islands are Foula 28 km west of Walls , Fair Isle 38 km south-west of Sumburgh Head , and the Out Skerries to the east . The uninhabited islands include Mousa , known for the Broch of Mousa , the finest preserved example in Scotland of these Iron Age round towers , St Ninian 's Isle connected to Mainland by the largest active tombolo in the UK , and Out Stack , the northernmost point of the British Isles . [ http : //www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/getamap/ `` Get-a-map '' ] . Ordnance Survey . Retrieved 7 March 2011 . Shetland 's location means that it provides a number of such records : Muness is the most northerly castle in the United Kingdom and Skaw the most northerly settlement . The geology of Shetland is complex , with numerous faults and fold axes . These islands are the northern outpost of the Caledonian orogeny , and there are outcrops of Lewisian , Dalradian and Moine metamorphic rocks with histories similar to their equivalents on the Scottish mainland . There are also Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions . The most distinctive features are the ultrabasic ophiolite , peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar , which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor . Much of Shetland 's economy depends on the oil-bearing sediments in the surrounding seas . Geological evidence shows that in around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit Shetland , as well as the rest of the east coast of Scotland , and may have created a wave of up to 25 m high in the voes where modern populations are highest . The highest point of Shetland is Ronas Hill , which reaches only 450 m. The Pleistocene glaciations entirely covered the islands . During this period , the Stanes of Stofast , a 2000-tonne glacial erratic , came to rest on a prominent hilltop in Lunnasting . Shetland is a National Scenic Area which , unusually , is made up of a number of discrete locations : Fair Isle , Foula , South West Mainland ( including the Scalloway Islands ) , Muckle Roe , Esha Ness , Fethaland and Herma Ness . Climate Shetland has an oceanic , temperate maritime climate bordering on the subpolar variety , with long but cool winters and short mild summers . The climate all year round is moderate due to the influence of the surrounding seas , with average peak temperatures of 7 °C in March and 18 C in July and August . Temperatures over 25 °C are very rare . The highest temperature on record was in July 1991 and the coldest in the Januaries of 1952 and 1959 . The frost-free period may be as little as three months . In contrast , inland areas of nearby Scandinavia on similar latitudes experience significantly larger temperature differences between summer and winter , with the average highs of regular July days comparable to Lerwick 's all-time record heat that is around 23 C , further demonstrating the moderating effect of the Atlantic Ocean . In contrast , winters are considerably milder than those expected in nearby continental areas , even comparable to winter temperatures of many parts of England and Wales much further south . The general character of the climate is windy and cloudy with at least 2 mm of rain falling on more than 250 days a year . Average yearly precipitation is 1003 mm , with November and December the wettest months . Snowfall is usually confined to the period November to February , and snow seldom lies on the ground for more than a day . Less rain falls from April to August although no month receives less than 50 mm . Fog is common during summer due to the cooling effect of the sea on mild southerly airflows . Due to the islands ' latitude , on clear winter nights the `` northern lights '' can sometimes be seen in the sky , while in summer there is almost perpetual daylight , a state of affairs known locally as the `` simmer dim '' . Annual bright sunshine averages 1110 hours , rending overcast days common . Prehistory Due to the practice , dating to at least the early Neolithic , of building in stone on virtually treeless islands , Shetland is extremely rich in physical remains of the prehistoric eras and there are over 5,000 archaeological sites all told . A midden site at West Voe on the south coast of Mainland , dated to 4320–4030 BC , has provided the first evidence of Mesolithic human activity on Shetland . The same site provides dates for early Neolithic activity and finds at Scord of Brouster in Walls have been dated to 3400 BC . `` Shetland knives '' are stone tools that date from this period made from felsite from Northmavine.Schei ( 2006 ) p. 10 Pottery shards found at the important site of Jarlshof also indicate that there was Neolithic activity there although the main settlement dates from the Bronze Age . This includes a smithy , a cluster of wheelhouses and a later broch . The site has provided evidence of habitation during various phases right up until Viking times . Heel-shaped cairns , are a style of chambered cairn unique to Shetland , with a particularly large example on Vementry . Numerous brochs were erected during the Iron Age . In addition to Mousa there are significant ruins at Clickimin , Culswick , Old Scatness and West Burrafirth , although their origin and purpose is a matter of some controversy . The later Iron Age inhabitants of the Northern Isles were probably Pictish , although the historical record is sparse . Hunter ( 2000 ) states in relation to King Bridei I of the Picts in the sixth century AD : `` As for Shetland , Orkney , Skye and the Western Isles , their inhabitants , most of whom appear to have been Pictish in culture and speech at this time , are likely to have regarded Bridei as a fairly distant presence. ” In 2011 , the collective site , `` The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland '' , including Broch of Mousa , Old Scatness and Jarlshof , joined the UKs `` Tentative List '' of World Heritage Sites . History Scandinavian colonisation The expanding population of Scandinavia led to a shortage of available resources and arable land there and led to a period of Viking expansion , the Norse gradually shifting their attention from plundering to invasion . Shetland was colonised during the late 8th and 9th centuries , the fate of the existing indigenous population being uncertain . Modern Shetlanders have almost identical proportions of Scandinavian matrilineal and patrilineal genetic ancestry , suggesting that the islands were settled by both men and women in equal measure.Goodacre , S. et al ( 2005 ) [ http : //www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v95/n2/full/6800661a.html # bib14 `` Genetic evidence for a family-based Scandinavian settlement of Shetland and Orkney during the Viking periods '' ] Heredity 95 , pp . 129–135 . Nature.com . Retrieved 20 March 2011 Vikings then made the islands the headquarters of pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland . In response , Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ( `` Harald Fair Hair '' ) annexed the Northern Isles ( comprising Orkney and Shetland ) in 875 . Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland , and then passed the earldom on to his brother Sigurd the Mighty . The islands were Christianised in the late 10th century . King Olav Tryggvasson summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout during a visit to Orkney and said , `` I order you and all your subjects to be baptised . If you refuse , I 'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel . '' Unsurprisingly , Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke . Unusually , from c. 1100 onwards the Norse jarls owed allegiance both to Norway and to the Scottish crown through their holdings as Earls of Caithness . In 1194 , when Harald Maddadsson was Earl of Orkney and Shetland , a rebellion broke out against King Sverre Sigurdsson of Norway . The ' ( `` Island Beardies '' ) sailed for Norway but were beaten in the Battle of Florvåg near Bergen . After his victory King Sverre placed Shetland under direct Norwegian rule , a state of affairs that continued for nearly two centuries . Increased Scottish interest From the mid-13th century onwards Scottish monarchs increasingly sought to take control of the islands surrounding the mainland . The process was begun in earnest by Alexander II and was continued by his successor Alexander III . This strategy eventually led to an invasion by Haakon Haakonsson , King of Norway . His fleet assembled in Bressay Sound before sailing for Scotland . After the stalemate of the Battle of Largs , Haakon retreated to Orkney , where he died in December 1263 , entertained on his death bed by recitations of the sagas . His death halted any further Norwegian expansion in Scotland and following this ill-fated expedition , the Hebrides and Mann were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth , although the Scots recognised continuing Norwegian sovereignty over Orkney and Shetland . Pawned to Scotland In the 14th century , Orkney and Shetland remained a Norwegian province , but Scottish influence was growing . Jon Haraldsson , who was murdered in Thurso in 1231 , was the last of an unbroken line of Norse jarls , and thereafter the earls were Scots noblemen of the houses of Angus and St. Clair . On the death of Haakon VI in 1380 , Norway formed a political union with Denmark after which the interest of the royal house in the islands declined . In 1469 , Shetland was pledged by Christian I , in his capacity as King of Norway , as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret , betrothed to James III of Scotland . As the money was never paid , the connection with the crown of Scotland has become perpetual . In 1470 , William Sinclair , 1st Earl of Caithness ceded his title to James III and the following year the Northern Isles were directly annexed to the Crown of Scotland , a process confirmed by Parliament in 1472 . Nonetheless , Shetland 's connection with Norway has proven to be enduring . From the early 15th century on the Shetlanders sold their goods through the Hanseatic League of German merchantmen . The Hansa would buy shiploads of salted fish , wool and butter and import salt , cloth , beer and other goods . The late 16th century and early 17th century was dominated by the influence of the despotic Robert Stewart , Earl of Orkney , who was granted the islands by his half-sister Mary Queen of Scots , and his son Patrick . The latter commenced the building of Scalloway Castle , but after his imprisonment in 1609 the Crown annexed Orkney and Shetland again until 1643 when Charles I granted them to William Douglas , 7th Earl of Morton . These rights were held on and off by the Mortons until 1766 , when they were sold by James Douglas , 14th Earl of Morton to Laurence Dundas . Early British rule The trade with the North German towns lasted until the 1707 Act of Union when high salt duties prohibited the German merchants from trading with Shetland . Shetland then went into an economic depression as the Scottish and local traders were not as skilled in trading with salted fish . However , some local merchant-lairds took up where the German merchants had left off , and fitted out their own ships to export fish from Shetland to the Continent . For the independent farmers of Shetland this had negative consequences , as they now had to fish for these merchant-lairds . Smallpox afflicted the islands in the 17th and 18th centuries , but as vaccines became common after 1760 the population increased to a maximum of 31,670 in 1861 . However , British rule came at price for many ordinary people as well as traders . The Shetlanders ' nautical skills were sought by the Royal Navy . Some 3,000 served during the Napoleonic wars from 1800 to 1815 and press gangs were rife . During this period 120 men were taken from Fetlar alone and only 20 of them returned home . By the late 19th century 90 % of all Shetland was owned by just 32 people , and between 1861 and 1881 more than 8,000 Shetlanders emigrated . With the passing of the Crofters ' Act in 1886 the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone emancipated crofters from the rule of the landlords . The Act enabled those who had effectively been landowners ' serfs to become owner-occupiers of their own small farms . By this time fishermen from Holland , who had traditionally gathered each year off the coast of Shetland to fish for herring , triggered an industry in the islands that boomed from around 1880 until the 1920s when stocks of the fish began to dwindle . The production peaked in 1905 at more than a million barrels , of which seven hundred and eight thousand were exported . 20th century During World War I many Shetlanders served in the Gordon Highlanders , a further 3,000 served in the Merchant Navy and more than 1500 in a special local naval reserve . The 10th Cruiser Squadron was stationed at Swarbacks Minn and during a single year from March 1917 more than 4,500 ships sailed from Lerwick as part of an escorted convoy system . In total , Shetland lost more than 500 men , a higher proportion than any other part of Britain , and there were further waves of emigration in the 1920s and 1930s . During World War II a Norwegian naval unit nicknamed the `` Shetland Bus '' was established by the Special Operations Executive in the autumn of 1940 with a base first at Lunna and later in Scalloway to conduct operations around the coast of Norway . About 30 fishing vessels used by Norwegian refugees were gathered and the Shetland Bus conducted covert operations , carrying intelligence agents , refugees , instructors for the resistance , and military supplies . It made over 200 trips across the sea with Leif Larsen , the most highly decorated allied naval officer of the war , making 52 of them . Several RAF bases were also established at Sullom Voe and several lighthouses suffered enemy air attacks . Oil reserves discovered in the later 20th century in the seas both east and west of Shetland have provided a much needed alternative source of income for the islands . The East Shetland Basin is one of Europe 's largest oil fields and as a result of the oil revenue and the cultural links with Norway , a small independence movement developed briefly to recast the constitutional position of Shetland . It saw as its model the Isle of Man , as well as Shetland 's closest neighbour , the Faroe Islands , an autonomous dependency of Denmark . Economy Today , the main revenue producers in Shetland are agriculture , aquaculture , fishing , renewable energy , the petroleum industry ( crude oil and natural gas production ) , the creative industries and tourism . Fishing remains central to the islands ' economy today , with the total catch being in 2009 , valued at over £73.2 million . Mackerel makes up more than half of the catch in Shetland by weight and value , and there are significant landings of haddock , cod , herring , whiting , monkfish and shellfish . Farming is mostly concerned with the raising of Shetland sheep , known for their unusually fine wool . Crops raised include oats and barley ; however , the cold , windswept islands make for a harsh environment for most plants . Crofting , the farming of small plots of land on a legally restricted tenancy basis , is still practised and is viewed as a key Shetland tradition as well as an important source of income . Oil and gas were first landed in 1978 at Sullom Voe , which has subsequently become one of the largest terminals in Europe . Taxes from the oil have increased public sector spending on social welfare , art , sport , environmental measures and financial development . Three quarters of the islands ' workforce is employed in the service sector , and the Shetland Islands Council alone accounted for 27.9 % of output in 2003 . Shetland 's access to oil revenues has funded the Shetland Charitable Trust , which in turn funds a wide variety of local programmes . The balance of the fund in 2011 was £217 million , i.e. , about £9,500 per head . In January 2007 , the Shetland Islands Council signed a partnership agreement with Scottish and Southern Energy for the Viking Wind Farm , a 200-turbine wind farm and subsea cable . This renewable energy project would produce about 600 megawatts and contribute about £20 million to the Shetland economy per year . The plan is meeting significant opposition within the islands , primarily resulting from the anticipated visual impact of the development . The PURE project on Unst is a research centre which uses a combination of wind power and fuel cells to create a wind hydrogen system . The project is run by the Unst Partnership , the local community 's development trust . Knitwear is important both to the economy and culture of Shetland , and the Fair Isle design is well known . However , the industry faces challenges due to plagiarism of the word `` Shetland '' by manufacturers operating elsewhere , and a certification trademark , `` The Shetland Lady '' , has been registered . Shetland is served by a weekly local newspaper , The Shetland Times and the online Shetland News http : //www.shetnews.co.uk/ with radio service being provided by BBC Radio Shetland and the commercial radio station SIBC . Shetland is a popular destination for cruise ships , and in 2010 the Lonely Planet guide named Shetland as the sixth best region in the world for tourists seeking unspoilt destinations . The islands were described as `` beautiful and rewarding '' and the Shetlanders as `` a fiercely independent and self-reliant bunch '' . Overall visitor expenditure was worth £16.4 million in 2006 , in which year just under 26,000 cruise liner passengers arrived at Lerwick Harbour . In 2009 , the most popular visitor attractions were the Shetland Museum , the RSPB reserve at Sumburgh Head , Bonhoga Gallery at Weisdale Mill and Jarlshof . Quarries * Brindister : * Scord : [ https : //www.flickr.com/photos/cowrin/3798639184 ] * Sullom : * Vatster : Transport Transport between islands is primarily by ferry , and Shetland Islands Council operates various inter-island services . Shetland is also served by a domestic connection from Lerwick to Aberdeen on mainland Scotland . This service , which takes about 12 hours , is operated by NorthLink Ferries . Some services also call at Kirkwall , Orkney , which increases the journey time between Aberdeen and Lerwick by 2 hours . There are plans of road tunnels to some of the islands , escecially Bressay and Whalsay , however it is hard to convince the mainland government to finance them . Sumburgh Airport , the main airport on Shetland , is located close to Sumburgh Head , 40 km south of Lerwick . Loganair operates flights for FlyBe to other parts of Scotland up to ten times a day , the destinations being Kirkwall , Aberdeen , Inverness , Glasgow and Edinburgh . Lerwick/Tingwall Airport is located 11 km west of Lerwick . Operated by Directflight Ltd. in partnership with Shetland Islands Council , it is devoted to inter-island flights from the Shetland Mainland to most of the inhabited islands . Scatsta Airport near Sullom Voe allows frequent charter flights from Aberdeen to transport oilfield workers and this small terminal has the fifth largest number of international passengers in Scotland . Public bus services are operated on Mainland , Whalsay , Burra , Unst and Yell . The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide , and there are numerous sites of wrecked ships . Lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at various locations . Public services The Shetland Islands Council is the Local Government authority for all the islands , based in Lerwick Town Hall . Shetland is sub-divided into 18 community council areas and into 12 civil parishes that are used for statistical purposes . # Bressay # Delting # Dunrossness # Fetlar # Lerwick # Nesting # Northmaven # Sandsting # Tingwall # Unst # Walls and Sandness # Yell Education In Shetland there are two High Schools—Anderson and Brae—five Junior High Schools , and 24 primary schools . Shetland is also home to the North Atlantic Fisheries College , the Centre for Nordic Studies and Shetland College , which are all associated with the University of the Highlands and Islands . Sport The islands are represented by the Shetland football team who regularly compete in the Island Games . The islands ' senior football league is the G & S Flooring Premier League . Churches and religion The Reformation reached the archipelago in 1560 . This was an apparently peaceful transition and there is little evidence of religious intolerance in Shetland 's recorded history . A variety of religious denominations are represented in the islands . The Methodist Church has a relatively high membership in Shetland , which is a District of the Methodist Church ( with the rest of Scotland comprising a separate District ) . The Church of Scotland has a Presbytery of Shetland that includes St. Columba 's Church in Lerwick . The Catholic population is served by the church of St. Margaret and the Sacred Heart in Lerwick . The Parish is part of the Diocese of Aberdeen . The Scottish Episcopal Church ( part of the Anglican Communion ) has regular worship at St Magnus ' Church , Lerwick , St Colman 's Church , Burravoe , and the Chapel of Christ the Encompasser , Fetlar , the last of which is maintained by the Society of Our Lady of the Isles , the most northerly and remote Anglican religious order of nuns . The Church of

qb_8090--Shetland.txt

Noss, Unst, Lamba and Foula are part of which Scottish island group?

Aldi is a leading global discount supermarket chain with almost 10,000 stores in 18 countries , and an estimated turnover of more than €50bn . Based in Germany , the chain was founded by brothers Karl and Theo Albrecht in 1946 when they took over their mother 's store in Essen which had been in operation since 1913 ; it is one of the world 's largest privately owned companies . The brothers built up a chain of stores until , by 1960 , they owned 300 shops , and split the operation into two separate groups , that later became Aldi Nord , headquartered in Essen ; and Aldi Süd , headquartered in Mülheim an der Ruhr . The two operate independently , each within specific areas . In 1962 , they introduced the name Aldi ( a syllabic abbreviation for Albrecht Diskont ) , which is pronounced . In Germany Aldi Nord and Aldi Süd have been financially and legally separate since 1966 , although both divisions ' names may appear ( as if they were a single enterprise ) with certain store brands or when negotiating with contractor companies . The formal business name is Aldi Einkauf GmbH & Compagnie , oHG . The individual groups were originally owned and managed by the brothers . Karl Albrecht ( d. 2014 ) retained ownership of Aldi Süd , and with a personal wealth of €17.2 billion , making him the richest man in Germany , while the co-owners of Aldi Nord , Berthold and Theo Albrecht Jr. , close behind at €16 billion . Dieter Schwarz , owner of Lidl and Kaufland came in third , with a fortune of €11.5 billion . Aldi 's German operations consist of Aldi Nord 's 35 individual regional companies with about 2,500 stores in western , northern , and Eastern Germany , and Aldi Süd 's 32 regional companies with 1,600 stores in western and southern Germany . Internationally , Aldi Nord operates in Denmark , France , the Benelux countries , the Iberian Peninsula , and Poland , while Aldi Süd operates in Ireland , United Kingdom , Hungary , Switzerland , Australia , Austria and Slovenia ( Aldi Süd operates as Hofer within the latter two countries mentioned ) . Both Aldi Nord and Aldi Süd also operate in the United States ; Aldi Nord is owner of the Trader Joe 's chain , while Aldi Süd operates as `` Aldi '' . In December 2002 , a survey conducted by the German market research institute Forsa found 95 % of blue-collar workers , 88 % of white-collar workers , 84 % of public servants , and 80 % of self-employed Germans shop at Aldi . One of Aldi 's direct competitors internationally is Lidl . History The earliest roots of the company trace back to 1913 , when the mother of Karl and Theo Albrecht opened a small store in a suburb of Essen . Their father was employed as a miner and later as a baker 's assistant . Karl Albrecht was born in 1920 , Theo Albrecht in 1922 . Theo Albrecht completed an apprenticeship in his mother 's store , while Karl Albrecht worked in a delicatessen . Karl Albrecht took over a food shop formerly run by F. W. Judt who already advertised that they were the `` cheapest food source '' . Karl Albrecht served in the German Army during World War II . In 1946 , the brothers took over their mother 's business and soon opened another retail outlet nearby . By 1950 , the Albrecht brothers owned 13 stores in the Ruhr Valley . The brothers ' idea , which was new at the time , was to subtract the legal maximum rebate of 3 % before sale . The market leaders at the time , which often were co-operatives , required their customers to collect rebate stamps , and to send them at regular intervals to reclaim their money . The Albrecht brothers also rigorously removed merchandise that did not sell from their shelves , cutting costs by neither advertising nor selling fresh produce , and keeping the size of their retail outlets small . When the brothers split the company in 1960 over a dispute whether they should sell cigarettes , they owned 300 shops with a cash flow of DM90 million yearly . In 1962 , they introduced the name Aldi—short for Albrecht-Diskont . Aldi Nord and Aldi Süd have been financially and legally separate since 1966 , although both divisions ' names may appear ( as if they were a single enterprise ) with certain store brands or when negotiating with contractor companies . Aldi started to expand internationally in 1967 , when Aldi Süd acquired the grocery chain Hofer in Austria , Aldi Nord opened its first stores abroad in the Netherlands in 1973 , other countries followed . After German reunification and the fall of the Iron Curtain Aldi experienced a rapid expansion . The brothers retired as CEOs in 1993 ; control of the companies was placed in the hands of private family foundations , the Siepmann Foundation ( ALDI Süd ) and the Markus Foundation ( Aldi Nord , Trader Joes ) . Business organization Germany The Aldi Nord group currently consists of 35 independent regional branches with approximately 2,500 stores . Aldi Süd is made up of 31 companies with 1,600 stores . The border between their territories is commonly known as ″Aldi-Äquator″ ( literally : Aldi equator ) and runs from the Rhine via Mülheim an der Ruhr , Wermelskirchen , Marburg , Siegen , and Gießen east to just north of Fulda . The former East Germany is served by Aldi Nord , except for one Aldi Süd in Sonneberg , Thuringia , whose regional office is in Bavaria . The regional branches are organised as limited partnerships with a regional manager for each branch who reports directly to the head office in Essen ( Aldi Nord ) or Mülheim an der Ruhr ( Aldi Süd ) . Internationally The Aldi group operates over 8,000 stores worldwide . A store opens roughly every week in Britain alone . Aldi Nord is responsible for its stores in Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , France , Poland , Spain , Denmark , and Portugal , and also operates the Trader Joe 's markets in the United States . Aldi Süd 's responsibilities are in the United States ( operating under the Aldi name ) , Austria and Slovenia ( as Hofer ) , United Kingdom , Ireland , Australia , and Switzerland . Aldi Süd 's first Switzerland store opened in 2005 , while it has operated in Hungary since 2007 . Aldi Süd had invested an estimated €800m ( $ 1bn ; £670m ) in Greece from November 2008 until pulling out on 31 December 2010 . While Aldi Nord has renamed its Dutch and Belgian subsidiaries Combi and Lansa to the Aldi Markt/Aldi Marché brand , Aldi Süd tries to maintain a regional appearance , branding its stores Aldi Süd in Germany , Aldi Suisse in Switzerland , and Hofer in Austria and Slovenia . In October 2013 , Aldi opened the 300th store in the United Kingdom . Since launching in the United Kingdom , in Stechford , Birmingham , on 5 April 1990 , Aldi has grown consistently , and today has over 550 stores . While it is still a small player in the United Kingdom , with a grocery share of less than 3.6 % , its importance , along with that of continental no-frills competitor Lidl is growing , with half of shoppers in the United Kingdom visiting Lidl or Aldi over Christmas . Aldi has opened stores in affluent locations , including Knutsford & Bury St Edmunds . In much of Australia , Aldi filled a void in the discount supermarket business that arose when the discount grocery chain Franklins went out of business . Aldi opened its first store in Sydney , 2001 and has grown exponentially since , maintaining a 12.6 % market share as of early 2016 . Aldi Süd expanded to the United States in 1976 under the Aldi banner , having expanded throughout the Eastern and Midwestern U.S. , mostly through organic expansion , though it did buy Bottom Dollar Food in late 2014 from Delhaize Group . Aldi Süd announced in early 2015 that it hoped to expand into the already highly competitive Southern California market where Aldi Nord 's Trader Joe 's is based . By mid 2016 , Aldi had opened multiple locations across the greater Los Angeles area ranging from Vista , California to Bakersfield with several more locations slated to open by the end of the year . Geographic distribution Asterisks ( * ) indicate some European country as a member of the European Union Business practices Some Aldi practices are common in German supermarkets but largely unique to Aldi in other countries . These include the system of metal gates and turnstiles forcing customers to exit through the checkout , and charging customers for shopping bags . Until 2004 , Aldi stores accepted only cash ( since then , German stores have accepted domestic Girocard debit cards ) . Debit cards also are accepted in the United States , the United Kingdom , Austria , Belgium , Denmark , France , Portugal , Spain , the Netherlands , Switzerland , Ireland , Australia , Slovenia , and Hungary . All 4 major credit cards are accepted in the United States as of 1 March 2016 . Electronic Benefit Transfer cards are also accepted in the United States . Outside of the United States and France , Aldi generally does not accept credit cards , though Aldi Australia accepts MasterCard and Visa for a 0.5 % surcharge and Aldi Ireland accepts Visa/MasterCard with no surcharge . In the United States , as of February , 2016 , Aldi accepts all four major credit cards ( MasterCard , Visa , American Express and Discover Card ) , and from the beginnings all credit cards `` Carte Bleue '' ( Visa , American Express or MasterCard ) in France due to the banking system in France where debit cards do n't exist ; prior to this , Aldi only accepted debit cards . Aldi has accepted Visa/MasterCard without surcharge throughout the United Kingdom from October 2014 , which had previously been accepted only in Scotland , and throughout Germany from September 2015 . Aldi Suisse became one of the first companies to accept the Apple Pay contactless payment system in Switzerland on 7 July 2016 . In-store layout Aldi specialises in staple items , such as food , beverages , toilet paper , sanitary articles , and other inexpensive household items . Many of its products are own brands , with the number of other brands usually limited to a maximum of two for a given item . This increases sales for each article , and lets Aldi shops be smaller than stores with more brand choice . This practice let Aldi avoid price tags , even before the introduction of barcode scanners . On many of its own brands , if feasible , Aldi will place multiple barcodes on products to speed the check out process . Branded products carried include HARIBO in Germany , Knoppers in Belgium and France , Marmite and Branston Pickle in the United Kingdom ; and Vegemite and Milo in Australia . In the United States , major brand-name products , such as Oscar Mayer bacon , sometimes are offered as a 'special purchase ' : name-brand items that Aldi has received at a special price from the vendor and can offer for a reduced price . Unlike most shops , Aldi does not accept manufacturers ' coupons , although some USA stores successfully experimented with store coupons ( e.g . $ 10 off a $ 25 purchase ) . In addition to its standard assortment , Aldi has weekly special offers , some of them on more expensive products such as electronics , tools , appliances , or computers , usually from Medion . Discount items can include clothing , toys , flowers , and gifts . Specials have strict limits on quantities , and are for one week . Aldi 's early computer offers in Germany ( such as a Commodore 64 back in 1987 ) resulted in those products selling out in a few hours . Aldi is the largest wine retailer in Germany . Some Australian stores now sell alcoholic beverages . Some USA stores also sell alcoholic beverages ( mainly beer and wine ) where permitted by local state laws . Aldi mainly sells exclusively produced , custom-branded products ( often identical to and produced by major brands ) with brand names including Grandessa and Fit & Active . USA , Australian , and UK Aldi stores also feature bargain-priced , gourmet foods imported from Germany . Aldi 's gift certificates must be paid for in cash . Advertising policy Aldi has a policy in Germany of not advertising , apart from a weekly newsletter of special prices called `` Aldi informs '' that is distributed in stores and by direct mail , and often printed in local newspapers . It claims this is a cost saving that can be passed on to consumers . In Germany , Aldi has never used an external advertising agency . In the United States , it advertises in newspapers and on television , as well as print ads distributed in stores , and via the Internet . In the United Kingdom , print and television ads have appeared since May 2005 . In Australia , television advertising is common and the current ads are listed on the Australian website . Reputation Originally , Aldi shops were often ridiculed as being cheap shops selling low-quality goods , whose customers could not afford to shop elsewhere . In the United Kingdom , Aldi has won Supermarket of the Year two years in a row ( 2012/13 ) , and in 2013 , Aldi won the Grocer of the Year Award . However , in February 2015 , Aldi narrowly lost to Waitrose for the title of Supermarket of the Year 2015 . In April 2015 , Aldi overtook Waitrose to become the United Kingdom 's sixth-largest supermarket chain . In the United States , due to the relatively low staffing of Aldi locations compared to other supermarket chains , Aldi has a reputation of starting employees out at significantly higher than minimum wage , unusual among American supermarkets . In Ireland , Aldi has been accused of a `` lack of corporate responsibility '' to their farmer suppliers by the Irish Farmers ' Association . Subsidiaries and joint ventures Aldi Talk Aldi has a mobile virtual network operator in Germany , Belgium and the Netherlands , called Aldi Talk . Aldi also operates a similar network in Australia using Telstra 's 4G network , called Aldimobile . Aldi Liquor Aldi sells low cost liquor from its liquor stores . Up until March 2016 , Aldi had a liquor website serving the east coast of Australia . This has now been closed down , citing it wishes to focus on [ https : //www.insideretail.com.au/blog/2016/02/29/aldi-closing-online-liquor-store/ expanding the supermarket chain ] across Australia . Diskont In Austria through its subsidiary Hofer , Aldi has a joint venture with the local petrol retailer Free Energy ( FE ) Trading GmbH , to create some no frills petrol stations called Diskont . The 66 stations are on or nearby the stores , providing self-serve unleaded or diesel fuel by card-operated pumps . These have been in operation since 2009 . Criticism In May 2004 , German Aldi stores sold garden furniture made of Indonesian Meranti wood . Because it was not able to show that it was sourced legally ( 70 % of Indonesian timber is illegally logged ) , environmental organisations pressured Aldi to stop selling the furniture . Within days Aldi announced that all of the timber used in its products would bear the FSC certificate , which promotes sustainable forestry . In 2008 , Aldi UK demolished a historic coaching inn in Burpham , having previously agreed not to until planning consent had been received . ' , Roger Marjoribanks , Hon . Remembrancer , Borough of Guildford ( Accessed 3 May 2009 ) Aldi were later found to breach the planning conditions that had been imposed on them In 2010 , over 200 Aldi store managers in the United States filed charges over unfair labour practices , claiming they were illegally classified as exempt from overtime pay , receiving a fixed salary regardless of the actual number of hours worked . The plaintiffs claimed that instead of managing , most of the time was spent stocking shelves , cleaning spills and serving customers . Aldi store managers are not responsible for hiring , firing or promoting employees . In 2011 the lawsuit was settled under a confidential agreement and the complaint was dismissed with prejudice . In January 2013 , Aldi Germany was caught up in the horse meat contamination scandal along with Tesco and others . On 8 February 2013 , the store group admitted that some of its frozen lasagne and spaghetti bolognese products contained 30 % –100 % horse meat rather than the advertised beef and that it had terminated its relationship with the supplier responsible for the adulterated product . In January 2014 , following a mislabelling of turkey meat as halal , Aldi apologised and said , `` Aldi does not label any products as halal-certified '' . In May 2015 , Aldi apologised again after it sold pork products labelled as halal .

wh_3524--Aldi.txt

What is the country of origin of the supermarket chain Aldi ?

Religion is a cultural system of behaviors and practices , world views , sacred texts , holy places , ethics , and societal organisation that relate humanity to what an anthropologist has called `` an order of existence '' . Different religions may or may not contain various elements , ranging from the `` divine '' , `` sacred things '' , `` faith '' , a `` supernatural being or supernatural beings '' or `` ... some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life . '' Religious practices may include rituals , sermons , commemoration or veneration ( of God or deities ) , sacrifices , festivals , feasts , trances , initiations , funerary services , matrimonial services , meditation , prayer , music , art , dance , public service , or other aspects of human culture . Religions have sacred histories and narratives , which may be preserved in sacred scriptures , and symbols and holy places , that aim mostly to give a meaning to life . Religions may contain symbolic stories , which are sometimes said by followers to be true , that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life , the Universe , and other things . Traditionally , faith , in addition to reason , has been considered a source of religious beliefs . There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide . About 84 % of the world 's population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions , namely Christianity , Islam , Hinduism , Buddhism or forms of folk religion . With the onset of the modernisation of and the scientific revolution in the western world , some aspects of religion have cumulatively been criticized . Though the religiously unaffliated , including atheism ( the rejection of belief in the existence of deities ) and agnosticism ( the belief that the truth of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God , the divine or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable ) , have grown globally , many of the unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs . About 16 % of the world 's population is religiously unaffiliated . The study of religion encompasses a wide variety of academic disciplines , including theology , comparative religion and social scientific studies . Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion . Religion is one of the ten function systems of modern societies . Etymology and history of the concept of Religion Religion Religion ( from O.Fr . religion `` religious community '' , from L. religionem ( nom . religio ) `` respect for what is sacred , reverence for the gods '' , `` obligation , the bond between man and the gods '' ) is derived from the Latin religiō , the ultimate origins of which are obscure . One possible interpretation traced to Cicero , connects ' `` read '' , i.e . re ( again ) with lego in the sense of `` choose '' , `` go over again '' or `` consider carefully '' . Modern scholars such as Tom Harpur and Joseph Campbell favor the derivation from ' `` bind , connect '' , probably from a prefixed ' , i.e . re ( again ) + ligare or `` to reconnect '' , which was made prominent by St. Augustine , following the interpretation of Lactantius . The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders : `` we hear of the 'religion ' of the Golden Fleece , of a knight 'of the religion of Avys ' '' . In the ancient and medieval world , the etymological Latin root religio was understood as an individual virtue of worship , never as doctrine , practice , or actual source of knowledge . The modern concept of `` religion '' as an abstraction which entails distinct sets of beliefs or doctrines is a recent invention in the English language since such usage began with texts from the 17th century due to the splitting of Christendom during the Protestant Reformation and more prevalent colonization or globalization in the age of exploration which involved contact with numerous foreign and indigenous cultures with non-European languages . It was in the 17th century that the concept of `` religion '' received its modern shape despite the fact that ancient texts like the Bible , the Quran , and other ancient sacred texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written . For example , the Greek word threskeia , which was used by Greek writers such as Herodotus and Josephus and is found in texts like the New Testament , is sometimes translated as `` religion '' today , however , the term was understood as `` worship '' well into the medieval period . In the Quran , the Arabic word din is often translated as `` religion '' in modern translations , but up to the mid-1600s translators expressed din as `` law '' . Even in the 1st century AD , Josephus had used the Greek term ioudaismos , which some translate as `` Judaism '' today , even though he used it as an ethnic term , not one linked to modern abstract concepts of religion as a set of beliefs . It was in the 19th century that the terms `` Buddhism '' , `` Hinduism '' , `` Taoism '' , and `` Confucianism '' first emerged . Throughout its long history , Japan had no concept of `` religion '' since there was no corresponding Japanese word , nor anything close to its meaning , but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding , among other things , freedom of religion , the country had to contend with this Western idea . According to the philologist Max Müller in the 19th century , the root of the English word `` religion '' , the Latin religio , was originally used to mean only `` reverence for God or the gods , careful pondering of divine things , piety '' ( which Cicero further derived to mean `` diligence '' ) . Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world , including Egypt , Persia , and India , as having a similar power structure at this point in history . What is called ancient religion today , they would have only called `` law '' . Some languages have words that can be translated as `` religion '' , but they may use them in a very different way , and some have no word for religion at all . For example , the Sanskrit word dharma , sometimes translated as `` religion '' , also means law . Throughout classical South Asia , the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions . Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between `` imperial law '' and universal or `` Buddha law '' , but these later became independent sources of power . There is no precise equivalent of `` religion '' in Hebrew , and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious , national , racial , or ethnic identities . One of its central concepts is `` halakha '' , meaning the `` walk '' or `` path '' sometimes translated as `` law '' , which guides religious practice and belief and many aspects of daily life . Faith The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with faith or set of duties ; however , in the words of Émile Durkheim , religion differs from private belief in that it is `` something eminently social '' . Other terms The use of other terms , such as obedience to God or Islam are likewise grounded in particular histories and vocabularies . Definitions Religion as modern western construct An increasing number of scholars have expressed reservations about ever defining the `` essence '' of religion . They observe that the way we use the concept today is a particularly modern construct that would not have been understood through much of history and in many cultures outside the West ( or even in the West until after the Peace of Westphalia ) . The MacMIllan Encyclopedia of Religions states : Classical definitions Friedrich Schleiermacher in the late 18th century defined religion as das schlechthinnige Abhängigkeitsgefühl , commonly translated as `` a feeling of absolute dependence '' . His contemporary Hegel disagreed thoroughly , defining religion as `` the Divine Spirit becoming conscious of Himself through the finite spirit . '' Edward Burnett Tylor defined religion in 1871 as `` the belief in spiritual beings '' . He argued that narrowing the definition to mean the belief in a supreme deity or judgment after death or idolatry and so on , would exclude many peoples from the category of religious , and thus `` has the fault of identifying religion rather with particular developments than with the deeper motive which underlies them '' . He also argued that the belief in spiritual beings exists in all known societies . In his book The Varieties of Religious Experience , the psychologist William James defined religion as `` the feelings , acts , and experiences of individual men in their solitude , so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine '' . By the term `` divine '' James meant `` any object that is godlike , whether it be a concrete deity or not '' to which the individual feels impelled to respond with solemnity and gravity . The sociologist Durkheim , in his seminal book The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life , defined religion as a `` unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things '' . By sacred things he meant things `` set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church , all those who adhere to them '' . Sacred things are not , however , limited to gods or spirits.That is how , according to Durkheim , Buddhism is a religion . `` In default of gods , Buddhism admits the existence of sacred things , namely , the four noble truths and the practices derived from them '' ( ibid , p. 45 ) . On the contrary , a sacred thing can be `` a rock , a tree , a spring , a pebble , a piece of wood , a house , in a word , anything can be sacred '' . Religious beliefs , myths , dogmas and legends are the representations that express the nature of these sacred things , and the virtues and powers which are attributed to them . Echoes of James ' and Durkheim 's definitions are to be found in the writings of , for example , Frederick Ferré who defined religion as `` one 's way of valuing most comprehensively and intensively '' . Similarly , for the theologian Paul Tillich , faith is `` the state of being ultimately concerned '' , which `` is itself religion . Religion is the substance , the ground , and the depth of man 's spiritual life . '' When religion is seen in terms of `` sacred '' , `` divine '' , intensive `` valuing '' , or `` ultimate concern '' , then it is possible to understand why scientific findings and philosophical criticisms ( e.g . Richard Dawkins ) do not necessarily disturb its adherents . Modern definitions The anthropologist Clifford Geertz defined religion as a Alluding perhaps to Tylor 's `` deeper motive '' , Geertz remarked that The theologian Antoine Vergote took the term `` supernatural '' simply to mean whatever transcends the powers of nature or human agency . He also emphasized the `` cultural reality '' of religion , which he defined as Peter Mandaville and Paul James intended to get away from the modernist dualisms or dichotomous understandings of immanence/transcendence , spirituality/materialism , and sacredness/secularity . They define religion as According to the MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religions , there is an experiential aspect to religion which can be found in almost every culture : Aspects A religion is a cultural system of behaviors and practices , world views , sacred texts , holy places , ethics , and societal organisation that relate humanity to an order of existence . Practices The practices of a religion may include rituals , sermons , commemoration or veneration ( of a deity , gods , or goddesses ) , sacrifices , festivals , feasts , trances , initiations , funerary services , matrimonial services , meditation , prayer , music , art , dance , public service , or other aspects of human culture . Worldview Religions have sacred histories , narratives , and mythologies which may be preserved in sacred scriptures , and symbols and holy places , that aim to explain the meaning of life , the origin of life , or the Universe . Religious beliefs Traditionally , faith , in addition to reason , has been considered a source of religious beliefs . The interplay between faith and reason , and their use as actual or perceived support for religious beliefs , have been a subject of interest to philosophers and theologians . Mythology The word myth has several meanings . # A traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice , belief , or natural phenomenon ; # A person or thing having only an imaginary or unverifiable existence ; or # A metaphor for the spiritual potentiality in the human being . Ancient polytheistic religions , such as those of Greece , Rome , and Scandinavia , are usually categorized under the heading of mythology . Religions of pre-industrial peoples , or cultures in development , are similarly called `` myths '' in the anthropology of religion . The term `` myth '' can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people . By defining another person 's religious stories and beliefs as mythology , one implies that they are less real or true than one 's own religious stories and beliefs . Joseph Campbell remarked , `` Mythology is often thought of as other people 's religions , and religion can be defined as mis-interpreted mythology . '' In sociology , however , the term myth has a non-pejorative meaning . There , myth is defined as a story that is important for the group whether or not it is objectively or provably true . Examples include the resurrection of their real-life founder Jesus , which , to Christians , explains the means by which they are freed from sin , is symbolic of the power of life over death , and is also said to be a historical event . But from a mythological outlook , whether or not the event actually occurred is unimportant . Instead , the symbolism of the death of an old `` life '' and the start of a new `` life '' is what is most significant . Religious believers may or may not accept such symbolic interpretations . Social organisation Religions have a societal basis , either as a living tradition which is carried by lay participants , or with an organized clergy , and a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership . Types and demographics The list of still-active religious movements given here is an attempt to summarize the most important regional and philosophical influences on local communities , but it is by no means a complete description of every religious community , nor does it explain the most important elements of individual religiousness . Types of religion In the 19th and 20th centuries , the academic practice of comparative religion divided religious belief into philosophically defined categories called `` world religions . '' Some academics studying the subject have divided religions into three broad categories : # world religions , a term which refers to transcultural , international faiths ; # indigenous religions , which refers to smaller , culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups ; and # new religious movements , which refers to recently developed faiths . Some recent scholarship has argued that not all types of religion are necessarily separated by mutually exclusive philosophies , and furthermore that the utility of ascribing a practice to a certain philosophy , or even calling a given practice religious , rather than cultural , political , or social in nature , is limited . The current state of psychological study about the nature of religiousness suggests that it is better to refer to religion as a largely invariant phenomenon that should be distinguished from cultural norms ( i.e . `` religions '' ) . Some scholars classify religions as either universal religions that seek worldwide acceptance and actively look for new converts , or ethnic religions that are identified with a particular ethnic group and do not seek converts . Others reject the distinction , pointing out that all religious practices , whatever their philosophical origin , are ethnic because they come from a particular culture . Demographics The five largest religious groups by world population , estimated to account for 5.8 billion people and 84 % of the population , are Christianity , Islam , Buddhism , Hinduism ( with the relative numbers for Buddhism and Hinduism dependent on the extent of syncretism ) and traditional folk religion . A global poll in 2012 surveyed 57 countries and reported that 59 % of the world 's population identified as religious , 23 % as not religious , 13 % as `` convinced atheists '' , and also a 9 % decrease in identification as `` religious '' when compared to the 2005 average from 39 countries . A follow up poll in 2015 found that 63 % of the globe identified as religious , 22 % as not religious , and 11 % as `` convinced atheists '' . On average , women are `` more religious '' than men . Some people follow multiple religions or multiple religious principles at the same time , regardless of whether or not the religious principles they follow traditionally allow for syncretism . Abrahamic Abrahamic religions are monotheistic religions which believe they descend from Abraham . Judaism Judaism is the oldest Abrahamic religion , originating in the people of ancient Israel and Judea . The Torah is its foundational text , and is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible . It is supplemented by oral tradition , set down in written form in later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud . Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts , practices , theological positions , and forms of organization . Within Judaism there are a variety of movements , most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism , which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah ; historically , this assertion was challenged by various groups . The Jewish people were scattered after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE . Today there are about 13 million Jews , about 40 per cent living in Israel and 40 per cent in the United States . The largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism ( Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism ) , Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism . Christianity Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth ( 1st century ) as presented in the New Testament . The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the Christ , the Son of God , and as Savior and Lord . Almost all Christians believe in the Trinity , which teaches the unity of Father , Son ( Jesus Christ ) , and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead . Most Christians can describe their faith with the Nicene Creed . As the religion of Byzantine Empire in the first millennium and of Western Europe during the time of colonization , Christianity has been propagated throughout the world . The main divisions of Christianity are , according to the number of adherents : * Catholic Church , headed by the Pope in Rome , is a communion of the Western church and 22 Eastern Catholic churches . * Eastern Christianity , which include Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodoxy , and the Church of the East . * Protestantism , separated from the Catholic Church in the 16th-century Reformation and is split into many denominations . There are also smaller groups , including : * Restorationism , the belief that Christianity should be restored ( as opposed to reformed ) along the lines of what is known about the apostolic early church . * Latter Day Saint movement , founded by Joseph Smith in the late 1820s . * Jehovah 's Witnesses , founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell . Islam Islam is based on the Quran , one of the holy books considered by Muslims to be revealed by God , and on the teachings ( hadith ) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , a major political and religious figure of the 7th century CE . Islam is the most widely practiced religion of Southeast Asia , North Africa , Western Asia , and Central Asia , while Muslim-majority countries also exist in parts of South Asia , Sub-Saharan Africa , and Southeast Europe . There are also several Islamic republics , including Iran , Pakistan , Mauritania , and Afghanistan . * Sunni Islam is the largest denomination within Islam and follows the Quran , the hadiths which record the sunnah , whilst placing emphasis on the sahabah . * Shia Islam is the second largest denomination of Islam and its adherents believe that Ali succeeded Muhammad and further places emphasis on Muhammad 's family . * Ahmadiyya adherents believe that the awaited Imam Mahdi and the Promised Messiah has arrived , believed to be Mirza Ghulam Ahmad by Ahmadis . * There are also Muslim revivalist movements such as Muwahhidism and Salafism . Other denominations of Islam include Nation of Islam , Ibadi , Sufism , Quranism , Mahdavia , and non-denominational Muslims . Wahhabism is the dominant Muslim schools of thought in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Other The Bahá ' í Faith is an Abrahamic religion founded in 19th century Iran and since then has spread worldwide . It teaches unity of all religious philosophies and accepts all of the prophets of Judaism , Christianity , and Islam as well as additional prophets including its founder Bahá ' u'lláh . One of its divisions is the Orthodox Bahá ' í Faith . Smaller regional Abrahamic groups also exist , including Samaritanism ( primarily in Israel and the West Bank ) , the Rastafari movement ( primarily in Jamaica ) , and Druze ( primarily in Syria and Lebanon ) . East Asian religions East Asian religions ( also known as Far Eastern religions or Taoic religions ) consist of several religions of East Asia which make use of the concept of Tao ( in Chinese ) or Dō ( in Japanese or Korean ) . They include : * Taoism and Confucianism , as well as Korean , Vietnamese , and Japanese religion influenced by Chinese thought . * Chinese folk religion : the indigenous religions of the Han Chinese , or , by metonymy , of all the populations of the Chinese cultural sphere . It includes the syncretism of Confucianism , Taoism and Buddhism , Wuism , as well as many new religious movements such as Chen Tao , Falun Gong and Yiguandao . * Other folk and new religions of East Asia and Southeast Asia such as Korean shamanism , Chondogyo , and Jeung San Do in Korea ; Shinto , Shugendo , Ryukyuan religion , and Japanese new religions in Japan ; Satsana Phi in Laos ; Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo , and Vietnamese folk religion in Vietnam . Indian religions Indian religions are practiced or were founded in the Indian subcontinent . They are sometimes classified as the dharmic religions , as they all feature dharma , the specific law of reality and duties expected according to the religion . Hinduism is a synecdoche describing the similar philosophies of Vaishnavism , Shaivism , and related groups practiced or founded in the Indian subcontinent . Concepts most of them share in common include karma , caste , reincarnation , mantras , yantras , and darśana.Hinduism is variously defined as a `` religion '' , `` set of religious beliefs and practices '' , `` religious tradition '' etc . For a discussion on the topic , see : `` Establishing the boundaries '' in Gavin Flood ( 2003 ) , pp . 1-17 . René Guénon in his Introduction to the Study of the Hindu doctrines ( 1921 ed . ) , Sophia Perennis , ISBN 0-900588-74-8 , proposes a definition of the term `` religion '' and a discussion of its relevance ( or lack of ) to Hindu doctrines ( part II , chapter 4 , p. 58 ) . Hinduism is the most ancient of still-active religions , with origins perhaps as far back as prehistoric times . Hinduism is not a monolithic religion but a religious category containing dozens of separate philosophies amalgamated as Sanātana Dharma , which is the name by which Hinduism has been known throughout history by its followers . Jainism , taught primarily by Parsva ( 9th century BCE ) and Mahavira ( 6th century BCE ) , is an ancient Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world . Jains are found mostly in India . Buddhism was founded by Siddhattha Gotama in the 6th century BCE . Buddhists generally agree that Gotama aimed to help sentient beings end their suffering ( dukkha ) by understanding the true nature of phenomena , thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ( saṃsāra ) , that is , achieving nirvana . * Theravada Buddhism , which is practiced mainly in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia alongside folk religion , shares some characteristics of Indian religions . It is based in a large collection of texts called the Pali Canon . * Mahayana Buddhism ( or the `` Great Vehicle '' ) under which are a multitude of doctrines that became prominent in China and are still relevant in Vietnam , Korea , Japan and to a lesser extent in Europe and the United States . Mahayana Buddhism includes such disparate teachings as Zen , Pure Land , and Soka Gakkai . * Vajrayana Buddhism first appeared in India in the 3rd century CE . It is currently most prominent in the Himalaya regions and extends across all of Asia ( cf . Mikkyō ) . * Two notable new Buddhist sects are Hòa Hảo and the Dalit Buddhist movement , which were developed separately in the 20th century . Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak and ten successive Sikh gurus in 15th century Punjab . It is the fifth-largest organized religion in the world , with approximately 30 million Sikhs . Sikhs are expected to embody the qualities of a Sant-Sipāhī—a saint-soldier , have control over one 's internal vices and be able to be constantly immersed in virtues clarified in the Guru Granth Sahib . The principal beliefs of Sikhi are faith in Waheguru—represented by the phrase ik ōaṅkār , meaning one God , who prevails in everything , along with a praxis in which the Sikh is enjoined to engage in social reform through the pursuit of justice for all human beings . Local religions Indigenous and folk Indigenous religions or folk religions refers to a broad category of traditional religions that can be characterised by shamanism , animism and ancestor worship , where traditional means `` indigenous , that which is aboriginal or foundational , handed down from generation to generation… '' . These are religions that are closely associated with a particular group of people , ethnicity or

sfq_279--Religion.txt

In which religion is the temple, or place of worship, known as the gurdwara?

Not to be confused with Heart of Darkness ( 1993 ) , a film version of the original novel that Apocalypse Now is based on . Hearts of Darkness : A Filmmaker 's Apocalypse is a 1991 documentary film about the production of the 1979 epic Vietnam War feature film Apocalypse Now . The original movie which the documentary was about had been directed by Francis Ford Coppola and starred Marlon Brando , Martin Sheen , and Robert Duvall . Synopsis The title is derived from the source material for Apocalypse Now , the Joseph Conrad novella Heart of Darkness . Using behind-the-scenes footage , and narrated by Eleanor Coppola , it chronicles how production problems including bad weather , actors ' health and other issues delayed the film , increasing costs and nearly destroying the life and career of Francis Ford Coppola . In 1990 , Eleanor Coppola turned her material over to two young filmmakers , George Hickenlooper and Fax Bahr ( co-creator of MADtv ) , who then shot new interviews with the original cast and crew and intercut them with her existing material . After a year of editing , Hickenlooper , Bahr , and Coppola debuted their film at the 1991 Cannes Film Festival to universal critical acclaim . Awards Originally aired on television in the United States , Hearts of Darkness won several awards : The National Board of Review , USA award for `` Best Documentary '' , 1991 , an American Cinema Editors award for `` Best Edited Documentary '' , 1992 , two Academy of Television Arts and Sciences awards for `` Outstanding Individual Achievement – Informational Programming – Directing '' and `` Outstanding Individual Achievement – Informational Programming – Picture Editing '' , 1992 , and the International Documentary Association award , 1992 . Home video release Hearts of Darkness was released on DVD November 20 , 2007 . The DVD version includes a commentary track from both Eleanor and Francis Coppola ( although each was recorded separately ) and a bonus documentary entitled Coda , about Coppola 's film Youth Without Youth . It currently is available on Blu-ray in the Full Disclosure edition alongside both the Theatrical Version and the Redux Version of Apocalypse Now , released on October 2010 Cultural references A sample from the Coppola interview shown at the beginning of the film , `` We were in the jungle , there were too many of us , we had access to too much money , too much equipment , and little by little we went insane '' , is featured in UNKLE 's song `` '' UNKLE ( Main Title Theme ) '' , and also in the Cabaret Voltaire song `` Project80 '' ( as part of a larger sample from that interview ) . Hearts of Dartmouth : Life of a Trailer Park Girl is a documentary about the making of the TV series Trailer Park Boys . It was directed and narrated by Annemarie Cassidy , then-wife of Trailer Park Boys director Mike Clattenburg . An Animaniacs cartoon entitled `` Hearts of Twilight '' was a parody of the documentary . The television series Community paid homage to the documentary in the season 3 episode `` Documentary Filmmaking : Redux '' , with Abed and guest star Luis Guzmán both recognizing the homage and stating that `` Hearts of Darkness is way better than Apocalypse Now . '' On the DVD commentary of Good Will Hunting , Matt Damon and Ben Affleck reveal that Casey Affleck 's line `` I swallowed a bug '' is a reference to Marlon Brando . Similarly , in the Joss Whedon film Serenity , River Tam has the same line . The 2008 comedy film Tropic Thunder starring Ben Stiller , Jack Black , and Robert Downey , Jr. was meant to be a parody of both Hearts of Darkness and Apocalypse Now .

tb_490--Hearts_of_Darkness:_A_Filmmaker's_Apocalypse.txt

The documentary about the making of which 1970s groundbreaking film was titled Hearts of Darkness alluding not just to the novel that inspired it but also to it's chaotic production?

The Battle of Stalingrad ( 23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943 ) was a major battle on the Eastern Front of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad ( now Volgograd ) in Southern Russia , on the eastern boundary of Europe . Marked by constant close quarters combat and direct assaults on civilians by air raids , it is often regarded as one of the single largest ( nearly 2.2 million personnel ) and bloodiest ( 1.7–2 million wounded , killed or captured ) battles in the history of warfare . The heavy losses inflicted on the German Wehrmacht make it arguably the most strategically decisive battle of the whole war . It was a turning point in the European theatre of World War II ; German forces never regained the initiative in the East and withdrew a vast military force from the West to replace their losses . The German offensive to capture Stalingrad began in late summer 1942 , using the German 6th Army and elements of the 4th Panzer Army . The attack was supported by intensive Luftwaffe bombing that reduced much of the city to rubble . The fighting degenerated into house-to-house fighting , and both sides poured reinforcements into the city . By mid-November 1942 , the Germans had pushed the Soviet defenders back at great cost into narrow zones along the west bank of the Volga River . On 19 November 1942 , the Red Army launched Operation Uranus , a two-pronged attack targeting the weaker Romanian and Hungarian forces protecting the German 6th Army 's flanks . The Axis forces on the flanks were overrun and the 6th Army was cut off and surrounded in the Stalingrad area . Adolf Hitler ordered that the army stay in Stalingrad and make no attempt to break out ; instead , attempts were made to supply the army by air and to break the encirclement from the outside . Heavy fighting continued for another two months . By the beginning of February 1943 , the Axis forces in Stalingrad had exhausted their ammunition and food . The remaining elements of the 6th Army surrendered . The battle lasted five months , one week , and three days . Historical background By the spring of 1942 , despite the failure of Operation Barbarossa to decisively defeat the Soviet Union in a single campaign , the Germans had captured vast expanses of territory , including Ukraine , Belarus , and the Baltic republics . Elsewhere , the war had been progressing well : the U-boat offensive in the Atlantic had been very successful and Rommel had just captured Tobruk . In the east , they had stabilized their front in a line running from Leningrad in the north to Rostov in the south . There were a number of salients , but these were not particularly threatening . Hitler was confident that he could master the Red Army after the winter of 1942 , because even though Army Group Centre ( Heeresgruppe Mitte ) had suffered heavy losses west of Moscow the previous winter , 65 % of Army Group Centre 's infantry had not been engaged and had been rested and re-equipped . Neither Army Group North nor Army Group South had been particularly hard pressed over the winter . Stalin was expecting the main thrust of the German summer attacks to be directed against Moscow again . With the initial operations being very successful , the Germans decided that their summer campaign in 1942 would be directed at the southern parts of the Soviet Union . The initial objectives in the region around Stalingrad were the destruction of the industrial capacity of the city and the deployment of forces to block the Volga River . The river was a key route from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea to central Russia . Its capture would disrupt commercial river traffic . The Germans cut the pipeline from the oilfields when they captured Rostov on 23 July . The capture of Stalingrad would make the delivery of Lend Lease supplies via the Persian Corridor much more difficult . Hitler proclaimed that after Stalingrad had been captured , all male civilians were to be killed and all women and children were to be deported because Stalingrad was dangerous with its communist inhabitants . On 23 July 1942 , Hitler personally rewrote the operational objectives for the 1942 campaign , greatly expanding them to include the occupation of the city of Stalingrad . Both sides began to attach propaganda value to the city based on it bearing the name of the leader of the Soviet Union . It was assumed that the fall of the city would also firmly secure the northern and western flanks of the German armies as they advanced on Baku , with the aim of securing these strategic petroleum resources for Germany . The expansion of objectives was a significant factor in Germany 's failure at Stalingrad , caused by German overconfidence and an underestimation of Soviet reserves.Walsh , Stephen . ( 2000 ) . Stalingrad 1942–1943 The Infernal Cauldron . London , New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0-7432-0916-8 . The Soviets realized that they were under tremendous constraints of time and resources and ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to fight . Prelude Army Group South was selected for a sprint forward through the southern Russian steppes into the Caucasus to capture the vital Soviet oil fields there . The planned summer offensive was code-named Fall Blau ( Case Blue ) . It was to include the German 6th , 17th , 4th Panzer and 1st Panzer Armies . Army Group South had overrun the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1941 . Poised in Eastern Ukraine , it was to spearhead the offensive . Hitler intervened , however , ordering the Army Group to split in two . Army Group South ( A ) , under the command of Wilhelm List , was to continue advancing south towards the Caucasus as planned with the 17th Army and First Panzer Army . Army Group South ( B ) , including Friedrich Paulus 's 6th Army and Hermann Hoth 's 4th Panzer Army , was to move east towards the Volga and Stalingrad . Army Group B was commanded initially by Field Marshal Fedor von Bock and later by General Maximilian von Weichs . The start of Case Blue had been planned for late May 1942 . A number of German and Romanian units that were to take part in Blau , however , were besieging Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula . Delays in ending the siege pushed back the start date for Blau several times , and the city did not fall until the end of June . Operation Fridericus I by the Germans against the `` Isium bulge '' , pinched off the Soviet salient in the Second Battle of Kharkov , and resulted in the envelopment of a large Soviet force between 17 May and 29 May . Similarly , Operation Wilhelm attacked Voltshansk on 13 June and Operation Fridericus attacked Kupiansk on 22 June . Blau finally opened as Army Group South began its attack into southern Russia on 28 June 1942 . The German offensive started well . Soviet forces offered little resistance in the vast empty steppes and started streaming eastward . Several attempts to re-establish a defensive line failed when German units outflanked them . Two major pockets were formed and destroyed : the first , northeast of Kharkov , on 2 July , and a second , around Millerovo , Rostov Oblast , a week later . Meanwhile , the Hungarian 2nd Army and the German 4th Panzer Army had launched an assault on Voronezh , capturing the city on 5 July . The initial advance of the 6th Army was so successful that Hitler intervened and ordered the 4th Panzer Army to join Army Group South ( A ) to the south . A massive traffic jam resulted when the 4th Panzer and the 1st Panzer both required the few roads in the area . Both armies were stopped dead while they attempted to clear the resulting mess of thousands of vehicles . The delay was long , and it is thought that it cost the advance at least one week . With the advance now slowed , Hitler changed his mind and reassigned the 4th Panzer Army back to the attack on Stalingrad . By the end of July , the Germans had pushed the Soviets across the Don River . At this point , the Don and Volga Rivers were only 65 km apart , and the Germans left their main supply depots west of the Don , which had important implications later in the course of the battle . The Germans began using the armies of their Italian , Hungarian and Romanian allies to guard their left ( northern ) flank . The Italians won several accolades in official German communiques . Sometimes they were held in little regard by the Germans , and were even accused of having low morale : in reality , the Italian divisions fought comparatively well , with the 3rd Mountain Infantry Division Ravenna and 5th Infantry Division Cosseria proving to have good morale , according to a German liaison officer and being forced to retreat only after a massive armoured attack in which German reinforcements had failed to arrive in time , according to a German historian . Indeed the Italians distinguished themselves in numerous battles , as in the battle of Nikolayevka . On 25 July the Germans faced stiff resistance with a Soviet bridgehead west of Kalach . `` We had had to pay a high cost in men and material ... left on the Kalatch battlefield were numerous burnt-out or shot-up German tanks . '' The Germans formed bridgeheads across the Don on 20 Aug. with the 295th and 76th Infantry Divisions , enabling the XIVth Panzer Corps `` to thrust to the Volga north of Stalingrad . '' The German 6th Army was only a few dozen kilometers from Stalingrad . The 4th Panzer Army , ordered south on 13 July to block the Soviet retreat `` weakened by the 17th Army and the 1st Panzer Army '' , had turned northwards to help take the city from the south . To the south , Army Group A was pushing far into the Caucasus , but their advance slowed as supply lines grew overextended . The two German army groups were not positioned to support one another due to the great distances involved . After German intentions became clear in July 1942 , Stalin appointed Marshal Andrey Yeryomenko as commander of the Southeastern Front on 1 August 1942 . Yeryomenko and Commissar Nikita Khrushchev were tasked with planning the defense of Stalingrad.Craig , ( 1973 ) The eastern border of Stalingrad was the wide River Volga , and over the river , additional Soviet units were deployed . These units became the newly formed 62nd Army , which Yeryomenko placed under the command of Lieutenant General Vasiliy Chuikov on 11 September 1942 . The situation was extremely dire . When asked how he interpreted his task , he responded `` We will defend the city or die in the attempt . '' The 62nd Army 's mission was to defend Stalingrad at all costs . Chuikov 's generalship during the battle earned him one of his two Hero of the Soviet Union awards . Attack on Stalingrad David Glantz indicated that four hard-fought battles – collectively known as the Kotluban Operations – north of Stalingrad , that the Soviets made their greatest stand , decided Germany 's fate before the Nazis ever set foot in the city itself , and were a turning point in the war . Beginning in late August , continuing in September and into October , Soviets committed between two and four armies in hastily coordinated and poorly controlled attacks against the German 's northern flank that resulted in more than 200,000 Red Army casualties , but that slowed the German assault . On 23 August the 6th Army reached the outskirts of Stalingrad in pursuit of the 62nd and 64th Armies , which had fallen back into the city . Kleist later said after the war : The Soviets had enough warning of the Germans ' advance to ship grain , cattle , and railway cars across the Volga and out of harm 's way but most civilian residents were not evacuated . This `` harvest victory '' left the city short of food even before the German attack began . Before the Heer reached the city itself , the Luftwaffe had rendered the River Volga , vital for bringing supplies into the city , unusable to Soviet shipping . Between 25 and 31 July , 32 Soviet ships were sunk , with another nine crippled.Bergström , Christer , ( 2007 ) The battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by Generaloberst Wolfram von Richthofen 's Luftflotte 4 , which in the summer and autumn of 1942 was the single most powerful air formation in the world . Some 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped in 48 hours , more than in London at the height of the Blitz . Much of the city was quickly turned to rubble , although some factories continued production while workers joined in the fighting . The 369th ( Croatian ) Reinforced Infantry Regiment was the only non-German unit selected by the Wehrmacht to enter Stalingrad city during assault operations . It fought as part of the 100th Jäger Division . Stalin rushed all available troops to the east bank of the Volga , some from as far away as Siberia . All the regular ferries were quickly destroyed by the Luftwaffe , which then targeted troop barges being towed slowly across the river by tugs . Many civilians were evacuated across the Volga.Craig ( 1973 ) It has been said that Stalin prevented civilians from leaving the city in the belief that their presence would encourage greater resistance from the city 's defenders . Civilians , including women and children , were put to work building trenchworks and protective fortifications . A massive German air raid on 23 August caused a firestorm , killing hundreds and turning Stalingrad into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins . Ninety percent of the living space in the Voroshilovskiy area was destroyed . Between 23 and 26 August , Soviet reports indicate 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded as a result of the bombing . Casualties of 40,000 were greatly exaggerated , and after 25 August , the Soviets did not record any civilian and military casualties as a result of air raids.Bergström quotes : Soviet Reports on the effects of air raids between 23–26 August 1942 . This indicates 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded The Soviet Air Force , the Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily ( VVS ) , was swept aside by the Luftwaffe . The VVS bases in the immediate area lost 201 aircraft between 23 and 31 August , and despite meager reinforcements of some 100 aircraft in August , it was left with just 192 serviceable aircraft , 57 of which were fighters . The Soviets continued to pour aerial reinforcements into the Stalingrad area in late September , but continued to suffer appalling losses ; the Luftwaffe had complete control of the skies . The burden of the initial defense of the city fell on the 1077th Anti-Aircraft Regiment , a unit made up mainly of young female volunteers who had no training for engaging ground targets . Despite this , and with no support available from other units , the AA gunners stayed at their posts and took on the advancing panzers . The German 16th Panzer Division reportedly had to fight the 1077th 's gunners `` shot for shot '' until all 37 anti-aircraft guns were destroyed or overrun . The 16th Panzer was shocked to find that , due to Soviet manpower shortages , it had been fighting female soldiers . In the early stages of the battle , the NKVD organized poorly armed `` Workers ' militias '' composed of civilians not directly involved in war production for immediate use in the battle . The civilians were often sent into battle without rifles . Staff and students from the local technical university formed a `` tank destroyer '' unit . They assembled tanks from leftover parts at the tractor factory . These tanks , unpainted and lacking gunsights , were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line . They could only be aimed at point blank range through the gun barrel . By the end of August , Army Group South ( B ) had finally reached the Volga , north of Stalingrad . Another advance to the river south of the city followed , while the Soviets abandoned their Rossoshka position for the inner defensive ring west of Stalingrad . The wings of the 6th Army and the 4th Panzer Army met near Jablotchni along the Zaritza on 2 Sept. By 1 September , the Soviets could only reinforce and supply their forces in Stalingrad by perilous crossings of the Volga under constant bombardment by artillery and aircraft . On 5 September , the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organized a massive attack against XIV Panzer Corps . The Luftwaffe helped repulse the offensive by heavily attacking Soviet artillery positions and defensive lines . The Soviets were forced to withdraw at midday after only a few hours . Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had committed , 30 were lost to air attack . Soviet operations were constantly hampered by the Luftwaffe . On 18 September , the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army launched an offensive against VIII Army Corps at Kotluban . VIII . Fliegerkorps dispatched wave after wave of Stuka dive-bombers to prevent a breakthrough . The offensive was repulsed . The Stukas claimed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks knocked out that morning , while escorting Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft . Amid the debris of the wrecked city , the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies , which included the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division , anchored their defense lines with strongpoints in houses and factories . Fighting within the ruined city was fierce and desperate . Lieutenant General Alexander Rodimtsev was in charge of the 13th Guards Rifle Division , and received one of two Heroes of the Soviet Union awarded during the battle for his actions . Stalin 's Order No . 227 of 27 July 1942 decreed that all commanders who ordered unauthorized retreat would be subject to a military tribunal . However , it was the NKVD that ordered the regular army and lectured them , on the need to show some guts . Through brutal coercion for self-sacrifice , thousands of deserters and presumed malingerers were captured or executed to discipline the troops . At Stalingrad , it is estimated that 14,000 soldiers of the Red Army were executed in order to keep the formation . `` Not a step back ! '' and `` There is no land behind the Volga ! '' were the slogans . The Germans pushing forward into Stalingrad suffered heavy casualties . Fighting in the city By 12 September , at the time of their retreat into the city , the Soviet 62nd Army had been reduced to 90 tanks , 700 mortars and just 20,000 personnel . The remaining tanks were used as immobile strongpoints within the city . The initial German attack attempted to take the city in a rush . One infantry division went after the Mamayev Kurgan , one attacked the central rail station and one attacked toward the central landing stage on the Volga . Though initially successful , the German attacks stalled in the face of Soviet reinforcements brought in from across the Volga . The 13th Guards Rifle Division , assigned to counterattack at the Mamayev Kurgan and at Railway Station No . 1 suffered particularly heavy losses . Over 30 percent of its soldiers were killed in the first 24 hours , and just 320 out of the original 10,000 survived the entire battle . Both objectives were retaken , but only temporarily . The railway station changed hands 14 times in six hours . By the following evening , the 13th Guards Rifle Division had ceased to exist . Combat raged for three days at the giant grain elevator in the south of the city . About fifty Red Army defenders , cut off from resupply , held the position for five days and fought off ten different assaults before running out of ammunition and water . Only forty dead Soviet fighters were found , though the Germans had thought there were many more due to the intensity of resistance . The Soviets burned large amounts of grain during their retreat in order to deny the enemy food . Paulus chose the grain elevator and silos as the symbol of Stalingrad for a patch he was having designed to commemorate the battle after a German victory . German military doctrine was based on the principle of combined-arms teams and close cooperation between tanks , infantry , engineers , artillery and ground-attack aircraft . Some Soviet commanders adopted the tactic of always keeping their front-line positions as close to the Germans as physically possible ; Chuikov called this `` hugging '' the Germans . This slowed the German advance and reduced the effectiveness of the German advantage in supporting fire . The Red Army gradually adopted a strategy to hold for as long as possible all the ground in the city . Thus , they converted multi-floored apartment blocks , factories , warehouses , street corner residences and office buildings into a series of well defended strongpoints with small 5–10 man units . Manpower in the city was constantly refreshed by bringing additional troops over the Volga . When a position was lost , an immediate attempt was usually made to re-take it with fresh forces . Bitter fighting raged for every ruin , street , factory , house , basement , and staircase . Even the sewers were the sites of firefights . The Germans , calling this unseen urban warfare Rattenkrieg ( `` Rat War '' ) , bitterly joked about capturing the kitchen but still fighting for the living room and the bedroom . Buildings had to be cleared room by room through the bombed-out debris of residential neighborhoods , office blocks , basements and apartment high-rises . Some of the taller buildings , blasted into roofless shells by earlier German aerial bombardment , saw floor-by-floor , close quarters combat , with the Germans and Soviets on alternate levels , firing at each other through holes in the floors . Fighting on and around Mamayev Kurgan , a prominent hill above the city , was particularly merciless ; indeed , the position changed hands many times . In another part of the city , a Soviet platoon under the command of Sergeant Yakov Pavlov fortified a four-story building that oversaw a square 300 meters from the river bank , later called Pavlov 's House . The soldiers surrounded it with minefields , set up machine-gun positions at the windows and breached the walls in the basement for better communications . The soldiers found about ten Soviet civilians hiding in the basement . They were not relieved , and not significantly reinforced , for two months . The building was labeled Festung ( `` Fortress '' ) on German maps . Sgt . Pavlov was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions . The Germans made slow but steady progress through the city . Positions were taken individually , but the Germans were never able to capture the key crossing points along the river bank . By 27 Sept. the Germans occupied the southern portion of the city , but the Soviets held the center and northern part . Most importantly , the Soviets controlled the ferries to their supplies on the east bank of the Volga . The Germans used airpower , tanks and heavy artillery to clear the city with varying degrees of success . Toward the end of the battle , the gigantic railroad gun nicknamed Dora was brought into the area . The Soviets built up a large number of artillery batteries on the east bank of the Volga . This artillery was able to bombard the German positions or at least to provide counter-battery fire . Snipers on both sides used the ruins to inflict casualties . The most famous Soviet sniper in Stalingrad was Vasily Zaytsev , with 225 confirmed kills during the battle . Targets were often soldiers bringing up food or water to forward positions . Artillery spotters were an especially prized target for snipers . A significant historical debate concerns the degree of terror in the Red Army . The British historian Antony Beevor noted the `` sinister '' message from the Stalingrad Front 's Political Department on 8 October 1942 that : `` The defeatist mood is almost eliminated and the number of treasonous incidents is getting lower '' as an example of the sort of coercion Red Army soldiers experienced under the Special Detachments ( later to be renamed SMERSH ) . On the other hand , Beevor noted the often extraordinary bravery of the Soviet soldiers in a battle that was only comparable to Verdun , and argued that terror alone can not explain such self-sacrifice . Richard Overy addresses the question of just how important the Red Army 's coercive methods were to the Soviet war effort compared with other motivational factors such as hatred for the enemy . He argues that , though it is `` easy to argue that from the summer of 1942 the Soviet army fought because it was forced to fight , '' to concentrate solely on coercion is nonetheless to `` distort our view of the Soviet war effort . '' After conducting hundreds of interviews with Soviet veterans on the subject of terror on the Eastern Front – and specifically about Order No . 227 ( `` Not a step back ! '' ) at Stalingrad – Catherine Merridale notes that , seemingly paradoxically , `` their response was frequently relief . '' Infantryman Lev Lvovich 's explanation , for example , is typical for these interviews ; as he recalls , `` [ i ] t was a necessary and important step . We all knew where we stood after we had heard it . And we all – it 's true – felt better . Yes , we felt better . '' Many women fought on the Soviet side , or were under fire . As General Chuikov acknowledged , `` Remembering the defence of Stalingrad , I ca n't overlook the very important question ... about the role of women in war , in the rear , but also at the front . Equally with men they bore all the burdens of combat life and together with us men , they went all the way to Berlin . '' At the beginning of the battle there were 75,000 women and girls from the Stalingrad area who had finished military or medical training , and all of whom were to serve in the battle . Women staffed a great many of the anti-aircraft batteries that fought not only the Luftwaffe but German tanks . Soviet nurses not only treated wounded personnel under fire but were involved in the highly dangerous work of bringing wounded soldiers back to the hospitals under enemy fire . Many of the Soviet wireless and telephone operators were women who often suffered heavy casualties when their command posts came under fire . Though women were not usually trained as infantry , many Soviet women fought as machine gunners , mortar operators , and scouts . Women were also snipers at Stalingrad . Three air regiments at Stalingrad were entirely female . At least three women won the title Hero of the Soviet Union while driving tanks at Stalingrad . For both Stalin and Hitler , Stalingrad became a matter of prestige far beyond its strategic significance . The Soviet command moved units from the Red Army strategic reserve in the Moscow area to the lower Volga , and transferred aircraft from the entire country to the Stalingrad region . The strain on both military commanders was immense : Paulus developed an uncontrollable tic in his eye , which eventually afflicted the left side of his face , while Chuikov experienced an outbreak of eczema that required him to have his hands completely bandaged . Troops on both sides faced the constant strain of close-range combat . Air attacks Determined to crush Soviet resistance , Luftflotte 4 's Stukawaffe flew 900 individual sorties against Soviet positions at the

wh_1899--Battle_of_Stalingrad.txt

Who was the commander of the German sixth army which fought and lost the Battle of Stalingrad ?

Hi-de-Hi ! was a BBC television sitcom shown on BBC1 from 1980 to 1988 . The location is Maplins , a fictional holiday camp , during 1959 through to the early 1960s . It was written by Jimmy Perry and David Croft , who also wrote Dad 's Army and It Ai n't Half Hot Mum amongst others . The title was the greeting the campers heard and in early episodes was written Hi de Hi . The series revolved around the lives of the camp 's management and entertainers , most of them struggling actors or has-beens . The inspiration was the experience of Jimmy Perry , one of the writers . After being demobilised from the Army , he was a Redcoat at Butlins , Pwllheli during the holiday season . The series gained large audiences and won a BAFTA as Best Comedy Series in 1984 . In 2008 poll on Channel 4 , Hi-de-Hi ! was voted the 35th most popular comedy catchphrase . In 2014 , Jimmy Perry confirmed that Hi-de-Hi ! would be repeated , and it began a rerun on 2 February 2015 on BBC Two as part of Afternoon Classics , alongside 'Allo 'Allo ! , To the Manor Born and Open All Hours . Synopsis Hi-de-Hi ! is set at a holiday camp in the fictional seaside town of Crimpton-on-Sea , Essex . Loosely based on Butlins , Maplins is part of a holiday camp group owned by Joe Maplin , with Yellowcoat replacing Redcoats . Cambridge University Professor of Archaeology , Jeffrey Fairbrother , who had tired of academia , has been appointed the new entertainment manager . This has annoyed the camp host , Ted Bovis , who had expected the post . The job of camp comic is given to the naive but kind-hearted Spike Dixon who wants an introduction to the world of show business . Many episodes involve Ted Bovis attempting to scam the campers as well as the well-meaning Fairbrother , who also has to avoid the romantic approaches of the chief Yellowcoat and sports organiser , Gladys Pugh . The other main characters in the show are out-of-work actors and entertainers at the tail end of their careers . These include Fred Quilley , a disqualified jockey ; Yvonne and Barry Stuart-Hargreaves , former ballroom champions ; Mr Partridge , a music hall star reduced to performing Punch and Judy puppet shows , despite hating children ; and Peggy Ollerenshaw , an eccentric but ambitious chalet maid who dreams of becoming a Yellowcoat . Cast * Professor Jeffrey Fairbrother ( Simon Cadell ) ( Series 1–5 ) Entertainment Manager – Jeffrey was born in 1921 to a respectable upper-class family . He was sent away to a boarding school at the age of 7 and later studied Archaeology at King 's College , Cambridge , and was then employed in the Faculty , eventually becoming a Professor at Cambridge University . He later married Daphne ( Claire Oberman ) . They were separated in 1959 and he had become disillusioned with university life . He resigned from Cambridge and joined Maplins holiday camp as Entertainment Manager , hoping it would give him an insight into the lives of everyday people . He failed to connect with campers and the entertainment staff , and was exceedingly embarrassed about introducing the kind of toilet humour favoured by Ted Bovis and the campers , such as the `` That 's Your Bum '' competition . He had to deal with issues outside his job description , such as Gladys ' smouldering passion for him and being asked to carry out dishonest acts to further Joe Maplin 's business . He regularly went out of his way to stop Ted Bovis 's schemes to scam the campers . During the winter break before the 1960 season started , he decided to leave Maplins to take the chair in Archaeology at the University of Wisconsin . * Ted Bovis ( Paul Shane ) Camp Host – Ted was the camp host and was very popular with the campers . He ran every event – the entertainment manager just introduced the events . He was born in November 1916 and grew up in an orphanage . Little is known about his early life except that he was one of the four Mississippi Minstrels performing at `` The Palace '' at Attercliffe and had served in the army during World War II . He joined Maplins upon demobilisation in 1945 , and has returned every season since . He spent the winter months performing at the Ideal Home Exhibition and the Motor Show . He married Hilary ( Rikki Lee ) in 1951 but they separated soon afterwards and later divorced . He was always running scams to cheat the campers out of money : these included fake birthdays , raffles , fund-raisers and rigged bingo . One of his most memorable schemes was selling tickets for male campers to view a pornographic film in the middle of the night . Jeffrey Fairbrother tried his best to put a stop to these schemes , but Clive Dempster supported them and often got involved . Ted was the longest-serving employee at Maplins . Ted shared his chalet with Spike throughout the entire sitcom , also briefly with Barry when Yvonne threw him out , and later with Julian Dalrymple-Sykes . Both Barry and Julian hated their time in Ted 's chalet because of his disgusting habits . In a later episode , Ted fell in love with Betty Barlow ( Caroline Dennis ) , one of the young female campers . He planned to marry her , leave Maplins and form an act with her , but he called it off after he discovered that her mother did not approve , and that she had been offered a scholarship which she had n't told him about , and he did n't want to hold her back . Throughout the series , Ted often said that he hated his job at Maplins , as he believed his talents were wasted on the lower classes who holidayed there . He often tried to better himself by performing as a comedian at upper class functions , most of which were unsuccessful . When Maplins modernised after the 1960 season , they no longer required a camp host – it was left unknown what the future held for Ted . He revealed that over the winter he had secured a job demonstrating a new potato peeler in supermarkets , and was going to play a Chinese policeman in a pantomime over Christmas . Despite his regular claims that he hated his job as Camp Host , Ted was genuinely upset to leave Maplins . * Gladys Pugh ( Ruth Madoc ) Chief Yellowcoat/Sports Organiser/Radio Maplin Announcer – Gladys was born in 1933 in Pontypridd , and spent her youth in the Rhondda Valley . She joined Maplins holiday camp in 1955 and rose through the ranks to become sports organiser and later chief Yellowcoat . She won the competition for the most popular girl Yellowcoat every year since she joined , until 1959 , when she was beaten by Sylvia Garnsy . Upon Jeffrey Fairbrother 's arrival at the camp at the start of the 1959 season , she fell passionately in love with him , although he did not reciprocate this . On one occasion , she found herself in a situation where Jeffrey had become drunk unintentionally , and she helped him back to his chalet . The following morning he awoke naked with no memory of the previous night , and found Gladys ' bra in his bed . It was left ambiguous as to what actually happened . Gladys disliked all of the other female Yellowcoats , in particular Sylvia Garnsy , whom she saw as competition in her fight for Jeffrey 's affections . Like Jeffrey , she also disapproved of Ted 's schemes to scam the campers , even though she secretly had her own scheme selling reconditioned tennis balls . In the 1960 season , Spike Dixon fell in love with her , although she never knew this and it never amounted to anything . Gladys was left heartbroken when Jeffrey departed for Wisconsin without telling anyone at the end of the season , but she quickly recovered upon meeting Squadron Leader Clive Dempster , who arrived to take over Fairbrother 's job . She immediately became attracted to Clive , and the two had an on-off relationship throughout the 1960 season . She eventually married Clive and moved to Australia with him at the end of the season . * Spike Dixon ( Jeffrey Holland ) Camp Comic – Spike was born on 12 September ( year unknown ) and brought up in Edgbaston with his childhood sweetheart Brenda , the daughter of the local butcher . After leaving school he gained a good position in the Income Tax Office , but resigned in 1959 and joined the entertainment staff at Maplins . It is not known how long he had known Ted , but they were already well-acquainted by the time they travelled on the train to the camp and it was suggested that it was Ted who got Spike the job . Spike shared a chalet with Ted , and there were many humorous scenes between the pair in their chalet , such as Spike being kept awake by Ted 's snoring . Spike often tried to branch out into his own style of comedy , designing and making his own costumes and funny sequences . These received mixed reactions from the campers , but Ted criticised almost all of them . Spike was a very honest and law-abiding man , and was the only member of the entertainment staff who did n't run his own scheme to scam the campers for money . Although he was loyal to Ted and willing to turn a blind-eye to his schemes , he was often shocked at the lengths Ted would go to in order to make money . Spike had to make an impossible choice between his job and the woman he loved during the 1959 season , when his girlfriend , Brenda , said she would marry him only if he gave up his job and went to work for her father 's business . He chose his job and ended their relationship . During the 1960 season he became involved with April , one of the new Yellowcoats . At the same time , Spike also fell in love with Gladys , but this never amounted to anything . He continued his relationship with April , and she wanted him to leave Maplins and go back to the tax office so they could get married and have a steady income . As with Brenda , he again decided against this in favour of show business . It was left unknown what Spike intended to do after the 1960 season , but he revealed he was going to join Ted over Christmas playing a Chinese policeman in a pantomime . It was also implied that he had resumed his affair with April . * Peggy Ollerenshaw ( Su Pollard ) Chalet Maid/Yellowcoat – Peggy was the maid who looked after the staff chalet lines under the supervision of the fearsome Miss Cathcart . She always aspired to be a Yellowcoat , and tried her hardest to get involved with the entertainment in any way she could . Born in Lancashire in 1931 , her father worked for the coal and gaslight company and had a passion for motorbike racing , and Peggy was an experienced rider who had a licence by the time she was 16 . Her father had died by the time she joined Maplins , and Peggy was supporting her widowed mother from her wages . In addition to her regular duties , she often helped out the entertainment staff , and could always be seen in the evenings in the Hawaiian ballroom , enjoying ( and often joining in with ) the evening entertainments . She frequently tried to get involved in the entertainment events , but was always stopped by Gladys , who forbade Peggy 's involvement as she was not on the entertainment staff . However , on several occasions , Gladys was overruled by Jeffrey Fairbrother , who allowed Peggy to take part in certain events , which usually involved dressing up in silly costumes to take the place of certain members of the entertainment staff ( usually Yvonne ) who found it humiliating . Peggy used to play the organ in chapel , and stepped in when Ramona did n't turn up to play at the Marines event . Peggy had a rather vivid imagination and was often easily taken in by others ' lies , particularly Ted 's ridiculous tales when he needed a cover story . Peggy finally became a Yellowcoat in the final episode , when Dawn was hospitalised and they needed a replacement . After spending just one day as a Yellowcoat , she collapsed from nervous exhaustion and was admitted to hospital . Her job as a Yellowcoat was tragically short-lived due to Maplins abolishing Yellowcoats after the 1960 season . She stayed on at the camp temporarily after the season ended , but in her old position as a chalet maid , claiming it was still a job and better than being out of work . It was left unknown whether Peggy continued working at Maplins after the 1960 season or whether she moved on . * Fred Quilley ( Felix Bowness ) Riding Instructor – Fred was an illegitimate child and grew up in an orphanage until he was adopted at the age of fourteen and went to live in Brighton . He began working at the Brighton Racecourse and eventually qualified as a jockey . He became involved with the daughter of the local undertaker but they split up when he refused to join the family business . During World War II he was conscripted into the RAF , where he trained as an instrument mechanic , but spent the entire war stationed at Catterick . After being demobilised in 1945 , he returned to the Brighton Racecourse and married the owner of a wet-fish shop , but the relationship was short-lived and they soon separated . He then fell into the employ of a small-time gangster known as `` Big Mac '' , who began paying him to fix the races , either by pulling his horse or drugging it prior to the race . However , on one occasion the race officials caught him pulling the favourite and gave him an official warning . The following week he took £300 from Big Mac to lose a race , but accidentally won causing Big Mac to lose £5,000 in bets . Shortly afterwards Fred was caught in a horsebox with a syringe and his Jockey 's licence was revoked . He was forced to leave Brighton for fear of further reprisals from the underworld and began drifting , eventually in 1951 he joined the staff at Maplins as the riding instructor . Fred shared a chalet with Mr Partridge , even though they both hated each other – Fred hated Partridge smelling of alcohol and Partridge hated Fred smelling of horses . When Partridge left and faked his death , Fred shared a chalet with Sammy , although they had a better relationship . After the end of the 1960 season , Fred went to work in an old horses ' home . * Yvonne Stuart-Hargreaves ( Diane Holland ) Dancing Instructress – Yvonne was born in Southport in 1914 , the daughter of a floor-walker at the Waring & Gillow Department Store . Yvonne was very supercilious and believed she was socially above all other members of the entertainment staff , with the exception of Jeffrey Fairbrother and Clive Dempster . It is questionable why she actually worked at Maplins , as she believed it to be a `` dreadful , common place '' . It is assumed that she behaved in this way to hide a somewhat promiscuous youth . Because of her snobbish personality , she was disliked by many of her colleagues , Ted in particular . She met Barry when they were staying in digs together in Sunderland , but after a brief affair she became involved with a Hungarian acrobat from the Magyar Trio and became pregnant . When he found out he left her and joined ENSA . She then returned to Barry and he agreed to marry her , taking her home to be looked after by his family . It is not known what happened to the child . Barry and Yvonne later became professional ballroom dancers . During World War II Yvonne worked as an Auxiliary nurse in a military hospital , and it was during this time that she met Julian Dalrymple-Sykes , and there is a suggestion that they had an affair . In 1942 Yvonne and Barry became ballroom champions , winning many trophies for their performances , although Ted believed they became champions only because of the reduced ranks of the opposition owing to most of the men being away fighting . Yvonne 's and Barry 's careers took a downturn after the war and in 1956 they were forced to join Maplins as dancing instructors . She always tried to keep her dignity and high-class values while at Maplins , but this was not made easy when she was forced to participate in the entertainment events . Yvonne disliked most of the entertainment staff , Ted Bovis and Mr Partridge in particular . She referred to Ted 's money-making schemes as `` petty '' , although she and Barry ran their own scheme selling cheap dancing shoes to campers for high prices . She was left heartbroken after Barry abandoned her for unknown reasons during the 1960 season , but she quickly recovered when Julian Dalrymple-Sykes arrived to replace Barry . She rekindled her relationship with Julian during the remainder of the season , but she never allowed him to become too close . After the end of the 1960 season they went travelling to dance in famous places across the world . * Barry Stuart-Hargreaves ( Series 1–7 ) ( Barry Howard ) Dancing Instructor – Barry was born Bert Pratt in Nottingham , the son of a bus inspector . By the late 1930s he was living in Sunderland where he met Yvonne and they began a brief affair , but she left him for another man . She later returned to him when she was pregnant , and he proposed . He took Yvonne 's last name , and changed his first name to Barry , for the sake of their careers . During World War II he was conscripted into the Royal Navy and served as a stoker , though it is presumed he did not do this for long as he and Yvonne became ballroom champions in 1942 . After the war , he and Yvonne continued dancing , but their careers were drawing to an end , and in 1956 they joined Maplins as a last resort . He was often heavily criticised by Yvonne for his etiquette , a habit which annoyed him intensely . Although his official jobs were to teach dance and give ballroom demonstrations , Barry was regularly chosen against his will to be the victim of the campers in the entertainment events , such as getting covered in water while dressed as a granny , having spaghetti stuffed down his trousers , and dressing up as `` Percy the Pixie '' to entertain the children . Barry suffered from a bad back , and on one occasion during the 1959 season he was left unable to move after straining it . Yvonne called in Julian Dalrymple-Sykes to take his place in the ballroom until he recovered , though it was made clear that Barry already knew about Julian and his history with Yvonne . Barry left Yvonne and departed Maplins midway through the 1960 season , and it is unknown why he left or where he went . Throughout the series , several hints were made that Barry was actually gay , although this was never confirmed . * William Partridge ( Series 1–7 ) ( Leslie Dwyer ) Children 's Entertainer – At the age of 74 , Mr Partridge was the eldest member of the entertainment staff and the only one to be called by his honorific and surname out of respect for Victorian values . Mr Partridge was born in 1885 . After leaving school he began a successful Music Hall career under the stage name of `` Whimsical Willie the Juggling Joker '' . at the height of his career he topped the bill at the Holborn Empire and performed for King George V in the Royal Command Performance at Windsor Castle . In 1914 he joined the British Army and fought on the Western Front until 1916 , when he was badly wounded . He was shipped home to England but found that due to the nature of his injuries he was unable to return to his music hall career and tried a brief period as a comic , travelling the American circuit in New Orleans . He then returned to England and started up a children 's entertainment business , performing Punch and Judy shows and magic tricks as Willie the Wizard . The business was a success and Mr Partridge found himself highly in demand performing for wealthy and respectable families . In 1939 , at the outbreak of World War II Mr Partridge left his business and joined ENSA , performing as a comic entertaining the troops in North Africa and France . After demobilisation in 1945 , Mr Partridge found the demand for his services had dwindled and he was forced to take a job as children 's entertainer at the newly re-opened Crimpton-on-Sea Maplins Holiday Camp . As the years wore on , Mr Partridge became dispirited by the lack of respect he received from the increasingly bad-mannered children who stayed at the camp . By the early 1950s he was drinking heavily and slipping into seasonal alcoholic benders , and regularly taking it upon himself to discipline the unruly children in a harsh and often violent manner . He is often asked why he is a children 's entertainer if he dislikes children so much , a question which remains unanswered . At one point he tried to strangle a boy who was spoiling one of his shows , and it was left up to Ted to save Partridge 's job . During the 1960 season he became involved with a pub landlady , faked his own death and left the camp to live with her in Cornwall . * Sylvia Garnsey ( Nikki Kelly ) – Sylvia was born in 1934 in Littlehampton , and by 1959 she was the second-longest serving Yellowcoat at the camp . Known for her long legs and attractive appearance , she regularly clashed with Gladys over Jeffrey Fairbrother . Sylvia was a qualified swimming instructor , and enjoyed flirting with both Jeffrey Fairbrother and Clive Dempster . Out of all the female Yellowcoats , Gladys disliked Sylvia the most . She won the most popular girl Yellowcoat competition during the 1959 season , the winner of which would be given the chance to work at a new Maplin camp in the Bahamas . She believed she had beaten Gladys for the first time in five years – she did not know that the vote was in fact tied , and Jeffrey gave the win to Sylvia so Gladys could stay with him at the camp . However Sylvia lost the job at the new Bahamas camp when it was destroyed in a storm shortly after winning . The tension between her and Gladys lasted throughout both seasons , although it mellowed slightly towards the end of the 1960 season – Gladys suggested Sylvia should replace her as chief Yellowcoat when she moved to Australia . However this never happened following the modernisation of Maplins and the abolition of Yellowcoats after the 1960 season . * Squadron Leader , the Honourable Clive Dempster DFC ( David Griffin ) ( Series 6–9 ) Entertainment Manager – The aristocratic war hero replaced Jeffrey Fairbrother as Entertainment Manager at the start of the 1960 season . He was the complete opposite to Jeffrey – a maverick ladies ' man who enjoyed cheating the campers and the staff . He was reckless with the money his family occasionally sent him , drank cocktails rather than beer , provided champagne at staff meetings and drove a red MG TC convertible . Clive was born in 1924 , the only son of William , Lord Dempster , and Lady Dempster ( née Helen Mary Waverston ) . He grew up in Cambridgeshire at the family estate of Dempster Hall , where his father 's unmarried siblings also resided . During the Second World War he served in the RAF and rose to the rank of Squadron Leader , led numerous night-time raids over Germany , and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) . He found life difficult upon demobilisation and spent several years drifting . He briefly became manager of a Country Club but was robbed by his business partner and left with a large debt to pay . He then joined Maplins as entertainment manager , and ran the camp in a far more laid-back way than his predecessor , Jeffrey Fairbrother . Unlike Fairbrother , Clive got involved with Ted 's money-making schemes , the most memorable being when they drugged several campers in order to search their chalets for a stolen necklace . It was revealed that Joe Maplin gave Clive the job because he desired a knighthood , and he believed Clive 's connection to the aristocracy could help him acquire this . Clive began a relationship with Gladys shortly after arriving at Maplins , and eventually married her ( against his family 's wishes ) at the end of the 1960 season . They emigrated to Australia where he had been offered a job flying commercial aircraft by his former RAF Wing Commander . * Joan Wainwright ( Cheryl Murray ) ( Series 4 ) Controller of Yellowcoats – Joan Wainwright was one of Joe Maplin 's lovers . She was sports organiser at the Camber Sands camp during the 1958 season , and moved into Joe Maplin 's house in Hampstead after beginning an affair with him . He promoted her and sent her to the Crimpton-on-Sea camp to act as an overall controller of Yellowcoats during the 1959 season . She was an arrogant and selfish woman who used her association with Joe Maplin to gain promotion and authority . She immediately clashed with Gladys , whom she believed was bad at her job because of her lack of sports qualifications . She took away Gladys 's authority and made Tracey Bentwood chief Yellowcoat and sports organiser , causing Gladys to resign . Gladys was saved by Ted , who knew Wainwright from years before when they performed together at `` The Palace '' at Attercliffe . Her real name was Beryl Green , and she was assistant to a magician called `` The Great Ming '' , with whom she had an affair and became pregnant . Ted threatened to reveal her past to Joe Maplin unless she resigned and left the camp . * Julian Dalrymple-Sykes ( Ben Aris ) ( Series 5 , Series 8-9 ) Dancing Instructor – Julian was a former lover of Yvonne 's who stood in for Barry when he was incapacitated with a bad back during the 1959 season . He then joined Yvonne full-time at the camp following Barry 's departure mid-way through the 1960 season . Julian was a pig farmer by profession and had a very successful business , which he left in the care of his assistant Mr Turner ( Billy Burden ) when he went to work at Maplins . He was also a championship boxer having been ABA welterweight champion four years running in the 1940s , and challenged Ted to a fight after an argument in one episode . After joining Maplins full-time , he briefly shared Ted and Spike 's chalet before being given one of his own , and annoyed Ted with his habit of getting up early to go for a morning swim . Throughout the series he desperately tried to rekindle his past romance with Yvonne , but she frequently played hard-to-get , which frustrated him enormously . He tried to persuade Yvonne to leave Maplins and live with him at his pig farm , but she refused , claiming that she `` could n't stand the mud '' . After the 1960 season , he sold his farm and took Yvonne travelling around the world . * Harold Fox ( Gavin Richards ) ( Series 5–7 ) General Manager – Fox was the general manager of all the Maplins holiday camps , usually referred to as `` The Smiling Viper '' , `` Joe Maplin 's Hatchet-man '' or , in Yvonne 's words , `` A nasty , common , jumped-up , slimey , little toad '' . He

qb_3565--Hi-de-Hi!.txt

What are the first names of the two dancing instructors in the UK television series ‘Hi De Hi’?

West Berlin was a city that existed between 1949 and 1990 as a political enclave surrounded by East Berlin and East Germany . It was 100 mi east of the Inner German border and only accessible by land from West Germany by a narrow rail and highway corridor . It consisted of the American , British , and French occupation sectors established in 1945 and shared economic , political , legal , and sporting systems with West Germany , but was not de jure part of it . It had a special and unique legal status because its administration was formally conducted by the Western Allies . East Berlin , occupied and administered by the Soviet Union , was the capital of East Germany . The Berlin Wall , built in 1961 , physically divided East and West Berlin until it fell in 1989 . With about two million inhabitants , West Berlin had the biggest population of any city in Cold War Germany . Origins The Potsdam Agreement established the legal framework for the occupation of Germany in the wake of World War II . According to the agreement , Germany would be formally under the administration of the four major wartime Allies—the United States , the United Kingdom , France , and the Soviet Union—until a German government acceptable to all parties could be established . The territory of Germany , as it existed in 1937 , would be reduced by most of Eastern Germany thus creating the former eastern territories of Germany . The remaining territory would be divided into four zones , each administered by one of the allied countries . Berlin , which was surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation—newly established in most of Middle Germany—would be similarly divided , with the Western Allies occupying an enclave consisting of the western parts of the city . According to the agreement , the occupation of Berlin would end only as a result of a quadripartite agreement . The Western Allies were guaranteed three air corridors to their sectors of Berlin , and the Soviets also informally allowed road and rail access between West Berlin and the western parts of Germany ( see section on traffic ) . At first , this arrangement was intended to be only a temporary administrative structure , with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited . However , as the relations between the western allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began , the joint administration of Germany and Berlin broke down . Soon , Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations . In 1948 , the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade . The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of the city with food and other goods in the Berlin Airlift . In May 1949 , the Soviets lifted the blockade , and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained . Legal status According to the legal theory followed by the Western Allies , the occupation of most of Germany ended in 1949 with the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany ( 23 May 1949 ) and the German Democratic Republic ( 7 October 1949 ) . Under Article 127 of the Basic Law ( or constitution ) of the Federal Republic , provision was made for federal laws to be extended to Greater Berlin ( as West Berlin was officially known ) as well Baden , Rhineland-Palatinate and Württemberg-Hohenzollern within one year of its promulgation . However , because the occupation of Berlin could only be ended by a quadripartite agreement , Berlin remained an occupied territory under the formal sovereignty of the allies . Hence , the Basic Law was not fully applicable to West Berlin . On 4 August 1950 the House of Representatives ( the city 's legislature ) passed a new constitution , declaring Berlin a state of the Federal Republic and the provisions of the Basic Law as binding law superior to Berlin state law ( Article 1 , clauses 2 and 3 ) . However , this became statutory law only on 1 September and only with the inclusion of the western Allied provision that Art . 1 , clauses 2 and 3 , were not valid , or rather , deferred for the time being ; the clauses became valid law on 3 October 1990 ( the day of Germany 's unification ) . It stated that : Article 87 is interpreted as meaning that during the transitional period Berlin shall possess none of the attributes of a twelfth Land . The provision of this Article concerning the Basic Law will only apply to the extent necessary to prevent a conflict between this Law and the Berlin Constitution ... Thus civic liberties and personal rights ( save the secrecy of telecommunications ) guaranteed by the Basic Law were also valid in West Berlin . In addition , West German federal statutes could only take effect in West Berlin with the approval of the city 's legislature . The ambiguous legal status of the city , then still legally styled as Greater Berlin , although technically only comprising the western sectors , meant that West Berliners were not eligible to vote in federal elections . In their notification of permission of 12 May 1949 the three western military governors for Germany explained their proviso in No . 4 , as follows : A third reservation concerns the participation of Greater Berlin in the Federation . We interpret the effect of Articles 23 and 144 ( 2 ) of the Basic Law as constituting acceptance of our previous request that while Berlin may not be accorded voting membership in the Bundestag or Bundesrat nor be governed by the Federation she may , nevertheless , designate a small number of representatives to the meetings of those legislative bodies '' . Consequently , West Berliners were indirectly represented in the Bundestag in Bonn by 22 non-voting delegates chosen by the House of Representatives . Similarly , the Senate ( the city 's executive ) sent four non-voting delegates to the Bundesrat . However , as West German citizens , West Berliners were able to stand for election , such as Social Democrat Chancellor Willy Brandt , who was elected via his party 's list of candidates . Also , male residents of West Berlin were exempt from the Federal Republic 's compulsory military service ; this exemption made the city a popular destination for West German youths , which resulted in a flourishing counterculture , which in turn became one of the defining features of the city . The Western Allies remained the ultimate political authorities in West Berlin . All legislation of the House of Representatives , the domestic state and the adopted federal law , only applied under the proviso of the confirmation by the three Western Allied commanders-in-chief . If they approved a bill , it was enacted as part of West Berlin 's statutory law . If the commanders-in-chief rejected a bill , it did not become law in West Berlin ; this , for example , was the case with West German laws on military duty . West Berlin was run by the elected Governing Mayor and Senate seated at Rathaus Schöneberg . The Governing Mayor and Senators ( ministers ) had to be approved by the Western Allies and thus derived their authority from the occupying forces , not from their electoral mandate . The Soviets unilaterally declared the occupation of East Berlin at an end along with the rest of East Germany . This move was , however , not recognised by the Western Allies , who continued to view all of Berlin as a jointly occupied territory belonging to neither of the two states . This view was supported by the continued practice of patrols of Allied soldiers of all four Allies in all four sectors . Thus , occasionally Western Allied soldiers were on patrol in East Berlin and Soviet soldiers were patrolling in West Berlin . After the Wall was built , East Germany wanted to control Western Allied patrols upon entering or leaving East Berlin , a practice that the Western Allies regarded as unacceptable . So , after protests to the Soviets , the patrols continued uncontrolled on both sides , with the tacit agreement that the western Allies would not use their patrolling privileges for helping Easterners to flee to the West . In many ways , West Berlin functioned as the de facto 11th state of West Germany , and was depicted on maps published in the West as being a part of West Germany . There was freedom of movement ( to the extent allowed by geography ) between West Berlin and West Germany . There were no separate immigration regulations for West Berlin , all immigration rules for West Germany were followed in West Berlin . West German entry visas issued to visitors were originally stamped with `` valid for entry into the Federal Republic of Germany including the state of Berlin '' , prompting complaints from the Soviet Union . West Berlin remained a military occupation zone until 3 October 1990 , the day of unification of East Germany , East and West Berlin with the West German Federal Republic of Germany . The West German Federal Government , as well as the governments of most western nations , considered East Berlin to be a `` separate entity '' from East Germany , and while the Western Allies later opened embassies in East Berlin , they recognised the city only as the seat of government of the GDR , not as its capital . Communist countries , however , did not recognise West Berlin as part of West Germany and usually described it as a `` third '' German jurisdiction , called selbständige politische Einheit ( `` independent political unit '' ) . On maps of East Berlin , West Berlin often did not appear as an adjacent urban area but as a monochrome terra incognita , sometimes showing the letters WB , meaning West Berlin , or overlaid with a legend or pictures . It was often labelled `` Besonderes politisches Gebiet Westberlin '' ( West Berlin special political area ) . Citizenship While East Germany established an East German citizenship as part of its second constitution in 1967 , a distinct West German citizenship did not exist . Instead , West Germany continued the definition of pre-World War II German citizenship for all ethnic or naturalised Germans in West Germany , East Germany or any part of Berlin . So while West Berlin was not unanimously regarded as part of the Federal Republic , its citizens were treated like West German citizens by West German authorities , save for the limitations imposed by West Berlin 's legal status . Immigration The Federal Republic of Germany issued West German passports to West Berliners on request that showed West Berlin as their place of residence . However , West Berliners could not use their passports for crossing East German borders and were denied entrance by any country of the Eastern Bloc , since governments of these countries held the view that West Germany was not authorized to issue legal papers for West Berliners . Since West Berlin was not a sovereign state , it did not issue passports , so West Berliners were issued with `` auxiliary identity cards '' by the West Berlin authorities . These differed visually from the regular West German identity cards , with green bindings instead of the grey standard , did not show the `` Federal Eagle '' or coat of arms , and did not contain any indications as to the issuing State . However , they did a statement that the holder of the document was a German citizen . From 11 June 1968 , East Germany made it mandatory that West Berlin and West German `` transit passengers '' obtain a transit visa , issued upon entering East Germany , because under its second constitution East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners as foreigners . Since identity cards had no pages to stamp visas , the Eastern visa departments stamped their visas onto separate leaflets which were loosely stuck into the identity cards , which until the mid-1980s , were little booklets . Although the West German government subsidized visa fees , these were still payable by individual travelers . For entering visa-requiring western countries , such as the US , West Berliners commonly used West German passports . However , for countries which did not require stamped visas for entry , including Switzerland , Austria , and many members of the then European Economic Community , including the United Kingdom , West Berlin identity cards were also acceptable for entry . Naming conventions Most Westerners called the Western sectors `` Berlin '' , unless further distinction was necessary . The West German Federal government officially called West Berlin `` Berlin ( West ) '' , although it also used the hyphenated `` West-Berlin '' , whereas the East German government commonly referred to it as `` Westberlin '' . Starting from 31 May 1961 , East Berlin was officially called Berlin , Hauptstadt der DDR ( Berlin , Capital of the GDR ) , replacing the formerly used term Democratic Berlin , or simply `` Berlin , '' by East Germany , and `` Berlin ( Ost ) '' by the West German Federal government . Other names used by West German media included `` Ost-Berlin '' , `` Ostberlin '' , or `` Ostsektor '' . These different naming conventions for the divided parts of Berlin , when followed by individuals , governments , or media , commonly indicated their political leanings , with the centre-right Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung using `` Ost-Berlin '' and the centre-left Süddeutsche Zeitung using `` Ostberlin '' . Period following the building of the Wall After the Wall was constructed , West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer suggested to U.S. President John F. Kennedy that the United States propose a swap of West Berlin with Thuringia and parts of Saxony and Mecklenburg ; the city 's population would have been relocated to West Germany . While the Kennedy administration seriously considered the idea , it did not make the proposal to the Soviet Union . On 26 June 1963 , President Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a public speech known for its famous phrase `` Ich bin ein Berliner '' . The Four Power Agreement on Berlin ( September 1971 ) and the Transit Agreement ( May 1972 ) helped to significantly ease tensions over the status of West Berlin . While many restrictions remained in place , it also made it easier for West Berliners to travel to East Germany and it simplified the regulations for Germans travelling along the autobahn transit routes . At the Brandenburg Gate in 1987 , U.S. President Ronald Reagan provided a challenge to the then Soviet leader : `` General Secretary Gorbachev , if you seek peace , if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , if you seek liberalization : Come here to this gate ! Mr. Gorbachev , open this gate ! Mr. Gorbachev , tear down this wall ! '' On 9 November 1989 , the Wall was opened , and the two parts of the city were once again physically — though at this point not legally — united . The Two Plus Four Treaty , signed by the two German states and the four wartime allies , paved the way for German reunification and an end to the Western Allies ' occupation of West Berlin . On 3 October 1990 — the day Germany was officially reunified — East and West Berlin formally reunited as the city of Berlin , which then joined the enlarged Federal Republic as a city-state along the lines of the existing West German city-states of Bremen and Hamburg . Walter Momper , the mayor of West Berlin , became the first mayor of the reunified city . Boroughs of West Berlin West Berlin comprised the following boroughs : In the American Sector : * Neukölln * Kreuzberg * Schöneberg * Steglitz * Tempelhof * Zehlendorf In the British Sector : * Charlottenburg * Tiergarten * Wilmersdorf * Spandau In the French Sector : * Reinickendorf * Wedding Exclaves West Berlin 's border was identical to the municipal boundary of Berlin as defined in the Greater Berlin Act of 1920 and amended in 1938 , and the border between the Soviet sector and the French , British , and American sectors respectively , which followed the boundaries of Berlin administrative boroughs as defined in the same years . Another amendment was added in 1945 at the border between the British sector of Berlin and the Soviet zone such that the Wehrmacht airfield at Berlin-Gatow became British and the airfield at Berlin-Staaken became Soviet . The resulting borderline of all these changes was complicated with a lot of geographical oddities , including a number of exclaves and enclaves that Greater Berlin had inside some neighbouring municipalities since 1920 , all of which happened to become part of the British or American sectors after 1945 , thus parts of West Berlin surrounded by East Germany . Furthermore , the Gatow/Staaken exchange in August 1945 resulted in the geographically western half of Berlin-Staaken , which was located at the western outskirts of the city , becoming de jure Soviet occupied . However , the de facto administration remained with the Borough of Spandau in the British sector . So all inhabitants of Staaken could vote for West Berlin 's city state elections in 1948 and 1950 . On 1 February 1951 East German Volkspolizei surprised the people of western Staaken by occupying the area and ended the administration by the Spandau Borough ; instead , western Staaken became an exclave of the Soviet occupied borough Berlin-Mitte in the city centre . However , on 1 June 1952 , western Staaken 's de facto administration was conveyed to neighbouring East German Falkensee in the East German district Nauen . This situation was undone on 3 October 1990 , the day of German unification , when western Staaken was reincorporated into united Berlin . Post and telecommunications West Berlin had its own postal administration first called Deutsche Post Berlin ( 1947–1955 ) and then Deutsche Bundespost Berlin , separate from West Germany 's Deutsche Bundespost , and issuing its own postage stamps until 1990 . However , the separation was merely symbolic ; in reality West Berlin 's postal service was completely integrated with West Germany 's , using the same postal code system . West Berlin was also integrated into the West German telephone network , using the same international dialling code as West Germany , +49 , with the area code 030 . As in West Germany , calls to East Berlin from West Berlin were made using the prefix 00372 ( international access code 00 , East German country code 37 , area code 2 ) . In order to reduce Eastern tapping of telecommunications between West Berlin and West Germany microwave radio relay connections were built , which wirelessly transmitted telephone calls between antenna towers in West Germany and West Berlin , where two of which were built , one antenna in Berlin-Wannsee and later a second in Berlin-Frohnau , finished on 16 May 1980 with a height of 358 m ( this tower was demolished on 8 February 2009 ) . Transport and transit travel West Berliners could travel to West Germany and all Western and non-aligned states at all times , except during the Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union ( 24 June 1948 to 12 May 1949 ) , due to restrictions on passenger flight capacity imposed by the airlift . Travelling to and from West Berlin by road or train always required passing through East German border checks , since West Berlin was an enclave surrounded by East Germany and East Berlin . On October 2 , 1967 , six years after the Wall was erected , tram tracks in West Berlin were uprooted because the authorities wanted to promote car usage , meaning that the tram system remaining today runs almost entirely within the former East Berlin . Road traffic For travel from West Berlin through East Germany by car or rail a valid passport was required for citizens of West Germany and other western nationals to be produced at East German border checks ; West Berliners could only get admission through their identity cards ( see above ) . For travel from West Berlin to Denmark , West Germany , or Sweden , via dedicated East German transit routes ( ) , East German border guards issued a transit visa for a fee of 5 Western Deutsche Mark . For journeys between West Berlin and Poland or Czechoslovakia through East Germany , each traveller was also required to present a valid visa for the destination country . The transit routes for road travel connecting West Berlin to other destinations usually consisted of autobahns and other highways , marked by Transit signs . Transit travellers ( ) were prohibited to leave the transit routes , and occasional traffic checkpoints would check for violators . There were four transit routes between West Berlin and West Germany : * One between West Berlin 's Heerstraße with the East German checkpoint in Dallgow until 1951 , then replaced by Staaken for destinations in Northern Germany ( originally via highway F 5 ) at the Eastern checkpoint in Horst ( a part of today 's Nostorf ) and the Western Lauenburg upon Elbe . These were replaced on 20 November 1982 by a new autobahn crossing at Zarrentin ( E ) /Gudow ( W ) . On 1 January 1988 , the new Stolpe checkpoint opened on this route to West Berlin . This is part of today 's Hohen Neuendorf ( E ) /Berlin-Heiligensee ( W ) . * A second transit route led to Northwestern and Western Germany – following today 's A 2 – crossing the inner German border at Marienborn ( E ) /Helmstedt ( W ) , also called Checkpoint Alpha . * A third route to Southwestern Germany consisted of today 's A 9 and A 4 with border crossing at Wartha ( E ) /Herleshausen ( W ) . * A fourth ( via today 's A 9 ) to Southern Germany had border crossings originally at Mount Juchhöh ( E ) /Töpen ( W ) and later at Hirschberg upon Saale ( E ) / Rudolphstein ( a part of today 's Berg in Upper Franconia ) ( W ) . The latter three routes used autobahns built during the Nazi era . They left West Berlin at Checkpoint Dreilinden , also called Checkpoint Bravo ( W ) /Potsdam-Drewitz ( E ) . Transit routes to Poland were via today 's A 11 to Nadrensee-Pomellen ( East Germany , GDR ) /Kołbaskowo ( Kolbitzow ) ( PL ) , eastwards via today 's A 12 to Frankfurt upon Oder ( GDR ) /Słubice ( PL ) , or southeastwards via today 's A 13 and A 15 to Forst in Lusatia/Baršć ( GDR ) /Zasieki ( Berge ) ( PL ) . Additional routes led to Denmark and Sweden by ferry between Warnemünde ( GDR ) and Gedser ( DK ) and by ferry between Sassnitz ( GDR ) and Rønne ( DK ) or Trelleborg ( S ) . Routes to Czechoslovakia were via Schmilka ( GDR ) /Hřensko ( Herrnskretschen ) ( ČSSR ) and via Fürstenau ( a part of today 's Geising ) ( GDR ) /Cínovec ( Cinvald/Böhmisch Zinnwald ) ( ČSSR ) . The transit routes were also used for East German domestic traffic . This meant that transit passengers could potentially meet with East Germans and East Berliners at restaurants at motorway rest stops . Since such meetings were deemed illegal by the East German government , border guards would calculate the travel duration from the time of entry and exit of the transit route . Excessive time spent for transit travel could arouse their suspicion and prompt questioning or additional checking by the border guards . Western coaches could stop only at dedicated service areas , since the East German government was concerned that East Germans might potentially use coaches to escape into the West . On 1 September 1951 East Germany , because of shortages in foreign currencies , started to levy road tolls from cars using the transit routes . At first the toll amounted to Eastern Deutsche Mark 10 per passenger car and 10 to 50 for trucks , depending on size . Eastern Deutsche Marks had to be exchanged for Western Deutsche Mark a rate of 1:1 . On 30 March 1955 , East Germany raised the toll for passenger cars to 30 Deutsche Marks , but after West German protests , in June of the same year it changed it back to the previous rate . Following a new agreement between East and West Germany , starting from 1 January 1980 the Western Federal Government paid an annual lump sum ( ) of 50 million Western Deutsche Marks to the Eastern government , so that transit passengers no longer had to pay tolls individually . Railway Four transit train connections—earlier also called interzonal train ( ) —connected West Berlin with Hamburg via Schwanheide ( E ) /Büchen ( W ) in the North , with Hanover via Marienborn ( E ) /Helmstedt ( W ) in the West , with Frankfurt upon Main via Gerstungen ( E ) /Hönebach ( W ) in the Southwest , and with Nuremberg via Probstzella ( E ) /Ludwigsstadt ( W ) in the South of West Germany . These transit trains did not service domestic passengers of East Germany and made stops in East Germany almost only for East German border guards upon entering and leaving of the country . Until the construction of the Berlin Wall , interzonal trains would also stop once on their way within East Germany for travellers having a visa for entering or leaving East Germany . Train travel from West Berlin to Czechoslovakia , Denmark ( by ferry ) , Poland , or Sweden ( by ferry ) required a visa to enter East Berlin or East Germany to allow transfer to an international train—which also carried domestic passengers—bound for an international destination . One railway connection between West Berlin and Oebisfelde ( E ) /Wolfsburg ( W ) was reserved for freight trains only . In July and August 1945 , the three Western Allies and the Soviet Union decided that the railways , previously serviced by the Deutsche Reichsbahn ( German Reich Railways ) , should continue to be operated by one railway administration to service all four sectors . So West Berlin had – with the exception of a few small private railway lines – no separate railway administration . Furthermore , the operation of the Reichsbahn 's Berlin S-Bahn electric metropolitan transport network , consisting of commuter trains , was also maintained . After the founding of East Germany on 7 October 1949 it gained responsibility for the Reichsbahn in its territory . East Germany continued to run its railways under the official name Deutsche Reichsbahn , which thus maintained responsibility for almost all railway transport in all four sectors of Berlin . The GDR-controlled 'Bahnpolizei ' , the Reichsbahn 's railway police , were authorised to patrol station premises and other railway property in the whole city including West Berlin . After the Berlin Blockade transit trains ( ) would leave and enter West Berlin only via one line through Berlin-Wannsee railway station ( W ) and Potsdam Griebnitzsee railway station ( E ) . All transit trains would start or end in East Berlin , passing through West Berlin with only one stop in the Western Berlin Zoologischer Garten railway station , which became West Berlin 's main railway station . Until 1952 , the Reichsbahn also permitted stops at other stations on the way through the Western sectors . After easing of tensions between East and West Germany , starting on 30 May 1976 transit trains going westwards , southwestwards , or southwards stopped once again at station of Wannsee . For transit trains going northwestwards , a shorter line was reopened on 26 September 1976 with an additional stop at the then Berlin-Spandau railway station , entering East Germany at Staaken . Many Reichsbahn employees working in West Berlin were West Berliners . Their East German employer , whose proceeds from ticket sales for Western

sfq_12868--West_Berlin.txt

What was the capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990?

Roger Ducret ( 2 April 1888 – 8 January 1962 ) was a French fencer who competed at the 1920 , 1924 and 1928 Olympics . At the 1924 Summer Olympics he entered five events out of six and earned a gold or silver medal in each of them , winning individual medals in all three competitive fencing disciplines : épée , foil and sabre . Only one fencer in history did better – Nedo Nadi won five gold medals at the 1920 Summer Olympics . During World War I Ducret was a prisoner of war . After retiring from competitions he worked as a journalist for Le Figaro , L'Echo des Sports and other newspapers .

qw_4555--Roger_Ducret.txt

In which sport did Olympic gold medallists Roger Ducret, Lucien Gaudin, Laura Flessel-Colovic, Gaston Alibert, Pascale Trinquet, Christian d'Oriola, Jehan Buhan and Albert Robert Ayat represent France?

Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to c.5th centuries BC to the end of antiquity ( Circa| 600 AD ) . Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era . Included in ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece , which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC . Classical Greece began with the era of the Persian Wars . Because of conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia , Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea . Classical Greek culture , especially philosophy , had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire , which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe . For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered as the cradle of Western civilization . Chronology Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is commonly considered to have begun in the 8th century BC ( around the time of the earliest recorded poetry of Homer ) and ended in the 6th century AD . Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages ( Circa| 1200 – c. 800 BC ) , archaeologically characterised by the protogeometric and geometric styles of designs on pottery . This period is succeeded , around the 8th century BC , by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite , Jewish , Assyrian , Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent . Traditionally , the Archaic period of ancient Greece is considered to begin with Orientalizing influence , which among other things brought the alphabetic script to Greece , marking the beginning of Greek literature ( Homer , Hesiod ) . The end of the Dark Ages is also frequently dated to 776 BC , the year of the first Olympic Games . The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC , in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period at the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC . ; Ancient Periods : Astronomical year numbering ImageSize = width:800 height:100 PlotArea = width:720 height:75 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : time value : rgb ( 0.7,0.7,1 ) # id : period value : rgb ( 1,0.7,0.5 ) # id : age value : rgb ( 0.95,0.85,0.5 ) # id : era value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.5 ) # id : eon value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.7 ) # id : filler value : gray ( 0.8 ) # background bar id : black value : black Period = from : -1200 till:529 TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:100 start : -1200 ScaleMinor = unit : year increment:50 start : -1200 PlotData = align : center textcolor : black fontsize:10 mark : ( line , black ) width:10 shift : ( 0 , -5 ) bar : Period color : filler from : -1200 till : -800 text : Greek Dark Ages bar : Period color : age from : -800 till : -500 text : Archaic from : -500 till : -323 text : Classical from : -323 till : -146 text : Hellenistic from : -146 till : 330 text : Roman Greece from : 330 till : 529 text : Late Antiquity bar : Phase color : period from : -1200 till : -1100 shift : ( 0 , 5 ) text : Mycenaean from : -1200 till : -700 text : Colonization from : -800 till : -700 shift : ( 0 , -15 ) text : Orientalization from : -700 till : -600 text : Tyrants from : -600 till : -500 shift : ( 0 , 5 ) text : Reorganization from : -500 till : -302 text : Hellenic from : -302 till : -279 shift : ( 0 , 5 ) text : Diadochi from : -302 till : -279 shift : ( -10 , -15 ) text : Antipatrid from : -279 till : -168 text : Antigonid from : -168 till : -146 shift : ( 5 , 5 ) text : Invasion from : -146 till : 330 text : Provincia from : 330 till : 529 text : Byzantine bar : color : filler from : -1200 till : -200 text : Early from : -200 till : 300 text : Middle from : 300 till : 529 text : Late : :Dates are approximate , consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods . The earliest of these is the Archaic period ( c. 800 – c. 500 BC ) , in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff , hieratic poses with the dreamlike `` archaic smile '' . The Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC . It was followed by the Classical period ( c. 500 – 323 BC ) , characterized by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary i.e . `` classical '' , as shown in for instance the Parthenon . Politically , the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League during the 5th century , but displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC , before power shifted to Thebes and the Boeotian League and finally to the League of Corinth led by Macedon . This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon . Following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period ( 323–146 BC ) , during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East . This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest . Roman Greece is usually considered to be the period between Roman victory over the Corinthians at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine as the capital of the Roman Empire in AD 330 . Finally , Late Antiquity refers to the period of Christianization during the later 4th to early 6th centuries AD , sometimes taken to be complete with the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I in 529 . Historiography The historical period of ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography , while earlier ancient history or proto-history is known by much more circumstantial evidence , such as annals or king lists , and pragmatic epigraphy . Herodotus is widely known as the `` father of history '' : his Histories are eponymous of the entire field . Written between the 450s and 420s BC , Herodotus ' work reaches about a century into the past , discussing 6th century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia , Cambyses II and Psamtik III , and alluding to some 8th century ones such as Candaules . Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides , Xenophon , Demosthenes , Plato and Aristotle . Most of these authors were either Athenians or pro-Athenians , which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities . Their scope is further limited by a focus on political , military and diplomatic history , ignoring economic and social history . History Archaic period In the 8th century BC , Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization . Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten , but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet , modifying it to create the Greek alphabet . From about the 9th century BC written records begin to appear . Greece was divided into many small self-governing communities , a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography : every island , valley and plain is cut off from its neighbors by the sea or mountain ranges . , The Lelantine War ( c. 710 – c. 650 BC ) is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period . It was fought between the important poleis ( city-states ) of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea . Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war , though Chalcis was the nominal victor . A mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century , shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC . This seems to have introduced tension to many city-states . The aristocratic regimes which generally governed the poleis were threatened by the new-found wealth of merchants , who in turn desired political power . From 650 BC onwards , the aristocracies had to fight not to be overthrown and replaced by populist tyrants . This word derives from the non-pejorative Greek τύραννος tyrannos , meaning 'illegitimate ruler ' , and was applicable to both good and bad leaders alike . A growing population and a shortage of land also seem to have created internal strife between the poor and the rich in many city-states . In Sparta , the Messenian Wars resulted in the conquest of Messenia and enserfment of the Messenians , beginning in the latter half of the 8th century BC , an act without precedent or antecedent in ancient Greece . This practice allowed a social revolution to occur . The subjugated population , thenceforth known as helots , farmed and labored for Sparta , whilst every Spartan male citizen became a soldier of the Spartan Army in a permanently militarized state . Even the elite were obliged to live and train as soldiers ; this commonality between rich and poor citizens served to defuse the social conflict . These reforms , attributed to the shadowy Lycurgus of Sparta , were probably complete by 650 BC . Athens suffered a land and agrarian crisis in the late 7th century , again resulting in civil strife . The Archon ( chief magistrate ) Draco made severe reforms to the law code in 621 BC ( hence `` draconian '' ) , but these failed to quell the conflict . Eventually the moderate reforms of Solon ( 594 BC ) , improving the lot of the poor but firmly entrenching the aristocracy in power , gave Athens some stability . By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs : Athens , Sparta , Corinth , and Thebes . Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control , and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well . Rapidly increasing population in the 8th and 7th centuries had resulted in emigration of many Greeks to form colonies in Magna Graecia ( Southern Italy and Sicily ) , Asia Minor and further afield . The emigration effectively ceased in the 6th century by which time the Greek world had , culturally and linguistically , become much larger than the area of present-day Greece . Greek colonies were not politically controlled by their founding cities , although they often retained religious and commercial links with them . The emigration process also determined a long series of conflicts between the Greek cities of Sicily , especially Syracuse , and the Carthaginians . These conflicts lasted from 600 BC to 265 BC when Rome entered into an alliance with the Mamertines to fend off the hostilities by the new tyrant of Syracuse , Hiero II and then the Carthaginians . This way Rome became the new dominant power against the fading strength of the Sicilian Greek cities and the Carthaginian supremacy in the region . One year later the First Punic War erupted . In this period , there was huge economic development in Greece , and also in its overseas colonies which experienced a growth in commerce and manufacturing . There was a great improvement in the living standards of the population . Some studies estimate that the average size of the Greek household , in the period from 800 BC to 300 BC , increased five times , which indicates a large increase in the average income of the population . In the second half of the 6th century , Athens fell under the tyranny of Peisistratos and then of his sons Hippias and Hipparchos . However , in 510 BC , at the instigation of the Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes , the Spartan king Cleomenes I helped the Athenians overthrow the tyranny . Afterwards , Sparta and Athens promptly turned on each other , at which point Cleomenes I installed Isagoras as a pro-Spartan archon . Eager to prevent Athens from becoming a Spartan puppet , Cleisthenes responded by proposing to his fellow citizens that Athens undergo a revolution : that all citizens share in political power , regardless of status : that Athens become a `` democracy '' . So enthusiastically did the Athenians take to this idea that , having overthrown Isagoras and implemented Cleisthenes 's reforms , they were easily able to repel a Spartan-led three-pronged invasion aimed at restoring Isagoras . The advent of the democracy cured many of the ills of Athens and led to a 'golden age ' for the Athenians . Classical Greece 5th century BC Athens and Sparta would soon have to become allies in the face of the largest external threat ancient Greece would see until the Roman conquest . After suppressing the Ionian Revolt , a rebellion of the Greek cities of Ionia , Darius I of Persia , King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire , decided to subjugate Greece . The Persian general Megabyzus re-subjugated Thrace and conquered Macedon in the early stages of the war , but the war eventually ended up with a Greek victory in 490 BC by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon under Miltiades the Younger . Xerxes I of Persia , son and successor of Darius I , attempted his own invasion 10 years later . Even though at a crucial point in the war , the Persians briefly overran northern and central Greece , the Greek city-states managed to turn this war into a victory too . The notable battles of the Greco-Persian Wars include Marathon , Thermopylae , Salamis , and Plataea . The Greco-Persian Wars continued until 449 BC , led by the Athenians and their Delian League , during which time the Macedon , Thrace , the Aegean Islands and Ionia were all liberated from Persian influence . The dominant position of the maritime Athenian 'Empire ' threatened Sparta and the Peloponnesian League of mainland Greek cities . Inevitably , this led to conflict , resulting in the Peloponnesian War ( 431–404 BC ) . Though effectively a stalemate for much of the war , Athens suffered a number of setbacks . The Plague of Athens in 430 BC followed by a disastrous military campaign known as the Sicilian Expedition severely weakened Athens . Around thirty per cent of the population died in a typhoid epidemic in 430–426 BC . Sparta was able to foment rebellion among Athens 's allies , further reducing the Athenian ability to wage war . The decisive moment came in 405 BC when Sparta cut off the grain supply to Athens from the Hellespont . Forced to attack , the crippled Athenian fleet was decisively defeated by the Spartans under the command of Lysander at Aegospotami . In 404 BC Athens sued for peace , and Sparta dictated a predictably stern settlement : Athens lost her city walls ( including the Long Walls ) , her fleet , and all of her overseas possessions . 4th century BC Greece thus entered the 4th century BC under a Spartan hegemony , but it was clear from the start that this was weak . A demographic crisis meant Sparta was overstretched , and by 395 BC Athens , Argos , Thebes , and Corinth felt able to challenge Spartan dominance , resulting in the Corinthian War ( 395–387 BC ) . Another war of stalemates , it ended with the status quo restored , after the threat of Persian intervention on behalf of the Spartans . The Spartan hegemony lasted another 16 years , until , when attempting to impose their will on the Thebans , the Spartans suffered a decisive defeat at Leuctra in 371 BC . The Theban general Epaminondas then led Theban troops into the Peloponnese , whereupon other city-states defected from the Spartan cause . The Thebans were thus able to march into Messenia and free the population . Deprived of land and its serfs , Sparta declined to a second-rank power . The Theban hegemony thus established was short-lived ; at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BC , Thebes lost its key leader , Epaminondas , and much of its manpower , even though they were victorious in battle . In fact such were the losses to all the great city-states at Mantinea that none could establish dominance in the aftermath . The weakened state of the heartland of Greece coincided with the Rise of Macedon , led by Philip II . In twenty years , Philip had unified his kingdom , expanded it north and west at the expense of Illyrian tribes , and then conquered Thessaly and Thrace . His success stemmed from his innovative reforms to the Macedon army . Phillip intervened repeatedly in the affairs of the southern city-states , culminating in his invasion of 338 BC . Decisively defeating an allied army of Thebes and Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea ( 338 BC ) , he became de facto hegemon of all of Greece , except Sparta . He compelled the majority of the city-states to join the League of Corinth , allying them to him , and preventing them from warring with each other . Philip then entered into war against the Achaemenid Empire but was assassinated by Pausanias of Orestis early on in the conflict . Alexander , son and successor of Philip , continued the war . Alexander defeated Darius III of Persia and completely destroyed the Achaemenid Empire , annexing it to Macedon and earning himself the epithet 'the Great ' . When Alexander died in 323 BC , Greek power and influence was at its zenith . However , there had been a fundamental shift away from the fierce independence and classical culture of the poleis—and instead towards the developing Hellenistic culture . Hellenistic Greece The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 BC , which marked the end of the Wars of Alexander the Great , to the annexation of Greece by the Roman Republic in 146 BC . Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture , which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity , it did mark the end of Greek political independence . During the Hellenistic period , the importance of `` Greece proper '' ( that is , the territory of modern Greece ) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply . The great centers of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch , capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria respectively . The conquests of Alexander had numerous consequences for the Greek city-states . It greatly widened the horizons of the Greeks and led to a steady emigration , particularly of the young and ambitious , to the new Greek empires in the east . Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria , Antioch and the many other new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander 's wake , as far away as what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan , where the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom survived until the end of the 1st century BC . After the death of Alexander his empire was , after quite some conflict , divided among his generals , resulting in the Ptolemaic Kingdom ( based upon Egypt ) , the Seleucid Empire ( based on the Levant , Mesopotamia and Persia ) and the Antigonid dynasty based in Macedon . In the intervening period , the poleis of Greece were able to wrest back some of their freedom , although still nominally subject to the Macedonian Kingdom . The city-states within Greece formed themselves into two leagues ; the Achaean League ( including Thebes , Corinth and Argos ) and the Aetolian League ( including Sparta and Athens ) . For much of the period until the Roman conquest , these leagues were usually at war with each other , and/or allied to different sides in the conflicts between the Diadochi ( the successor states to Alexander 's empire ) . The Antigonid Kingdom became involved in a war with the Roman Republic in the late 3rd century . Although the First Macedonian War was inconclusive , the Romans , in typical fashion , continued to make war on Macedon until it was completely absorbed into the Roman Republic ( by 149 BC ) . In the east the unwieldy Seleucid Empire gradually disintegrated , although a rump survived until 64 BC , whilst the Ptolemaic Kingdom continued in Egypt until 30 BC , when it too was conquered by the Romans . The Aetolian league grew wary of Roman involvement in Greece , and sided with the Seleucids in the Roman-Syrian War ; when the Romans were victorious , the league was effectively absorbed into the Republic . Although the Achaean league outlasted both the Aetolian league and Macedon , it was also soon defeated and absorbed by the Romans in 146 BC , bringing an end to the independence of all of Greece . Roman Greece The Greek peninsula came under Roman rule during the 146 BC conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth . Macedonia became a Roman province while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia 's prefect ; however , some Greek poleis managed to maintain a partial independence and avoid taxation . The Aegean islands were added to this territory in 133 BC . Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC , and the peninsula was crushed by the Roman general Sulla . The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further , until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC . Greece was a key eastern province of the Roman Empire , as the Roman culture had long been in fact Greco-Roman . The Greek language served as a lingua franca in the East and in Italy , and many Greek intellectuals such as Galen would perform most of their work in Rome . Geography Regions The territory of Greece is mountainous , and as a result , ancient Greece consisted of many smaller regions each with its own dialect , cultural peculiarities , and identity . Regionalism and regional conflicts were a prominent feature of ancient Greece . Cities tended to be located in valleys between mountains , or on coastal plains , and dominated a certain area around them . In the south lay the Peloponnese , itself consisting of the regions of Laconia ( southeast ) , Messenia ( southwest ) , Elis ( west ) , Achaia ( north ) , Korinthia ( northeast ) , Argolis ( east ) , and Arcadia ( center ) . These names survive to the present day as regional units of modern Greece , though with somewhat different boundaries . Mainland Greece to the north , nowadays known as Central Greece , consisted of Aetolia and Acarnania in the west , Locris , Doris , and Phocis in the center , while in the east lay Boeotia , Attica , and Megaris . Northeast lay Thessaly , while Epirus lay to the northwest . Epirus stretched from the Ambracian Gulf in the south to the Ceraunian mountains and the Aoos river in the north , and consisted of Chaonia ( north ) , Molossia ( center ) , and Thesprotia ( south ) . In the northeast corner was Macedonia , originally consisting Lower Macedonia and its regions , such as Elimeia , Pieria , and Orestis . Around the time of Alexander I of Macedon , the Argead kings of Macedon started to expand into Upper Macedonia , lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the Elmiotae and to the West , beyond the Axius river , into Eordaia , Bottiaea , Mygdonia , and Almopia , regions settled by Thracian tribes . To the north of Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north , the Thracians to the northeast , and the Illyrians , with whom the Macedonians were frequently in conflict , to the northwest . Chalcidice was settled early on by southern Greek colonists and was considered part of the Greek world , while from the late 2nd millennium BC substantial Greek settlement also occurred on the eastern shores of the Aegean , in Anatolia . Colonies During the Archaic period , the population of Greece grew beyond the capacity of its limited arable land ( according to one estimate , the population of ancient Greece increased by a factor larger than ten during the period from 800 BC to 400 BC , increasing from a population of 800,000 to a total estimated population of 10 to 13 million ) . From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion , settling colonies in all directions . To the east , the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first , followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace , the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea . Eventually Greek colonization reached as far northeast as present day Ukraine and Russia ( Taganrog ) . To the west the coasts of Illyria , Sicily and Southern Italy were settled , followed by Southern France , Corsica , and even northeastern Spain . Greek colonies were also founded in Egypt and Libya . Modern Syracuse , Naples , Marseille and Istanbul had their beginnings as the Greek colonies Syracusae ( Συρακούσαι ) , Neapolis ( Νεάπολις ) , Massalia ( Μασσαλία ) and Byzantion ( Βυζάντιον ) . These colonies played an important role in the spread of Greek influence throughout Europe and also aided in the establishment of long-distance trading networks between the Greek city-states , boosting the economy of ancient Greece . Politics and society Political structure Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred relatively independent city-states ( poleis ) . This was a situation unlike that in most other contemporary societies , which were either tribal or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories . Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills , mountains , and rivers—contributed to the fragmentary nature of ancient Greece . On the one hand , the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were `` one people '' ; they had the same religion , same basic culture , and same language . Furthermore , the Greeks were very aware of their tribal origins ; Herodotus was able to extensively categorise the city-states by tribe . Yet , although these higher-level relationships existed , they seem to have rarely had a major role in Greek politics . The independence of the poleis was fiercely defended ; unification was something rarely contemplated by the ancient Greeks . Even when , during the second Persian invasion of Greece , a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece , the vast majority of poleis remained neutral , and after the Persian defeat , the allies quickly returned to infighting . Thus , the major peculiarities of the ancient Greek political system were firstly , its fragmentary nature , and that this does not particularly seem to have tribal origin , and secondly , the particular focus on urban centers within otherwise tiny states . The peculiarities of the Greek system are further evidenced by the colonies that they set up throughout the Mediterranean Sea , which , though they might count a certain Greek polis as their 'mother ' ( and remain sympathetic to her ) , were completely independent of the founding city . Inevitably smaller poleis might be dominated by larger neighbors , but conquest or direct rule by another city-state appears to have been quite rare . Instead the poleis grouped themselves into leagues , membership of which was in a constant state of flux . Later in the Classical period , the leagues would become fewer and

bb_9353--Ancient_Greece.txt

Which body of water was previously called the Euxine, after early colonisation of its southern coastline by Greeks, derived from their word for 'hospitable'?

Quarterback ( commonly abbreviated to QB ) is a position in American and Canadian football . Quarterbacks are members of the offensive team and line up directly behind the offensive line . In modern American football , the quarterback is usually considered the leader of the offensive team , and is often responsible for calling the play in the huddle . Overview In modern American football , the quarterback is usually the leader of the offense . The quarterback touches the ball on almost every offensive play , and his successes and failures can have a significant impact on the fortunes of his team . Accordingly , the quarterback is among the most glorified and scrutinized positions in team sports . Prior to each play , the quarterback will usually tell the rest of his team which play the team will run . After the team is lined up , the center will pass the ball back to the quarterback ( a process called the snap ) . Usually on a running play , the quarterback will then hand or pitch the ball backwards to a half back or full back . On a passing play , the quarterback is almost always the player responsible for trying to throw the ball downfield to an eligible receiver downfield . Additionally , the quarterback will often run with the ball himself , which could be part of a designed play like the option run or quarterback sneak , or it could be an impromptu effort to avoid being sacked by the defense . Depending on the offensive scheme by his team , the quarterback 's role can vary . In systems like the triple option the quarterback will only pass the ball a few times per a game , if at all , while the pass-heavy spread offense as run by schools like Texas Tech requires quarterbacks to throw the ball in most plays . The passing game is emphasized heavily in the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) , where there are only three downs as opposed to the four downs used in American football , a larger field of play and an extra eligible receiver . Different skillsets are required of the quarterback in each system - quarterbacks that perform well in a pass-heavy spread offensive system , a popular offensive scheme in the NCAA and NFHS , rarely perform well in the National Football League ( NFL ) , as the fundamentals of the pro-style offense used in the NFL are very different from those in the spread system . while quarterbacks in Canadian football need to be able to throw the ball often and accurately . In general , quarterbacks need to have physical skills such as arm strength , mobility , and quick throwing motion , in addition to intangibles such as competitiveness , leadership , intelligence , and downfield vision . In the NFL , quarterbacks are required to wear a uniform number between 1 and 19 . In the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and National Federation of State High School Associations ( NFHS ) , quarterbacks are required to wear a uniform number between 1 and 49 ; in the NFHS , the quarterback can also wear a number between 80 and 89 . In the CFL , the quarterback can wear any number from 0 to 49 and 70 to 99 . Because of their numbering , quarterbacks are eligible receivers in the NCAA , NFHS , and CFL ; in the NFL , quarterbacks are eligible receivers if they are not lined up directly under center . Leadership In the NFL , while the starting quarterback has no other responsibility or authority , he may , depending on the league or individual team , have various informal duties , such as participation in pre-game ceremonies , the coin toss , or other events outside the game . Often compared to captains of other team sports , before the implementation of NFL team captains in 2007 , the starting quarterback was usually the de facto team leader and well-respected player on and off the field . Since 2007 , when the NFL allowed teams to designate several captains to serve as on-field leaders , the starting quarterback has usually been one of the team captains as the leader of the team 's offense . After a Super Bowl victory , the starting quarterback is the first player ( and third person after the team owner and head coach ) to be presented with the Vince Lombardi Trophy . The starting quarterback of the victorious Super Bowl team is often chosen for the `` I 'm going to Disney World ! '' campaign ( which includes a trip to Walt Disney World for them and their families ) , whether they are the Super Bowl MVP or not ; examples include Joe Montana ( XXIII ) , Trent Dilfer ( XXXV ) , and Peyton Manning ( 50 ) . Dilfer was chosen even though teammate Ray Lewis was the MVP of Super Bowl XXXV , due to the bad publicity from Lewis ' murder trial the prior year . Trends and other roles In addition to their main role , quarterbacks are occasionally used in other roles . Most teams utilize a backup quarterback as their holder on placekicks . A benefit of using quarterbacks as holders is that it would be easier to pull off a fake field goal attempt , but many coaches prefer to use punters as holders because a punter will have far more time in practice sessions to work with the kicker than any quarterback would . In the Wildcat , a formation where a halfback lines up behind the center and the quarterback lines up out wide , the quarterback can be used as a receiving target or a blocker . A more rare use for a quarterback is to punt the ball himself , a play known as a quick kick . Denver Broncos quarterback John Elway was known to perform quick kicks occasionally , typically when the Broncos were facing a third-and-long situation . Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Randall Cunningham , an All-America punter in college , was also known to punt the ball occasionally , and was assigned as the team 's default punter for certain situations , such as when the team was backed up inside their own five-yard line . As Roger Staubach 's back-up , Dallas Cowboys quarterback Danny White was also the team 's punter , opening strategic possibilities for coach Tom Landry . Ascending the starting role upon Staubach 's retirement , White held his position as the team 's punter for several seasons—a double duty he performed to All-American standard at Arizona State University . White also had two touchdown receptions as a Dallas Cowboy , both from the halfback option . Special tactics If quarterbacks are uncomfortable with the formation the defense is using , they may call an audible change to their play . For example , if a quarterback receives the call to execute a running play , but he notices that the defense is ready to blitz—that is , to send additional defensive backs across the line of scrimmage in an attempt to tackle the quarterback or hurt his ability to pass—the quarterback may want to change the play . To do this , the quarterback yells a special code , like `` Blue 42 , '' or `` Texas 29 , '' which tells the offense to switch to a specific play or formation , but it all depends on the quarterback 's judgment of the defense 's alignment . Quarterbacks can also `` spike '' ( throw the football at the ground ) to stop the official game clock . For example , if a team is down by a field goal with only seconds remaining , a quarterback may spike the ball to prevent the game clock from running out . This usually allows the field goal unit to come onto the field , or attempt a final `` Hail Mary pass '' . However , if a team is winning , a quarterback can keep the clock running by kneeling after the snap . This is normally done when the opposing team has no timeouts and there is little time left in the game , as it allows a team to burn up the remaining time on the clock without risking a turnover or injury . Dual-threat quarterbacks A dual-threat quarterback possesses the skills and physique to run with the ball if necessary . With the rise of several blitz-heavy defensive schemes and increasingly faster defensive players , the importance of a mobile quarterback has been redefined . While arm power , accuracy , and pocket presence – the ability to successfully operate from within the `` pocket '' formed by his blockers – are still the most important quarterback virtues , the ability to elude or run past defenders creates an additional threat that allows greater flexibility in a team 's passing and running game . Dual-threat quarterbacks have historically been more prolific at the college level . Typically , a quarterback with exceptional quickness is used in an option offense , which allows the quarterback to hand the ball off , run it himself , or pitch it to the running back following him at a distance of three yards outside and one yard behind . This type of offense forces defenders to commit to the running back up the middle , the quarterback around the end , or the running back trailing the quarterback . It is then that the quarterback has the `` option '' to identify which match-up is most favorable to the offense as the play unfolds and exploit that defensive weakness . In the college game , many schools employ several plays that are designed for the quarterback to run with the ball . This is much less common in professional football , except for a quarterback sneak , but there is still an emphasis on being mobile enough to escape a heavy pass rush . Historically , high profile dual-threat quarterbacks in the NFL were uncommon , Steve Young and John Elway being among the notable exceptions , leading their teams to three and five Super Bowl appearances respectively ; and Michael Vick , whose rushing ability was a rarity in the early 2000s , although he never led his team to a Super Bowl . In recent years , quarterbacks with dual-threat capabilities have become more popular . Examples of dual-threat quarterbacks playing in the NFL include Andrew Luck , Cam Newton , Ryan Tannehill , Colin Kaepernick , Blake Bortles , Tyrod Taylor , Alex Smith , Russell Wilson , and Marcus Mariota . Two-quarterback system Some teams employ a strategy which involves the use of more than one quarterback during the course of a game . This is more common at lower levels of football , such as high school or small college , but rare in major college or professional football . There are four circumstances in which a two-quarterback system may be used . The first is when a team is in the process of determining which quarterback will eventually be the starter , and may choose to use each quarterback for part of the game in order to compare the performances . For instance , the Seattle Seahawks ' Pete Carroll used the pre-season games in 2012 to select Russell Wilson as the starting quarterback over Matt Flynn and Tarvaris Jackson . The second is a starter–reliever system , in which the starting quarterback splits the regular season playing time with the backup quarterback , although the former will start playoff games . This strategy is rare , and was last seen in the NFL in the `` WoodStrock '' combination of Don Strock and David Woodley , which took the Miami Dolphins to the Epic in Miami in 1982 and Super Bowl XVII the following year . The starter-reliever system is distinct from a one-off situation in which a starter is benched in favor of the back-up because the switch is part of the game plan ( usually if the starter is playing poorly for that game ) , and the expectation is that the two players will assume the same roles game after game . The third is if a coach decides that the team has two quarterbacks who are equally effective and proceeds to rotate the quarterbacks at predetermined intervals , such as after each quarter or after each series . Southern California high school football team Corona Centennial operated this model during the 2014 football season , rotating quarterbacks after every series . In a game against the Chicago Bears in the seventh week of the 1971 season , Dallas Cowboys head coach Tom Landry alternated Roger Staubach and Craig Morton on each play , sending in the quarterbacks with the play call from the sideline . The fourth , still occasionally seen in major-college football , is the use of different quarterbacks in different game or down/distance situations . Generally this involves a running quarterback and a passing quarterback in an option or wishbone offense . In Canadian football , quarterback sneaks or other runs in short-yardage situations tend to be successful as a result of the distance between the offensive and defensive lines being one yard . Drew Tate , a quarterback for the Calgary Stampeders , was primarily used in short-yardage situations and led the CFL in rushing touchdowns during the 2014 season with ten scores as the backup to Bo Levi Mitchell . This strategy had all but disappeared from professional American football , but returned to some extent with the advent of the `` wildcat '' offense . There is a great debate within football circles as to the effectiveness of the so-called `` two-quarterback system '' . Many coaches and media personnel remain skeptical of the model . Teams such as USC ( Southern California ) , OSU ( Oklahoma State ) , Northwestern , and smaller West Georgia have utilized the two-quarterback system ; West Georgia , for example , uses the system due to the skill sets of its quarterbacks . Teams like these use this situation because of the advantages it gives them against defenses of the other team , so that the defense is unable to adjust to their game plan . History The quarterback position dates to the late 1800s , when American Ivy League schools playing a form of rugby union imported from England began to put their own spin on the game . Walter Camp , a prominent athlete and rugby player at Yale University , pushed through a change in rules at a meeting in 1880 that established a line of scrimmage and allowed for the football to be snapped to a quarterback . The change was meant to allow for teams to strategize their play more thoroughly and retain possession more easily than was possible in the chaos of a scrummage in rugby . In Camp 's formulation , the `` quarter-back '' was the person who received a ball snapped back with another player 's foot . Originally he was not allowed to run forward of the line of scrimmage : The quarterback in this context was often called the `` blocking back '' as their duties usually involved blocking after the initial handoff . The `` fullback '' was the furthest back behind the line of scrimmage . The `` halfback '' was halfway between the fullback and the line of scrimmage , and the `` quarter-back '' was halfway between the halfback and the line of scrimmage . Hence , he was called a `` quarter-back '' by Walter Camp . The requirement to stay behind the line of scrimmage was soon rescinded , but it was later re-imposed in six-man football . The exchange between the person snapping the ball ( typically the center ) and the quarterback was initially an awkward one because it involved a kick . At first , centers gave the ball a small boot , and then picked it up and handed it to the quarterback . By 1889 , Yale center Bert Hanson was bouncing the ball on the ground to the quarterback between his legs . The following year , a rule change officially made snapping the ball using the hands between the legs legal . Several years later , Amos Alonzo Stagg at the University of Chicago invented the lift-up snap : the center passed the ball off the ground and between his legs to a standing quarterback . A similar set of changes were later adopted in Canadian football as part of the Burnside rules , a set of rules proposed by John Meldrum `` Thrift '' Burnside , the captain of the University of Toronto 's football team . The change from a scrummage to a `` scrimmage '' made it easier for teams to decide what plays they would run before the snap . At first , the captains of college teams were put in charge of play-calling , indicating with shouted codes which players would run with the ball and how the men on the line were supposed to block . Yale later used visual signals , including adjustments of the captain 's knit hat , to call plays . Centers could also signal plays based on the alignment of the ball before the snap . In 1888 , however , Princeton University began to have its quarterback call plays using number signals . That system caught on , and quarterbacks began to act as directors and organizers of offensive play . Early on , quarterbacks were used in a variety of formations . Harvard 's team put seven men on the line of scrimmage , with three halfbacks who alternated at quarterback and a lone fullback . Princeton put six men on the line and had one designated quarterback , while Yale used seven linemen , one quarterback and two halfbacks who lined up on either side of the fullback . This was the origin of the T-formation , an offensive set that remained in use for many decades afterward and gained popularity in professional football starting in the 1930s . In 1906 , the forward pass was legalized in American football ; Canadian football did not adopt the forward pass until 1929 . Despite the legalization of the forward pass , the most popular formations of the early 20th century focused mostly on the rushing game . The single-wing formation , a run-oriented offensive set , was invented by football coach Glenn `` Pop '' Warner around the year 1908 . In the single-wing , the quarterback was positioned behind the line of scrimmage and was flanked by a tailback , fullback and wingback . He served largely as a blocking back ; the tailback typically took the snap , either running forward with the ball or making a lateral pass to one of the other players in the backfield . The quarterback 's job was usually to make blocks upfield to help the tailback or fullback gain yards . Passing plays were rare in the single-wing , an unbalanced power formation where four linemen lined up to one side of the center and two lined up to the other . The tailback was the focus of the offense , and was often a triple-threat man who would either pass , run or kick the ball . Offensive play-calling continued to focus on rushing up through the 1920s , when professional leagues began to challenge the popularity of college football . In the early days of the professional National Football League ( NFL ) , which was founded in 1920 , games were largely low-scoring affairs . Two-thirds of all games in the 1920s were shutouts , and quarterbacks usually passed only out of desperation . In addition to a reluctance to risk turnovers by passing , various rules existed that limited the effectiveness of the forward pass : passers were required to drop back five yards behind the line of scrimmage before they could attempt a pass , and incomplete passes in the end zone resulted in a change of possession and a touchback Additionally , the rules requires the ball to be snapped from the location on the field where it was ruled dead ; if a play ended with a player going out of bounds , the center had to snap the ball from the sideline , an awkward place to start a play . Despite these constraints , player-coach Curly Lambeau of the Green Bay Packers , along with several other NFL figures of his era , was a consistent proponent of the forward pass . The Packers found success in the 1920s and 1930s using variations on the single-wing that emphasized the passing game . Packers quarterback Red Dunn and New York Giants and Brooklyn Dodgers quarterback Benny Friedman were the leading passers of their era , but passing remained a relative rarity among other teams ; between 1920 and 1932 , there were three times as many running plays as there were passing plays . Early NFL quarterbacks typically were responsible for calling the team 's offensive plays with signals before the snap . The use of the huddle to call plays originated with Stagg in 1896 , but only began to be used regularly in college games in 1921 . In the NFL , players were typically assigned numbers , as were the gaps between offensive linemen . One player , usually the quarterback , would call signals indicating which player was to run the ball and which gap he would run toward . Play-calling or any other kind of coaching from the sidelines was not permitted during this period , leaving the quarterback to devise the offensive strategy ( often , the quarterback doubled as head coach during this era ) . Substitutions were limited , and quarterbacks often played on both offense and defense . The period between 1933 and 1945 was marked by numerous changes for the quarterback position . The rule requiring a quarterback to be five yards behind the line of scrimmage to pass was abolished . Hash marks were added to the field that established a limited zone between which the ball was placed before snaps , making offensive formations more flexible . Additionally , incomplete passes in the end zone were no longer counted as turnovers and touchbacks . The single-wing continued to be in wide use throughout this , and a number of forward-passing tailbacks became stars , including Sammy Baugh of the Washington Redskins . In 1939 , University of Chicago head football coach Clark Shaughnessy made modifications to the T-formation , a formation that put the quarterback behind the center and had him receive the snap directly . Shaughnessy altered the formation by having the linemen be spaced further apart , and he began having players go in motion behind the line of scrimmage before the snap to confuse defenses . These changes were picked up by Chicago Bears coach George Halas , a close friend of Shaughnessy , and they quickly caught on in the professional ranks . Utilizing the T-formation and led by quarterback Sid Luckman , the Bears reached the NFL championship game in 1940 and beat the Redskins by a score of 73–0 . The blowout led other teams across the league to adopt variations on the T-formation , including the Philadelphia Eagles , Cleveland Rams and Detroit Lions . Baugh and the Redskins converted to the T-formation and continued to succeed . Thanks in part to the emergence of the T-formation and changes in the rulebooks to liberalize the passing game , passing from the quarterback position became more common in the 1940s . Over the course of the decade , passing yards began to exceed rushing yards for the first time in the history of football . The Cleveland Browns of the late 1940s in the All-America Football Conference ( AAFC ) , a professional league created to challenge the NFL , were one of the teams of that era that relied most on passing . Quarterback Otto Graham helped the Browns win four AAFC championships in the late 1940s in head coach Paul Brown 's T-formation offense , which emphasized precision timing passes . Cleveland , along with several other AAFC teams , was absorbed by the NFL in 1950 after the dissolution of the AAFC that same year . By the end of the 1940s , all NFL teams aside from the Pittsburgh Steelers used the T-formation as their primary offensive formation . As late as the 1960s , running plays occurred more frequently than passes . NFL quarterback Milt Plum later stated that during his career ( 1957-1969 ) passes typically only occurred on third downs and sometimes on first downs . Quarterbacks only increased in importance as rules changed to favor passing and higher scoring and as football gained popularity on television after the 1958 NFL Championship Game , often referred to as `` The Greatest Game Ever Played '' . Early modern offenses evolved around the quarterback as a passing threat , boosted by rules changes in 1978 and 1979 that made it a penalty for defensive backs to interfere with receivers downfield and allowed offensive linemen to pass-block using their arms and open hands ; the rules had limited them to blocking with their hands held to their chests . Average passing yards per game rose from 283.3 in 1977 to 408.7 in 1979 . The NFL has continued to be a pass-heavy league to the present day , in part due to further rule changes that prescribed harsher penalties for hitting the quarterback and for hitting defenseless receivers as they awaited passes . Passing in wide-open offenses has also been an emphasis at the high school and college levels , and professional coaches have devised schemes to fit the talents of new generations of quarterbacks . While quarterbacks and team captains usually called plays in football 's early years , today coaches often decide which plays the offense will run . Some teams use an offensive coordinator , an assistant coach whose duties include offensive game-planning and often play-calling . In the NFL , coaches are allowed to communicate with quarterbacks and call plays using audio equipment built into the player 's helmet . Quarterbacks are allowed to hear , but not talk to , their coaches until there are fifteen seconds left on the play clock . Once the quarterback receives the call , he may relay it to other players via signals or in a huddle . Dallas Cowboys head coach Tom Landry was an early advocate of taking play calling out of the quarterback 's hands . Although this remained a common practice in the NFL through the 1970s , fewer QBs were doing it by the 1980s and even Hall-of-Famers like Joe Montana did not call their own plays . Buffalo Bills QB Jim Kelly was one of the last to regularly call plays . Peyton Manning of the Indianapolis Colts and Denver Broncos is the best modern example of a quarterback who calls his own plays , primary using an up tempo , no huddle based attack . Manning has almost complete control over the offense . Baltimore Ravens quarterback Joe Flacco retains a high degree of control over the offense as well , particularly when running a no-huddle scheme . Race During the 2013 season , 67 percent of NFL players were African American ( blacks make up 13 percent of the US population ) , yet only 17 percent of quarterbacks were ; 82 percent of quarterbacks were white . Samuel G. Freedman , writing in The New Yorker , asserted that black quarterbacks have faced discrimination , `` often denied the starting positions they deserved . '' Since the inception of the game , only two black quarterbacks have led their team to a Super Bowl victory , Doug Williams in 1988 and Russell Wilson in 2014 .

qw_8941--Quarterback.txt

What team does controversial quarterback Michael Vick play for in the National Football League in the USA?

A truffle is the fruiting body of a subterranean Ascomycete fungus , predominantly one of the many species of the genus Tuber . Truffles are ectomycorrhizal fungi and are therefore usually found in close association with the roots of trees . Spore dispersal is accomplished through fungivores , animals that eat fungi . Some of the truffle species are highly prized as food . French gourmet Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin called truffles `` the diamond of the kitchen '' . Edible truffles are held in high esteem in Croatian , French , Georgian , Greek , Italian , Middle Eastern , and Spanish cooking , as well as in international . History Antiquity The first mention of truffles appears in the inscriptions of the neo-Sumerians regarding their Amorite enemy 's eating habits ( Third Dynasty of Ur , 20th century BCE ) and later in writings of Theophrastus in the fourth century BCE . In classical times , their origins were a mystery that challenged many ; Plutarch and others thought them to be the result of lightning , warmth and water in the soil , while Juvenal thought thunder and rain to be instrumental in their origin . Cicero deemed them children of the earth , while Dioscorides thought they were tuberous roots . Italy in the Classical period produced three kinds of truffles : the , the and the . The Romans , however , only used the terfez ( Terfezia bouderi ) , a fungus of similar appearance , which the Romans called truffles , and which is sometimes called `` desert truffle '' . Terfez used in Rome came from Lesbos , Carthage , and especially Libya , where the coastal climate was less dry in ancient times . Their substance is pale , tinged with rose . Unlike truffles , terfez have no taste of their own . The Romans used the terfez as a carrier of flavour , because the terfez have the property to absorb surrounding flavours . Indeed , Ancient Roman cuisine used many spices and flavours , and terfez were perfect in that context . Middle Ages Truffles were rarely used during the Middle Ages . Truffle hunting is mentioned by Bartolomeo Platina , the papal historian , in 1481 , when he recorded that the sows of Notza were without equal in hunting truffles , but they should be muzzled to prevent them from eating the prize . According to a hadith narrated by Saeed bin Zaid , Muhammad said that truffles are like manna and that water from truffles `` heals eye diseases '' . Renaissance and modern times During the Renaissance , truffles regained popularity in Europe and were honoured at the court of King Francis I of France . However , it was not until the 17th century that Western ( and in particular French ) cuisine abandoned `` heavy '' oriental spices , and rediscovered the natural flavour of foodstuffs . Truffles were very popular in Parisian markets in the 1780s . They were imported seasonally from truffle grounds , where peasants had long enjoyed their secret . Brillat-Savarin ( 1825 ) noted characteristically that they were so expensive they appeared only at the dinner tables of great nobles and kept women . A great delicacy was a truffled turkey . Cultivation Truffles long eluded techniques of domestication , as Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin ( 1825 ) noted : The most learned men have sought to ascertain the secret , and fancied they discovered the seed . Their promises , however , were vain , and no planting was ever followed by a harvest . This perhaps is all right , for as one of the great values of truffles is their dearness , perhaps they would be less highly esteemed if they were cheaper . However , truffles can be cultivated . As early as 1808 , there were successful attempts to cultivate truffles , known in French as . People had long observed that truffles were growing among the roots of certain trees , and in 1808 , Joseph Talon , from Apt ( département of Vaucluse ) in southern France , had the idea of transplanting some seedlings that he 'd collected at the foot of oak trees known to host truffles in their root system . For discovering how to cultivate truffles , some sources now give priority to Pierre II Mauléon ( 1744–1831 ) of Loudun ( in the Vienne department ) , who began to cultivate truffles ca . 1790 . See : Thérèse Dereix de Laplane ( 2010 ) `` Des truffes sauvages aux truffes cultivées en Loudunais '' ( From wild truffles to cultivated truffles in the area of Loudun ) , Mémoires de l ’ Académie des Sciences , Arts et Belles-Lettres de Touraine , 23 : 215–241 . Available on-line at : [ http : //academie-de-touraine.com/Tome_23_files/191_215-241.pdf Academy of Touraine ] From pp . 224–225 : `` … le paysan , a alors l'idée , vers 1790 — puisqu'il y a symbiose évidente entre le chêne , les galluches et la truffe — de provoquer la formation de truffières , en reproduisant leur environnement naturel par des semis de glands dans ses `` terres galluches '' . Avec `` les glands venus sur les chênes donnant les truffes , des semis furent faits dans les terrains calcaires voisins '' … `` ( … the farmer [ viz , Pierre II Mauléon ] then had the idea , around 1790 — because there is an obvious symbiosis between the oak tree , the rocky soil , and truffles — of inducing the formation of truffle patches , by reproducing their natural environment by sowing acorns in his rocky soils . With `` the acorns [ that ] came from the oak trees producing truffles , sowings were made in the neighboring chalky plots '' … ) See also : Léon de la Toubette ( 1869 ) [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id97oAAAAAYAAJ & pg RA1-PA300 # vonepage & q & f false `` Culture de la truffe à Loudun et à Richelieu , '' ] Annales de la Société d'Agriculture Sciences , Arts , et Belles-lettres du Départment d'Indre-et-Loire , 10th series , 48 : 300–302 ; see p. 300 . The experiment was successful : Years later , truffles were found in the soil around the newly grown oak trees . In 1847 , Auguste Rousseau of Carpentras ( in Vaucluse ) planted 7 ha of oak trees ( again from acorns found on the soil around truffle-producing oak trees ) , and he subsequently obtained large harvests of truffles . He received a prize at the 1855 World 's Fair in Paris . These successful attempts were met with enthusiasm in southern France , which possessed the sweet limestone soils and dry , hot weather that truffles need to grow . In the late 19th century , an epidemic of phylloxera destroyed many of the vineyards in southern France . Another epidemic destroyed most of the silkworms there , too , making the fields of mulberry trees useless . Thus , large tracts of land were set free for the cultivation of truffles . Thousands of truffle-producing trees were planted , and production reached peaks of hundreds of tonnes at the end of the 19th century . In 1890 , there were 75000 ha of truffle-producing trees . In the 20th century , however , with the growing industrialization of France and the subsequent rural exodus , many of these truffle fields ( or ) returned to wilderness . The First World War also dealt a serious blow to the French countryside , killing 20 % or more of the male working force . As a consequence , newly acquired techniques of were lost . Also , between the two world wars , the truffle groves planted in the 19th century stopped being productive . ( The average life cycle of a truffle-producing tree is 30 years . ) Consequently , after 1945 , the production of truffles plummeted , and the prices have risen dramatically . In 1900 , truffles were used by most people , and on many occasions . Today , they are a rare delicacy reserved for the rich , or used on very special occasions . In the last 30 years , new attempts for mass production of truffles have been started . Eighty percent of the truffles now produced in France come from specially planted truffle groves . Nonetheless , production has yet to recover its 1900s peaks . Local farmers are sometimes opposed to a return of mass production , which would possibly decrease the price of truffles ( though it is commonly stated that demand is 10 times higher than offer ) . In exchange there are heavy investments in cultivated plantations under way in many parts of the world . Thanks to controlled irrigation , regular and resilient production is indeed possible . There are now truffle-growing areas in the United Kingdom , United States , Spain , Sweden , New Zealand , Australia , Chile and South Africa . A critical phase of the cultivation is the quality control of the michorized plants . It takes indeed between 7 and 10 years for the truffles to develop their micchorizes network , and only after that the host-plants come into production . Both a complete soil analysis to avoid contamination by other dominant fungus and a very strict control of the michorization process are necessary to ensure the success of a plantation . Total investment per hectare for an irrigated and barrier-sealed plantation ( against wild boars ) can cost up to €10,000 . Regarding the level of initial investment and the maturity delay , farmers that have not taken care of both soil conditions and seedlings conditions are at high risk of failure . In New Zealand and Australia The first black truffles ( ) to be produced in the Southern Hemisphere were harvested in Gisborne , New Zealand , in 1993 . In 1999 , the first Australian truffles were harvested in Tasmania , the result of eight years of work . Trees were inoculated with the truffle fungus in the hope of creating a local truffle industry . Their success and the value of the resulting truffles has encouraged a small industry to develop . A Western Australian venture , The Wine and Truffle Company , had its first harvest in 2004 , and in 2005 they unearthed a 1-kg ( 2.2-lb ) truffle . In 2008 , an estimated 600 kg of truffles were removed from the rich ground of Manjimup . Each year , The Wine and Truffle Company has expanded its production , moving into the colder regions of Victoria and New South Wales . In June 2010 , Tasmanian growers Michael and Gwynneth Williams harvested Australia 's largest truffle from their property at Myrtle Bank , near Launceston . It weighed in at . Mrs. Williams told ABC Radio in Australia that it is valued at about A $ 1,500 per kg . New Zealand 's first burgundy truffle was found in July 2012 at a Waipara truffle farm . It weighed 330 g , and was found by Rosie , the farm owner 's beagle . Etymology The origin of the word truffle appears to be the Latin term , meaning `` swelling '' or `` lump '' , which became tufer- and gave rise to the various European terms : Croatian , Danish ' , Dutch , English truffle , French , German , Italian , Polish , Spanish , Swedish and . The German word ( `` potato '' ) is derived from the Italian term for truffle because of superficial similarities . In Portuguese , the words and are synonyms , the latter closer to the Latin term . Biology The mycelia of truffles form symbiotic , mycorrhizal relationships with the roots of several tree species including beech , birch , hazel , hornbeam , oak , pine , and poplar . They prefer argillaceous or calcareous soils that are well drained and neutral or alkaline . Truffles fruit throughout the year , depending on the species , and can be found buried between the leaf litter and the soil . Phylogeny The phylogeny and biogeography of truffles was investigated in 2008 using internal transcribed spacers ( ITS ) of nuclear DNA with five major clades ( Aestivum , Excavatum , Rufum , Melanosporum and Puberulum ) ; this was later improved and expanded in 2010 using large subunits ( LSU ) of mitochondrial DNA to nine major clades . The Magnatum and Macrosporum clades were distinguished as distinct from the Aestivum clade . The Gibbosum clade was resolved as distinct from all other clades , and the Spinoreticulatum clade was separated from the Rufum clade . Species Black truffle The black truffle or black Périgord truffle ( Tuber melanosporum ) , the second-most commercially valuable species , is named after the Périgord region in France and grows with oak and hazelnut trees . Black truffles are harvested in late autumn and winter . The genome sequence of the black truffle was published in March 2010 . The following table shows the production in the EU of Tuber melanosporum in Spain , France and Italy . Production data is in metric tons , and country weights in percentage , and comes from the Groupe Européen Truffe et Trufficulture , an association of the main producers in Europe . As the data shows , France has been the main producer of black truffles in the last century and a half , but is rapidly challenged by Spain , where regions have made use of the EU-funded Rural Development Programme ( EARFD funding ) to subsidise cultivated plantations . This is particularly visible in the Teruel province of the Aragón region where the black truffle represents the first and main economic activity ( in GDP and employment ) . Especially since 2010-2011 when many plantations done under the last Rural Development Programme 2000-2006 came into production phase . Summer or burgundy truffle The black summer truffle ( ) is found across Europe and is prized for its culinary value . Burgundy truffles ( Tuber uncinatum ) are harvested in autumn until December and have aromatic flesh of a darker colour . White truffle The `` white truffle '' or `` trifola d'Alba Madonna '' ( `` Truffle of the White Mother '' in Italian ) ( Tuber magnatum ) is found mainly in the Langhe and Montferrat areas of the Piedmont region in northern Italy and , most famously , in the countryside around the cities of Alba and Asti ; in Italy it can also be found in Molise , Abruzzo , and in the hills around San Miniato , in Tuscany . It is also found on the Istria peninsula , in Croatia in the Motovun forest along the Mirna river , and in Slovenia along the Dragonja and Rizana river , as well as in the Drome area in France . Growing symbiotically with oak , hazel , poplar and beech and fruiting in autumn , they can reach 12 cm diameter and 500 g , though are usually much smaller . The flesh is pale cream or brown with white marbling . Italian white truffles are very highly esteemed ( illustration , left ) and are the most valuable on the market : The white truffle market in Alba is busiest in the months of October and November when the Fiera del Tartufo ( truffle fair ) takes place . In 2001 , the Tuber magnatum truffles sold for between $ 1000– $ 2200 per pound ( $ 2000– $ 4500 per kg ) ; as of December 2009 they were being sold at $ 14,203.50 per kilogram . In 1999 , Giancarlo Zigante and his dog Diana found one of the largest truffles in the world near Buje , Croatia . The truffle weighed and has entered the Guinness Book of Records . The record price paid for a single white truffle was set in December 2007 , when Macau casino owner Stanley Ho paid $ 330,000 ( £165,000 ) for a specimen weighing , discovered by Luciano Savini and his dog Rocco . One of the largest truffles found in decades , it was unearthed near Pisa , Italy , and sold at an auction held simultaneously in Macau , Hong Kong , and Florence . This record was then matched on November 27 , 2010 when Ho again paid $ 330,000 for a pair of white truffles , including one weighing nearly a kilogram . In December 2014 , a White Alba ’ s Truffle weighing in at 4.16 pounds or 1.89 kilos was unearthed in the Umbrian region of Italy by the Balestra Family of Sabatino . It was auctioned at Sotheby ’ s in New York . While some had expected it to sell for $ 1 million , it was sold for $ 61,000 to a Taiwanese buyer . A variety of white truffle ( Tuber magnatum pico ) is found in other parts of northern and central Italy , but is as aromatic as those from Piedmont . Whitish truffle The `` whitish truffle '' ( Tuber borchii ) is a similar species found in Tuscany , Abruzzo , Romagna , Umbria , the Marche and Molise . It is not as aromatic as those from Piedmont , although those from Città di Castello come quite close . Other species A less common truffle is `` garlic truffle '' ( Tuber macrosporum ) . In the U.S. Pacific Northwest , several species of truffle are harvested both recreationally and commercially , most notably , the Leucangium carthusianum , `` Oregon white truffles '' , Tuber gibbosum , and Tuber oregonense . The `` pecan truffle '' ( Tuber lyonii ) syn . texense is found in the Southern United States , usually associated with pecan trees . Chefs who have experimented with them agree `` they are very good and have potential as a food commodity '' . Although pecan farmers used to find them along with pecans and discard them , considering them a nuisance , they sell for about $ 100 a pound and have been used in some gourmet restaurants . Truffle-like species The term `` truffle '' has been applied to several other genera of similar underground fungi . The genera Terfezia and Tirmania of the family Terfeziaceae are known as the `` desert truffles '' of Africa and the Middle East . `` Hart 's truffle '' is a name for Elaphomycetaceae . Pisolithus tinctorius , which was historically eaten in parts of Germany , is sometimes called `` Bohemian truffle '' . Extraction See also truffle hog . The female pig 's natural truffle-seeking , as well as her usual intent to eat the truffle , is due to a compound within the truffle similar to androstenol , the sex pheromone of boar saliva , to which the sow is keenly attracted . In Italy , the use of the pig to hunt truffles has been prohibited since 1985 because of damage caused by animals to truffle 's mycelia during the digging that dropped the production rate of the area for some years . Volatile constituents The volatile constituents responsible for the natural aroma of truffles are released by the mycelia , fruiting body or derive from truffle-associated microbes . The chemical ecology of truffle volatiles is complex , interacting with plants , insects and mammals , which contribute to spore dispersal . Depending on the truffle species , life cycle or location , these are most notably : * Sulfur volatiles , which occur in all truffle species , such as dimethyl mono- ( DMS ) , di- ( DMDS ) and tri- ( DMTS ) sulfides , as well as 2-methyl-4,5-dihydrothiophene , characteristic of the white truffle T. borchii and bis ( methylthio ) methane occurring in all species but mostly characteristic of the white truffle T. magnatum . Some of the very aromatic white truffles are notably pungent , even irritating the eye when cut or sliced . * Metabolites of non-sulfur amino acid constituents ( simple and branched chain hydrocarbons ) such as ethylene ( produced by mycelia of white truffles affecting root architecture of host tree ) , as well as 2-methylbutanal , 2-methylpropanal and 2-phenylethanol ( also common in baker ’ s yeast ) . * Fatty acid-derived volatiles ( C8-alcohols and aldehydes with a characteristic fungal odor , such as 1-octen-3-ol and 2-octenal ) . The former is derived from linoleic acid , and produced by mature white truffle T. borchii . A number of truffle species and varieties are differentiated based on their relative contents or absence of sulfides , ethers or alcohols , respectively . The sweaty-musky aroma of truffles is similar to that of the pheromone androstenol that also occurs in humans . , the volatile profiles of seven black and six white truffle species have been studied . Culinary use Because of their high price and their pungent aroma , truffles are used sparingly . Supplies can be found commercially as unadulterated fresh produce or preserved , typically in a light brine . White truffles are generally served raw , and shaved over steaming buttered pasta , salads , or fried eggs . White or black paper-thin truffle slices may be inserted into meats , under the skins of roasted fowl , in foie gras preparations , in pâtés , or in stuffings . Some speciality cheeses contain truffles , as well . The flavor of black truffles is far less pungent and more refined than that of white truffles . Their strong flavor is often described as syrupy sweet . Black truffles also are used for producing truffle salt and truffle honey . While in the past chefs used to peel truffles , in modern times , most restaurants brush the truffle carefully and shave it or dice it with the skin on so as to make the most of this valuable ingredient . A few restaurants in Switzerland still stamp out circular discs of truffle flesh and use the skins for sauces . Truffle oil Truffle oil is used as a lower-cost and convenient substitute for truffles , to provide flavoring , or to enhance the flavor and aroma of truffles in cooking . Most `` truffle oil '' , however , does not contain any truffles . The vast majority is olive oil which has been artificially flavoured using a synthetic agent such as 2,4-dithiapentane . Truffle vodka The bulk of truffle oil on the market is made with a synthetic ingredient , as are many other truffle products . However , alcohol is now being used to carry the truffle flavour without the need for synthetic flavourings . The first truffle vodka , Black Moth Vodka , is a natural vodka infused with black Périgord truffles ( Tuber melanosporum ) . Although primarily used as a spirit in its own right and mixed in a range of cocktails , truffle vodka is also used by various chefs to flavour dishes by evaporating the alcohol through cooking whilst retaining the truffle aroma .

tc_2736--Truffle.txt

What kind of an organism is a truffle?

Vanity Fair is a magazine of popular culture , fashion , and current affairs published by Condé Nast . The present Vanity Fair has been published since 1983 and there have been editions for four European countries as well as the U.S. edition . This revived the title whose last publication was February 1936 after a run from 1913 . The current editor is Graydon Carter . Condé Nast 's Vanity Fair Condé Montrose Nast began his empire by purchasing the men 's fashion magazine Dress in 1913 . He renamed the magazine Dress and Vanity Fair and published four issues in 1913 . It continued to thrive into the twenties . However , it became a casualty of the Great Depression and declining advertising revenues , although its circulation , at 90,000 copies , was at its peak . Condé Nast announced in December 1935 that Vanity Fair would be folded into Vogue ( circulation 156,000 ) as of the March 1936 issue . Modern revival Condé Nast Publications , under the ownership of S.I . Newhouse , announced in June 1981 that it was reviving the magazine . The first issue was published in February 1983 ( cover date March ) , edited by Richard Locke , formerly of The New York Times Book Review . After three issues , Locke was replaced by Leo Lerman , veteran features editor of Vogue . He was followed by editors Tina Brown ( 1984–1992 ) and Graydon Carter ( since 1992 ) . Regular writers columnists have included Dominick Dunne , Sebastian Junger , Michael Wolff , Maureen Orth and Christopher Hitchens . Famous contributing photographers for the magazine include Bruce Weber , Annie Leibovitz , Mario Testino and Herb Ritts , who have all provided the magazine with a string of lavish covers and full-page portraits of current celebrities . Amongst the most famous of these was the August 1991 Leibovitz cover featuring a naked , pregnant Demi Moore , an image entitled More Demi Moore that to this day holds a spot in pop culture . In addition to its controversial photography , the magazine also prints articles on a variety of topics . In 1996 , journalist Marie Brenner wrote an exposé on the tobacco industry titled `` The Man Who Knew Too Much '' . The article was later adapted into a movie The Insider ( 1999 ) , which starred Al Pacino and Russell Crowe . Most famously , after more than thirty years of mystery , an article in the May 2005 edition revealed the identity of Deep Throat ( W. Mark Felt ) , one of the sources for The Washington Post articles on Watergate , which led to the 1974 resignation of U.S. President Richard Nixon . The magazine also features candid interviews with celebrities , including a monthly Proust Questionnaire . Other notable interviews have included : Teri Hatcher , who revealed in the magazine that she was sexually abused as a child ; Jennifer Aniston 's first interview after her divorce from Brad Pitt ; Anderson Cooper , who talked about his brother 's death ; and Martha Stewart 's first interview after her release from prison . The magazine was the subject of Toby Young 's book , How to Lose Friends and Alienate People , about his search for success , from 1995 , in New York working for Graydon Carter 's Vanity Fair . The book has been made into a movie , with Jeff Bridges playing Carter . International editions There are currently four international editions of Vanity Fair being published ; namely in the United Kingdom ( started 1991 ) , Spain , France , and Italy ( started in October 1993 ) , with the Italian version published weekly . The British Vanity Fair was first published in 1991 . The Italian Vanity Fair was established in October 2003 and celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2013 . Vanity Fair Germany launched in February 2007 at a cost of €50 million , then the most expensive new magazine in Germany in years and Condé Nast 's biggest investment outside the United States . After circulation had plummeted from half a million to less than 200,000 per week , the German edition was shut down in 2009 . A French version started in June 2013 . The Spanish version of the magazine was first published in Spain in 2008 and it has been published monthly . In April 2015 Condé Nast México y Latinoamerica will launch Vanity Fair Mexico . Vanity Fair Oscar Party As a successor to a similar invitation-only event annually held by the late agent Irving Paul Lazar , the first Vanity Fair Oscar Party took place in 1994 . During its first years , the magazine 's Oscar party was co-hosted by producer Steve Tisch at Morton 's in West Hollywood . At first , editor Graydon Carter kept the invitation list small , at around 120 for dinner . Between 2009 and 2013 , the party was held at Sunset Tower . The 2014 edition takes places in a temporary , 12,000-square-foot glass-walled structure at 8680 Sunset Boulevard . Vanity Fair makes a limited number of invitations available each year for charity . Bloomberg/Vanity Fair Party In recent years , Vanity Fair hosted , with Bloomberg , an after-party at the French ambassador ’ s house following the White House Correspondents ' Association dinner . Vanity Fair Confidential In 2013 , Condé Nast struck a deal with Discovery Communications-owned cable channel Investigation Discovery for Vanity Fair Confidential , a crime and mystery documentary TV series based on stories from Vanity Fair magazine . Online activities Vanity Fair launched a YouTube channel in July 2013 . In anticipation of its 100th anniversary that year , Vanity Fair co-produced 10 short films , one to celebrate each decade , from well-known documentary filmmakers like Barbara Kopple and including the film producer Judd Apatow , and actors Don Cheadle and Bryce Dallas Howard . Controversies Controversial pictorials Some of the pictorials in Vanity Fair have attracted criticism . The April 1999 issue featured an image of actor Mike Myers dressed as a Hindu deity for a photo spread by David LaChapelle : after criticism , both the photographer and the magazine apologized . On April 25 , 2008 , the televised entertainment program Entertainment Tonight reported that 15-year-old Miley Cyrus had posed topless for a photo shoot with Vanity Fair . The photo , and subsequently released behind-the-scenes photos , show Cyrus without a top , her bare back exposed but her front covered with a bedsheet . The photo shoot was taken by photographer Annie Leibovitz . The full photograph was published with an accompanying story on The New York Times website on April 27 , 2008 . On April 29 , 2008 , The New York Times clarified that though the pictures left an impression that she was bare-breasted , Cyrus was wrapped in a bedsheet and was actually not topless . Some parents expressed outrage at the nature of the photograph , which a Disney spokesperson described as `` a situation [ that ] was created to deliberately manipulate a 15-year-old to sell magazines . '' In response to the internet circulation of the photo and ensuing media attention , Miley Cyrus released a statement of apology on April 27 : `` I took part in a photo shoot that was supposed to be 'artistic ' and now , seeing the photographs and reading the story , I feel so embarrassed . I never intended for any of this to happen and I apologize to my fans who I care so deeply about . '' In January 2014 , Vanity Fair was the latest magazine under fire for allegedly altering the appearance of a celebrity featured in its pages for its February issue . The celebrities under speculation were Lupita Nyong ’ o , an actress from 12 Years A Slave , who had her photo lightened during publication , and Lena Dunham , an actress from the HBO series Girls . For Lupita ’ s case , the magazine tweeted the photo and it began with fans accusing the company of altering her complexion . However some believe that the Vanity Fair images are simply a product of bright set lighting , rather than deliberate skin lightening . The magazine still took some heat and guilt from the whole ordeal . Lupita herself was pleased with the work , and saw no harm done to herself or to hold Vanity Fair or the photographer liable of anything . In weeks prior to Lupita ’ s case , Vogue magazine , a partner and buyer of Vanity Fair in 1936 , was accused of altering Lena Dunham ’ s photos . Lena considered the modified photos to be offensive . Jezebel , then offered up $ 10,000 to see unretouched version of the spread . The proposal was then refused by the actress who took to social media via Twitter to voice her opinion , “ ” 10k ? Give it to charity then just order HBO , '' she tweeted . `` Some s -- t is just too ridiculous to engage . Let 's use our energy wisely , 2014 . ” Polanski libel case In 2005 , Vanity Fair was found liable in a lawsuit brought in the UK by film director Roman Polanski , who claimed the magazine had libelled him in an article published in 2002 , and written by A. E. Hotchner . The article recounted a claim by Lewis H. Lapham , editor of Harper 's , that Polanski had made sexual advances towards a young model as he was travelling to the funeral of his wife , Sharon Tate , in August 1969 , claiming that he could make her `` the next Sharon Tate '' . The court permitted Polanski to testify via a video link , after he expressed fears that he might be extradited were he to enter the United Kingdom . The trial started on July 18 , 2005 , and Polanski made English legal history as the first claimant to give evidence by video link . During the trial , which included the testimonies of Mia Farrow and others , it was proved that the alleged scene at the famous New York restaurant Elaine 's could not possibly have taken place on the date given , because Polanski only dined at this restaurant three weeks later . Also , the Norwegian then-model disputed the accounts that he had claimed to be able to make her `` the next Sharon Tate '' . Polanski was awarded £50,000 damages by the High Court in London . The case was notable because Polanski was living in France as a fugitive from U.S. justice , and never appeared in the London court for fear he would be extradited to the U.S. Graydon Carter , editor of Vanity Fair , responded , `` I find it amazing that a man who lives in France can sue a magazine that is published in America in a British courtroom . ''

sfq_7997--Vanity_Fair_(magazine).txt

Who was the Vanity Fair photographer responsible for the cover featuring a naked, pregnant Demi Moore?

Crossfire Hurricane is a 2012 documentary film about The Rolling Stones written and directed by Brett Morgen . The film chronicles the early years of the band through 1981 . The film is a series of interviews conducted without cameras , while showing various points of interest that the band is discussing as archival footage . The title of the film comes from the first line of the band 's 1968 hit `` Jumpin ' Jack Flash '' . Plot On their 50th anniversary , the Rolling Stones , with the support of archive footage and interviewed by director Brett Morgen , retrace the first 20 years of their career . The film discusses their early success in the sixties ; the way the media characterised the difference between them and the Beatles ; the exceptional musical talent of Brian Jones ; their first song-writing ; the difference between the boy fans ' aggressiveness that resulted in fights with the police and the girl fans ' screaming hysteria ; Mick Jagger and Keith Richards drug use and their arrest ; the musical contribution of Brian Jones that was waning due to excessive use of drugs , and his death a few weeks after the separation from the band ; Mick Taylor 's debut concert in Hyde Park in memory of Jones and the return to world tours ; the awful organization of the Altamont Free Concert ; their flight to tax exile in 1971 ; the recording of Exile on Main St. in a villa on the south of France ; Mick Taylor 's departure and the arrival of Ronnie Wood ; and the arrest of Keith Richards in Canada for possession of heroin and his decision to detox , to safeguard the future of the band . Critical reception The film received mostly positive reviews . Review aggregator website Metacritic , which assigns normalized scores , gave the film a 77 out of 100 , based on 17 critics . John Anderson of The Wall Street Journal : From James Poniewozik of Time magazine : From David Hinckley of New York Daily News : The film won a Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing : Long Form Documentary . Charts

dpql_3793--Crossfire_Hurricane.txt

Who was born in a cross-fire hurricane and raised by a toothless bearded hag?

Thailand ( or ; , ) ; , officially the Kingdom of Thailand ( , ; ) , formerly known as Siam ( ; ) , is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula . It is bordered to the north by Myanmar and Laos , to the east by Laos and Cambodia , to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia , and to the west by the Andaman Sea and the southern extremity of Myanmar . Its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast , and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest . With a total area of approximately 513000 km2 , Thailand is the world 's 51st-largest country . It is the 20th-most-populous country in the world , with around 66 million people . The capital and largest city is Bangkok . Thailand is governed by the National Council for Peace and Order that took power in the May 2014 coup d'état . Its monarchy is headed by King Bhumibol Adulyadej , who has reigned since 1946 as Rama IX , as he is the ninth monarch of the Chakri Dynasty . He is currently the world 's longest-serving head of state and the country 's longest-reigning monarch ; he has reigned for . Thailand experienced rapid economic growth between 1985 and 1996 , becoming a newly industrialised country and a major exporter . Manufacturing , agriculture , and tourism are leading sectors of the economy . Among the ten ASEAN countries , Thailand ranks third in quality of life . and the country 's HDI is rated as `` high '' . Its large population and growing economic influence have made it a middle power in the region and around the world . Etymology Etymology of `` Siam '' The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens . By others , it is known by the exonym Siam ( , , also spelled Siem , Syâm , or Syâma ) . The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma ( श्याम , meaning `` dark '' or `` brown '' ) . The names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word . The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin , but a learned and artificial distortion . The signature of King Mongkut ( r. 1851 – 1868 ) reads SPPM ( Somdet Phra Poramenthra Maha ) Mongkut King of the Siamese , giving the name `` Siam '' official status until 23 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand . Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949 , after which it again reverted to Thailand . Etymology of `` Thailand '' According to George Cœdès , the word Thai ( ไทย ) means `` free man '' in the Thai language , `` differentiating the Thai from the natives encompassed in Thai society as serfs . '' A famous Thai scholar argued that Thai ( ) simply means `` people '' or `` human being '' , since his investigation shows that in some rural areas the word `` Thai '' was used instead of the usual Thai word `` khon '' ( คน ) for people . While Thai people will often refer to their country using the polite form prathet Thai ( ) , they most commonly use the more colloquial term mueang Thai ( ) or simply Thai , the word mueang , archaically a city-state , commonly used to refer to a city or town as the centre of a region . Ratcha Anachak Thai ( ) means `` kingdom of Thailand '' or `` kingdom of Thai '' . Etymologically , its components are : ratcha ( Sanskrit raja `` king , royal , realm '' ) ; -ana- ( Pali āṇā `` authority , command , power '' , itself from an Old Indo-Aryan form ājñā of the same meaning ) -chak ( from Sanskrit cakra- `` wheel '' , a symbol of power and rule ) . The Thai National Anthem ( ) , written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s , refers to the Thai nation as : prathet Thai ( Thai : ประเทศไทย ) . The first line of the national anthem is : prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai ( ) , `` Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh and blood . '' History There is evidence of human habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present , with stone artefacts dated to this period at Tham Lod Rockshelter in Mae Hong Son . Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia , Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India , starting with the Kingdom of Funan around the 1st century CE to the Khmer Empire . Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire , which had strong Hindu roots , and the influence among Thais remains even today . Indian influence on Thai culture was partly the result of direct contact with Indian settlers , but mainly it was brought about indirectly via the Indianized kingdoms of Dvaravati , Srivijaya , and Cambodia . E.A . Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire and far on into the first millennium after Christ . Later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire . According to George Cœdès , `` The Thai first enter history of Farther India in the eleventh century with the mention of Syam slaves or prisoners of war in '' Champa epigraphy , and `` in the twelfth century , the bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat '' where `` a group of warriors '' are described as Syam . Additionally , `` the Mongols , after the seizure of Ta-li on January 7 , 1253 and the pacification of Yunnan in 1257 , did not look with disfavor on the creation of a series of Thai principalities at the expense of the old Indianized kingdoms . '' The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons , and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century , followed by the Khmer Empire in the 11th . The History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282 . In 1287 , three Thai chiefs , Mangrai , Ngam Muang , and Ram Khamhaeng formed a `` strong pact of friendship '' . After the fall of the Khmer Empire in the 13th century , various states thrived there , established by the various Tai peoples , Mons , Khmers , Chams and Ethnic Malays , as seen through the numerous archaeological sites and artefacts that are scattered throughout the Siamese landscape . Prior to the 12th century however , the first Thai or Siamese state is traditionally considered to be the Buddhist Sukhothai Kingdom , which was founded in 1238 . Following the decline and fall of the Khmer empire in the 13th–15th century , the Buddhist Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai , Lanna , and Lan Xang ( now Laos ) were on the rise . However , a century later , the power of Sukhothai was overshadowed by the new Kingdom of Ayutthaya , established in the mid-14th-century in the lower Chao Phraya River or Menam area . Ayutthaya 's expansion centred along the Menam while in the northern valleys the Lanna Kingdom and other small Tai city-states ruled the area . In 1431 , the Khmer abandoned Angkor after Ayutthaya forces invaded the city . Thailand retained a tradition of trade with its neighbouring states , from China to India , Persia , and Arab lands . Ayutthaya became one of the most vibrant trading centres in Asia . European traders arrived in the 16th century , beginning with the Portuguese , followed by the French , Dutch , and English . The Burmese–Siamese War ( 1765–1767 ) left Ayutthaya burned and sacked by King Hsinbyushin . After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 to the Burmese , Taksin moved the capital to Thonburi for approximately 15 years . The current Rattanakosin era of Thai history began in 1782 following the establishment of Bangkok as capital of the Chakri Dynasty under King Rama I the Great . According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , `` A quarter to a third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves in the 17th through the 19th centuries . '' Despite European pressure , Thailand is the only Southeast Asian nation to never have been colonised . This has been ascribed to the long succession of able rulers in the past four centuries who exploited the rivalry and tension between French Indochina and the British Empire . As a result , the country remained a buffer state between parts of Southeast Asia that were colonised by the two colonial powers , Great Britain and France . Western influence nevertheless led to many reforms in the 19th century and major concessions , most notably the loss of a large territory on the east side of the Mekong to the French and the step-by-step absorption by Britain of the Shan and Karen people areas and Malay Peninsula . 20th century As part of the concessions which the Chakkri Dynasty offered to the British Empire in return for their support , Siam ceded four predominantly ethnic-Malay southern provinces to the British Empire in the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 . These four provinces ( Kelantan , Tringganu , Kedah , Perlis ) would later became Malaysia 's four northern states . In 1917 , Siam joined the Allies of World War I and is counted as one of the victors of World War I . In 1932 , a bloodless revolution carried out by the Khana Ratsadon group of military and civilian officials resulted in a transition of power , when King Prajadhipok was forced to grant the people of Siam their first constitution , thereby ending centuries of absolute monarchy . In 1939 , the name of the kingdom , `` Siam '' , was changed to `` Thailand '' . World War II During World War II , the Empire of Japan demanded the right to move troops across Thailand to the Malayan frontier . The Japanese invasion of Thailand on 8 December 1941 occurred in co-ordination with attacks throughout Asia and engaged the Royal Thai Army for six to eight hours before Plaek Phibunsongkhram ordered an armistice . Shortly thereafter , Japan was granted free passage , and on 21 December 1941 , Thailand and Japan signed a military alliance with a secret protocol , wherein Tokyo agreed to help Thailand regain territories lost to the British and French . Subsequently , Thailand declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom on 25 January 1942 , and undertook to `` assist '' Japan in its war against the Allies , while at the same time maintaining an active anti-Japanese Free Thai Movement . Approximately 200,000 Asian labourers ( mainly romusha ) and 60,000 Allied prisoners of war ( POWs ) worked on the Burma Railway , which is commonly known as the `` Death Railway '' . After the war , Thailand emerged as an ally of the United States . As with many of the developing nations during the Cold War , Thailand then went through decades of political instability characterised by a number of coups d'état , as one military regime replaced another , but eventually progressed towards a stable , prosperous democracy in the 1980s . File : BlackCeramicBanChiangCultureThailand1200-800BCE.jpg|Pottery discovered near Ban Chiang in Udon Thani Province , the earliest dating to 2100 BCE . File : Pimai1.jpg|Phimai , Prasat Phimai is the largest temple in the country from the Khmer Empire . File : วัดพนัญเชิงวรวิหาร by Pholtograph.jpg|The immense 19 m gilded statue of a seated Buddha in Wat Phanan Choeng , the latter from 1324 , pre-dates the founding of the city of Ayutthaya File : Wat Si Chum in Sukhothai.jpg|A 15 m Buddha image in Sukhothai , Phra Achana , built in the 13th century File : Iudea-Ayutthaya.jpg|Painting of Ayutthaya , ordered by the Dutch East India Company , 1665 . File : Siamese envoys at Versailles.jpg|Kosa Pan present King Narai 's letter to Louis XIV at Versailles , 1 September 1686 . Politics and government The politics of Thailand is currently conducted within the framework of a constitutional monarchy , whereby the Prime Minister is the head of government and a hereditary monarch is head of state . The judiciary is supposed to be independent of the executive and the legislative branches , although judicial rulings are suspected of being based on political considerations rather than on existing law . Constitutional history Since the political reform of the absolute monarchy in 1932 , Thailand has had 19 constitutions and charters . Throughout this time , the form of government has ranged from military dictatorship to electoral democracy , but all governments have acknowledged a hereditary monarch as the head of state . 28 June 1932 Prior to 1932 , the Kingdom of Siam did not possess a legislature , as all legislative powers were vested in the person of the monarch . This had been the case since the foundation of the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 12th century as the king was seen as a `` Dharmaraja '' or `` king who rules in accordance with Dharma '' , ( the Buddhist law of righteousness ) . However , on 24 June 1932 a group of civilians and military officers , calling themselves the Khana Ratsadon ( or People 's Party ) carried out a bloodless revolution in which the 150 years of absolute rule of the Chakri Dynasty ended . In its stead the group advocated a constitutional form of monarchy with an elected legislature . The `` Draft Constitution '' of 1932 signed by King Prajadhipok created Thailand 's first legislature , a People 's Assembly with 70 appointed members . The assembly met for the first time on 28 June 1932 , in the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall . The Khana Ratsadon decided that the people were not yet ready for an elected assembly . They later changed their minds . By the time the `` permanent '' constitution came into force in December of that year , elections were scheduled for 15 November 1933 . The new constitution changed the composition of the assembly to 78 directly elected and 78 appointed ( by the Khana Ratsadon ) , together totalling 156 members . 1932 to 1973 The history of Thailand from 1932 to 1973 was dominated by military dictatorships which were in power for much of the period . The main personalities of the period were the dictator Luang Phibunsongkhram ( better known as Phibun ) , who allied the country with Japan during the Second World War , and the civilian politician Pridi Phanomyong , who founded Thammasat University and was briefly the prime minister after the war . Japan invaded Thailand on 8 December 1941 . For events subsequent to the abdication of the king , including the name change of 1939 , up to the coup d'état of 1957 , see Plaek Pibulsonggram . A succession of military dictators followed Pridi 's ousting — Phibun again , Sarit Dhanarajata and Thanom Kittikachorn — under whom traditional , authoritarian rule was combined with increasing modernisation and westernisation under the influence of the US . The end of the period was marked by Thanom 's resignation , following a massacre of pro-democracy protesters led by Thammasat students . Thanom misread the situation as a coup d'état , and fled , leaving the country leaderless . HM appointed Thammasat University chancellor Sanya Dharmasakti PM by royal command . Thailand helped the USA and South Vietnam in the Vietnam War between 1965–1971 . The USAF based F-4 Phantom fighters at Udon and Ubon Air Base , and stationed B-52s at U-Tapao . Thai forces also saw heavy action in the covert war in Laos that occurred from 1964 to 1972 . 1973 to 1997 1997 to 2001 The 1997 Constitution was the first constitution to be drafted by popularly elected Constitutional Drafting Assembly , and was popularly called the `` people 's constitution '' . The 1997 Constitution created a bicameral legislature consisting of a 500-seat House of Representatives ( สภาผู้แทนราษฎร , sapha phu thaen ratsadon ) and a 200-seat Senate ( วุฒิสภา , wutthisapha ) . For the first time in Thai history , both houses were directly elected . Many human rights were explicitly acknowledged , and measures were established to increase the stability of elected governments . The House was elected by the first past the post system , where only one candidate with a simple majority could be elected in one constituency . The Senate was elected based on the provincial system , where one province could return more than one senator depending on its population size . The two houses of the National Assembly have two different terms . In accordance with the constitution the Senate is elected to a six-year term , while the House is elected to a four-year term . Overall the term of the National Assembly is based on that of the House . The National Assembly each year will sit in two sessions : an `` ordinary session '' and a `` legislative session '' . The first session of the National Assembly must take place within thirty days after the general election of the House of Representatives . The first session must be opened by the king in person by reading a Speech from the Throne ; this ceremony is held in the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall . He may also appoint the crown prince or a representative to carry out this duty . It is also the duty of the king to prorogue sessions through a royal decree when the House term expires . The king also has the prerogative to call extraordinary sessions and prolong sessions upon advice of the House of Representatives . The National Assembly may host a `` joint-sitting '' of both Houses under several circumstances . These include : The appointment of a regent , any alteration to the 1924 Palace Law of Succession , the opening of the first session , the announcement of policies by the Cabinet of Thailand , the approval of the declaration of war , the hearing of explanations and approval of a treaty and the amendment of the Constitution . Members of the House of Representatives served four-year terms , while senators served six-year terms . The 1997 People 's Constitution also promoted human rights more than any other constitution . The court system ( ศาล , san ) included a constitutional court with jurisdiction over the constitutionality of parliamentary acts , royal decrees , and political matters . 2001 to 2008 The January 2001 general election , the first election under the 1997 Constitution , was called the most open , corruption-free election in Thai history . Thai Rak Thai Party , led by Thaksin Shinawatra won the election . The Thaksin government was the first in Thai history to complete a four-year term . The 2005 election had the highest voter turnout in Thai history , and Thai Rak Thai Party won an absolute majority . However , despite efforts to clean up the system , vote buying and electoral violence remained electoral problems in 2005 . The PollWatch Foundation , Thailand 's most prominent election watchdog , declared that vote buying in this election , specifically in the north and the northeast , was more serious than in the 2001 election . The organisation also accused the government of violating the election law by abusing state power in presenting new projects in a bid to seek votes . 2006 coup d'état Without meeting much resistance , a military junta overthrew the interim government of Thaksin Shinawatra on 19 September 2006 . The junta abrogated the constitution , dissolved Parliament and the Constitutional Court , detained and later removed several members of the government , declared martial law , and appointed one of the king 's Privy Counselors , General Surayud Chulanont , as the Prime Minister . The junta later wrote a highly abbreviated interim constitution and appointed a panel to draft a new permanent constitution . The junta also appointed a 250-member legislature , called by some critics a `` chamber of generals '' while others claimed that it lacks representatives from the poor majority . In this interim constitution draft , the head of the junta was allowed to remove the prime minister at any time . The legislature was not allowed to hold a vote of confidence against the cabinet and the public was not allowed to file comments on bills . This interim constitution was later surpassed by the permanent constitution on 24 August 2007 . Martial law was partially revoked in January 2007 . The ban on political activities was lifted in July 2007 , following the 30 May dissolution of the Thai Rak Thai party . The new constitution was approved by referendum on 19 August , which led to a return to a democratic general election on 23 December 2007 . 2008–2010 political crisis The People 's Power Party ( Thailand ) , led by Samak Sundaravej formed a government with five smaller parties . Following several court rulings against him in a variety of scandals , and surviving a vote of no confidence , and protesters blockading government buildings and airports , in September 2008 , Sundaravej was found guilty of conflict of interest by the Constitutional Court of Thailand ( due to being a host in a TV cooking program ) , and thus , ended his term in office . He was replaced by PPP member Somchai Wongsawat . As of October 2008 , Wongsawat was unable to gain access to his offices , which were occupied by protesters from the People 's Alliance for Democracy . On 2 December 2008 , Thailand 's Constitutional Court in a highly controversial ruling found the Peoples Power Party guilty of electoral fraud , which led to the dissolution of the party according to the law . It was later alleged in media reports that at least one member of the judiciary had a telephone conversation with officials working for the Office of the Privy Council and one other . The phone call was taped and has since circulated on the Internet . In it , the callers discuss finding a way to ensure the ruling PPP party would be disbanded . Accusations of judicial interference were levelled in the media but the recorded call was dismissed as a hoax . However , in June 2010 , supporters of the eventually disbanded PPP were charged with tapping a judge 's phone . Immediately following what many media described as a `` judicial coup '' , a senior member of the Armed Forces met with factions of the governing coalition to get their members to join the opposition and the Democrat Party was able to form a government , a first for the party since 2001 . The leader of the Democrat party , and former leader of the opposition , Abhisit Vejjajiva was appointed and sworn-in as the 27th Prime Minister , together with the new cabinet on 17 December 2008 . In April 2009 , protests by the National United Front of Democracy Against Dictatorship ( UDD , or `` Red Shirts '' ) forced the cancellation of the Fourth East Asia Summit after protesters stormed the Royal Cliff hotel venue in Pattaya , smashing the glass doors of the venue to gain entry , and a blockade prevented the Chinese premier at the time , Wen Jiabao , from attending . The summit was eventually held in Thailand in October 2009 . About a year later , a set of new `` Red Shirts '' protests resulted in 87 deaths ( mostly civilian and some military ) and 1,378 injured . When the army tried to disperse the protesters on 10 April 2010 , the army was met with automatic gunfire , grenades , and fire bombs from the opposition faction in the army , known as the `` watermelon '' . This resulted in the army returning fire with rubber bullets and some live ammunition . During the time of the `` red shirt '' protests against the government , there have been numerous grenade and bomb attacks against government offices and the homes of government officials . Gas grenades were fired at `` yellow-shirt '' protesters , that were protesting against the `` red-shirts '' and in favour of the government , by unknown gunmen killing one pro-government protester , the government stated that the Red Shirts were firing the weapons at civilians . Red-shirts continued to hold a position in the business district of Bangkok and it was shut down for several weeks . On 3 July 2011 , the oppositional Pheu Thai Party , led by Yingluck Shinawatra ( the youngest sister of Thaksin Shinawatra ) , won the general election by a landslide ( 265 seats in the House of Representatives , out of 500 ) . She had never previously been involved in politics , Pheu Thai campaigning for her with the slogan 'Thaksin thinks , Pheu Thai acts ' . Yingluck is the nation 's first female prime minister and her role was officially endorsed in a ceremony presided over by King Bhumibol Adulyadej . The Pheu Thai Party is a continuation of Thaksin 's Thai Rak Thai party . 2013–2014 political crisis Protests recommenced in late 2013 , as a broad alliance of protestors , led by former opposition deputy leader Suthep Thaugsuban , demanded an end to the so-called Thaksin regime . A blanket amnesty for people involved in the 2010 protests , altered at the last minute to include all political crimes – including all convictions against Thaksin – triggered a mass show of discontent , with numbers variously estimated between 98,500 ( the police ) and 400,000 ( an aerial photo survey done by the Bangkok Post ) , taking to the streets . The Senate was urged to reject the bill to quell the reaction , but the measure failed . A newly named group , the People 's Democratic Reform Committee ( PDRC ) along with allied groups , escalated the pressure , with the opposition Democrat party resigning en masse to create a parliamentary vacuum . Protesters demands variously evolved as the movement 's numbers grew , extending a number of deadlines and demands that became increasingly unreasonable or unrealistic , yet attracting a groundswell of support . They called for the establishment of an indirectly elected “ people ’ s council ” —in place of Yingluck 's government—that will cleanse Thai politics and eradicate the Thaksin regime . In response to the intensive protests , Yingluck dissolved parliament on 9 December 2013 and proposed a new election for 2 February 2014 , a date that was later approved by the election commission . The PDRC insisted that the prime minister stand down within 24 hours , regardless of her actions , with 160,000 protesters in attendance at Government House on 9 December . Yingluck insisted that she would continue her duties until the scheduled election in February 2014 , urging the protesters to accept her proposal : `` Now that the government has dissolved parliament , I ask that you stop protesting and that all sides work towards elections . I have backed down to the point where I do n't know how to back down any further . '' In response to the Electoral Commission ( EC ) 's registration process for party-list candidates—for the scheduled election in February 2014—anti-government protesters marched to the Thai-Japanese sports stadium , the venue of the registration process , on 22 December 2013 . Suthep and the PDRC led the protest , of which security forces claimed that approximately 270,000 protesters joined . Yingluck and the Pheu Thai Party reiterated their election plan and anticipate presenting a list of 125 party-list candidates to the EC . On 7 May 2014 , the Constitutional Court ruled that Yingluck would have to step down as the Prime Minister as she was deemed to have abused her power in transferring a high-level government official . On 21 August 2014 she was replaced by army chief General Prayut Chan-o-cha . 2014 coup d'état On 20 May 2014 the Thai army declared martial law and began to deploy troops in the capital , denying that it was a coup attempt . On 22 May , the

qz_608--Thailand.txt

Which Asian country was once called Siam?

The New Zealand cricket team , nicknamed the Black Caps , are the national cricket team representing New Zealand . They played their first in 1930 against England in Christchurch , New Zealand , becoming the fifth country to play Test cricket . It took the team until 1955–56 to win a Test , against the West Indies at Eden Park in Auckland . They played their first ODI in the 1972–73 season against Pakistan in Christchurch . The current Test , One-day and Twenty20 captain is Kane Williamson , who replaced Brendon McCullum who announced his retirement in late December , 2015 . The national team is organised by New Zealand Cricket . The New Zealand cricket team became known as the Black Caps in January 1998 , after its sponsor at the time , Clear Communications , held a competition to choose a name for the team . Official New Zealand Cricket sources typeset the nickname as BLACKCAPS . This is one of many national team nicknames related to the All Blacks . As of February 2016 , New Zealand have played 408 Test matches , winning 83 , losing 165 and drawing 160 . As of 4 May 2016 , the New Zealand cricket team is ranked 5th in Tests , 2nd in ODIs and 1st in T20Is by the ICC . New Zealand reached the final match in the ICC Cricket World Cup for the first time in its history , after beating South Africa in the semi-final in 2015 . History Beginnings of cricket in New Zealand The reverend Henry Williams provided history with the first report of a game of cricket in New Zealand , when he wrote in his diary in December 1832 about boys in and around Paihia on Horotutu Beach playing cricket . In 1835 , Charles Darwin and the called into the Bay of Islands on its epic circumnavigation of the Earth and Darwin witnessed a game of cricket played by freed Māori slaves and the son of a missionary at Waimate North . Darwin in The Voyage of the Beagle wrote : several young men redeemed by the missionaires from slavery were employed on the farm . In the evening I saw a party of them at cricket . The first recorded game of cricket in New Zealand took place in Wellington in December 1842 . The Wellington Spectator reports a game on 28 December 1842 played by a `` Red '' team and a `` Blue '' team from the Wellington Club . The first fully recorded match was reported by the Examiner in Nelson between the Surveyors and Nelson in March 1844 . The first team to tour New Zealand was Parr 's all England XI in 1863–64 . Between 1864 and 1914 , 22 foreign teams toured New Zealand . England sent 6 teams , Australia 15 and one from Fiji . First national team On 15–17 February 1894 the first team representing New Zealand played New South Wales at Lancaster Park in Christchurch . New South Wales won by 160 runs . New South Wales returned again in 1895–96 and New Zealand won the solitary game by 142 runs , its first victory . The New Zealand Cricket Council was formed towards the end of 1894 . New Zealand played its first two internationals ( not Tests ) in 1904–05 against a star-studded Australia team containing such players as Victor Trumper , Warwick Armstrong and Clem Hill . Rain saved New Zealand from a thrashing in the first match , but not the second , which New Zealand lost by an innings and 358 runs – currently the second largest defeat in New Zealand first-class history . Inter-war period In 1927 NZ toured England . They played 26 first class matches , mostly against county sides . They managed to beat Worcestershire , Glamorgan , Somerset , and Derbyshire . On the strength of the performances of this tour New Zealand was granted Test status . In 1929/30 the M.C.C toured NZ and played 4 Tests all of 3 days in duration . New Zealand lost its first Test match but drew the next 3 . In the second Test Stewie Dempster and Jackie Mills put on 276 for the first wicket . This is still the highest partnership for New Zealand against England . New Zealand first played South Africa in 1931–32 in a three match series but were unable to secure Test matches against any teams other than England before World War II ended all Test cricket for 7 years . New Zealand 's first Test after the war was against Australia in 1945/46 . This game was not considered a `` Test '' at the time but it was granted Test status retrospectively by the International Cricket Council in March 1948 . The New Zealand players who appeared in this match probably did not appreciate this move by the ICC as New Zealand were dismissed for 42 and 54 . The New Zealand Cricket Council 's unwillingness to pay Australian players a decent allowance to tour New Zealand ensured that this was the only Test Australia played against New Zealand between 1929 and 1972 . After World War II In 1949 New Zealand sent one of its best ever sides to England . It contained Bert Sutcliffe , Martin Donnelly , John R. Reid and Jack Cowie . However , 3-day Test matches ensured that all 4 Tests were drawn . Many have regarded the 1949 tour of England among New Zealand 's best ever touring performances . All four tests were high-scoring despite being draws and Martin Donnelly 's 206 at Lord 's hailed as one of the finest innings ever seen there . Despite being winless , New Zealand did not lose a test either . Prior to this , only the legendary 1948 Australian team , led by the great Don Bradman , had achieved this . New Zealand played its first matches against the West Indies in 1951–52 , and Pakistan and India in 1955/56 . In 1954/55 New Zealand recorded the lowest ever innings total , 26 against England . The following season New Zealand achieved its first Test victory . The first 3 Tests of a 4 Test series were won easily by the West Indies but New Zealand won the fourth to notch up its first Test victory . It had taken them 45 matches and 26 years to attain . In the next 20 years New Zealand won only seven more Tests . For most of this period New Zealand lacked a class bowler to lead their attack although they had two excellent batsmen in Bert Sutcliffe and Glenn Turner and a great all-rounder in John R. Reid . Reid captained New Zealand on a tour to South Africa in 1961–62 where the five test series was drawn 2–2 . The victories in the third and fifth tests were the first overseas victories New Zealand achieved . Reid scored 1,915 runs in the tour , setting a record for the most runs scored by a touring batsman of South Africa as a result . New Zealand won their first test series in their three match 1969/70 tour of Pakistan 1–0 . 1970 to 2000 In 1973 Richard Hadlee debuted and the rate at which New Zealand won Tests picked up dramatically . Hadlee was one of the best pace bowlers of his generation , playing 86 Tests for New Zealand , before he retired in 1990 . Of the 86 Tests that Hadlee played in New Zealand won 22 and lost 28 . In 1977/78 New Zealand won its first Test against England , at the 48th attempt . Hadlee took 10 wickets in the match . During the 1980s New Zealand also had the services of one of its best ever batsman , Martin Crowe and a number of good players such as John Wright , Bruce Edgar , John F. Reid , Andrew Jones , Geoff Howarth , Jeremy Coney , Ian Smith , John Bracewell , Lance Cairns , Stephen Boock , and Ewen Chatfield , who were capable of playing the occasional match winning performance and consistently making a valuable contribution to a Test match . The best example of New Zealand 's two star players ( R. Hadlee and M. Crowe ) putting in match winning performances and other players making good contributions is New Zealand versus Australia , 1985 at Brisbane . In Australia 's first innings Hadlee took 9–52 . In New Zealand 's only turn at bat , M Crowe scored 188 and John F. Reid 108 . Edgar , Wright , Coney , Jeff Crowe , V. Brown , and Hadlee scored between 17 and 54 * . In Australia 's second innings , Hadlee took 6–71 and Chatfield 3–75 . New Zealand won by an innings and 41 runs . One-day cricket also gave New Zealand a chance to compete more regularly than Test cricket with the better sides in world cricket . In one-day cricket a batsman does not need to score centuries to win games for his side and bowlers do not need to bowl the opposition out . One-day games can be won by one batsman getting a 50 , a few others getting 30s , bowlers bowling economically and everyone fielding well . These were requirements New Zealand players could consistently meet and thus developed a good one-day record against all sides . Perhaps New Zealand 's most infamous one-day match was the `` Under arm '' match against Australia at the MCG in 1981 . Requiring six runs to tie the match off the final ball , Australian captain Greg Chappell instructed his brother Trevor to `` bowl '' the ball underarm along the wicket to prevent New Zealand batsman Brian McKechnie from hitting a six . The Australian umpires ruled the move as legal even though to this day many believe it was one of the most unsporting decisions made in cricket . When New Zealand next played in the tri-series in Australia in 1983 , Lance Cairns became a cult hero for his one-day batting . In one match against Australia , he hit six sixes at the MCG , one of the world 's largest grounds . Few fans remember that New Zealand lost this game by 149 runs . However , Lance 's greatest contribution to New Zealand cricket was his son Chris Cairns . Chris Cairns made his debut one year before Hadlee retired in 1990 . Cairns , one of New Zealand 's best allrounders , led the 1990s bowling attack with Danny Morrison . Stephen Fleming , New Zealand 's most prolific scorer , led the batting and the team into the 21st century . Nathan Astle and Craig McMillan also scored plenty of runs for New Zealand , but both retired earlier than expected . Daniel Vettori made his debut as an 18-year-old in 1997 , and when he took over from Fleming as captain in 2007 he was regarded as the best spinning allrounder in world cricket . On 26 August 2009 , Daniel Vettori became the eighth player and second left-arm bowler ( after Chaminda Vaas ) in history to take 300 wickets and score 3000 test runs , joining the illustrious club . Vettori decided to take an indefinite break from international short form cricket in 2011 but will continued to represent New Zealand in Test cricket and returned for the 2015 Cricket World Cup . 21st century New Zealand started the new millennium by winning the 2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy in Kenya to claim their first , and so far , only ICC tournament . They started with a 64-run win over Zimbabwe then proceeded to beat Pakistan by 4 wickets in the semi-final . In the final against India , Chris Cairns scored an unbeaten 102 in New Zealand 's run chase helping them win the tournament . Shane Bond played 17 Tests for NZ between 2001 and 2007 but missed far more through injury . When fit , he added a dimension to the NZ bowling attack that had been missing since Hadlee retired . The rise of the financial power of the BCCI had an immense effect on NZ cricket and its players . The BCCI managed to convince other boards not to pick players who had joined the rival Twenty-20 Indian Cricket League . NZ Cricket lost the services of Shane Bond , Lou Vincent , Andre Adams , Hamish Marshall and Daryl Tuffey . The money to be made from Twenty-20 cricket in India may have also induced players , such as Craig McMillan and Scott Styris ( from Test cricket ) to retire earlier than they would have otherwise . After the demise of the Indian Cricket League Bond and Tuffey again played for New Zealand . Vettori stood down as Test captain in 2011 leading to star batsman Ross Taylor to take his place . Taylor led New Zealand for a year which included a thrilling win in a low scoring Test match against Australia in Hobart , their first win over Australia since 1993 . In 2012/13 Brendon McCullum became captain and new players such as Kane Williamson , Corey Anderson , Doug Bracewell , Trent Boult and Jimmy Neesham emerged as world-class performers . McCullum captained New Zealand to series wins against the West Indies and India in 2013/14 and both Pakistan and Sri Lanka in 2014/15 increasing New Zealand 's rankings in both Test and ODI formats . In the series against India McCullum scored 302 at Wellington to become New Zealand 's first Test triple centurion . In early 2015 New Zealand made the final of the Cricket World Cup , going through the tournament undefeated until the final , where they lost to Australia by seven wickets . In 2015 the New Zealand national cricket team played under the name of Aotearoa for their first match against Zimbabwe to celebrate Māori Language Week . j In mid-2015 New Zealand toured England , performing well , drawing the Test series 1-1 , and losing the One Day series , 2–3 . In October to December 2015 , and in February 2016 , New Zealand played Australia in two Test Series , in three and two games a piece . With a changing of an era in the Australian team , New Zealand was rated as a chance of winning especially in New Zealand . New Zealand lost both series by 2-Nil International grounds Result Summary ( Year by Year ) in the 21st Century As of 28 March 2016 ∗The Win percentage excludes no results and counts ties as half a win . Current squad This is a list of active players who have played for New Zealand since the beginning of 2015 . Players in bold have a central contract for 2016–17 . The players in italics represents the New Zealand Test squad against Sri Lanka . The players underlined are players selected for 2016 ICC World T20 . Brendon McCullum has retired from international cricket from 25 February 2016 , with Nathan McCullum retiring from international cricket after 2016 ICC World T20 . Grant Elliott has retired from ODI , but has n't been selected for Test cricket since 2009 . Coaching staff * Head Coach : Mike Hesson * Assistant Coach : * Batting Coach : Craig McMillan * Bowling Coach : Dimitri Mascarenhas ( until 2016 summer ) , Shane Jurgensen * Strength and Conditioning Coach : Chris Donaldson * Team 's Manager : Mike Sandle * Physiotherapist : Tommy Simsek * Performance Analyst : Paul Warren * Media Correspondent : Willy Nicholls Tournament history ICC Cricket World Cup As of 29 March 2015 ∗The Win percentage excludes no results and counts ties as half a win . ICC Champions Trophy As of 23 June 2013 ∗The Win percentage excludes no results and counts ties as half a win . ICC World Twenty20 As of 28 March 2016 ∗Tie+Won and Tie+Lost indicates matches tied and then won or lost in a tiebreaker such as a bowlout or one-over-eliminator ( `` Super Over '' ) . ∗The result percentage excludes no results and counts ties ( irrespective of a tiebreaker ) as half a win . Commonwealth Games World Championship of Cricket Austral-Asia Cup * 1986 : semi-finals * 1990 : semi-finals * 1994 : semi-finals Result Summary Test Matches As of 21 December 2015 One-Day International Matches As of 31 January 2016 ∗The Win percentage excludes no results and counts ties as half a win . T20 International Matches As of 26 January 2015 ∗Tie+Won and Tie+Lost indicates matches tied and then won or lost in a tiebreaker such as a bowlout or one-over-eliminator ( `` Super Over '' ) . ∗The result percentage excludes no results and counts ties ( irrespective of a tiebreaker ) as half a win . Series Results Test Matches As of 2 June 2015 One-Day Internationals As of 31 January 2016 ∗The One-Day International Series results only counts bilateral series and excludes multi-national tournaments . ∗The Win percentage excludes drawn series . Twenty20 Internationals As of 26 January 2016 ∗The Twenty20 International Series results only counts bilateral series and excludes multi-national tournaments . ∗The Win percentage excludes drawn series . Records World records * Richard Hadlee , one of New Zealand and the world 's best all-rounders , took the world record for most Test wickets ( 374 ) vs India at Bangalore in 1988 . He lost the record to Kapil Dev . Hadlee was the first bowler to reach 400 Test wickets vs India at Christchurch in 1990 * Corey Anderson holds record for the second fastest century in the history of One Day International cricket or any other format of international cricket . Playing against West Indies , he scored his ton in just 36 balls . Corey Anderson lost the record to AB de Villiers when AB scored his century in just 31 balls against West Indies . * In a One Day International in 1996 , the entire New Zealand team were awarded man of the match [ http : //www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/64524.html in this match ] against the West Indies , the first such occasion . * Andrew Jones and Martin Crowe held the highest ever 3rd-wicket partnership in Tests which at the time was the highest partnership for any wicket . [ http : //usa.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/PARTNERSHIPS/PARTNERSHIP_RECORDS_TESTS.html Cricinfo – Records – Test matches – Highest partnerships by wicket ] at usa.cricinfo.com * Brian Hastings and Richard Collinge together scored 151 runs for the highest ever 10th-wicket partnership against Pakistan in 1973 . * Nathan Astle scored Test cricket 's fastest ever double century versus England Christchurch 2002 . He scored 200 off 153 balls with the second hundred coming off just 39 deliveries . He was eventually out for 222—the dreaded double Nelson . He knocked the first hundred off 114 balls . Astle smashed the record by 59 balls , previously held by Adam Gilchrist Australia vs South Africa Johannesburg 2002 . * Brendon McCullum holds the record for most career runs 2105 , most sixes 87 & the first batsman to score two centuries 116 * vs Australia and 123 vs Bangladesh in Twenty20 International Cricket . * Brendon McCullum held another record for the Highest Individual Score in Twenty20 International Cricket , when he scored 123 vs Bangladesh at Pallekele . He lost the record to Aaron Finch who scored 156 * against England at Southampton . * Chris Cairns and his father Lance Cairns are one of the two father-son combinations to each claim 100 Test wickets , South Africa 's Peter and Shaun Pollock being the other . * Chris Cairns held the record for the most Test sixes in Tests . [ http : //usa.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TRIVIA/BAT_MOST_SIXES_CAREER.html Cricinfo – Records – Test matches – Most sixes in career ] at usa.cricinfo.com He passed Viv Richards record of 84 ( vs England , Lord 's , London , 2004 ) and retired from Test cricket with 87 . He has since been passed by both Adam Gilchrist and Brian Lara . Brendon McCullum now has the record . * Martin Guptill scored the Highest score in World Cups with 237 * in 2015 . * Chris Harris ( vs England , Lord 's , London , 2004 ) , Daniel Vettori and Chris Cairns are the only New Zealand cricketers to have taken 200 wickets in ODIs . ( cricinfo ) . Christopher Harris and Christopher Cairns are the only two New Zealand cricketers in ODIs to complete the 4000 run / 200 wicket double . The others are Sri Lankan Sanath Jayasuriya , South African Jacques Kallis , Pakistani 's Shahid Afridi and Abdul Razzaq and Bangladeshi Shakib Al Hasan ) . Chris Harris holds the record for the most ODI caught and bowled dismissals , with 29 . * John Bracewell became the first – and so far only – substitute fielder to take four catches in a One-Day International , vs Australia in Adelaide on 23 November 1980 . * Daniel Vettori became the first cricketer to take four wickets and score a half-century in each innings of a test match , a feat he achieved against Bangladesh in October 2008 at Chittagong . His figures were 5/95 and 4/74 with the ball and 55 * and 76 with the bat . * Brendon McCullum holds the world record for the fastest test hundred . It was scored off 54 balls on February 20 , 2016 against Australia during his final test match , in Christchurch , New Zealand . * Brendon McCullum holds the world record for the most sixes in test cricket with 107 . He passed Adam Gilchrist 's record of 100 in his final test match . Notable * New Zealand dismissed Zimbabwe ( Harare 2005 ) twice in the same day for totals of 59 and 99 . Zimbabwe became only the second team ( after India at Manchester in 1952 ) to be dismissed twice in the same day . The whole Test was completed inside two days . This feat was then repeated at Napier in 2012 when NZ dismissed Zimbabwe for 51 and 143 to end the match within three days . * Brendon McCullum scored NZ 's fastest Test century . ( vs Australia 2016 ) , off 54 balls . * Martin Guptill holds the record for the highest one-day cricket innings by a New Zealander , with 237 Not out against West Indies in the 2015 World Cup 4th Quarter Final in Wellington . * Brendon McCullum scored the fastest World Cup fifty ( off 18 balls ) for New Zealand in a Pool A Match of 2015 Cricket World Cup against England , beating his own 20-ball record set against Canada in World Cup ( 2007 ) earlier . * In a match for the New Zealanders ( i.e. , the New Zealand national team playing a tour match against non-test opposition ) at Scarborough , Yorkshire , in 1986 vs the D.B . Close XI , Ken Rutherford scored 317 runs off just 245 balls , including 228 runs in fours and sixes . In terms of balls faced , this is almost certainly one of the four fastest first-class triple-centuries ever recorded . * Shane Bond took an ODI hat-trick in the last over ( innings bowling figures : 10–0–61–4 ) vs Australia at Hobart in January 2007 . * Tim Southee took a Twenty20 hat-trick , taking 5–18 in the match against Pakistan . * Brendon McCullum holds the record for the highest Test innings by a New Zealander of 302 ( vs India in 2014 ) . * Colin Munro scored the second fastest T20 International 50 off 14 balls against Sri Lanka at Eden Park , Auckland . ( 10 January 2016 ) .

sfq_4759--New_Zealand_national_cricket_team.txt

The 'Black Caps' is the nickname for which team in sport?

The Mediterranean Sea ( pronounced ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land : on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia , on the south by North Africa , and on the east by the Levant . The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean , although it is usually identified as a separate body of water . The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus , meaning `` inland '' or `` in the middle of land '' ( from medius , `` middle '' and terra , `` land '' ) . It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2 ( 965,000 sq mi ) , but its connection to the Atlantic ( the Strait of Gibraltar ) is only 14 km wide . The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa . In oceanography , it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere . The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea . The sea is bordered on the north by Europe , the east by Asia , and in the south by Africa . It is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length , from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun , on the southwestern coast of Turkey , is approximately 4,000 km ( 2,500 miles ) . The sea 's average north-south length , from Croatia ’ s southern shore to Libya , is approximately 800 km ( 500 miles ) . The Mediterranean Sea , including the Sea of Marmara ( connected by the Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea ) , has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km ( 970,000 square miles ) . The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region . The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies . The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Albania , Algeria , Bosnia-Herzegovina , Croatia , Cyprus , Egypt , France , Greece , Israel , Italy , Lebanon , Libya , Malta , Morocco , Monaco , Montenegro , Slovenia , Spain , Syria , Tunisia and Turkey . In addition , Palestine 's Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea . Name The term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus , meaning `` amid the earth ( note : earth in the sense `` soil '' , not Planet Earth ) '' or `` between land '' ( medi- ; adj . medius , -um -a `` middle , between '' + terra f. , `` land , earth '' ) : as it is between the continents of Africa , Asia and Europe . The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios ( Μεσόγειος ) , is similarly from μέσο , `` between '' + γη , `` land , earth '' ) . It can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia ( Μεσοποταμία ) , meaning `` between rivers '' . The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names . For example , the Carthaginians called it the `` Syrian Sea '' and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum ( Latin , `` Our Sea '' ) , and occasionally Mare Internum ( Sallust , Jug . 17 ) . In ancient Syrian texts , Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew Bible , it was primarily known as the `` Great Sea '' ( הַיָּם הַגָּדוֹל , HaYam HaGadol , Numbers 34:6,7 ; Joshua 1:4 , 9:1 , 15:47 ; Ezekiel 47:10,15,20 ) , or simply `` The Sea '' ( 1 Kings 5:9 ; comp . 1 Macc . 14:34 , 15:11 ) ; however , it has also been called the `` Hinder Sea '' ( הַיָּם הָאַחֲרוֹן ) , due to its location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land , and therefore behind a person facing the east , sometimes translated as `` Western Sea '' , ( Deut . 11:24 ; Joel 2:20 ) . Another name was the `` Sea of the Philistines '' ( יָם פְּלִשְׁתִּים , Exod . 23:31 ) , from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites . The sea is also called the `` Great Sea '' ( Middle English : Grete See ) in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer . In Ottoman Turkish , it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid , meaning the `` Pure White Sea '' . In Modern Hebrew , it has been called HaYam HaTikhon ( ) , `` the Middle Sea '' , reflecting the Sea 's name in ancient Greek ( Mesogeios ) , Latin ( Mare internum ) , and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East ( Mediterranean , etc . ) . Similarly , in Modern Arabic , it is known as ' ( ) , `` the [ White ] Middle Sea '' , while in Islamic and older Arabic literature , it was referenced as ' ( ) , or `` the Romaic/Byzantine Sea . '' In Turkish , it is known as Akdeniz , `` the White Sea '' since among Turks the white colour ( ak ) represents the west . History Ancient civilisations Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores , and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea . It provided routes for trade , colonisation , and war , as well as food ( from fishing and the gathering of other seafood ) for numerous communities throughout the ages . Due to the shared climate , geology , and access to the sea , cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history . Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians , both of which extensively colonised the coastlines of the Mediterranean . Later , when Augustus founded the Roman Empire , the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ( `` Our Sea '' ) . Darius I of Persia , who conquered Ancient Egypt , built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea . Darius 's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended , and required four days to traverse . Middle Ages and empires The western Roman empire collapsed around AD 476 . Temporarily the east was again dominant as the Byzantine Empire formed from the eastern half of the Roman empire . Another power arose in the 7th century , and with it the religion of Islam , which soon swept across from the east ; at its greatest extent , the Arab Empire controlled 75 % of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores . Europe was reviving , however , as more organised and centralised states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century . Ottoman power continued to grow , and in 1453 , the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the Conquest of Constantinople . Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in southern France , Algeria and Tunisia . Barbarossa , the famous Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza . The Battle of Djerba marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean . As the naval prowess of the European powers increased , they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the Ottoman Navy . This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between galleys . The Barbary pirates of North Africa preyed on Christian shipping in the Western Mediterranean Sea . According to Robert Davis , from the 16th to 19th centuries , pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves . The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean . Once , all trade from the east had passed through the region , but now the circumnavigation of Africa allowed spices and other goods to be imported through the Atlantic ports of western Europe . 21st century and migrations In 2013 , the Maltese president described the Mediterranean sea as a `` cemetery '' due to the large amounts of migrants who drown there after their boats capsize . European Parliament president Martin Schulz said that Europe 's migration policy has `` turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard '' , referring to the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct result of the policies . An Azerbaijani official described the sea as `` a burial ground ... where people die '' . Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck , the Italian government decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising `` Mare Nostrum '' , a military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants . Geography The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar ( known in Homer 's writings as the `` Pillars of Hercules '' ) in the west and to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea , by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus respectively , in the east . The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea , whereas the Black Sea is generally not . The 163 km long artificial Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea . Large islands in the Mediterranean include Cyprus , Crete , Euboea , Rhodes , Lesbos , Chios , Kefalonia , Corfu , Limnos , Samos , Naxos and Andros in the Eastern Mediterranean ; Sardinia , Corsica , Sicily , Cres , Krk , Brač , Hvar , Pag , Korčula and Malta in the central Mediterranean ; and Ibiza , Majorca and Minorca ( the Balearic Islands ) in the Western Mediterranean . The typical Mediterranean climate has hot , humid , and dry summers and mild , rainy winters . Crops of the region include olives , grapes , oranges , tangerines , and cork . Extent The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows : Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal in the east , the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe , Africa and Asia , and is divided into two deep basins : * Western Basin : * * On the west : A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar ( Spain ) and Cape Spartel ( Africa ) . * * On the northeast : The west coast of Italy . In the Strait of Messina a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci ( 15°42 ' E ) with Cape Peloro , the east extreme of the Island of Sicily . The north coast of Sicily . * * On the east : A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily ( ) , through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon ( Tunisia ) . * Eastern Basin : * * On the west : The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin . * * On the northeast : A line joining Kum Kale ( 26°11 ' E ) and Cape Helles , the western entrance to the Dardanelles . * * On the southeast : The entrance to the Suez Canal . * * On the east : The coasts of Syria and Palestine . ( It should be noted that the coast referred to as belonging to Palestine in this document dating to 1953 has been within the internationally recognised borders of the country known as Israel since 1948 . Of the territories administered by the Palestinian National Authority , only the Gaza Strip has a sea coast . ) Oceanography Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea : for instance , tides are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean . The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour . Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and river runoff in the Mediterranean , a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin . Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half , causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward . The salinity at 5 m depth is 3.8 % . The pressure gradient pushes relatively cool , low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin ; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east , then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward , to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar . Thus , seawater flow is eastward in the Strait 's surface waters , and westward below ; once in the Atlantic , this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source . Coastal countries The following countries have a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea : * Northern shore ( from west to east ) : Spain , France , Monaco , Italy , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro , Albania , Greece and Turkey . * Eastern shore ( from north to south ) : Turkey , Syria , Lebanon , Israel . * Southern shore ( from west to east ) : Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia , Libya , Egypt . * Island nations : Malta , Cyprus . Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea ( from west to east ) : The British overseas territory of Gibraltar , the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands , the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus , and the State of Palestine 's Gaza Strip . Major cities ( municipalities ) with populations larger than 200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are : Subdivisions According to the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) , the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into a number of smaller waterbodies , each with their own designation ( from west to east ) : * the Strait of Gibraltar ; * the Alboran Sea , between Spain and Morocco ; * the Balearic Sea , between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands ; * the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria ( Italy ) ; * the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia , Italian peninsula and Sicily ; * the Ionian Sea between Italy , Albania and Greece ; * the Adriatic Sea between Italy , Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro and Albania ; * the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey . Other seas Although not recognised by the IHO treaties , there are some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times , or in the present : * the Sea of Sardinia , between Sardinia and Balearic Islands , as a part of the Balearic Sea * the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia , * the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete , * In the Aegean Sea , * * the Thracian Sea in its north , * * the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the Peloponnese , * * the Sea of Crete north of Crete , * * the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios * the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus * the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Other features Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and derive their names from these associations . In addition to the seas , a number of gulfs and straits are also recognised : * the Saint George Bay in Beirut , Lebanon * the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia , Syria * the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria . * the Minet el-Beida ( `` White Harbour '' ) bay near ancient Ugarit , Syria * the Strait of Gibraltar , connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from Morocco * the Bay of Gibraltar , at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula * the Gulf of Corinth , an enclosed sea between the Ionian Sea and the Corinth Canal * the Pagasetic Gulf , the gulf of Volos , south of the Thermaic Gulf , formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula * the Saronic Gulf , the gulf of Athens , between the Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea * the Thermaic Gulf , the gulf of Thessaloniki , located in the northern Greek region of Macedonia * the Kvarner Gulf , Croatia * the Gulf of Lion , south of France * the Gulf of Valencia , east of Spain * the Strait of Messina , between Sicily and the toe of Italy * the Gulf of Genoa , northwestern Italy * the Gulf of Venice , northeastern Italy * the Gulf of Trieste , northeastern Italy * the Gulf of Taranto , southern Italy * the Gulf of Salerno , southwestern Italy * the Gulf of Gaeta , southwestern Italy * the Gulf of Squillace , southern Italy * the Strait of Otranto , between Italy and Albania * the Gulf of Haifa , northern Israel * the Gulf of Sidra , between Tripolitania ( western Libya ) and Cyrenaica ( eastern Libya ) * the Strait of Sicily , between Sicily and Tunisia * the Corsica Channel , between Corsica and Italy * the Strait of Bonifacio , between Sardinia and Corsica * the Gulf of İskenderun , between İskenderun and Adana ( Turkey ) * the Gulf of Antalya , between west and east shores of Antalya ( Turkey ) * the Bay of Kotor , in south-western Montenegro and south-eastern Croatia * the Malta Channel , between Sicily and Malta * the Gozo Channel , between Malta Island and Gozo 10 largest islands by area Climate Sea temperature Geology The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex . Underlain by oceanic crust , the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean ; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin , called the Neotethys , which was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic . Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate , the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of evaporites . The Messinian salinity crisis started about six million years ago ( mya ) when the Mediterranean became landlocked , and then essentially dried up . There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick . Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago ( mya ) in less than two years by the Zanclean flood . Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude ( one thousand times ) larger than the current flow of the Amazon River . The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea . The coastline extends for 46000 km . A shallow submarine ridge ( the Strait of Sicily ) between the island of Sicily and the coast of Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions : the Western Mediterranean , with an area of about 850 thousand km2 ( 330 thousand mi2 ) ; and the Eastern Mediterranean , of about 1.65 million km2 ( 640 thousand mi2 ) . A characteristic of the coastal Mediterranean are submarine karst springs or s , which discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface ; the discharge water is usually fresh , and sometimes may be thermal . Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis The Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the Eurasian continent . As Africa-Arabia drifted northward , it closed over the ancient Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana . At about that time in the middle Jurassic period a much smaller sea basin , dubbed the Neotethys , was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western ( Arabian ) end . The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny . The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions ( and associated foldings and subductions ) that occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs ( 34 to 5.33 mya ) ; see animation : Africa-Arabia colliding with Eurasia . Accordingly , the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates in subduction which are the foundation of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea . Various zones of subduction harbour and form the deepest and most majestic oceanic ridges , east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean . The Central Indian Ridge runs East of the Mediterranean Sea South-East across the in-between of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean . Nevertheless , while man-made geopolitical turmoil and chaos have governed the coastlines of many various Mediterranean nations throughout the courses of ancient , modern , present and foreseeable history , the Plate tectonic status of nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharing the same geological concerns and fate . Messinian salinity crisis During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times , as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia , it lifted the Betic-Rif mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa . There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea . Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors , they progressively closed during middle and late Miocene times ; perhaps several times . During late Miocene times the closure of the Betic Corridor triggered the so-called `` Messinian salinity crisis '' ( MSC ) , when the Mediterranean almost entirely dried out . The time of beginning of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5.96 mya , and it persisted for some 630,000 years until about 5.3 mya ; see Animation : Messinian salinity crisis , at right . After the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC . It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean flood—at the end of the Miocene ( 5.33 mya ) . Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times , which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition . Recent studies , however , show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view . Garcia-Castellanos , D. , A. Villaseñor , 2011 . Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar Arc . Nature , 2011-12-15 [ https : //docs.google.com/uc ? id 0B_xuyENh5ksFN2MwYWE5YjUtNzNkOS00OGZlLWFkMDYtOWMxYTViYjRiZjc0 & exportdownload & hl en pdf here ] [ https : //sites.google.com/site/daniggcc/publications Link ] Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna The present-day Atlantic gateway , i.e . the Strait of Gibraltar , originated in the early Pliocene via the Zanclean Flood . As mentioned , two other gateways preceded Gibraltar : the Betic Corridor across southern Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco . The former gateway closed about six ( 6 ) mya , causing the Messinian salinity crisis ( MSC ) ; the latter or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian times , causing a `` Tortonian salinity crisis '' ( from 11.6 to 7.2 mya ) , which occurred well before the MSC and lasted much longer . Both `` crises '' resulted in broad connections of the mainlands of Africa and Europe , which thereby normalised migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two continents . The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species ; see Animation : Messinian salinity crisis ( and mammal migrations ) , at right . The near-completely enclosed configuration of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin . Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate , bathymetry , and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites . Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene , and the adjacent Red Sea Basin ( during the Late Miocene ) , and in the whole Mediterranean basin ( during the MSC and the Messinian age ) . Diatomites are regularly found underneath the evaporite deposits , suggesting a connection between their geneses . Today , evaporation of surface seawater ( output ) is more than the supply ( input ) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems , causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic , causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait : that is , an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water , counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic . Herman Sörgel 's Atlantropa project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar , using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy . The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and , at least , the Marghreb part of Africa ( compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid ) . Shift to a `` Mediterranean climate '' The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin . Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting laurel forests . The shift to a `` Mediterranean climate '' occurred largely within the last three million years ( the late Pliocene epoch ) as summer rainfall decreased . The subtropical laurel forests retreated ; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa , the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved , dominated by coniferous trees and sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small , hard , waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers . Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation . There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region . Paleoclimate Because of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration , the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations , which are well documented in its sedimentary record . Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods , whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones , the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information . These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales

qw_12131--Mediterranean_Sea.txt

What country in North Africa, bordered by Tunisia, Libya, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco and the Mediterranean Sea, is the largest country on the Mediterranean, and the second largest on the African continent and in the Arab world?

La Palma , also San Miguel de La Palma , is the most north-westerly island of the Canary Islands , Spain . La Palma has an area of 706 km2 making it the fifth largest of the seven main Canary Islands . The total population is about 86,000 , of which 18,000 ( 2003 data ) live in the capital , Santa Cruz de la Palma and about 20,000 ( 2004 data ) in Los Llanos de Aridane . La Palma has `` sister city '' status with El Dorado Hills , California , United States . With an area of 708.32 square kilometres La Palma is fifth largest of the seven main islands , whilst the Roque de los Muchachos , at 2,426 metres , is second only to the peaks of the Teide massif on Tenerife . In 1815 , the German geologist Leopold von Buch visited the Canary Islands . It was as a result of his visit to Tenerife where he visited the Las Cañadas caldera and then later to La Palma where he visited the Taburiente caldera , that the Spanish word for cauldron or large cooking pot - `` caldera '' - was introduced into the geological vocabulary . In the center of the island is the Caldera de Taburiente National Park ; one of four national parks in the Canary Islands . Origins and geology La Palma , like the other islands of the Canary Island archipelago , is a volcanic ocean island . The volcano rises almost 7 km above the floor of the Atlantic Ocean . There is road access from sea level to the summit at 2426 m , which is marked by an outcrop of rocks called Los Muchachos ( `` The Lads '' ) . This is the site of the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory , one of the world 's premier astronomical observatories . La Palma 's geography is a result of the volcanic formation of the island . The highest peaks reach over 2400 m above sea level , and the base of the island is located almost 4000 m below sea level . The northern part of La Palma is dominated by the Caldera de Taburiente , with a width of 9 km and a depth of 1500 m. It is surrounded by a ring of mountains ranging from 1600 m to 2400 m in height . On its northern side is the exposed remains of the original seamount . Only the deep Barranco de las Angustias ( `` Ravine of Anxiety '' ) ravine leads into the inner area of the caldera , which is a national park . It can be reached only by hiking . The outer slopes are cut by numerous gorges which run from 2000 m down to the sea . Today , only few of these carry water due to the many water tunnels that have been cut into the islands structure . From the Caldera de Taburiente to the south runs the ridge Cumbre Nueva - the New Ridge , which despite its name is older than the Cumbre Vieja - Old Ridge . The southern part of La Palma consists of the Cumbre Vieja , a volcanic ridge formed by numerous volcanic cones built of lava and scoria . The Cumbre Vieja is active - but dormant , with the last eruption occurring in 1971 at the Teneguía vent which is located at the southern end of the Cumbre Vieja - Punta de Fuencaliente , ( The Point of the Hot Fountain ) . Beyond Punta de Fuencaliente , the Cumbre Vieja continues in a southerly direction as a submarine volcano . Volcano Like all of the Canary Islands , La Palma originally formed as a seamount through submarine volcanic activity . La Palma is currently - along with Tenerife , the most volcanically active of the Canary Islands and was formed three to four million years ago . Its base lies almost 4000 m below sea level and reaches a height of 2426 m above sea level . About a half a million years ago , the Taburiente volcano collapsed with a giant landslide , forming the Caldera de Taburiente . Erosion has since exposed part of the seamount in the northern sector of the Caldera . Since the Spanish occupation , there have been seven eruptions - all of which have occurred on the Cumbre Vieja : * 1470-1492 Montaña Quemada * 1585 Tajuya near El Paso * 1646 Volcán San Martin * 1677 Volcán San Antonio * 1712 El Charco * 1949 Volcán Nambroque at the Duraznero , Hoyo Negro and Llano del Banco vents * 1971 Volcán Teneguía During the 1949 eruption - which commenced on the fiesta of San Juan ( St John ) 24 June 1949 at the Duraznero , and 8 July 1949 Llano del Banco vents on the Cumbre Vieja , an earthquake , with an epicentre near Jedy , occurred . This is considered to have caused a -long crack which Bonelli Rubio ( 1950 ) Bonelli Rubio , J. M. , 1950 . Contribucion al estudio de la erupcion del Nambroque o San Juan . Madrid : Inst . Geografico y Catastral , 25 pp . named `` La Grieta '' - ( the crack ) , to form , with a width of about 1 m and a depth of about 2 m. It attains a maximum displacement of ~4 m in the vicinity of the Hoyo Negro to Duraznero vents . It is not traceable southward from the Duraznero vent . North of the Hoyo Negro it traverses downslope and is traceable for ~1500 m. It should be noted that the total distance from the southern rim of the Duraznero vent to the Llano del Banco is ~4 km . In 1951 Ortiz and Bonelli-Rubio published further information in respect of the eruption and associated phenomena that occurred before and during the eruption . There is no indication that the crack has penetrated the edifice of the volcano and due to the absence of Minas Galerias ( water tunnels ) within the Cumbre Vieja there is no possibility of examining the internal structure of the flank . Carracedo et al . ; consider that the crack is superficial and inactive , and has not penetrated the volcano 's edifice . This means that claims that the flank is in danger of failing are unfounded . However the lack of supporting evidence has not stopped claims that the flank is in danger of failing . Tsunami scenarios In a programme transmitted by the British Broadcasting Corporation BBC Horizon broadcast on 12 October 2000 , two geologists ( Day and McGuire ) cited this crack as proof that half of the Cumbre Vieja had moved towards the Atlantic Ocean ( Day et al . ; 1999 , Day , S. J ; Carracedo , J . C ; Guillou , H. & Gravestock , P ; 1999 . Recent structural evolution of the Cumbre Vieja volcano , La Palma , Canary Islands : volcanic rift zone re-configuration as a precursor to flank instability . J. Volcanol . Geotherm Res . 94 , 135-167. , and Ward and Day , 2001Ward , S. N. & Day , S. J ; 2001 . Cumbre Vieja Volcano ; potential collapse and tsunami at La Palma , Canary Islands . Geophys . Res . Lett . 28-17 , 3397-3400. http : //www.es.ucsc.edu/~ward/papers/La_Palma_grl.pdf ) . They postulate that this process was driven by the pressure caused by the rising magma heating water trapped within the structure of the island . They hypothesised that during a future eruption , the western flank of the Cumbre Vieja , with a mass of approximately 1.5 x1015 kg , could slide into the ocean . This could then potentially generate a giant wave which they termed a `` megatsunami '' around 650 m-900 m high in the region of the islands . The wave would radiate out across the Atlantic and inundate much of the eastern seaboard of North America about 7 hours later , many of the islands in the Caribbean and northern coasts of South America between six and eight hours later . They estimate that the tsunami will have waves possibly 50 m or higher causing massive devastation along the coastlines . Modelling suggests that the tsunami could inundate up to 25 km inland - depending upon topography . The basis for Ward and Day ( 2001 ) modelling the collapse of a much larger portion of the western flank than that that the currently visible surface crack indicates as being potentially unstable , was based on geological mapping by Day et al . ; ( 1999 ) . In this paper they argue that a large part of the western flank has been constructed in the scar of a previous collapse and therefore sits upon unstable debris . However , nowhere in their paper do Ward and Day , ( 2001 ) , make any claim about the imminent collapse of the flank . They state that they have modelled the worst-case scenario , and as a result they state `` ... A future collapse has the potential to cause a tsunami which may devastate the east coast of the USA and other locations ... '' . The claim also was explored in a BBC docu-drama called End Day which went through several hypothetical scenarios of disastrous proportions . In 2002 the Tsunami Society ( Pararas-Carayannis , 2002 ) , published a statement stating `` ... We would like to halt the scaremongering from these unfounded reports ... '' The major points raised in this report include : * The claim that half of Cumbre Vieja dropped 4 m during the 1949 eruption is erroneous , and contradicted by physical evidence . * No evidence was sought or shown that there is a fault line separating a `` block '' of La Palma from the other half . * Physical evidence shows a 4 km long line in the rock , but the models assumed a 25 km line , for which no physical evidence was given . Further , there is no evidence shown that the 4 km long line extends beyond the surface . * There has never been an Atlantic megatsunami in recorded history . A survey carried out by Moss et al . ; ( 1999 ) reported that the western flank is stable with no indication of aseismic creep being recorded . In 2001 Carracedo et al . ; stated that they consider the 1949 crack to be a shallow and inactive surface expression . They do suggest that the crack should be monitored , but consider the possibility that the edifice is unstable as being almost non-existent . Murty et al . ; ( 2005 ) claim that the morphology of the Atlantic Ocean prevents the generation and propagation of trans-oceanic tsunamis . In 2006 professor Jan Nieuwenhuis of Delft University of Technology simulated several volcanic eruptions and calculated it would take another 10,000 years for the flanks to become sufficiently high and unstable to cause a massive collapse. , An underwater eruption that began in September 2011 south of the island of El Hierro , gave rise to more speculation about the possibility of a megatsunami . As each island in the archipelago is an independent edifice often several tens of kilometres away from the adjacent island it is geologically impossible that volcanic activity on one island will influence the other islands . Climate La Palma has a mild and consistent subtropical semi-arid climate , which in the Köppen climate classification is represented as BSh . It has significant influences of the mediterranean climate due to its quite wet winters . For being a Canary island , the weather is quite cloudy , being far more exposed to marine air systems than easterly islands . Naming In Spanish the island is called `` Isla de la Palma , '' and is usually abbreviated to `` La Palma , '' which means the Island of Palms or Palm Island . La Palma is nicknamed `` Isla Bonita '' ( `` beautiful island '' ) . Government The island is part of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife . The island is divided into 14 municipalities : Economy The local economy is primarily based on agriculture and tourism . Platanos ( or bananas ) are grown throughout the island with many banana farms on the western side of the island in the valley of Los Llanos de Aridane . Other crops include : Strelitzia ( bird of paradise ) flowers , oranges , avocados and grapes ( which grow well in the volcanic soil ) . The wine from the grapes is prized . Local ranchers herd cows , sheep and goats ( from which they make goat cheese ) . Fisherman operating from Santa Cruz , Tazacorte and Puerto Naos catch fish for the local markets . Flora and fauna As with all the Canary Islands , La Palma has several endemic species . La Palma has abundant plant life ( which is the most diverse in the Canary Islands ) . Although large areas have been deforested , the upland areas of La Palma retain some of the temperate cloud forest , or laurisilva ( laurel forest ) , dominated by Laurus , but including Juniperus cedrus ( Canary Islands juniper ) and other trees . This is a relic of the Pliocene subtropical forests which used to cover all the Canary Islands . The Canary Island pine ( Pinus canariensis ) is endemic to all the western Canary Islands , whilst Genista stenopetala , or sweet broom and Spartocytisus supranubius , a white broom known locally as Retama del Teide , are native to La Palma and Tenerife . Echium webbii , a variety of Echium virescens ( Tower of jewels ) is endemic to La Palma , as are Ceropegia fusca and Ceropegia dichotoma ; varieties of Cardoncillo . Several animals are native or endemic to La Palma , including the : * La Palma giant lizard , believed extinct until rediscovered in 2007 * Western Canaries lizard ( Gallotia galloti subspecies palmae ) * Graja ( Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax barbarus ) , subspecies of the red-billed chough * Canary Islands chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus canariensis ) * La Palma chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs palmae ) * Western Canary Islands goldcrest ( Regulus regulus ellenthalerae ) * Canary Islands quail ( Coturnix gomerae ) In addition , many other animals have been introduced , including rabbits and Barbary sheep , or aoudads , which have become a serious threat to endemic flora A biosphere reserve was established in 1983 , and extended and renamed in 1997 and 2002 History At the time of European colonization , the Canary Islands were inhabited by native Canarians , referred to collectively as Guanches , although the natives of La Palma are more correctly known as Auaritas ( See Canary Islands in pre-colonial times ) . The origin of these natives is unclear but they are believed to share common ancestry with the Berbers of North Africa . The Guanches had a Neolithic culture divided into several clans led by chiefs . Their name for La Palma was Benahoare . The main remnants of this culture are their cave dwellings , enigmatic petroglyphs and paved stone paths through the mountains . After the Spanish occupation of La Palma , the native Canarians vanished by either being killed , sold into slavery or by assimilating into the Spanish population . It is believed that the Canary Islands were known to the Phoenicians and Greeks , but the earliest written evidence is by the Roman writer Pliny The Elder , who quoted Juba II of Numidia , but Juba 's writings were subsequently lost . The Genoese navigator Lancelotto Malocello reached the archipelago in 1312 and remained for two decades until expelled by a native uprising . In 1404 the Spaniards began the conquest of the islands . Though the first landing on La Palma was in 1405 , it took until 1493 and several bloody battles until the last resistance of the natives was broken . The conqueror of La Palma was Alonso Fernández de Lugo , who defeated Tanausu , the last king on the island . He ruled the area known as Acero ( Caldera de Taburiente ) . Tanausu was ambushed after agreeing to a truce arranged by Fernández de Lugo and Juan de Palma , a Guanche who had converted to Christianity and who was a relative of Tanausu . For the next two centuries , settlements on La Palma became rich as the island served as a trading post on the way to the New World . La Palma received immigrants from Castile , Majorca , Flanders , Portugal and Catalonia . Religion The island is predominately Roman Catholic and since 1676 , has been known for the festival of Fiestas Lustrales de la Bajada de la Virgen de las Nieves ( the bringing down of the Virgin of the Snow , Virgen de las Nieves ) , which has a rich history , from the time of the Bishop of the Canaries , Bartolomé García Ximénez . The festival features the dancing of `` enanos '' or midgets . The costumes that people wear have a hole at the top of the hat to allow them to see out , while giving the appearance of dancing midgets . People come from all over the world for the celebration which happens every five years . The image of the Virgin is taken down from her sanctuary ( located in a hilly area on the outskirts of Santa Cruz de La Palma ) and paraded around the city of Santa Cruz with the festival lasting nearly two weeks before she is returned . The last time this event was performed in 2015 and the next will be in 2020 . The Virgin of the Snow is the patron saint of La Palma . Many women on the island have the name `` Nieves '' in honor of this . Every 5 August the annual festival of the Virgin is celebrated . Transport La Palma has a road network of some 1200 km . All the main roads are asphalted and in a good state , although there are many sharp bends , some very narrow . In order to reach some small hamlets in the north of the island it is necessary to travel on earth tracks . A good paved road approximately 180 km , circumscribes the island . Several bus routes exist that unite the main localities on the island . There is a road that runs from Los Llanos de Aridane to the capital city of the island Santa Cruz de La Palma ( known by locals as simply Santa Cruz ) . This road is a two-lane highway that includes a pair of two-lane tunnels that go right through the top of the mountain . The older tunnel is shorter ( 1100 m ) and higher than the newer tunnel ( 2880 m ) . When traveling from one side of the mountain to the other it is common to enter one side in complete clouds ( the east side ) and come out to the sunny side ( western side ) . This is due to the clouds not being able to cross the mountains , an effect caused by the counter trade wind . La Palma Airport serves the island , and several airlines run services to and from it . There is also ferry service to and from the island in the city of Sta . Cruz . Water tunnels The most famous structures of La Palma are the minas galerias ( water tunnels ) which carry the water from sources in the mountains to cities , villages and farms ( mainly banana plantations ) . La Palma receives almost all of its water supply due to the mar de nubes ( sea of clouds ) , stratocumulus cloud at 1200 m-1600 m altitude , carried on the prevailing wind which blows from the north-east trade winds . The water condenses on the long needles of the trees and other vegetation , it then either drips onto the ground or runs down the trunk etc. , into the ground . Eventually it collects inside the rock-strata , and is then drained via the galerias into aqueducts and pipes for distribution . The galerias have been cut into the rocks over centuries . To visit the galerias a permit is required . It is possible to walk alongside many of the aqueducts , a popular activity for tourists ( similar to the levadas of Madeira ) . The tour to the Marcos y Corderos waterfall and springs is also popular . There is an extensive network of irrigation canals in the valley of Los Llanos de Aridane . These canals carry water from the mountains throughout the valley and allow for the cultivation of bananas , avocados , flowers , and other plants . Each farmer gets a scheduled `` turn '' to fill an irrigation tank with water 24 hours of the day . If a farmer 's turn is at 2 AM he will wake up and make sure to fill his tank when possible so as to have sufficient water for his farm . These round tanks typically gather moss and lilly pads upon which frogs make their habitat . Observatories Due to the location of the island and the height of its mountains , some 2400 m above sea level , a number of international observatories have been built on the Roque de los Muchachos . The particular geographical position and climate cause clouds to form between 1000 m and 2000 m , usually leaving the observatories with a clear sky . Often , the view from the top of the volcano is a sea of clouds covering the eastern part of the island . Telescopes at the observatory include : * The Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes ( ING ) operates three telescopes : the William Herschel Telescope , the Isaac Newton Telescope and the 1 m Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope . * The Nordic Optical Telescope ( NOT ) . * The 1 m Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope ( SST ) operated by the Institute for Solar Physics . * The Dutch Open Telescope ( DOT ) . * A optical telescope . * The Carlsberg Meridian Telescope ( CMT ) . * The Mercator Telescope . * The 2 m Liverpool Telescope . * The Gran Telescopio Canarias ( Great Canary Telescope , dedicated 24 July 2009 ) . * The Telescopio Nazionale Galileo ( TNG ) . * The 17 m MAGIC Telescope , an air shower Cherenkov telescope for observing high energy gamma rays * The SuperWASP-North telescope , used to detect extrasolar planets . The DOT and the SST have been specifically built to study the Sun .

jp_783--La_Palma.txt

What island chain includes the islands of Fuerteventura, Lanzarote, and La Palma?

The Battle of Agincourt ( ; in French , Azincourt ) was a major English victory in the Hundred Years ' War . The battle took place on Friday , 25 October 1415 ( Saint Crispin 's Day ) , near Azincourt , in northern France . Henry V 's victory at Agincourt , against a numerically superior French army , crippled France and started a new period in the war during which Henry V married the French king 's daughter , and their son , later Henry VI of England and Henry II of France , was made heir to the throne of France as well as of England . Henry V led his troops into battle and participated in hand-to-hand fighting . The French king of the time , Charles VI , did not command the French army himself as he suffered from severe psychotic illnesses with moderate mental incapacitation . Instead , the French were commanded by Constable Charles d'Albret and various prominent French noblemen of the Armagnac party . This battle is notable for the use of the English longbow in very large numbers , with English and Welsh archers forming most of Henry 's army . The battle is the centrepiece of the play Henry V by William Shakespeare . Contemporary accounts The Battle of Agincourt is well documented by at least seven contemporary accounts , three of them eyewitnesses . The approximate location of the battle has never been in dispute and the place remains relatively unaltered even after 600 years . Immediately after the battle , Henry summoned the heralds of the two armies who had watched the battle together , and with the principal French herald , Montjoie , settled on the name of the battle as Azincourt , after the nearest fortified place . Two of the most frequently cited accounts come from Burgundian sources : one from Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy , who was present at the battle , and the other from Enguerrand de Monstrelet . The English eyewitness account comes from the anonymous Gesta Henrici Quinti , believed to have been written by a chaplain in the King 's household , who would have been in the baggage train at the battle . A recent reappraisal of Henry 's strategy of the Agincourt campaign incorporates these three accounts , and argues that war was seen as a legal due process for solving the disagreement over claims to the French throne . Campaign Henry V invaded France following the failure of negotiations with the French . He claimed the title of King of France through his great-grandfather Edward III , although in practice the English kings were generally prepared to renounce this claim if the French would acknowledge the English claim on Aquitaine and other French lands ( the terms of the Treaty of Brétigny ) . He initially called a Great Council in the spring of 1414 to discuss going to war with France , but the lords insisted that he should negotiate further and moderate his claims . In the following negotiations Henry said that he would give up his claim to the French throne if the French would pay the 1.6 million crowns outstanding from the ransom of John II ( who had been captured at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 ) , and concede English ownership of the lands of Normandy , Touraine , Anjou , Brittany and Flanders , as well as Aquitaine . Henry would marry Princess Catherine , the young daughter of Charles VI , and receive a dowry of 2 million crowns . The French responded with what they considered the generous terms of marriage with Princess Catherine , a dowry of 600,000 crowns , and an enlarged Aquitaine . By 1415 , negotiations had ground to a halt , with the English claiming that the French had mocked their claims and ridiculed Henry himself . In December 1414 , the English parliament was persuaded to grant Henry a `` double subsidy '' , a tax at twice the traditional rate , to recover his inheritance from the French . On 19 April 1415 , Henry again asked the Great Council to sanction war with France , and this time they agreed . Henry 's army landed in northern France on 13 August 1415 , carried by a fleet described by Shakespeare as `` a city on the inconstant billows dancing / For so appears this fleet majestical '' , often reported to comprise 1,500 ships , but probably far smaller , and besieged the port of Harfleur with an army of about 12,000 , and up to 20,000 horses . The siege took longer than expected . The town surrendered on 22 September , and the English army did not leave until 8 October . The campaign season was coming to an end , and the English army had suffered many casualties through disease . Rather than retire directly to England for the winter , with his costly expedition resulting in the capture of only one town , Henry decided to march most of his army ( roughly 9,000 ) through Normandy to the port of Calais , the English stronghold in northern France , to demonstrate by his presence in the territory at the head of an army that his right to rule in the duchy was more than a mere abstract legal and historical claim . He also intended the manoeuvre as a deliberate provocation to battle aimed at the dauphin , who had failed to respond to Henry 's personal challenge to combat at Harfleur . The French had raised an army during the siege which assembled around Rouen . This was not strictly a feudal army , but an army paid through a system similar to the English . The French hoped to raise 9,000 troops , but the army was not ready in time to relieve Harfleur . After Henry V marched to the north , the French moved to blockade them along the River Somme . They were successful for a time , forcing Henry to move south , away from Calais , to find a ford . The English finally crossed the Somme south of Péronne , at Béthencourt and Voyennes and resumed marching north . Without the river protection , the French were hesitant to force a battle . They shadowed Henry 's army while calling a semonce des nobles , calling on local nobles to join the army . By 24 October , both armies faced each other for battle , but the French declined , hoping for the arrival of more troops . The two armies spent the night of 24 October on open ground . The next day the French initiated negotiations as a delaying tactic , but Henry ordered his army to advance and to start a battle that , given the state of his army , he would have preferred to avoid , or to fight defensively : that was how Crécy and the other famous longbow victories had been won . The English had very little food , had marched 260 mi in two and a half weeks , were suffering from sickness such as dysentery , and faced much larger numbers of well equipped French men at arms . The French army blocked Henry 's way to the safety of Calais , however , and delaying battle would only further weaken his tired army and allow more French troops to arrive . Battle The battlefield The location of the battle is not precisely fixed in contemporary accounts . Most authors believe it was fought in the narrow strip of open land formed between the woods of Tramecourt and Azincourt ( close to the modern village of Azincourt ) . However , the lack of archaeological evidence at this traditional site has led to suggestions it may have been fought to the west of Azincourt . English deployment Early on the 25th , Henry deployed his army ( approximately 1,500 men-at-arms and 7,000 longbowmen ) across a 750 yd part of the defile . The army was organised into three `` battles '' or divisions : the vanguard , led by the Duke of York ; the main battle led by Henry himself ; and the rearguard , led by Lord Camoys . In addition , Sir Thomas Erpingham , one of Henry 's most experienced household knights , had a role in marshalling the archers . It is likely that the English adopted their usual battle line of longbowmen on either flank , with men-at-arms and knights in the centre . They may also have deployed some archers in the centre of the line . The English men-at-arms in plate and mail were placed shoulder to shoulder four deep . The English and Welsh archers on the flanks drove pointed wooden stakes , or palings , into the ground at an angle to force cavalry to veer off . This use of stakes may have been inspired by the Battle of Nicopolis of 1396 , where forces of the Ottoman Empire used the tactic against French cavalry . The English made their confessions before the battle , as was customary . Henry , worried about the enemy launching surprise raids , and wanting his troops to remain focused , ordered all his men to spend the night before the battle in silence , on pain of having an ear cut off . He told his men that he would rather die in the coming battle than be captured and ransomed . Henry made a speech emphasising the justness of his cause , and reminding his army of previous great defeats the kings of England had inflicted on the French . The Burgundian sources have him concluding the speech by telling his men that the French had boasted that they would cut off two fingers from the right hand of every archer , so that he could never draw a longbow again . Whether this was true is open to question ; as previously noted , death was the normal fate of any soldier who could not be ransomed . French deployment The French force was not only larger than that of the English , their noble men-at-arms would have considered themselves superior to the large number of archers in the English army , whom the French ( based on their experience in recent memory of using and facing archers ) considered relatively insignificant . For example , the chronicler Edmond de Dyntner stated that there were `` ten French nobles against one English '' , ignoring the archers completely . Several French accounts emphasise that the French leaders were so eager to defeat the English ( and win the ransoms of the English men-at-arms ) that they insisted on being in the first line ; as one of the contemporary accounts put it : `` All the lords wanted to be in the vanguard , against the opinion of the constable and the experienced knights . '' The French were arrayed in three lines or `` battles '' . The first line was led by Constable d'Albret , Marshal Boucicault , and the Dukes of Orléans and Bourbon , with attached cavalry wings under the Count of Vendôme and Sir Clignet de Brebant . The second line was commanded by the Dukes of Bar and Alençon and the Count of Nevers . The third line was under the Counts of Dammartin and Fauconberg . The Burgundian chronicler , Jean de Wavrin , writes that there were 8,000 men-at-arms , 4,000 archers and 1,500 crossbowmen in the vanguard , with two wings of 600 and 800 mounted men-at-arms , and the main battle having `` as many knights , esquires and archers as in the vanguard '' , with the rearguard containing `` all of the rest of the men-at-arms '' . The Herald of Berry uses somewhat different figures of 4,800 men-at-arms in the first line , 3,000 men in the second line , with two `` wings '' containing 600 mounted men-at-arms each , and a total of `` 10,000 men-at-arms '' , but does not mention a third line . Thousands of troops appear to have been in the rearguard , containing servants and commoners whom the French were either unable or unwilling to deploy . Wavrin gives the total French army size as 50,000 : `` They had plenty of archers and crossbowmen but nobody wanted to let them fire . The reason for this was that the site was so narrow that there was only enough room for the men-at-arms . '' A different source says that the French did not even deploy 4,000 of the best crossbowmen `` on the pretext they had no need of their help '' . Terrain The field of battle was arguably the most significant factor in deciding the outcome . The recently ploughed land hemmed in by dense woodland favoured the English , both because of its narrowness , and because of the thick mud through which the French knights had to walk . Accounts of the battle describe the French engaging the English men-at-arms before being rushed from the sides by the longbowmen as the mêlée developed . The English account in the Gesta Henrici says : `` For when some of them , killed when battle was first joined , fall at the front , so great was the undisciplined violence and pressure of the mass of men behind them that the living fell on top of the dead , and others falling on top of the living were killed as well . '' Although the French initially pushed the English back , they became so closely packed that they were described as having trouble using their weapons properly . The French monk of St. Denis says : `` Their vanguard , composed of about 5,000 men , found itself at first so tightly packed that those who were in the third rank could scarcely use their swords , '' and the Burgundian sources have a similar passage . As the battle was fought on a recently ploughed field , and there had recently been heavy rain leaving it very muddy , it proved very tiring to walk through in full plate armour . The French monk of St. Denis describes the French troops as `` marching through the middle of the mud where they sank up to their knees . So they were already overcome with fatigue even before they advanced against the enemy '' . The deep , soft mud particularly favoured the English force because , once knocked to the ground , the heavily armoured French knights had a hard time getting back up to fight in the mêlée . Barker states that some knights , encumbered by their armour , actually drowned in their helmets . Fighting Opening moves On the morning of 25 October , the French were still waiting for additional troops to arrive . The Duke of Brabant ( about 2,000 men ) , the Duke of Anjou ( about 600 men ) , and the Duke of Brittany ( 6,000 men , according to Monstrelet ) , were all marching to join the army . For three hours after sunrise there was no fighting . Military textbooks of the time stated : `` Everywhere and on all occasions that foot soldiers march against their enemy face to face , those who march lose and those who remain standing still and holding firm win . '' On top of this , the French were expecting thousands of men to join them if they waited . They were blocking Henry 's retreat , and were perfectly happy to wait for as long as it took . There had even been a suggestion that the English would run away rather than give battle when they saw that they would be fighting so many French princes . Henry 's men , on the other hand , were already very weary from hunger , illness and marching . Even though Henry knew as well as the French did that his army would perform better on the defensive , he was eventually forced to take a calculated risk , and move his army farther forward to start the battle . This entailed abandoning his chosen position and pulling out , advancing , and then re-installing the long sharpened wooden stakes pointed outwards toward the enemy , which helped protect the longbowmen from cavalry charges . ( The use of stakes was an innovation for the English : during the Battle of Crécy , for example , the archers had been instead protected by pits and other obstacles . ) The tightness of the terrain also seems to have restricted the planned deployment of the French forces . The French had originally drawn up a battle plan that had archers and crossbowmen in front of their men-at-arms , with a cavalry force at the rear specifically designed to `` fall upon the archers , and use their force to break them , '' but in the event , the French archers and crossbowmen were deployed behind and to the sides of the men-at-arms ( where they seem to have played almost no part , except possibly for an initial volley of arrows at the start of the battle ) . The cavalry force , which could have devastated the English line if it had attacked while they moved their stakes , charged only after the initial volley of arrows from the English . It is unclear whether the delay occurred because the French were hoping the English would launch a frontal assault ( and were surprised when the English instead started shooting from their new defensive position ) , or whether the French mounted knights instead did not react quickly enough to the English advance . French chroniclers agree that when the mounted charge did come , it did not contain as many men as it should have ; Gilles le Bouvier states that some had wandered off to warm themselves and others were walking or feeding their horses . French cavalry attack The French cavalry , despite being somewhat disorganised and not at full numbers , charged towards the longbowmen , but it was a disaster , with the French knights unable to outflank the longbowmen ( because of the encroaching woodland ) and unable to charge through the forest of sharpened stakes that protected the archers . John Keegan argues that the longbows ' main influence on the battle at this point was injuries to horses : armoured only on the head , many horses would have become dangerously out of control when struck in the back or flank from the high-elevation long range shots used as the charge started . The mounted charge and subsequent retreat churned up the already muddy terrain between the French and the English . Juliet Barker quotes a contemporary account by a monk of St. Denis who reports how the wounded and panicking horses galloped through the advancing infantry , scattering them and trampling them down in their headlong flight from the battlefield . Main French assault The plate armour of the French men-at-arms allowed them to close the 300 yards or so to the English lines while being under what the French monk of Saint Denis described as `` a terrifying hail of arrow shot '' . A complete coat of plate was considered such good protection that shields were generally not used , although the Burgundian contemporary sources specifically distinguish between Frenchmen who used shields and those who did not , and Rogers has suggested that the front elements of the French force may have used axes and shields . Modern historians are somewhat divided on how effective the longbow fire would have been against plate armour of the time , with some modern texts suggesting that arrows could not penetrate , especially the better quality steel armour , but others suggesting arrows could penetrate , especially the poorer quality wrought iron armour . Rogers suggests that the longbow could penetrate a wrought iron breastplate at short range and penetrate the thinner armour on the limbs even at 220 yd . He considers a knight in the best quality steel armour would have been more or less invulnerable to an arrow on the breastplate or top of the helmet , but would still have been vulnerable to shots hitting the limbs , particularly at close range . In any case , to protect themselves as much as possible from the arrows , the French had to lower their visors and bend their helmeted heads to avoid being shot in the face—the eye and air-holes in their helmets were among the weakest points in the armour . This head lowered position restricted both their breathing and their vision . Then they had to walk a few hundred yards through thick mud , a press of comrades and wearing armour weighing 50 – , gathering sticky clay all the way . Increasingly they had to walk around or over fallen comrades . The surviving French men-at-arms reached the front of the English line and pushed it back , with the longbowmen on the flanks continuing to shoot at point-blank range . When the archers ran out of arrows , they dropped their bows and using hatchets , swords and the mallets they had used to drive their stakes in , attacked the now disordered , fatigued and wounded French men-at-arms massed in front of them . The French could not cope with the thousands of lightly armoured longbowmen assailants ( who were much less hindered by the mud and weight of their armour ) combined with the English men-at-arms . The impact of thousands of arrows , combined with the slog in heavy armour through the mud , the heat and lack of oxygen in plate armour with the visor down , and the crush of their numbers meant the French men-at-arms could `` scarcely lift their weapons '' when they finally engaged the English line . The exhausted French men-at-arms are described as being knocked to the ground by the English and then unable to get back up . As the mêlée developed , the French second line also joined the attack , but they too were swallowed up , with the narrow terrain meaning the extra numbers could not be used effectively . Rogers suggests that the French at the back of their deep formation would have been attempting to push forward and quite literally add their weight to the advance , without realising that they were hindering the ability of those at the front to manoeuvre and fight , actually pushing them into the English formation of lancepoints . After the initial wave , the French would have had to fight over and on the bodies of those who had fallen before them . In such a `` press '' of thousands of men , Rogers finds it plausible that a significant number could have suffocated in their armour , as is described by several sources , and is also known to have happened in other battles . The French men-at-arms were taken prisoner or killed in the thousands . The fighting lasted about three hours , but eventually the leaders of the second line were killed or captured , as those of the first line had been . The English Gesta Henrici describes three great heaps of the slain around the three main English standards . According to contemporary English accounts , Henry was directly involved in the hand-to-hand fighting . Upon hearing that his youngest brother Humphrey , Duke of Gloucester had been wounded in the groin , Henry took his household guard and stood over his brother , in the front rank of the fighting , until Humphrey could be dragged to safety . The king received an axe blow to the head , which knocked off a piece of the crown that formed part of his helmet . Attack on the English baggage train The only French success was an attack on the lightly protected English baggage train , with Ysembart d'Azincourt ( leading a small number of men-at-arms and varlets plus about 600 peasants ) seizing some of Henry 's personal treasures , including a crown . Whether this was part of a deliberate French plan or an act of local brigandage is unclear from the sources . Certainly , d'Azincourt was a local knight but he may have been chosen to lead the attack because of his local knowledge and the lack of availability of a more senior soldier . In some accounts the attack happened towards the end of the battle , and led the English to think they were being attacked from the rear . Barker , following the Gesta Henrici , believed to have been written by an English chaplain who was actually in the baggage train , concludes that the attack happened at the start of the battle . Henry orders the killing of the prisoners Regardless of when the baggage assault happened , at some point after the initial English victory , Henry became alarmed that the French were regrouping for another attack . The Gesta Henrici places this after the English had overcome the onslaught of the French men-at-arms and the weary English troops were eyeing the French rearguard ( `` in incomparable number and still fresh '' ) . Le Fèvre and Wavrin similarly say that it was signs of the French rearguard regrouping and `` marching forward in battle order '' which made the English think they were still in danger . It seems it was purely a decision of Henry , since the English knights found it contrary to chivalry , and contrary to their interests to kill valuable hostages for whom it was commonplace to ask ransom . Henry threatened to hang whoever did not obey his orders . In any event , Henry ordered the slaughter of what were perhaps several thousand French prisoners , sparing only the most high ranked ( presumably those most likely to fetch a large ransom under the chivalric system of warfare ) . According to most chroniclers , Henry 's fear was that the prisoners ( who , in an unusual turn of events , actually outnumbered their captors ) would realize their advantage in numbers , rearm themselves with the weapons strewn about the field and overwhelm the exhausted English forces . Contemporary chroniclers did not criticise him for it . In his study of the battle , John Keegan argued that the main aim was not to actually kill the French knights but rather to terrorise them into submission and quell any possibility they might resume the fight , which would probably have caused the uncommitted French reserve forces to join the fray , as well . Such an event would have posed a risk to the still-outnumbered English and could have easily turned a stunning victory into a mutually-destructive defeat , as the English forces were now largely intermingled with the French and would have suffered grievously from the arrows of their own longbowmen had they needed to resume shooting . Keegan also speculated that due to the relatively low number of archers actually involved in killing the French knights ( roughly 200 by his estimate ) , together with the refusal of the English knights to assist in a duty they saw as distastefully unchivalrous and combined with the sheer difficulty of killing such a large number of prisoners in such a short space of time , the actual number of French knights killed might not have even reached the hundreds before the reserves fled the field and Henry called an end to the slaughter . Aftermath The lack of reliable sources makes it impossible to give a precise figure for the French and English casualties ( dead , wounded , taken prisoner ) . However , it is clear that though the English were outnumbered , their losses were far lower than those of the French . The French sources all give 4,000–10,000 French dead , with up to 1,600 English dead . The lowest ratio in these French sources has the French losing six times more men than the English . The English sources vary between about 1,500 and 11,000 for the French dead , with English dead put at no more than 100 . Barker identifies from the available records `` at least '' 112 Englishmen killed in the fighting , including Edward of Norwich , 2nd Duke of York , a grandson of Edward III . One widely used estimate puts the English casualties at 450 , not an insignificant number in an army of about 8,500 , but far fewer than the thousands the French lost , nearly all of whom were killed or captured . Using the lowest French estimate of their own dead of 4,000 would imply a ratio of nearly 9 to 1 in favour of the English , or over 10 to 1 if the prisoners are included . The French suffered heavily . Three dukes , at least eight counts

sfq_8111--Battle_of_Agincourt.txt

During which conflict was the battle of Agincourt fought?

The Wars of the Roses was a series of wars for control of the throne of England . They were fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet , those of Lancaster and York . They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487 , although there was related fighting before and after this period . The conflict resulted from social and financial troubles that followed the Hundred Years ' War , combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of Henry VI , which revived interest in Richard , Duke of York 's claim to the throne . The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party , Henry Tudor , Earl of Richmond , who defeated the last Yorkist king , Richard III , at the Battle of Bosworth Field . After assuming the throne as Henry VII , he married Elizabeth of York , the eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV , thereby uniting the two claims . The House of Tudor ruled England and Wales until 1603 . Name and symbols The name Wars of the Roses refers to the heraldic badges associated with the two royal houses , the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster . Wars of the Roses came into common use in the nineteenth century , after the publication in 1829 of Anne of Geierstein by Sir Walter Scott . Scott based the name on a scene in William Shakespeare 's play Henry VI Part 1 , set in the gardens of the Temple Church , where a number of noblemen and a lawyer pick red or white roses to show their loyalty to the Lancastrian or Yorkist faction respectively . The Yorkist faction used the symbol of the white rose from early in the conflict , but the Lancastrian red rose was apparently introduced only after the victory of Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth , when it was combined with the Yorkist white rose to form the Tudor rose , which symbolised the union of the two houses ; the origins of the Rose as a cognizance itself stem from Edward I 's use of a golden rose stalked proper . Often , owing to nobles holding multiple titles , more than one badge was used : Edward IV , for example , used both his Sun in splendour as Earl of March , but also his father 's Falcon and Fetterlock as Duke of York . Badges were not always distinct ; at the Battle of Barnet , Edward 's 'sun ' was very similar to the Earl of Oxford 's Vere star , which caused fateful confusion . Most , but not all , of the participants in the wars wore livery badges associated with their immediate lords or patrons under the prevailing system of bastard feudalism ; the wearing of livery was by now confined to those in 'continuous employ of a lord ' , thus excluding , for example , mercenaries . Another example : Henry Tudor 's forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon , while the Yorkist army used Richard III 's personal device of a white boar . Although the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of York and Lancaster , the corresponding duchies had little to do with these cities . The lands and offices attached to the Duchy of Lancaster were mainly in Gloucestershire , North Wales and Cheshire , while the estates and castles that were part of the Duchy of York were spread throughout England and Wales , although many were in the Welsh Marches . Summary of events Henry of Bolingbroke had established the House of Lancaster on the throne in 1399 , when he deposed his cousin Richard II and was crowned as Henry IV . Bolingbroke 's son , Henry V , maintained the family 's hold on the crown ; but when Henry V died in 1422 , his heir was the infant , Henry VI . The Lancastrian claim to the throne descended from John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster , the third surviving son of Edward III . Henry VI 's right to the crown was challenged by Richard , Duke of York , who could claim descent from Edward 's second and fourth surviving sons , Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence and Edmund of Langley , 1st Duke of York . Richard of York , who had held several important offices of state , quarrelled with prominent Lancastrians at court and with Henry VI 's queen , Margaret of Anjou . Although armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of York and Lancaster , the first open fighting broke out in 1455 at the First Battle of St Albans . Several prominent Lancastrians died , but their heirs continued a deadly feud with Richard . Although peace was temporarily restored , the Lancastrians were inspired by Margaret of Anjou to contest York 's influence . Fighting resumed more violently in 1459 . York and his supporters were forced to flee the country , but one of his most prominent supporters , the Earl of Warwick , invaded England from Calais and captured Henry at the Battle of Northampton . York returned to the country and became Protector of England , but was dissuaded from claiming the throne . Margaret and the irreconcilable Lancastrian nobles gathered their army in the north of England , and when York moved north to suppress them , he and his second son Edmund were killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460 . The Lancastrian army advanced south and released Henry at the Second Battle of St Albans , but failed to occupy London , and subsequently retreated to the north . York 's eldest son , Edward , Earl of March , was proclaimed King Edward IV . He gathered the Yorkist armies and won a crushing victory at the Battle of Towton in March 1461 . After Lancastrian revolts in the north were suppressed in 1464 and Henry was captured once again , Edward fell out with his chief supporter and advisor , the Earl of Warwick ( known as the `` Kingmaker '' ) , and also alienated many friends and even family members by favouring the family of his queen , Elizabeth Woodville , whom he had married in secret . Warwick tried first to supplant Edward with his younger brother George , Duke of Clarence , and then to restore Henry VI to the throne . This resulted in two years of rapid changes of fortune , before Edward IV once again won complete victories at Barnet ( April 1471 ) , where Warwick was killed , and Tewkesbury ( May 1471 ) where the Lancastrian heir , Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales was executed after the battle . Henry was murdered in the Tower of London several days later , ending the direct Lancastrian line of succession . A period of comparative peace followed , but King Edward died unexpectedly in 1483 . His surviving brother , Richard , Duke of Gloucester , first moved to prevent the unpopular Woodville family of Edward 's widow from participating in the government during the minority of Edward 's son , Edward V , and then seized the throne for himself , using the suspect legitimacy of Edward IV 's marriage as pretext . Henry Tudor , a distant relative of the Lancastrian kings who had inherited their claim , defeated Richard III at Bosworth in 1485 . He was crowned Henry VII , and married Elizabeth of York , daughter of Edward IV , to unite and reconcile the two houses . Yorkist revolts , directed by John de la Pole , 1st Earl of Lincoln and others , flared up in 1487 under the banner of the pretender Lambert Simnel—who claimed he was Edward , Earl of Warwick ( son of George of Clarence ) , resulting in the last pitched battles . Though most surviving descendants of Richard of York were imprisoned , sporadic rebellions continued until 1497 , when Perkin Warbeck , who claimed he was the younger brother of Edward V , one of the two disappeared Princes in the Tower , was imprisoned and later executed . Origins of the conflict State of the realm The rule of male primogeniture generally applied to the royal succession . Since the civil war known as The Anarchy , caused by the death of King Henry I of England in 1135 without a male heir , was brought to an end by the accession of his grandson Henry II , there had been no major conflicts over the succession . Following defeat in the Hundred Years ' War , English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings ; this is often considered a contributory cause of the Wars of the Roses . Armies and contestants The wars were fought largely by the landed aristocracy and armies of feudal retainers , with some foreign mercenaries . Support for each house largely depended upon dynastic factors , such as blood relationships , marriages within the nobility , and the grants or confiscations of feudal titles and lands . The unofficial system of livery and maintenance , by which powerful nobles would offer protection to followers who would sport their colours and badges ( livery ) , and controlled large numbers of paid men-at-arms ( maintenance ) was one of the effects of the breakdown of royal authority which preceded and partly caused the wars . Another aspect of the decline in respect to the crown was the development of what was called bastard feudalism by later historians , although the term and definition were disputed . Service to a lord in return for title to lands and the gift of offices remained important , but the service was given in support of a faction rather than as part of a strict hierarchical system in which all ultimately owed their loyalty to the monarch . Given the conflicting loyalties of blood , marriage and ambition , it was not uncommon for nobles to switch sides and several battles ( such as Northampton and Bosworth ) were decided by treachery . The armies consisted of nobles ' contingents of men-at-arms , with companies of archers and foot-soldiers ( such as billmen ) . There were also sometimes contingents of foreign mercenaries , armed with cannon or handguns . The horsemen were generally restricted to `` prickers '' and `` scourers '' ; i.e . scouting and foraging parties . The rules of military engagement changed as civil war succeeded overseas campaigns . It was customary for the heavy cavalry to fight entirely on foot . In several cases , noblemen dismounted and fought among the common foot-soldiers , to inspire them and to dispel the notion that in the case of defeat they might be ransomed while the common soldiers , being of little value , faced death . It was often claimed , however , that the nobles faced greater risks than the ordinary soldiers as there was little incentive for anyone to take prisoner any high-ranking noble during or immediately after a battle . During the Hundred Years ' War against France , a captured noble would be able to ransom himself for a large sum , but in the Wars of the Roses , a captured noble who belonged to a defeated faction had a high chance of being executed as a traitor . For example , forty-two captured knights were executed after the Battle of Towton . The Burgundian observer Philippe de Commines , who met Edward IV in 1470 , reported : King Edward told me in all the battles which he had won , as soon as he had gained victory , he mounted his horse and shouted to his men that they must spare the common soldiers and kill the lords of which none or few escaped . Even those who escaped execution might be declared attainted , and therefore possessing no property , and of no value to a captor . Disputed succession When Edward III died in 1377 , he was succeeded on the throne by his grandson Richard II , who was then a child . Richard II 's reign was marked by increasing dissension between the King and several of the most powerful nobles . In 1398 , he intervened in a dispute , involving mutual accusations of treason , between Henry Bolingbroke , the son of Edward III 's third son John of Gaunt , and Thomas de Mowbray , 1st Duke of Norfolk . The two nobles were prepared to settle the matter by personal combat but Richard banished them both from the realm . Richard II 's government had become highly unpopular beyond his strongholds in Cheshire and Wales . When Bolingbroke returned from exile in 1399 , initially to reclaim his rights as Duke of Lancaster , he took advantage of the support of most of the nobles to depose Richard and was crowned King Henry IV . The childless Richard II had nominated Edmund Mortimer , 5th Earl of March as his successor , but there was little support at the time for the counter-claim of the young Mortimer . As Henry 's initial popularity waned , the Mortimer family 's claim to the throne was a pretext for the major rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr in Wales , and other , less successful , revolts in Cheshire and Northumberland . Henry IV 's son and successor , Henry V , inherited a temporarily pacified nation , and his military success against France in the Hundred Years ' War bolstered his popularity , enabling him to strengthen the Lancastrian hold on the throne . Nevertheless , one notable conspiracy against Henry took place during his nine-year reign : the Southampton Plot , led by Richard , Earl of Cambridge , a son of Edmund of Langley , the fourth son of Edward III . Cambridge was executed in 1415 , for treason , at the start of the campaign that led to the Battle of Agincourt . Cambridge 's wife , Anne Mortimer , who had died in 1411 , was the daughter of Roger Mortimer and thus a descendant of Lionel of Antwerp , Edward III 's second son . Her brother Edmund , Earl of March , who had loyally supported Henry , died childless in 1425 and the title and extensive estates of the Earldom of March and the Mortimer claim to the throne thus passed to Anne 's descendants . Richard , the son of Cambridge and Anne Mortimer , was four years old at the time of his father 's execution . Although Cambridge was attainted , Henry later allowed Richard to inherit the title and lands of Cambridge 's elder brother Edward , Duke of York , who had died fighting alongside Henry at Agincourt and had no issue . Henry , who had three younger brothers and was himself in his prime and recently married , had no doubt that the Lancastrian right to the crown was secure . Henry 's premature death led to his only son coming to the throne as an infant and the country being ruled by regents . Henry V 's younger brothers produced no surviving legitimate issue , leaving only distant cousins ( the Beauforts ) as alternative Lancaster heirs . Richard of York 's claim to the throne thus became more significant , placing him in a position to threaten the weak King Henry VI . The revenue from the York and March estates also made him the wealthiest magnate in the land . Henry VI Henry V died unexpectedly in 1422 and his son , King Henry VI of England , ascended the throne as an infant only nine months old . From his childhood , he was surrounded by quarrelsome councillors and advisors . Henry 's younger surviving paternal uncle , Humphrey , Duke of Gloucester , sought to be named Protector and deliberately courted the popularity of the common people for his own ends , but was opposed by Cardinal Beaufort . On several occasions , Beaufort called on John , Duke of Bedford , Humphrey 's older brother , to return from his post as Regent in France , either to mediate or to defend him against Humphrey 's accusations of treason . Some time after Bedford died in 1435 , Cardinal Beaufort withdrew from public affairs , partly due to old age and partly because William de la Pole , 1st Duke of Suffolk , rose to become the dominant personality at court . Suffolk was widely held to be enriching himself through his influence on Henry , and was blamed for mismanaging the government and poorly executing the continuing Hundred Years ' War with France . Under Henry VI , all the land in France won by Henry V and even the provinces of Guienne and Gascony , which had been held since the reign of Henry II three centuries previously , were lost . Suffolk eventually succeeded in having Humphrey of Gloucester arrested for treason . Humphrey died while awaiting trial in prison at Bury St Edmunds in 1447 . Some authorities date the start of the War of the Roses from the death of Humphrey . However , with severe reverses in France , Suffolk was stripped of office and was murdered on his way to exile . Edmund Beaufort , 2nd Duke of Somerset , succeeded him as leader of the party seeking peace with France . The Duke of York , who had succeeded Bedford as Lieutenant in France , meanwhile represented those who wished to prosecute the war more vigorously , and criticised the court , and Somerset in particular , for starving him of funds and men during his campaigns in France . In all these quarrels , Henry VI had taken little part . He was seen as a weak , ineffectual king . In addition , he displayed several symptoms of mental illness that he may have inherited from his maternal grandfather , Charles VI of France . By 1450 many considered Henry incapable of carrying out the duties and responsibilities of a king . In 1450 , there was a violent popular revolt in Kent , Jack Cade 's rebellion . The grievances were extortion by some of the king 's officials and the failure of the courts to protect the local property-owners of all classes . The rebels occupied parts of London , but were driven out by the citizens after some of them fell to looting . The rebels dispersed after they were supposedly pardoned but several , including Cade , were later executed . Two years later , Richard of York returned to England from his new post as Lieutenant of Ireland and marched on London , demanding Somerset 's removal and reform of the government . At this stage , few of the nobles supported such drastic action , and York was forced to submit to superior force at Blackheath . He was imprisoned for much of 1452 and 1453 but was released after swearing not to take arms against the court . The increasing discord at court was mirrored in the country as a whole , where noble families engaged in private feuds and showed increasing disrespect for the royal authority and for the courts of law . In many cases feuds were fought between old-established families , and formerly minor nobility raised in power and influence by Henry IV in the aftermath of the rebellions against him . The quarrel between the Percys—long the Earls of Northumberland—and the comparatively upstart Nevilles was the best-known of these private wars and followed this pattern , as did the feud between the Courtenays and Bonvilles in Cornwall and Devon . A factor in these feuds was the presence of large numbers of soldiers discharged from the English armies that had been defeated in France . Nobles engaged many of these to mount raids , or to pack courts of justice with their supporters , intimidating suitors , witnesses and judges . This growing civil discontent , the abundance of feuding nobles with private armies , and corruption in Henry VI 's court formed a political climate ripe for civil war . With the king so easily manipulated , power rested with those closest to him at court , in other words , Somerset and the Lancastrian faction . Richard and the Yorkist faction , who tended to be physically placed further away from the seat of power , found their power slowly being stripped away . Royal power and finances also started to slip , as Henry was persuaded to grant many royal lands and estates to the Lancastrians , thereby losing their revenue . In 1453 , Henry suffered the first of several bouts of complete mental collapse , during which he failed even to recognise his new-born son , Edward of Westminster . On 22 March 1454 , Cardinal John Kemp , the Chancellor , died . Henry was incapable of nominating a successor . To ensure that the country could be governed , a Council of Regency was set up , headed by the Duke of York , who still remained popular with the people , as Lord Protector . York soon asserted his power with ever-greater boldness ( although there is no proof that he had aspirations to the throne at this early stage ) . He imprisoned Somerset and backed his Neville allies ( his brother-in-law , the Earl of Salisbury , and Salisbury 's son , the Earl of Warwick ) , in their continuing feud with the Earl of Northumberland , a powerful supporter of Henry . Henry recovered in 1455 and once again fell under the influence of those closest to him at court . Directed by Henry 's queen , the powerful and aggressive Margaret of Anjou , who emerged as the de facto leader of the Lancastrians , Richard was forced out of court . Margaret built up an alliance against Richard and conspired with other nobles to reduce his influence . An increasingly thwarted Richard ( who feared arrest for treason ) finally resorted to armed hostilities in 1455 . Start of the war Richard the Duke of York led a small force toward London and was met by Henry 's forces at St Albans , north of London , on 22 May 1455 . The relatively small First Battle of St Albans was the first open conflict of the civil war . Richard 's aim was ostensibly to remove `` poor advisors '' from King Henry 's side . The result was a Lancastrian defeat . Several prominent Lancastrian leaders , including Somerset and Northumberland , were killed . After the battle , the Yorkists found Henry hiding in a local tanner 's shop , abandoned by his advisors and servants , apparently having suffered another bout of mental illness . ( He had also been slightly wounded in the neck by an arrow . ) York and his allies regained their position of influence . With the king indisposed , York was again appointed Protector , and Margaret was shunted aside , charged with the king 's care . For a while , both sides seemed shocked that an actual battle had been fought and did their best to reconcile their differences , but the problems that caused conflict soon re-emerged , particularly the issue of whether Richard the Duke of York , or Henry and Margaret 's infant son Edward , would succeed to the throne . Margaret refused to accept any solution that would disinherit her son , and it became clear that she would only tolerate the situation for as long as the Duke of York and his allies retained the military ascendancy . Henry recovered and in February 1456 he relieved York of his office of Protector . In the autumn of that year , Henry went on royal progress in the Midlands , where the king and queen were popular . Margaret did not allow him to return to London where the merchants were angry at the decline in trade and the widespread disorder . The king 's court was set up at Coventry . By then , the new Duke of Somerset was emerging as a favourite of the royal court . Margaret persuaded Henry to revoke the appointments York had made as Protector , while York was made to return to his post as lieutenant in Ireland . Disorder in the capital and the north of England ( where fighting between the Nevilles and Percys had resumedRowse , p.138 ) and piracy by French fleets on the south coast were growing , but the king and queen remained intent on protecting their own positions , with the queen introducing conscription for the first time in England . Meanwhile , York 's ally , Warwick ( later dubbed `` The Kingmaker '' ) , was growing in popularity in London as the champion of the merchants ; as Captain of Calais he had fought piracy in the Channel . In the spring of 1458 , Thomas Bourchier , the Archbishop of Canterbury , attempted to arrange a reconciliation . The lords had gathered in London for a Grand Council and the city was full of armed retainers . The Archbishop negotiated complex settlements to resolve the blood-feuds that had persisted since the Battle of St. Albans . Then , on Lady Day ( 25 March ) , the King led a `` love day '' procession to St. Paul 's Cathedral , with Lancastrian and Yorkist nobles following him , hand in hand . No sooner had the procession and the Council dispersed than plotting resumed . Act of Accord The next outbreak of fighting was prompted by Warwick 's high-handed actions as Captain of Calais . He led his ships in attacks on neutral Hanseatic League and Spanish ships in the Channel on flimsy grounds of sovereignty . He was summoned to London to face enquiries , but he claimed that attempts had been made on his life , and returned to Calais . York , Salisbury and Warwick were summoned to a royal council at Coventry , but they refused , fearing arrest when they were isolated from their own supporters . York summoned the Nevilles to join him at his stronghold at Ludlow Castle in the Welsh Marches . On 23 September 1459 , at the Battle of Blore Heath in Staffordshire , a Lancastrian army failed to prevent Salisbury from marching from Middleham Castle in Yorkshire to Ludlow . Shortly afterwards the combined Yorkist armies confronted the much larger Lancastrian force at the Battle of Ludford Bridge . Warwick 's contingent from the garrison of Calais under Andrew Trollope defected to the Lancastrians , and the Yorkist leaders fled . York returned to Ireland , and his eldest son , Edward , Earl of March , Salisbury and Warwick fled to Calais . The Lancastrians were back in total control . York and his supporters were attainted at the Parliament of Devils as traitors . Somerset was appointed Governor of Calais and was dispatched to take over the vital fortress on the French coast , but his attempts to evict Warwick were easily repulsed . Warwick and his supporters even began to launch raids on the English coast from Calais , adding to the sense of chaos and disorder . Being attainted , only by a successful invasion could the Yorkists recover their lands and titles . Warwick travelled to Ireland to concert plans with York , evading the royal ships commanded by the Duke of Exeter . In late June 1460 , Warwick , Salisbury and Edward of March crossed the Channel and rapidly established themselves in Kent and London , where they enjoyed wide support . Backed by a papal emissary who had taken their side , they marched north . King Henry led an army south to meet them while Margaret remained in the north with Prince Edward . At the Battle of Northampton on 10 July , the Yorkist army under Warwick defeated the Lancastrians , aided by treachery in the king 's ranks . For the second time in the war , King Henry was found by the Yorkists in a tent , abandoned by his retinue , having apparently suffered another breakdown . With the king in their possession , the Yorkists returned to London . In the light of this military success , Richard of York moved to press his claim to the throne based on the illegitimacy of the Lancastrian line . Landing in north Wales , he and his wife Cecily entered London with all the ceremony usually reserved for a monarch . Parliament was assembled , and when York entered he made straight for the

qw_6374--Wars_of_the_Roses.txt

What name was given to the English Civil war in the 15th century between the rival houses of Lancaster and York?

The Solent ( ) is the strait that separates the Isle of Wight from the mainland of England . It is about 20 miles in length and varies in width between two and a half and five miles , although the shingle Hurst Spit which projects one and a half miles into the Solent narrows the sea crossing between Hurst Castle and Colwell Bay to just over a mile . The Solent is a major shipping route for passenger , freight and military vessels . It is an important recreational area for water sports , particularly yachting , hosting the Cowes Week sailing event annually . It is sheltered by the Isle of Wight and has a very complex tidal pattern , which has greatly benefited Southampton 's success as a port , providing a `` double high tide '' that extends the tidal window during which deep-draught ships can be handled . Portsmouth lies on its shores . Spithead , an area off Gilkicker Point near Gosport , is known as the place where the Royal Navy is traditionally reviewed by the monarch of the day . The area is of great ecological and landscape importance , particularly because of the coastal and estuarine habitats along the edge of the Solent . Much of its coastline is designated as a Special Area of Conservation . It is bordered by and forms a part of the character of a number of nationally important protected landscapes including the New Forest National Park , and the Isle of Wight AONB . First recorded in 731 as Soluente , Solent is `` an ancient pre-English name of uncertain origin and meaning '' . Geology Originally a river valley , the Solent has gradually widened and deepened over many thousands of years . The River Frome was the source of the River Solent , with three other rivers — the Rivers Avon , Itchen and Test — being tributaries of it . Seismic sounding has shown that , when the sea level was lower , the River Solent incised its bed to a depth of at least 46 m below current Ordnance Datum . The Purbeck Ball Clay contains kaolinite and mica , showing that in the Lutetian stage of the Eocene water from a granite area , probably Dartmoor , flowed into the River Solent . Seabed survey shows that when the sea level was lower in the Ice Age the River Solent continued the line of the eastern Solent ( Spithead ) to a point roughly due east of the east end of the Isle of Wight and due south of a point about 3 km west of Selsey Bill , and then south-south-west for about 30 km , and then south for about 14 km , and then joined the main river flowing down the dry bed of the English Channel . Since the retreat of the most recent glaciation the South East of England , like the Netherlands , has been steadily slowly sinking through historic time due to forebulge sinking . A new theory – that the Solent was originally a lagoon – was reported in the Southern Daily Echo by Garry Momber from the Hampshire and Wight Trust for Maritime Archaeology . The Isle of Wight was formerly contiguous with the Isle of Purbeck in Dorset — the Needles are the last remnant of this connection . Ten thousand years ago a band of relatively resistant Chalk rock , part of the Southern England Chalk Formation , ran from the Isle of Purbeck area of south Dorset to the eastern end of Isle of Wight , parallel to the South Downs . Inland behind the Chalk were less resistant sands , clays and gravels . Through these weak soils and rocks ran many rivers , from the Dorset Frome in the west and including the Stour , Beaulieu River , Test , Itchen and Hamble , which created a large estuary flowing west to east and into the English Channel at the eastern end of the present Solent . This great estuary ran through a wooded valley and is now referred to as the Solent River . When glaciers covering the north of Britain melted at the end of the last ice age , two things happened to create the Solent . Firstly , a great amount of flood water ran into the Solent River and its tributaries , carving the estuary deeper . Secondly , post-glacial rebound after the removal of the weight of ice over Scotland caused the island of Great Britain to tilt about an east-west axis , because isostatic rebound in Scotland and Scandinavia is pulling mantle rock out from under the Netherlands and south England : this is forebulge sinking . Over thousands of years , the land sank in the south ( a process still continuing ) to submerge many valleys creating today 's characteristic rias , such as Southampton Water and Poole Harbour , as well as submerging the Solent . The estuary of the Solent River was gradually flooded , and eventually the Isle of Wight became separated from the mainland as the chalk ridge between The Needles on the island and Old Harry Rocks on the mainland was eroded . This is thought to have happened about 7,500 years ago . The process of coastal change is still continuing , with the soft cliffs on some parts of the Solent , such as Fort Victoria , constantly eroding , whilst other parts , such as Ryde Sands , are accreting . The Solent is a comparatively shallow stretch of tidal water . It has an unusual double tide that is both favourable and hazardous to maritime activities with its strong tidal movements and quickly changing sea states . Coupled with the above , the Solent is renowned for its large volume of vessel usage , thus resulting in one of the highest density of declared lifeboat stations in the world . This includes six RNLI ( e.g . Calshot and Cowes ) and five independently run stations ( e.g . Hamble Lifeboat and Gosport and Fareham Inshore Rescue Service ) . History Remains of human habitation have been found from the prehistoric , Roman and Saxon eras , showing that humans retreated towards progressively higher ground over these periods . Offshore from Bouldnor , Isle of Wight , divers have found at 11 m depth the submerged remains of a wooden building that was built there on land around 6000 BC when the sea level was lower and the land was higher . There is an early Norman period report that much land on the south of Hayling Island was lost to sea flood . South of Hayling Island in the Solent is a deposit of stones , which scuba divers found to be the remains of a stone building , probably a church . There is an old report that this church was formerly in the middle of Hayling Island . If similar amounts of land have been lost on other parts of the Solent shore , the Solent was likely much narrower in Roman times , and it is possible to believe Diodorus Siculus 's report that in his time men could wade to the Isle of Wight at low tide . Similarly , it is known that Selsey was once a port town , with Selsey Abbey and a cathedra recorded until 1075 , when the see of the Diocese of Sussex was moved inland to Chichester . In the early 16th century Henry VIII of England built an extensive set of coastal defences at each end of the Solent , part of his Device Forts , effectively controlling access to east and west . In 1545 , a naval battle was fought in the Solent between English and French naval forces . The battle was inconclusive with no significant losses other than Henry VIII 's flagship , the Mary Rose , which foundered and sank while making a sharp turn . From a total crew of over 400 , fewer than 35 survived the sinking . The remains of the Mary Rose were discovered at the bottom of the Solent by a salvage project in 1971 and were successfully salvaged in 1982 . In 1685 King James II narrowly escaped shipwreck while sailing in the Solent . Musician Henry Purcell wrote `` They that go down to the sea in ships '' to be sung by the extraordinary voice of John Gostling in commemoration of this event . More forts were built on land and at sea in the 19th century . These were generally known as Palmerston Forts . The Solent was one of two sites for the sailing events at the 1908 Summer Olympics . The Solent became the departure area of the ill-fated ocean liner , Titanic , in April 1912 . A bank in the centre of the Solent , Bramble Bank , is exposed at low water at spring tide . This , combined with the unique tidal patterns in the area , makes navigation challenging . There is an annual cricket match on Bramble Bank during the lowest tide of the year , but games are often cut short by rising tide . According to the BBC , the half mile tidal range at Ryde gives a major advantage to hovercraft which can travel right up a beach and the Solent is the only place in Western Europe where there is a regular passenger service . It celebrated 50 years of operation in 2015 .

qw_8009--Solent.txt

"In the United Kingdom, what is ""The Solent""?"

The Moonstone ( 1868 ) by Wilkie Collins is a 19th-century British epistolary novel , generally considered the first detective novel in the English language . The story was originally serialised in Charles Dickens ' magazine All the Year Round . The Moonstone and The Woman in White are widely considered Wilkie Collins ' best novels . Besides creating many of the ground rules of the detective novel , The Moonstone also reflected Collins ' enlightened social attitudes in his treatment of the servants in the novel . Collins adapted The Moonstone for the stage in 1877 , but the production was performed for only two months . Etymology The Moonstone of the title is a diamond ( not to be confused with the semi-precious moonstone gem ) . It gained its name from its association with the Hindu god of the moon , Chandra . Originally set in the forehead of a sacred statue of the god at Somnath , and later at Benares , it was said to be protected by hereditary guardians on the orders of Vishnu , and to wax and wane in brilliance along with the light of the moon . Plot outline Rachel Verinder , a young English woman , inherits a large Indian diamond on her eighteenth birthday . It is a legacy from her uncle , a corrupt British army officer who served in India . The diamond is of great religious significance as well as being extremely valuable , and three Hindu priests have dedicated their lives to recovering it . The story incorporates elements of the legendary origins of the Hope Diamond ( or perhaps the Orloff Diamond ) . Rachel 's eighteenth birthday is celebrated with a large party , whose guests include her cousin Franklin Blake . She wears the Moonstone on her dress that evening for all to see , including some Indian jugglers who have called at the house . Later that night , the diamond is stolen from Rachel 's bedroom , and a period of turmoil , unhappiness , misunderstandings and ill-luck ensues . Told by a series of narratives from some of the main characters , the complex plot traces the subsequent efforts to explain the theft , identify the thief , trace the stone and recover it . Plot summary Colonel Herncastle , an unpleasant former soldier , brings the Moonstone back with him from India where he acquired it by theft and murder during the Siege of Seringapatam . Angry at his family , who shun him , he leaves it in his will as a birthday gift to his niece Rachel , thus exposing her to attack by the stone 's hereditary guardians , who , legend says , will stop at nothing to retrieve it . Rachel wears the stone to her birthday party , but that night it disappears from her room . Suspicion falls on three Indian jugglers who have been near the house ; on Rosanna Spearman , a maidservant who begins to act oddly and who then drowns herself in a local quicksand ; and on Rachel herself , who also behaves suspiciously and is suddenly furious with Franklin Blake , with whom she has previously appeared to be enamored , when he directs attempts to find it . Despite the efforts of Sergeant Cuff , a renowned detective , the house party ends with the mystery unsolved , and the protagonists disperse . During the ensuing year there are hints that the diamond was removed from the house and may be in a London bank vault , having been pledged as surety to a moneylender . The Indian jugglers are still nearby , watching and waiting . Rachel 's grief and isolation increase , especially after her mother dies , and she first accepts and then rejects a marriage proposal from her cousin Godfrey Ablewhite , a philanthropist who was also present at the birthday dinner and whose father owns the bank near Rachel 's old family home . Finally Franklin Blake returns from traveling abroad and determines to solve the mystery . He first discovers that Rosanna Spearman 's behavior was due to her having fallen in love with himself . She found evidence ( a paint smear on his nightclothes ) that convinced her that he was the thief and concealed it to save him , confusing the trail of evidence and throwing suspicion on herself . In despair at her inability to make him acknowledge her despite all she had done for him , she committed suicide , leaving behind the smeared gown and a letter he did not receive at the time because of his hasty departure abroad . Now believing that Rachel suspects him of the theft on Rosanna 's evidence , Franklin engineers a meeting and asks her . To his astonishment she tells him she actually saw him steal the diamond and has been protecting his reputation at the cost of her own even though she believes him to be a thief and a hypocrite . With hope of redeeming himself he returns to Yorkshire to the scene of crime and is befriended by Mr. Candy 's assistant , Mr. Ezra Jennings . They join together to continue the investigations and learn that Franklin was secretly given laudanum during the night of the party ( by the doctor , Mr. Candy , who wanted revenge on Franklin for criticizing medicine ) ; it appears that this , in addition to his anxiety about Rachel and the diamond and other nervous irritations , caused him to take the diamond in a narcotic trance , to move it to a safe place . A re-enactment of the evening 's events confirms this , but how the stone ended up in a London bank remains a mystery solved only a year after the birthday party when the stone is redeemed . Franklin and his allies trace the claimant to a seedy waterside inn , only to discover that the Indians have got there first : the claimant is dead and the stone is gone . Under the dead man 's disguise is none other than Godfrey Ablewhite , who is found to have embezzled the contents of a trust fund in his care and to have been facing exposure soon after the birthday party . The mystery of what Blake did while in his drugged state is solved : he encountered Ablewhite in the passageway outside Rachel 's room and gave the Moonstone to him to be put back in his father 's bank , from which it had been withdrawn on the morning of the party to be given to Rachel . Seeing his salvation , Ablewhite pocketed the stone instead , and pledged it as surety for a loan to save himself temporarily from insolvency . When he was murdered , he was on his way to Amsterdam to have the stone cut ; it would then have been sold to replenish the plundered trust fund before the beneficiary inherited . The mystery is solved , Rachel and Franklin marry , and in an epilogue from Mr. Murthwaite , a noted adventurer , the reader learns of the restoration of the Moonstone to the place where it should be , in the forehead of the idol in India . Characters * Rachel Verinder – the heroine of the story , a young heiress ; on her eighteenth birthday she inherits the Moonstone * Lady Verinder – her mother , a wealthy widow , devoted to her daughter * Colonel Herncastle – Lady Verinder 's brother , suspected of foul deeds in India ; gained the Moonstone by unlawful means * Gabriel Betteredge – a venerable man , the Verinders ' head servant , first narrator * Penelope Betteredge – his daughter , also a servant in the household * Rosanna Spearman – second housemaid , once in a penitentiary for theft , suspected of the theft * Drusilla Clack – a poor cousin of Rachel Verinder , an unpleasant hypocritical Christian evangelist and meddler , second narrator * Franklin Blake – an adventurer , also cousin and suitor of Rachel * Godfrey Ablewhite – a philanthropist , another cousin , and suitor , of Rachel * Mr. Bruff – a family solicitor , third narrator * Sergeant Cuff – a famous detective with a penchant for roses * Dr. Candy – the family physician , loses the ability to speak coherently after recovering from a fever * Ezra Jennings – Dr. Candy 's unpopular and odd-looking assistant , suffers from an incurable illness and uses opium to control the pain , fourth narrator * Mr. Murthwaite – a noted adventurer who has travelled frequently in India ; he provides the epilogue to the story * The Indian jugglers – three disguised Hindu Brahmins who are determined to recover the diamond . Literary significance The book is regarded by some as the precursor of the modern mystery novel and suspense novels . T. S. Eliot called it `` the first , the longest , and the best of modern English detective novels in a genre invented by Collins and not by Poe '' , and by Dorothy L. Sayers as `` probably the very finest detective story ever written '' . In `` The Victorian Age in Literature '' G. K. Chesterton calls it `` Probably the best detective tale in the world . '' It was published in 1868 , after Poe 's mysteries `` The Murders in the Rue Morgue '' ( 1841 ) , which introduced the famous locked-room paradigm ; `` The Mystery of Marie Rogêt '' ( 1842 ) ; and `` The Purloined Letter '' ( 1845 ) . The plot also shows some parallels with an earlier murder mystery story by the English novelist Sarah Burney , The Hermitage ( 1839 ) : the return of a childhood companion , the sexual symbolism of defloration implied in the crime , and almost catatonic reactions of the heroine to it , for instance ; but The Moonstone introduces in novel form , as opposed to Poe 's short story form , a number of elements that were to become classic attributes of the twentieth-century detective story : * English country house robbery * An `` inside job '' * red herrings * A celebrated , skilled , professional investigator * Bungling local constabulary * Detective enquiries * Large number of false suspects * The `` least likely suspect '' * A rudimentary `` locked room '' mystery * A reconstruction of the crime * A final twist in the plot Franklin Blake , the gifted amateur , is an early example of the gentleman detective . The highly competent Sergeant Cuff , the London policeman called in from Scotland Yard ( whom Collins based on the real-life Inspector Jonathan Whicher who solved the Constance Kent murder ) , is not a member of the gentry and is unable to break Rachel Verinder 's reticence about what Cuff knows to be an inside job . Due to the portrayal of Cuff , The Moonstone has also been described as perhaps the earliest police procedural . The social difference between Collins ' two detectives is nicely shown by their relationships with the Verinder family : Sergeant Cuff befriends Gabriel Betteredge , Lady Verinder 's steward ( chief servant ) , whereas Franklin Blake eventually marries Rachel , her daughter . The Moonstone represents Collins 's only complete reprisal of the popular `` multi-narration '' method that he had previously utilised to great effect in The Woman in White . The technique again works to Collins 's credit : the sections by Gabriel Betteredge ( steward to the Verinder household ) and Miss Clack ( a poor relative and religious crank ) offer both humour and pathos through their contrast with the testimony of other narrators , at the same time as constructing and advancing the novel 's plot . One of the features that made The Moonstone such a success was the sensationalist depiction of opium addiction . Unbeknownst to his readership , Collins was writing from personal experience . In his later years , Collins grew severely addicted to laudanum and as a result suffered from paranoid delusions , the most notable being his conviction that he was constantly accompanied by a doppelganger he dubbed `` Ghost Wilkie '' . It was Collins 's last great success , coming at the end of an extraordinarily productive period which saw four successive novels become best-sellers . After The Moonstone he wrote novels containing more overt social commentary , which did not achieve the same audience . A heavily fictionalised account of Collins ' life while writing The Moonstone forms much of the plot of Dan Simmons ' 2009 novel , Drood . Although Moonstone is often seen as the first detective novel , Edgar Allan Poe 's short story mysteries , The Murders in the Rue Morgue ( 1841 ) and The Purloined Letter ( 1845 ) were published before The Moonstone . Also a number of critics suggest that Charles Felix 's ( pseudonym for Charles Warren Adams ) lesser known Notting Hill Mystery ( 1862–63 ) preceded The Moonstone by a number of years and first used techniques that would come to define the genre.Paul Collins . [ http : //www.nytimes.com/2011/01/09/books/review/Collins-t.html `` The Case of the First Mystery Novelist '' ] , in-print as `` Before Hercule or Sherlock , There Was Ralph '' , New York Times Book Review , 7 January 2011Julian Symons ( 1972 ) , Bloody Murder : From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel . pg.51 : `` ... there is no doubt that the first detective novel , preceding Collins and Gaboriau , was The Notting Hill Mystery . Film , radio , and television adaptations In 1934 , the book was made into a critically acclaimed American film , The Moonstone by Monogram Pictures Corporation . Adapted to the screen by Adele S. Buffington , the film was directed by Reginald Barker and starred David Manners , Charles Irwin , and Phyllis Barry . On 11 March 1945 , `` The Moonstone '' was episode number 67 of the radio series , The Weird Circle . On 16 November and 23 November 1953 , `` The Moonstone '' , starring Peter Lawford , was broadcast in a 2-part episode of the radio drama `` Suspense '' . In 1959 , the BBC adapted the novel into a television serial starring James Hayter . In 1972 it was remade in the United Kingdom , featuring Robin Ellis , and aired in the United States on PBS 's Masterpiece Theatre . In 1996 , The Moonstone was made in the United Kingdom , for television by the BBC and Carlton Television in partnership with US station WGBH of Boston , Massachusetts , airing again on Masterpiece Theatre . It starred Greg Wise as Franklin Blake and Keeley Hawes as Rachel Verinder . In 1974 a German version was shown . In 2011 BBC Radio 4 serialised the story in four hour-long episodes in the Classic Serial slot . The BBC has commissioned a new television adaptation of The Moonstone , that was set to be broadcast over Christmas 2012 , but as of March 2013 had still yet to be shown . The adaptation will comprise three episodes , each of which will be one hour in duration .

bb_7576--The_Moonstone.txt

What gemstone is The Moonstone in the classic novel of that name by Wilkie Collins?

Operation Chastise was an attack on German dams carried out on 16–17 May 1943 by Royal Air Force No . 617 Squadron , subsequently publicised as the `` Dam Busters '' , using a specially developed `` bouncing bomb '' invented and developed by Sir Barnes Wallis . The Möhne and Edersee Dams were breached , causing catastrophic flooding of the Ruhr valley and of villages in the Eder valley ; the Sorpe dam sustained only minor damage . Two hydroelectric power stations were destroyed and several more were damaged . Factories and mines were also either damaged or destroyed . An estimated 1,600 civilians drowned : about 600 Germans and 1,000 mainly Soviet forced-labourers . The damage was mitigated by rapid repairs by the Germans , with production returning to normal in September . Background Prior to World War II , the British Air Ministry had identified Germany 's heavily industrialised Ruhr Valley , and especially its dams , as important strategic targets : in addition to providing hydro-electric power and pure water for steel-making , they also supplied drinking water and water for the canal transport system . The methods used to attack the dams had been carefully worked out . Calculations indicated that repeated air strikes with large bombs could be effective , but required a degree of accuracy which Bomber Command had been unable to attain in the face of enemy defences . Concept The mission grew out of a concept for a bomb designed by Barnes Wallis , Assistant Chief Designer at Vickers . Wallis had worked on the Vickers Wellesley and Vickers Wellington bombers . While working on the Vickers Windsor , he had also begun work , with support of the Admiralty , on a bomb designed initially for attacking ships , although dam destruction was soon considered . Wallis 's initial idea was to drop a 10 LT bomb from an altitude of about 40000 ft . This idea was part of the earthquake bomb concept . At that time , no bomber aircraft was capable of flying at that altitude or carrying such a heavy payload . A much smaller explosive charge would suffice , if it exploded directly against the dam wall below the surface of the water , but the major German reservoir dams were protected by heavy torpedo nets to prevent just such an approach . Wallis 's breakthrough was to overcome this obstacle . A drum-shaped bomb — essentially a specially designed , heavy depth charge — spinning backwards at over 500 rpm , and dropped at a sufficiently low altitude at the correct speed and release point , would skip for a significant distance over the surface of the water in a series of bounces before reaching the dam wall . Its residual spin would run the bomb down the side of the dam toward its underwater base . Using a hydrostatic fuse , an accurate drop would bypass the dam 's defences and then enable the bomb to explode against the dam some distance below the surface of the water . Initial testing of the concept included blowing up a plaster model dam at the Building Research Establishment , Watford in May 1942 and then the breaching of the disused Nant-y-Gro dam in Wales in July 1942 . The first full-scale trials were at Chesil Beach in January 1943 . This demonstrated that a bomb of sufficient size could be carried by an Avro Lancaster rather than waiting for a larger bomber such as the Windsor to be built . Air Vice-Marshal Francis Linnell at the Ministry of Aircraft Production thought the work was diverting Wallis from the development of the Windsor . Pressure from Linnell via the chairman of Vickers , Sir Charles Worthington Craven , caused Wallis to resign . Sir Arthur Harris , head of RAF Bomber Command from a briefing by Linnell also opposed the allocation of his bombers . Wallis had written to an influential intelligence officer , Group Captain Frederick Winterbotham . Winterbotham ensured that the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal heard of the project . Portal saw the film of the Chesil Beach trials and was convinced . Overriding Harris , Portal ordered on 26 February 1943 that thirty Lancasters were to be allocated to the mission and the target date was set for May , when water levels would be at their highest and breaches in the dams would cause the most damage . With eight weeks to go , the larger bomb , code-named 'Upkeep ' , that was needed for the mission , and the modifications to the Lancasters had yet to be designed . Assignment The operation was given to No . 5 Group RAF which formed a new squadron to undertake the dams mission . It was initially called Squadron `` X '' , as the speed of its formation outstripped the RAF process for naming squadrons . Led by 24-year-old Wing Commander Guy Gibson , a veteran of over 170 bombing and night-fighter missions , twenty-one bomber crews were selected from existing squadrons in 5 Group . These crews included RAF personnel of several different nationalities , as well as members of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) and Royal New Zealand Air Force ( RNZAF ) , who were frequently attached to RAF squadrons under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan . The squadron was based at RAF Scampton , about 5 mi north of Lincoln . The targets selected were the two key dams upstream from the Ruhr industrial area , the Möhne Dam and the Sorpe Dam , with the Eder Dam on the Eder River , which feeds into the Weser , as a secondary target . While the loss of hydroelectric power was important , the loss of water supply to industry , cities , and canals would have greater effect . Also , there was the potential for devastating flooding if the dams broke . The aircraft were modified Avro Lancaster Mk IIIs , known as B Mark III Special ( Type 464 Provisioning ) . To reduce weight , much of the internal armour was removed , as was the mid-upper machine gun turret . The size of the bomb with its unusual shape meant that the bomb-bay doors had to be removed , and the bomb itself hung , in part , below the fuselage of the aircraft . It was mounted on two crutches , and before dropping it was spun up to speed by an auxiliary motor . Preparations Bombing from an altitude of 60 ft , at an air speed of 240 mph , and at a pre-selected distance from the target called for expert crews . Intensive night-time and low-altitude flight training began . There were also technical problems to solve , the first one being to determine when the aircraft was at optimum distance from its target . Both the Möhne and Eder Dams had towers at each end . A special targeting device with two prongs , making the same angle as the two towers at the correct distance from the dam , showed when to release the bomb . ( The BBC documentary Dambusters Declassified ( 2010 ) stated that the pronged device was not used due to problems related to vibration and that other methods were employed , including a length of string tied in a loop and pulled back centrally to a fixed point in the manner of a catapult . ) The second problem was determining the aircraft 's altitude , as the barometric altimeters then in use lacked sufficient accuracy . Two spotlights were mounted , one under the aircraft 's nose and the other under the fuselage , so that at the correct height their light beams would converge on the surface of the water . The crews practised at the Eyebrook Reservoir , near Uppingham , Rutland ; Abberton Reservoir near Colchester ; Derwent Reservoir ; and Fleet Lagoon on Chesil Beach . Wallis 's bomb itself was first tested at the Elan Valley Reservoirs . The squadron took delivery of the bombs on 13 May , after the final tests on 29 April . At 1800 on 15 May , at a meeting in Whitworth 's house , Gibson and Wallis briefed four key officers : the squadron 's two flight commanders , Squadron Leader Henry Maudslay and Sqn Ldr H. M. `` Dinghy '' Young ; Gibson 's deputy for the Möhne attack , Flt Lt John V. Hopgood and ; the squadron bombing leader , Flight Lieutenant Bob Hay . The rest of the crews were told at a series of briefings the following day , which began with a briefing of pilots , navigators and bomb-aimers at about midday . Organisation The squadron was divided into three formations . Formation No . 1 was composed of nine aircraft in three groups ( listed by pilot ) : Gibson , Hopgood and Flt Lt H. B . `` Micky '' Martin ( an Australian serving in the RAF ) ; Young , Flt Lt David Maltby and Flt Lt Dave Shannon ( RAAF ) , and ; Maudslay , Flt Lt Bill Astell and Flying Officer Les Knight ( RAAF ) . Its mission was to attack the Möhne ; any aircraft with bombs remaining would then attack the Eder . Formation No . 2 , numbering five aircraft , piloted by Flt Lt Joe McCarthy ( an American serving in the RCAF ) , Pilot Officer Vernon Byers , Flt Lt Bob Barlow ( RAAF ) , P/O Geoff Rice and Flt Lt Les Munro ( RNZAF ) , was to attack the Sorpe . Formation No . 3 was a mobile reserve consisting of aircraft piloted by Flight Sergeant Cyril Anderson , Flt Sgt Bill Townsend , Flt Sgt Ken Brown ( RCAF ) , P/O Warner Ottley and P/O Lewis Burpee ( RCAF ) , taking off two hours later on 17 May , either to bomb the main dams or to attack three smaller secondary target dams : the Lister , the Ennepe and the Diemel . Two crews were unable to make the mission owing to illness . The Operations Room for the mission was at 5 Group Headquarters in St Vincents Hall , Grantham , Lincolnshire . The mission codes ( transmitted in morse ) were : Goner , meaning `` bomb dropped '' ; Nigger , meaning that the Möhne was breached and ; Dinghy meaning that the Eder was breached . `` Nigger '' was the name of Gibson 's dog , a black labrador retriever that had been run over and killed on the morning of the attack . `` Dinghy '' was Young 's nickname , a reference to the fact that he had twice survived crash landings at sea where he and his crew were rescued from the aircraft 's inflatable rubber dinghy . The attacks Outbound The aircraft used two routes , carefully avoiding known concentrations of flak , and were timed to cross the enemy coast simultaneously . The first aircraft , those of Formation No . 2 and heading for the longer , northern route , took off at 21:28 on 16 May . McCarthy 's bomber developed a coolant leak and he took off in the reserve aircraft 34 minutes late . Formation No . 1 took off in groups of three at 10-minute intervals beginning at 21:39 . The reserve formation did not begin taking off until 00:09 on 17 May . Formation No . 1 entered continental Europe between Walcheren and Schouwen , flew over the Netherlands , skirted the airbases at Gilze-Rijen and Eindhoven , curved around the Ruhr defences , and turned north to avoid Hamm before turning south to head for the Möhne River . Formation No . 2 flew further north , cutting over Vlieland and crossing the IJsselmeer before joining the first route near Wesel and then flying south beyond the Möhne to the Sorpe River . The bombers flew low , at about 100 ft altitude , to avoid radar detection . Flight Sergeant George Chalmers , radio operator on `` O for Orange '' , looked out through the astrodome and was astonished to see that his pilot was flying towards the target along a forest 's firebreak , below treetop level . First casualties The first casualties were suffered soon after reaching the Dutch coast . Formation No . 2 did not fare well : Munro 's aircraft lost its radio to flak and turned back over the IJsselmeer , while Rice flew too low and struck the sea , losing his bomb in the water ; he recovered and returned to base . Barlow and Byers crossed the coast around the island of Texel . Byers was shot down by flak shortly afterwards , crashing into the Waddenzee . Barlow 's aircraft hit electricity pylons and crashed 5 km east of Rees , near Haldern . The bomb was thrown clear of the crash and was examined intact by Heinz Schweizer . Only the delayed bomber piloted by McCarthy survived to cross the Netherlands . Formation No . 1 lost Astell 's bomber near the German hamlet of Marbeck when he flew his Lancaster into high voltage electrical cables and crashed into a field . Attack on the Möhne Dam Formation No . 1 arrived over the Möhne lake and Gibson 's aircraft ( G for George ) made the first run , followed by Hopgood ( M for Mother ) . Hopgood 's aircraft was hit by flak as it made its low-level run and was caught in the blast of its own bomb , crashing shortly afterwards when a wing disintegrated . Three crew members successfully abandoned the aircraft , but only two survived . Subsequently , Gibson flew his aircraft across the dam to draw the flak away from Martin 's run . Martin ( P for Popsie ) bombed third ; his aircraft was damaged , but made a successful attack . Next , Young ( A for Apple ) made a successful run and after him Maltby ( J for Johnny ) when , finally , the dam was breached . Gibson , with Young accompanying , led Shannon , Maudslay and Knight to the Eder . In the attack on the Möhne , one of the bombers made a running commentary on the attack , relayed to base by an airborne TR . 1142 ( Transmitter Receiver ) manufactured by GEC , the distance being too great for direct VHF transmission . Attack on the Eder Dam The Eder Valley was covered by heavy fog but not defended . The tricky topography of the surrounding hills made the approach difficult and the first aircraft , Shannon 's , made six runs before taking a break . Maudslay ( Z for Zebra ) then attempted a run but the bomb struck the top of the dam and the aircraft was severely damaged in the blast . Shannon made another run and successfully dropped his bomb . The final bomb of the formation , from Knight 's aircraft ( N for Nan ) , breached the dam . Attacks on the Sorpe and Ennepe Dams The Sorpe dam was the one least likely to be breached . It was a huge earthen dam , unlike the two concrete-and-steel gravity dams that were attacked successfully . Due to various problems , only three Lancasters reached the Sorpe Dam : Joe McCarthy ( in `` T for Tommy '' , a delayed aircraft from the second wave ) and later Brown ( `` F for Freddie '' ) and Anderson ( `` Y for York '' ) , both from the third formation . This attack differed from the previous ones in two ways : the `` Upkeep '' bomb was not spun , and due to the topography of the valley the approach was made along the length of the dam , not at right angles over the reservoir . McCarthy 's plane was on its own when it arrived over the Sorpe Dam at 00:15 hours , and realised the approach was even more difficult than expected : the flight path led over a church steeple in the village of Langscheid , located on the hillcrest overlooking the dam . With only seconds to go before the bomber had to pull up , to avoid hitting the hillside at the other end of the dam , the bomb aimer George Johnson had no time to correct the bomb 's height and heading . McCarthy made nine attempted bombing runs before Johnson was satisfied . The 'Upkeep ' bomb was dropped on the tenth run . The bomb exploded but when he turned his Lancaster to assess the damage it turned out that only a section of the crest of the dam had been blown off ; the main body of the dam remained . Three of the reserve aircraft had been directed to the Sorpe Dam . Burpee ( `` S for Sugar '' ) never arrived , and it was later determined that the plane had been shot down while skirting the Gilze-Rijen airfield . Brown ( `` F for Freddy '' ) reached the Sorpe Dam : in the increasingly dense fog , the bomb was dropped hastily and also failed to breach the dam . Anderson ( `` Y for York '' ) arrived last but by then the fog had become too dense for him even to attempt a bombing run . The remaining two bombers were then sent to secondary targets , with Ottley ( `` C for Charlie '' ) being shot down en route to the Lister Dam . Townsend ( `` O for Orange '' ) eventually dropped his bomb at the Ennepe Dam without harming it . Possible attack on Bever Dam There is some evidence that Townsend might have attacked the Bever Dam by mistake rather than the Ennepe Dam . Townsend reported difficulty in finding his dam , and in his post-raid report he complained that the map of the Ennepe Dam was incorrect . The Bever Dam is located only about 5 mi southwest of the Ennepe Dam , and its reservoir has a similar topography . The Bever Dam is located on the southern edge of the reservoir while the Ennepe is located on the northern edge of its reservoir . With the foggy mists filling the valleys during the early morning hours , it would be understandable for him to have mistaken the two lakes . The War Diary of the German Naval Staff reported that the Bever Dam had been attacked at nearly the same time that the Sorpe Dam was . In addition , the Wupperverband authority responsible for the Bever Dam is said to have recovered the remains of a `` mine '' . Paul Keiser , a 19-year-old soldier on leave at his home close to the Bever Dam , also reported a bomber making several approaches to the dam and then dropping a bomb that caused a large explosion and a great pillar of flame . John Sweetman , author of the book The Dambusters ' Raid , suggests Townsend 's report of the moon 's reflecting on the mist and water is consistent with an attack that was heading to the Bever Dam rather than to the Ennepe Dam , given the moon 's azimuth and altitude during the bombing attacks . Sweetman also points out that the Ennepe-Wasserverband authority was adamant that only a single bomb was dropped near the Ennepe Dam during the entire war , and that this bomb fell into the woods by the side of the dam , not in the water , as in Townsend 's report . Finally , members of Townsend 's crew independently reported seeing a manor house and attacking an earthen dam , which is consistent with the Bever Dam rather than the Ennepe Dam . The main evidence supporting the hypothesis of an attack of the Ennepe Dam is Townsend 's post-flight report that he attacked the Ennepe Dam on a heading of 355 degrees magnetic . Assuming that the heading was incorrect , all other evidence points toward an attack on the Bever Dam . Return flight On the way back , flying again at treetop level , two more Lancasters were lost . The damaged aircraft of Maudslay was struck by flak near Netterden and Young 's `` A for Apple '' was hit by flak north of IJmuiden and crashed into the North Sea just off the coast of the Netherlands . On the return flight over the Dutch coast , some German flak aimed at the aircraft was aimed so low that shells were seen to bounce off the sea . Eleven bombers began landing at Scampton at 03:11 hours , with Gibson returning at 04:15 . The last of the survivors , Townsend 's bomber , landed at 06:15 . It was the last to land because one of its engines had been shut down after passing the Dutch coast . Air Chief Marshal Harris was among those who came out to greet the last crew to land . List of aircraft involved Bomb damage assessment Bomber Command wanted a complete bomb damage assessment as soon as possible , therefore the CO of 542 Squadron was informed of the estimated time of the attacks . One of the squadron 's photo-reconnaissance Spitfires , piloted by Flying Officer Frank `` Jerry '' Fray , took off from RAF Benson at 07:30 hours and arrived over the Ruhr River immediately after first light . Photos were taken of the breached dams and the huge floods . The pilot later described the experience : After the raid Three aircrew from Hopgood 's aircraft parachuted but one later died from wounds and the others were captured . One of the crew in Ottley 's aircraft survived its crash . In total , therefore , 53 of the 133 aircrew who participated in the attack were killed , a casualty rate of almost 40 percent . Thirteen of those killed were members of the Royal Canadian Air Force , while two belonged to the Royal Australian Air Force . Of the survivors , 34 were decorated at Buckingham Palace on 22 June , with Gibson awarded the Victoria Cross . There were five Distinguished Service Orders , 10 Distinguished Flying Crosses and four bars , two Conspicuous Gallantry Medals , and eleven Distinguished Flying Medals and one bar . Initial German casualty estimates from the floods when the dams broke were 1,294 killed , which included 749 French , Belgian , Dutch and Ukrainian prisoners of war and labourers . Later estimates put the death toll in the Möhne Valley at about 1,600 , including people who drowned in the flood wave downstream from the dam . After a public relations tour of America and time spent working in the Air Ministry in London writing the book which was later published as Enemy Coast Ahead , Gibson returned to operations and was killed on a Mosquito operation in 1944 . Following the Dams Raid 617 Squadron was kept together as a specialist unit . The squadron badge was chosen and a motto `` Après moi le déluge '' ( After me the flood ) . According to Brickhill there was some controversy over the motto , with the original version Après nous le déluge ( After us the flood ) being rejected by the heralds as having inappropriate provenance ( having been coined , reportedly , by Madame de Pompadour ) and après moi le déluge having been used by Louis XV in an `` irresponsible '' context . The motto having been chosen by the King , the latter was finally deemed acceptable . The squadron went on to drop Wallis 's massive Tallboy and Grand Slam bombs , including an attack on the German battleship , using an advanced bomb sight which enabled the bombing of small targets with far greater accuracy than was routinely obtained with conventional bomb aiming techniques . In 1977 , Article 56 of the Protocol I amendment to the Geneva Conventions , outlawed attacks on dams `` if such attack may cause the release of dangerous forces from the works or installations and consequent severe losses among the civilian population '' . Effect on the war Tactical view The two direct mine hits on the Möhnesee dam resulted in a breach around 250 feet ( 76 metres ) wide and 292 feet ( 89 metres ) deep . The destroyed dam poured around 330 million tons of water into the western Ruhr region . A torrent of water around 32.5 feet ( 10 metres ) high and travelling at around 15 mph ( 24 km/h ) swept through the valleys of the Möhne and Ruhr rivers . A few mines were flooded ; 11 small factories and 92 houses were destroyed and 114 factories and 971 houses were damaged . The floods washed away about 25 roads , railways and bridges as the flood waters spread for around 50 miles ( 80 km ) from the source . Estimates show that before 15 May 1943 water production on the Ruhr was 1 million tonnes ; this dropped to a quarter of that level after the raid . The Eder drains towards the east into the Fulda which runs into the Weser to the North Sea . The main purpose of the Edersee was then , as it is now , to act as a reservoir to keep the Weser and the Mittellandkanal navigable during the summer months . The wave from the breach was not strong enough to result in significant damage by the time it hit Kassel ( approx . 35 km downstream ) . The greatest impact on the Ruhr armaments production was the loss of hydroelectric power . Two power stations ( producing 5,100 kilowatts ) associated with the dam were destroyed and seven others were damaged . This resulted in a loss of electrical power in the factories and many households in the region for two weeks . In May 1943 coal production dropped by 400,000 tons which German sources attribute to the effects of the raid.Caselli , Irene ( 15 May 2013 ) [ http : //www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22510300 The Dambusters raid : How effective was it ? ] BBC News Magazine , Retrieved 15 May 2013 According to an article by German historian Ralf Blank , at least 1,650 people were killed : around 70 of these were in the Eder Valley , and at least 1,579 bodies were found along the Möhne and Ruhr rivers , with hundreds missing . 1,026 of the bodies found downriver of the Möhne Dam were foreign prisoners of war and forced labourers in different camps , mainly from the Soviet Union . Worst hit was the city of Neheim ( now part of Neheim-Hüsten ) at the confluence of the Möhne and Ruhr rivers , where over 800 people perished , among them at least 493 female forced labourers from the Soviet Union . ( Some non-German sources erroneously cite an earlier total of 749 for all foreigners in all camps in the Möhne and Ruhr valleys as the casualty count at a camp just below the Eder Dam . ) After the operation Barnes Wallis wrote , `` I feel a blow has been struck at Germany from which she can not recover for several years '' , but on closer inspection , Operation Chastise did not have the military effect that was at the time believed . By 27 June , full water output was restored , thanks to an emergency pumping scheme inaugurated the previous year , and the electricity grid was again producing power at full capacity . The raid proved to be costly in lives ( more than half the lives lost belonging to Allied POWs and forced-labourers ) , but was no more than a minor inconvenience to the Ruhr 's industrial output . The value of the bombing can perhaps best be seen as a very real boost to British morale . In his book Inside the Third Reich , Albert Speer acknowledged the attempt : `` That night , employing just a few bombers , the British came close to a success which would have been greater than anything they had achieved hitherto with a commitment of thousands of bombers . '' He also expressed puzzlement at the raids : the disruption of temporarily having to shift 7,000 construction workers to the Möhne and Eder repairs was offset by the failure of the Allies to follow up with additional ( conventional ) raids during the dams ' reconstruction , and that represented a major lost

tb_1234--Operation_Chastise.txt

"The No. 617 Squadron of the Royal Air Force which operated with the motto ""After me, the flood"" is known for its attacks on what type of installations during WWII?"

Portugal ( Portuguese : ) , officially the Portuguese Republic ( ) , is a country on the Iberian Peninsula , in Southwestern Europe . It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe , being bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south and by Spain to the north and east . The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 km ( 754 mi ) long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union . The republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira , both autonomous regions with their own regional governments . The territory of modern Portugal has been continuously settled , invaded and fought over since prehistoric times . The Pre-Celts , Celts , Phoenicians , Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic and the Suebi Germanic peoples . In 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors and for the following centuries Portugal would be part of Muslim Al Andalus . Portugal was born as a result of the Christian Reconquista . In 1139 , Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal , thus firmly establishing Portuguese independence , under the Portuguese House of Burgundy . In the 15th and 16th centuries , under the House of Aviz , which took power following the 1383–85 interregnum , Portugal expanded Western influence and established the first global empire , becoming one of the world 's major economic , political and military powers . During this time , Portuguese explorers pioneered maritime exploration in the Age of Discovery , notably under royal patronage of Prince Henry the Navigator and King João II , with such notable discoveries as Vasco da Gama 's sea route to India ( 1497–98 ) , Pedro Álvares Cabral 's discovery of Brazil ( 1500 ) , and Bartolomeu Dias 's reaching of the Cape of Good Hope . Portugal monopolized the spice trade during this time , under royal command of the Casa da Índia , and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia , notably under Afonso de Albuquerque , who was known as the `` Caesar of the East '' . The destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake , the country 's occupation during the Napoleonic Wars , the independence of Brazil ( 1822 ) , and the Liberal Wars ( 1828–34 ) , all left Portugal crippled from war and diminished in its world power . After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy , the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established , later being superseded by the `` Estado Novo '' right-wing authoritarian regime . Democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974 . Shortly after , independence was granted to all its colonies and East Timor , with the exception of Macau , which was handed over to China in 1999 . This marked the end of the longest-lived European colonial empire , leaving a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today . Portugal is a developed country with a high-income advanced economy and high living standards . It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world , maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government . It has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world , putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France , Spain and Italy . A founding member of NATO and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries , it is also a member of numerous other international organizations , including the United Nations , the European Union , the eurozone , and OECD . Portugal is also known for having decriminalized the usage of all common drugs in 2001 , the first country in the world to do so . However , the sale and distribution of these drugs is still illegal in Portugal . History Early history : Pre-Celts and Celts The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe . The name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale . The region was settled by Pre-Celts and Celts , giving origin to peoples like the Gallaeci , Lusitanians , Celtici and Cynetes , visited by Phoenicians and Carthaginians , incorporated in the Roman Republic dominions as Lusitania and part of Gallaecia , after 45 BC until 298 AD , settled again by Suebi , Buri , and Visigoths , and conquered by Moors . Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements , which were found in Alenquer ( old Germanic Alankerk , from Alan+kerk ; meaning temple of the Alans ) , Coimbra and Lisbon . The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens , who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula . These were subsistence societies that , although they did not establish prosperous settlements , did establish organized societies . Neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals , the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing . It is believed by some scholars that early in the first millennium BC , several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and inter-married with the local populations , forming different ethnic groups , with many tribes . Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal , the Lusitanians of central Portugal , the Celtici of Alentejo , and the Cynetes or Conii of the Algarve . Among the lesser tribes or sub-divisions were the Bracari , Coelerni , Equaesi , Grovii , Interamici , Leuni , Luanqui , Limici , Narbasi , Nemetati , Paesuri , Quaquerni , Seurbi , Tamagani , Tapoli , Turduli , Turduli Veteres , Turdulorum Oppida , Turodi , and Zoelae . A few small , semi-permanent , commercial coastal settlements ( such as Tavira ) were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians . Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC . During the last days of Julius Caesar , almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic . The Carthaginians , Rome 's adversary in the Punic Wars , were expelled from their coastal colonies . The Roman conquest of what is now part of modern-day Portugal took almost two hundred years and took many lives of young soldiers and the lives of those who were sentenced to a certain death in the slavery mines when not sold as slaves to other parts of the empire . It suffered a severe setback in 150 BC , when a rebellion began in the north . The Lusitanians and other native tribes , under the leadership of Viriathus , wrested control of all of western Iberia . Rome sent numerous legions and its best generals to Lusitania to quell the rebellion , but to no avail—the Lusitanians kept conquering territory . The Roman leaders decided to change their strategy . They bribed Viriathus 's allies to kill him . In 139 BC , Viriathus was assassinated , and Tautalus became leader . Rome installed a colonial regime . The complete Romanization of Lusitania only took place in the Visigothic era . In 27 BC , Lusitania gained the status of Roman province . Later , a northern province of Lusitania was formed , known as Gallaecia , with capital in Bracara Augusta , today 's Braga . There are still many ruins of castros ( hill forts ) all over modern Portugal and remains of Castro culture . Numerous Roman sites are scattered around present-day Portugal , some urban remains are quite large , like Conímbriga and Mirobriga . The former , beyond being one of the largest Roman settlements in Portugal , is also classified as a National Monument . Conímbriga lies 16 km from Coimbra which by its turn was the ancient Aeminium ) . The site also has a museum that displays objects found by archaeologists during their excavations . Several works of engineering , such as baths , temples , bridges , roads , circus , theatres and layman 's homes are preserved throughout the country . Coins , some of which coined in Lusitanian land , as well as numerous pieces of ceramics were also found . Contemporary historians include Paulus Orosius ( c. 375–418 ) and Hydatius ( c. 400–469 ) , bishop of Aquae Flaviae , who reported on the final years of the Roman rule and arrival of the Germanic tribes . Germanic kingdoms : Suebi and Visigoths In the early 5th century , Germanic tribes , namely the Suebi and the Vandals ( Silingi and Hasdingi ) together with their allies , the Sarmatians and Alans invaded the Iberian Peninsula where they would form their kingdom . The Kingdom of the Suebi was the Germanic post-Roman kingdom , established in the former Roman provinces of Gallaecia-Lusitania . About 410 and during the 6th century it became a formally declared kingdom , where king Hermeric made a peace treaty with the Gallaecians before passing his domains to Rechila , his son . In 448 Réchila died , leaving the state in expansion to Rechiar . In the year 500 , the Visigothic Kingdom was installed in Iberia , centred on Toledo . The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suebi and its capital city Bracara ( modern day Portugal 's Braga ) in 584–585 , following the consecutive defeats of the two last Suebi kings Audeca and Malaric . The former Kingdom of the Suebi then became the sixth province of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania . For the next 300 years and by the year 700 , the entire Iberian Peninsula was ruled by the Visigoths . This period lasted until 711 , when King Roderic ( Rodrigo ) was killed while opposing a Moorish invasion from the south . From the various Germanic groups who settled in Western Iberia , the Suebi left the strongest lasting cultural legacy in what is today Portugal , Galicia and Asturias . Islamic Period and the Reconquista Today 's modern day continental Portugal , along with most of modern Spain , was part of the Umayyad Caliphate . This occupation lasted one century in the North ( effectively for some decades and later only as a mainly military and administrative claimed region ) to approximately four and five centuries in most of the Center and in the South , respectively ( 711 AD - 1249 AD ) , following the Umayyad Caliphate conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD . After defeating the Visigoths in only a few months , the Umayyad Caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula . Beginning in 711 , the land that is now Portugal became part of the vast Umayyad Caliphate 's empire of Damascus , which stretched from the Indus river in the Indian sub-continent ( now Pakistan ) up to the South of France , until its collapse in 750 . That year the west of the empire gained its independence under Abd-ar-Rahman I with the establishment of the Emirate of Córdoba . After almost two centuries , the Emirate became the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929 , until its dissolution a century later in 1031 into no less than 23 small kingdoms , called Taifa kingdoms . The governors of the taifas each proclaimed themselves Emir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with the Christian kingdoms of the north . Most of Portugal fell into the hands of the Taifa of Badajoz of the Aftasid Dynasty , and after a short spell of an ephemeral Taifa of Lisbon in 1022 , fell under the dominion of the Taifa of Seville of the Abbadids poets . The Taifa period ended with the conquest of the Almoravids who came from Morocco in 1086 winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Sagrajas , followed a century later in 1147 , after the second period of Taifa , by the Almohads , also from Marrakesh . Al-Andalus was divided into different districts called Kura . Gharb Al-Andalus at its largest was constituted of ten kuras , each with a distinct capital and governor . The main cities of the period in Portugal were Beja , Silves , Alcácer do Sal , Santarém and Lisbon . The Muslim population of the region consisted mainly of native Iberian converts to Islam ( the so-called Muwallad or Muladi ) and berbers . The Arabs were principally noblemen from Oman ; and though few in numbers , they constituted the elite of the population . The Berbers were originally from the Atlas mountains and Rif mountains of North Africa and were essentially nomads . The territory which is now Portugal was part of various Muslim states , including the Emirate of Cordoba , the Taifa of Badajoz and the Almohade and Almoravid empires . From County to Kingdom An Asturian Visigothic noble named Pelagius of Asturias in 718 AD was elected leader by many of the ousted Visigoth nobles . Pelagius called for the remnant of the Christian Visigothic armies to rebel against the Moors and regroup in the unconquered northern Asturian highlands , better known today as the Cantabrian Mountains , in what is today the small mountain region in North-western Spain , adjacent to the Bay of Biscay . Pelagius ' plan was to use the Cantabrian mountains as a place of refuge and protection from the invading Moors . He then aimed to regroup the Iberian Peninsula 's Christian armies and use the Cantabrian mountains as a springboard from which to regain their lands . In the process , after defeating the Moors in the Battle of Covadonga in 722 AD , Pelagius was proclaimed king , thus founding the Christian Kingdom of Asturias and starting the war of Christian reconquest known in Portuguese as the Reconquista Cristã . At the end of the 9th century , the region of Portugal , between the rivers Minho and Douro , was freed or reconquered from the Moors by Vimara Peres on the orders of King Alfonso III of Asturias . Finding that the region had previously had two major cities—Portus Cale in the coast and Braga in the interior , with many towns that were now deserted—he decided to repopulate and rebuild them with Portuguese and Galician refugees and other Christians . Vimara Peres organized the region he freed from the Moors , and elevated it to the status of County , naming it the County of Portugal after the region 's major port city—Portus Cale or modern Porto . One of the first cities Vimara Peres founded at this time is Vimaranes , known today as Guimarães - the `` birthplace of the Portuguese nation '' or the `` cradle city '' ( Cidade Berço in Portuguese ) . After annexing the County of Portugal into one of the several counties that made up the Kingdom of Asturias , King Alfonso III of Asturias knighted Vimara Peres , in 868 AD , as the First Count of Portus Cale ( Portugal ) . The region became known as Portucale , Portugale , and simultaneously Portugália — the County of Portugal . Later the Kingdom of Asturias was divided into a number of Christian Kingdoms in Northern Spain due to dynastic divisions of inheritance among the king 's offspring . With the forced abdication of Alfonso III `` the Great '' of Asturias by his sons in 910 , the Kingdom of Asturias split into three separate kingdoms of León , Galicia and Asturias . The three kingdoms were eventually reunited in 924 ( León and Galicia in 914 , Asturias later ) under the crown of León . During the century of internecine struggles for dominance among the Northern Christians kingdoms , the County of Portugal formed the southern portion of the Kingdom of Galicia . At times the Kingdom of Galicia existed independently for short periods , but usually formed an important part of the Kingdom of Leon . Throughout this period , the people of County of Portugal as Galicians found themselves struggling to maintain the autonomy of Galicia with its distinct language and culture ( Galician-Portuguese ) from the Leonese culture , whenever the status of the Kingdom of Galicia changed in relation to the Kingdom of Leon . As a result of political division , Galician-Portuguese lost its unity when the County of Portugal separated from the Kingdom of Galicia ( a dependent kingdom of Leon ) to establish the Kingdom of Portugal . In 1093 , Alfonso VI of León and Castile bestowed the county to Henry of Burgundy and married him to his daughter , Teresa of León , for his role in reconquering the land from Moors . Henry based his newly formed county in Bracara Augusta ( modern Braga ) , capital city of the ancient Roman province , and also previous capital of several kingdoms over the first millennia . On 24 June 1128 , the Battle of São Mamede occurred near Guimarães . Afonso Henriques , Count of Portugal , defeated his mother Countess Teresa and her lover Fernão Peres de Trava , thereby establishing himself as sole leader . Afonso then turned his arms against the Moors in the south . His campaigns were successful and , on 25 July 1139 , he obtained an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Ourique , and straight after was unanimously proclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers . This is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal , as a fief of the Kingdom of León , was transformed into the independent Kingdom of Portugal Afonso then established the first of the Portuguese Cortes at Lamego , where he was crowned by the Archbishop of Braga , though the validity of the Cortes of Lamego has been disputed and called a myth created during the Portuguese Restoration War . Afonso was recognized in 1143 by King Alfonso VII of León and Castile , and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III . During the Reconquista period , Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from Moorish domination . Afonso Henriques and his successors , aided by military monastic orders , pushed southward to drive out the Moors . At this time Portugal covered about half of its present area . In 1249 , the Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve and complete expulsion of the last Moorish settlements on the southern coast , giving Portugal its present-day borders , with minor exceptions . The reigns of Dinis I , Afonso IV , and Pedro I for the most part saw peace with the Christian kingdoms of Iberia . In 1348 and 1349 Portugal , like the rest of Europe , was devastated by the Black Death . In 1373 , Portugal made an alliance with England , which is the longest-standing alliance in the world . This alliance served both nations ' interests throughout history and is regarded by many as the predecessor to NATO . Over time this went way beyond geo-political and military cooperation ( protecting both nations ' interests in Africa , the Americas and Asia against French , Spanish and Dutch rivals ) and maintained strong trade and cultural ties between the two old European allies . Particularly in the Oporto region , there is visible English influence to this day . In 1383 , John I of Castile , husband of Beatrice of Portugal and son-in-law of Ferdinand I of Portugal , claimed the throne of Portugal . A faction of petty noblemen and commoners , led by John of Aviz ( later King John I of Portugal ) and commanded by General Nuno Álvares Pereira defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota . With this battle , the House of Aviz became the ruling house of Portugal . Joanine era Portugal spearheaded European exploration of the world and the Age of Discovery . Prince Henry the Navigator , son of King João I , became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavour . During this period , Portugal explored the Atlantic Ocean , discovering several Atlantic archipelagos like the Azores , Madeira , and Cape Verde , explored the African coast , colonized selected areas of Africa , discovered an eastern route to India via the Cape of Good Hope , discovered Brazil , explored the Indian Ocean , established trading routes throughout most of southern Asia , and sent the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to China and Japan . In 1415 , Portugal acquired the first of its overseas colonies by conquering Ceuta , the first prosperous Islamic trade centre in North Africa . There followed the first discoveries in the Atlantic : Madeira and the Azores , which led to the first colonization movements . Throughout the 15th century , Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa , establishing trading posts for several common types of tradable commodities at the time , ranging from gold to slaves , as they looked for a route to India and its spices , which were coveted in Europe . The Treaty of Tordesillas , intended to resolve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus , which was made by Pope Alexander VI , the mediator between Portugal and Spain . It was signed on 7 June 1494 , and divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the two countries along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands ( off the west coast of Africa ) . In 1498 , Vasco da Gama reached India and brought economic prosperity to Portugal and its population of 1.7 million residents , helping to start the Portuguese Renaissance . In 1500 , the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Real reached what is now Canada and founded the town of Portugal Cove-St. Philip 's , Newfoundland and Labrador , long before the French and English in the 17th century , and being just one of many Portuguese Colonizations of the Americas . The Panel of the Archbishop , from the Saint Vincent Panels , a magnum opus of the Portuguese Renaissance . In 1500 , Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal . Ten years later , Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India , Muscat and Ormuz in the Persian Strait , and Malacca , now a state in Malaysia . Thus , the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic . Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia by sailing eastward from Europe , landing in such places as Taiwan , Japan , the island of Timor , and in the Moluccas . Although for a long period it was believed the Dutch were the first Europeans to arrive in Australia , there is also some evidence that the Portuguese may have discovered Australia in 1521 . The Treaty of Zaragoza , signed on 22 April 1529 between Portugal and Spain , specified the anti-meridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas . All these factors made Portugal one of the world 's major economic , military , and political powers from the 15th century until the late 16th century . Iberian Union and Restoration Portugal 's sovereignty was interrupted between 1580 and 1640 . This occurred because the last two kings of the House of Aviz – King Sebastian , who died in the battle of Alcácer Quibir in Morocco , and his great-uncle and successor , King Henry of Portugal – both died without heirs , resulting in the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580 . Subsequently , Philip II of Spain claimed the throne and so became Philip I of Portugal . Although Portugal did not lose its formal independence , it was governed by the same monarch who governed the Spanish Empire , briefly forming a union of kingdoms . At this time Spain was a geographic territory . The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of an independent foreign policy and led to its involvement in the Eighty Years ' War between Spain and the Netherlands . War led to a deterioration of the relations with Portugal 's oldest ally , England , and the loss of Hormuz , a strategic trading post located between Iran and Oman . From 1595 to 1663 the Dutch-Portuguese War primarily involved the Dutch companies invading many Portuguese colonies and commercial interests in Brazil , Africa , India and the Far East , resulting in the loss of the Portuguese Indian sea trade monopoly . In 1640 , John IV spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king . The Portuguese Restoration War between Portugal and the Spanish Empire , in the aftermath of the 1640 revolt , ended the sixty-year period of the Iberian Union under the House of Habsburg . This was the beginning of the House of Braganza , which reigned in Portugal until 1910 . Official estimates – and most estimates made so far – place the number of Portuguese migrants to Colonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at 600,000 . This represented one of the largest movements of European populations to their colonies in the Americas during colonial times . Early Brigantine and Pombaline era In 1738 , Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo , 1st Marquis of Pombal , began a diplomatic career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London and later in Vienna . The Queen consort of Portugal , Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria , was fond of Melo ; and after his first wife died , she arranged the widowed de Melo 's second marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef , Count von Daun . King John V of Portugal , however , was not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749 . John V died the following year and his son , Joseph I of Portugal , was crowned . In contrast to his father , Joseph I was fond of de Melo , and with the Queen Mother 's approval , he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs . As the King 's confidence in de Melo increased , the King entrusted him with more control of the state . By 1755 , Sebastião de Melo was made Prime Minister . Impressed by British economic success that he had witnessed from the Ambassador , he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal . He abolished slavery in Portugal and in the Portuguese colonies in India ; reorganized the army and the navy ; restructured the University of Coimbra , and ended discrimination against different Christian sects in Portugal . But Sebastião de Melo 's greatest reforms were economic and financial , with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity . He demarcated the region for production of Port to ensure the wine 's quality , and this was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe . He ruled with a strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society from the high nobility to the poorest working class , along with a widespread review of the country 's tax system . These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes , especially among the high nobility , who despised him as a social upstart . Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 November 1755 , when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9 . The city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and ensuing fires . Sebastião de Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately embarked on rebuilding the city , with his famous quote : `` What now ? We bury the dead and take care of the living . '' Despite the calamity and huge death toll , Lisbon suffered no epidemics and within less than one year was already being rebuilt . The new city centre of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes . Architectural models were built for tests , and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models . The buildings and big squares of the Pombaline City Centre still remain as one of Lisbon 's tourist attractions . Sebastião de Melo also made an important contribution to the study of seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the country . Following the earthquake , Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power , and Sebastião de Melo became a powerful , progressive dictator . As his power grew , his enemies increased in number , and bitter disputes with the high nobility became frequent . In

bb_854--Portugal.txt

What was the title given to the daughters of the Kings of Spain and Portugal who were not the heir to the throne?

Olympic sports are sports contested in the Summer and Winter Olympic Games . The 2012 Summer Olympics included 26 sports , with two additional sports due to be added to the 2016 Summer Olympics . The 2014 Winter Olympics included seven sports . The number and kinds of events may change slightly from one Olympiad to another . Each Olympic sport is represented by an international governing body , namely an International Federation ( IF ) . The International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) establishes a hierarchy of sports , disciplines , and events . According to this hierarchy , the Olympic sports can be subdivided into multiple disciplines , which are often assumed to be distinct sports . Examples include swimming and water polo ( disciplines of Aquatics , represented by the International Swimming Federation ) , or figure skating and speed skating ( disciplines of Skating , represented by the International Skating Union ) . In their turn , disciplines can be subdivided into events , for which medals are actually awarded . A sport or discipline is included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines it is widely practiced around the world , that is , the number of countries that compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport 's prevalence . The IOC 's requirements reflect participation in the Olympic Games as well—more stringent toward men ( as they are represented in higher numbers ) and Summer sports ( as more nations compete in the Summer Olympics ) . Previous Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program , like polo and tug of war . These sports , known as `` discontinued sports '' , were later removed either because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body . Archery and tennis are examples of sports that were competed at the early Games and were later dropped by the IOC , but managed to return to the Olympic program ( in 1972 and 1988 , respectively ) . Demonstration sports have often been included in the Olympic Games , usually to promote a local sport from the host country or to gauge interest and support for the sport . Some such sports , like baseball and curling , were added to the official Olympic program ( in 1992 and 1998 , respectively ) . Baseball , however , was discontinued after the 2008 Summer Olympics . Olympic sports definitions The term `` sport '' in Olympic terminology refers to all the events that are sanctioned by one international sport federation , a definition that may be different from the common meaning of the word sport . One sport , by Olympic definition , may be divided into several disciplines , which are often regarded as separate sports in common language . For example : Aquatics is a summer Olympic sport that includes six disciplines : Swimming , synchronized swimming , diving , water polo , open water swimming , and high diving ( the last of which is a non-Olympic discipline ) , since all these disciplines are governed at international level by the International Swimming Federation . Skating is a winter Olympic sport represented by the International Skating Union , and includes four disciplines : figure skating , speed skating ( on a traditional long track ) , short track speed skating and synchronized skating ( the latter is a non-Olympic discipline ) . The sport with the largest number of Olympic disciplines is skiing , with six : alpine skiing , cross-country skiing , ski jumping , nordic combined , snowboarding and freestyle skiing . Other notable multi-discipline sports are gymnastics ( artistic , rhythmic and trampoline ) , cycling ( road , track , mountain and BMX ) , volleyball ( indoors and beach ) , wrestling ( freestyle and Greco-Roman ) , canoeing ( flatwater and slalom ) and bobsleigh ( includes skeleton ) . The disciplines listed here are only those contested in the Olympics—gymnastics has two non-Olympic disciplines , while cycling and wrestling have three each . It should also be noted that the IOC definition of a `` discipline '' may differ from that used by an international federation . For example , the IOC considers artistic gymnastics a single discipline , but the International Federation of Gymnastics ( FIG ) classifies men 's and women 's artistic gymnastics as separate disciplines . Similarly , the IOC considers freestyle wrestling to be a single discipline , but United World Wrestling uses `` freestyle wrestling '' strictly for the men 's version , classifying women 's freestyle wrestling as the separate discipline of `` female wrestling '' . On some occasions , notably in the case of snowboarding , the IOC agreed to add sports which previously had a separate international federation to the Olympics on condition that they dissolve their governing body and instead affiliate with an existing Olympic sport federation , therefore not increasing the number of Olympic sports . An event , by IOC definition , is a competition that leads to the award of medals . Therefore , the sport of aquatics includes a total of 46 Olympic events , of which 32 are in the discipline of swimming , eight in diving , and two each in synchronized swimming , water polo , and open water swimming . The number of events per sport ranges from a minimum of two ( until 2008 there were sports with only one event ) to a maximum of 47 in athletics , which despite its large number of events and its diversity is not divided into disciplines . Changes in Olympic sports The list of Olympic sports has changed considerably during the course of Olympic history , and has gradually increased until the early 2000s , when the IOC decided to cap the number of sports in the Summer Olympics at 28 . The only summer sports that have never been absent from the Olympic program are athletics , aquatics ( the discipline of swimming has been in every Olympics ) , cycling , fencing , and gymnastics ( the discipline of artistic gymnastics has been in every Olympics ) . The only winter sports that were included in all Winter Olympic Games are skiing ( only nordic skiing ) , skating ( figure skating and speed skating ) and ice hockey . Figure skating and ice hockey were also included in the Summer Olympics before the Winter Olympics were introduced in 1924 . For most of the 20th century , demonstration sports were included in many Olympic Games , usually to promote a non-Olympic sport popular in the host country , or to gauge interest and support for the sport . The competitions and ceremonies in these sports were identical to official Olympic sports , except that the medals were not counted in the official record . Some demonstration sports , like baseball and curling , were later added to the official Olympic program . This changed when the International Olympic Committee decided in 1989 to eliminate demonstration sports from Olympics Games after 1992 . An exception was made in 2008 , when the Beijing Organizing Committee received permission to organize a wushu tournament . A sport or discipline may be included in the Olympic program if the IOC determines that it is widely practiced around the world , that is , the number of countries and continents that regularly compete in a given sport is the indicator of the sport 's prevalence . The requirements for winter sports are considerably lower than for summer sports since many fewer nations compete in winter sports . The IOC also has lower requirements for inclusion of sports and disciplines for women for the same reason . Women are still barred from several disciplines ; but on the other hand , there are women-only disciplines , such as rhythmic gymnastics and synchronized swimming . Sports that depend primarily on mechanical propulsion , such as motor sports , may not be considered for recognition as Olympic sports , though there were power-boating events in the early days of the Olympics before this rule was enacted by the IOC . Part of the story of the founding of aviation sports ' international governing body , the FAI , originated from an IOC meeting in Brussels , Belgium on June 10 , 1905 . These criteria are only a threshold for consideration as Olympic sport . In order to be admitted to the Olympic program , the IOC Session has to approve its inclusion . There are many sports that easily make the required numbers but are not recognized as Olympic sports , mainly because the IOC has decided to put a limit on the number of sports , as well as events and athletes , in the Summer Olympics in order not to increase them from the 28 sports , 300 events and 10,000 athletes of the 2000 Summer Olympics . No such limits exist in the Winter Olympics and the number of events and athletes continue to increase , but no sport has been added since 1998 . The latest winter sport added to the Winter Olympics was curling in 1998 . Previous Olympic Games included sports which are no longer present on the current program , like polo and tug of war . In the early days of the modern Olympics , the organizers were able to decide which sports or disciplines were included on the program , until the IOC took control of the program in 1924 . As a result , a number of sports were on the Olympic program for relatively brief periods before 1924 . These sports , known as discontinued sports , were removed because of lack of interest or absence of an appropriate governing body , or because they became fully professional at the time that the Olympic Games were strictly for amateurs , as in the case of tennis . Several discontinued sports , such as archery and tennis , were later readmitted to the Olympic program ( in 1972 and 1984 , respectively ) . Curling , which was an official sport in 1924 and then discontinued , was reinstated as Olympic sport in 1998 . The Olympic Charter decrees that Olympic sports for each edition of the Olympic Games should be decided at an IOC Session no later than seven years prior to the Games . Changes since 2000 The only sports that have been dropped from the Olympics since 1936 are baseball and softball , which were both voted out by the IOC Session in Singapore on July 11 , 2005 , a decision that was reaffirmed on February 9 , 2006 . These sports were last included in 2008 , although officially they remain recognized as Olympic sports in the Olympic Charter . Therefore , the number of sports in the 2012 Summer Olympics was dropped from 28 to 26 . Following the addition of women 's boxing in 2012 , and women 's ski jumping in 2014 , there are no Olympic sports that are only for men in those Games . Two discontinued sports , golf and rugby , are due to return for the 2016 Summer Olympics . On August 13 , 2009 , the IOC Executive Board proposed that golf and rugby sevens be added to the Olympic program for the 2016 Games . On 9 October 2009 , during the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen , the IOC voted to admit both sports as official Olympic sports and to include them in the 2016 Summer Olympics . The IOC voted 81–8 in favor of including rugby sevens and 63–27 in favor of reinstating golf , thus bringing the number of sports back to 28 . In February 2013 , the IOC considered dropping a sport from the 2020 Summer Olympics to make way for a new sport . Modern pentathlon and taekwondo were thought to be vulnerable , but instead the IOC recommended dismissing wrestling . On September 8 , 2013 , the IOC added wrestling to the 2020 and 2024 Summer Games . Summer Olympics At the first Olympic Games , nine sports were contested . Since then , the number of sports contested at the Summer Olympic Games has gradually risen to twenty-eight on the program for 2000-2008 . At the 2012 Summer Olympics , however , the number of sports fell back to twenty-six following an IOC decision in 2005 to remove baseball and softball from the Olympic program . These sports retain their status as Olympic sports with the possibility of a return to the Olympic program in future games . At the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen on 9 October 2009 , the IOC voted to reinstate both golf and rugby to the Olympic program , meaning that the number of sports to be contested in 2016 will once again be 28 . In order for a sport or discipline to be considered for inclusion in the list of Summer Olympics sports , it must be widely practiced in at least 75 countries , spread over four continents . Current and discontinued summer program The following sports ( or disciplines of a sport ) make up the current and discontinued Summer Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically according to the name used by the IOC . The discontinued sports were previously part of the Summer Olympic Games program as official sports , but are no longer on the current program . The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport contested at the respective Games ; a bullet ( ) denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport . Seven of the 28 sports consist of multiple disciplines . Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color : Aquatics – Canoeing/Kayak – Cycling – Gymnastics – Volleyball – Equestrian – Wrestling Demonstration summer sports The following sports or disciplines have been demonstrated at the Summer Olympic Games for the years shown , but have never been included on the official Olympic program : * American football ( 1932 ) * Australian football ( 1956 ) * Ballooning ( 1900 ) * Bowling ( 1988 ) * Boules ( 1900 ) * Budō ( 1964 ) * Finnish baseball ( 1952 ) * Glima ( 1912 ) * Gliding ( 1936 ) * Kaatsen ( 1928 ) * Korfball ( 1920 and 1928 ) * La canne ( 1924 ) * Surf lifesaving ( 1900 ) * Longue paume ( 1900 ) * Motorsport ( 1900 ) * Roller hockey ( 1992 ) * Savate ( 1924 ) * Swedish ( Ling ) gymnastics ( 1948 ) * Weight training with dumbbells ( 1904 ) * Water skiing ( 1972 ) Gliding was promoted from demonstration sport to an official Olympic sport in 1936 in time for the 1940 Summer Olympics , but the Games were cancelled due to the outbreak of World War II . Classification of Olympic sports for revenue share Summer Olympic sports are divided into categories based on popularity , gauged by : television viewing figures ( 40 % ) , internet popularity ( 20 % ) , public surveys ( 15 % ) , ticket requests ( 10 % ) , press coverage ( 10 % ) , and number of national federations ( 5 % ) . The category determines the share the sport 's International Federation receives of Olympic revenue . The current categories are listed below . Category A represents the most popular sports ; category E lists either the sports that are the least popular or that are new to the Olympics ( golf and rugby ) . Winter Olympics Before 1924 , when the first Winter Olympic Games were celebrated , sports held on ice , like figure skating and ice hockey , were held at the Summer Olympics . These two sports made their debuts at the 1908 and the 1920 Summer Olympics , respectively , but were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics program as of the first edition . The International Winter Sports Week , later dubbed the I Olympic Winter Games and retroactively recognized as such by the IOC , consisted of nine sports . The number of sports contested at the Winter Olympics has since been decreased to seven , comprising a total of fifteen disciplines . A sport or discipline must be widely practiced in at least 25 countries on three continents in order to be included on the Winter Olympics program . Current winter program The following sports ( or disciplines of a sport ) make up the current Winter Olympic Games official program and are listed alphabetically , according to the name used by the IOC . The figures in each cell indicate the number of events for each sport that were contested at the respective Games ( the red cells indicate that those sports were held at the Summer Games ) ; a bullet denotes that the sport was contested as a demonstration sport . On some occasions , both official medal events and demonstration events were contested in the same sport at the same Games . Three out of the seven sports consist of multiple disciplines . Disciplines from the same sport are grouped under the same color : Skating – Skiing – Bobsleigh 1 As military patrol , see below . Demonstration winter sports The following sports have been demonstrated at the Winter Olympic Games for the years shown , but have never been included on the official Olympic program : * Bandy ( 1952 ) * Disabled skiing ( 1984 and 1988 ) * Ice stock sport ( 1936 , 1964 ) * Military patrol ( 1928 , 1936 and 1948 ) * Ski ballet ( acroski ) ( 1988 and 1992 ) * Skijoring ( 1928 ) * Sled-dog racing ( 1932 ) * Speed skiing ( 1992 ) * Winter Pentathlon ( 1948 ) Military patrol was an official skiing event in 1924 but the IOC currently considers it an event of biathlon in those games , and not as a separate sport . Ski ballet , similarly , was simply a demonstration event falling under the scope of freestyle skiing . Disabled sports are now part of the Winter Paralympic Games . Recognized international federations Many sports are not recognized as Olympic sports although their governing bodies are recognized by the IOC . Such sports , if eligible under the terms of the Olympic Charter , may apply for inclusion in the program of future Games , through a recommendation by the IOC Olympic Programme Commission , followed by a decision of the IOC Executive Board and a vote of the IOC Session . When Olympic demonstration sports were allowed , a sport usually appeared as such before being officially admitted . An International Sport Federation ( IF ) is responsible for ensuring that the sport 's activities follow the Olympic Charter . When a sport is recognized the IF become an official Olympic sport federation and can assemble with other Olympic IFs in the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations ( ASOIF , for summer sports contested in the Olympic Games ) , Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations ( AIOWS , for winter sports contested in the Olympic Games ) or Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations ( ARISF , for sports not contested in the Olympic Games ) . A number of recognized sports are included in the program of the World Games , a multi-sport event run by the International World Games Association , an organization that operates under the patronage of the IOC . Since the start of the World Games in 1981 , a number of sports , including badminton , taekwondo and triathlon have all subsequently been incorporated into the Olympic program . The governing bodies of the following sports , though not contested in the Olympic Games , are recognized by the IOC : * Air sports1,3 * American football * Auto racing3 * Bandy * Baseball and Softball1,2,4 * Billiard sports1 * Boules1 * Bowling1 * Bridge * Chess * Cricket2 * Dance sport1 * Floorball * Karate1 * Korfball1 * Lifesaving1 * Motorcycle racing3 * Mountaineering and Climbing1 * Netball * Orienteering1 * Pelota Vasca * Polo2 * Powerboating3 * Racquetball1 * Roller sports1 * Ski Mountaineering * Sport climbing * Squash1 * Sumo1 * Surfing * Tug of war1,2 * Underwater sports1 * Ultimate ( Flying disc ) 1 * Water ski3 * Wushu 1 Official sport at the World Games 2 Discontinued Olympic sport 3 Ineligible to be included because the Olympic Charter bans sports with motorization elements 4 The governing bodies for baseball and softball merged into a single international federation in 2013 .

sfq_20140--Olympic_sports.txt

At the 2014 Winter Olympic games Elise Christie of Great Britain was disqualified from all three of her events, in which sport?

Tarzan is a series of twenty-four adventure novels written by Edgar Rice Burroughs , followed by several novels either co-written by Burroughs , or officially authorized by his estate . There are also two works written by Burroughs especially for children that are not considered part of the main series . The series is considered a classic of literature and is the author 's best-known work . Tarzan has been called one of the best-known literary characters in the world . Written by Burroughs between 1912 and 1965 , Tarzan has been adapted many times , complete or in part , for radio , television , stage , and cinema . ( It has been adapted for the cinema more times than any book except Dracula ) . Even though the copyright on Tarzan of the Apes has expired in the United States , the name Tarzan is still protected as a trademark of Edgar Rice Burroughs , Inc. Also , the work remains under copyright in some other countries where copyright terms are longer . The twenty four main books Tarzan of the Apes ( 1912 ) The novel tells the story of John Clayton III . John and Alice ( Rutherford ) Clayton II , Lord and Lady Greystoke of England , are marooned in the western coastal jungles of equatorial Africa in 1888 . In September of 1889 their son John Clayton III is born . At one year old his mother dies , and soon thereafter his father is killed by the savage king ape Kerchak . The infant is then adopted by the she-ape Kala . Clayton is named `` Tarzan '' ( `` White Skin '' in the ape language ) and raised in ignorance of his human heritage . As a boy , feeling alienated from his peers due to their physical differences , he discovers his true parents ' cabin , where he first learns of others like himself in their books . Using basic primers with pictures , over many years he teaches himself to read English , but having never heard it , can not speak it . Upon his return from one visit to the cabin , he is attacked by a huge gorilla which he manages to kill with his father 's knife , although he is terribly wounded in the struggle . As he grows up , Tarzan becomes a skilled hunter , exciting the jealousy of Kerchak , the ape leader , who finally attacks him . Tarzan kills Kerchak and takes his place as `` king '' of the apes . Later , a tribe of black Africans settle in the area , and Tarzan 's adopted mother , Kala , is killed by one of its hunters . Avenging himself on the killer , Tarzan begins an antagonistic relationship with the tribe , raiding its village for weapons and practicing cruel pranks on them . They , in turn , regard him as an evil spirit and attempt to placate him . At about the age of 20 a new party is marooned on the coast , including Jane Porter , the first white woman Tarzan has ever seen . Tarzan 's cousin , William Cecil Clayton , unwitting usurper of the ape man 's ancestral English estate , is also among the party . Tarzan spies on the newcomers , aids them in secret , and saves Jane from the perils of the jungle . Among the party was French Naval Officer Paul D'Arnot . While rescuing D'Arnot from the natives , a rescue ship recovers the castaways . D'Arnot teaches Tarzan to speak French and offers to take Tarzan to the land of white men where he might connect with Jane again . On their journey , D'Arnot teaches him how to behave among white men . In the ensuing months , Tarzan eventually learns to speak English as well . Ultimately , Tarzan travels to find Jane in Wisconsin , USA . Tarzan learns the bitter news that she has become engaged to William Clayton . Meanwhile , clues from his parents ' cabin have enabled D'Arnot to prove Tarzan 's true identity as John Clayton the Earl of Greystoke . Instead of reclaiming his inheritance from William , Tarzan chooses rather to conceal and renounce his heritage for the sake of Jane 's happiness . The Return of Tarzan ( 1913 ) The novel picks up soon after where Tarzan of the Apes left off . The year is 1910 and Tarzan is 22 years old . The ape man , feeling rootless in the wake of his noble sacrifice of his prospects of wedding Jane Porter , leaves America for Europe to visit his friend Paul d'Arnot . On the ship he becomes embroiled in the affairs of Countess Olga de Coude , her husband , Count Raoul de Coude , and two shady characters attempting to prey on them , Nikolas Rokoff and his henchman Alexis Paulvitch . Rokoff , it turns out , is also the countess 's brother . Tarzan thwarts the villains ' scheme , making them his deadly enemies . Later , in France , Rokoff tries time and again to eliminate the ape man , finally engineering a duel between him and the count by making it appear that he is the countess 's lover . Tarzan deliberately refuses to defend himself in the duel , even offering the count his own weapon after the latter fails to kill him with his own , a grand gesture that convinces his antagonist of his innocence . In return , Count Raoul finds him a job as a special agent in the French ministry of war . Tarzan is assigned to service in Algeria . A sequence of adventures among the local Arabs ensues , including another brush with Rokoff . Afterward Tarzan sails for Cape Town and strikes up a shipboard acquaintance with Hazel Strong , a friend of Jane 's . But Rokoff and Paulovitch are also aboard , and manage to ambush him and throw him overboard . Miraculously , Tarzan manages to swim to shore , and finds himself in the coastal jungle where he was brought up by the apes . He soon rescues and befriends a native warrior , Busuli of the Waziri , and is adopted into the Waziri tribe . After defeating a raid on their village by ivory raiders , Tarzan becomes their chief . The Waziri know of a lost city deep in the jungle , from which they have obtained their golden ornaments . Tarzan has them take him there , but is captured by its inhabitants , a race of ape-like men , and is condemned to be sacrificed to their sun god . To Tarzan 's surprise , the priestess to perform the sacrifice is a beautiful woman who speaks the ape language he learned as a child . She tells him she is La , high priestess of the lost city of Opar . When the sacrificial ceremony is fortuitously interrupted , she hides Tarzan and promises to lead him to freedom . But the ape man escapes on his own , locates a treasure chamber , and manages to rejoin the Waziri . Meanwhile , Hazel Strong has reached Cape Town where she meets Jane and her father , Professor Porter , together with Jane 's fiancé , Tarzan 's cousin William Cecil Clayton . They are all invited on a cruise up the west coast of Africa aboard the Lady Alice , the yacht of another friend , Lord Tennington . Rokoff , now using the alias of M. Thuran , ingratiates himself with the party and is also invited along . The Lady Alice breaks down and sinks , forcing the passengers and crew into the lifeboats . The one containing Jane , Clayton and `` Thuran '' is separated from the others and suffers terrible privations . Coincidentally , the boat finally makes shore in the same general area that Tarzan did . The three construct a rude shelter and eke out an existence of near starvation for some weeks until Jane and William Clayton are surprised in the forest by a lion . Clayton loses Jane 's respect by cowering in fear before the beast instead of defending her . But they are not attacked , and discover the lion dead , speared by an unknown hand . Their hidden savior is in fact Tarzan , who leaves without revealing himself , not realizing whom he was rescuing . Jane breaks off her engagement to William . Later Jane is kidnapped and taken to Opar by a party of the Oparian ape-men who were pursuing their escaped sacrifice , Tarzan . The ape man learns of her capture and tracks them , managing to save her from being sacrificed by La . La is crushed by Tarzan 's spurning of her for Jane . Tarzan and Jane make their way up the coast to the former 's boyhood cabin , where they encounter the remainder of the castaways of the Lady Alice , safe and sound after having been recovered by Tarzan 's friend D'Arnot in another ship . `` Thuran '' is exposed as Rokoff and arrested . Tarzan weds Jane and Tennington weds Hazel in a double ceremony performed by Professor Porter , who had been ordained a minister in his youth . Then they all set sail for civilization , taking along the treasure Tarzan had found in Opar . The Beasts of Tarzan ( 1914 ) The story begins two years after the conclusion the previous book , around 1913 when Tarzan is 24 years old . Tarzan ( Lord Greystoke ) and Jane have had a son they named Jack . Tarzan has spent much time building an estate home on the Waziri lands in Uziri , Africa , but has returned to his ancestral estate in London for the rainy season . Tarzan 's adversaries from the previous novel , Nikolas Rokoff and Alexis Paulvitch , escape prison and kidnap the Greystoke heir . But the trap is elaborate and insidious , leading both Tarzan and Jane to be kidnapped as well . Rokoff exiles Tarzan on a jungle island , informing him that Jack will be left with a cannibal tribe to be raised as one of their own , while Jane 's fate was to be left to his imagination . Using his jungle skill and primal intelligence , Tarzan wins the help of Sheeta , the vicious panther , a tribe of great apes led by the moderately intelligent Akut , and a native warrior , Mugambi . With their aid , Tarzan reaches the mainland and begins a lengthy pursuit to find Jane ( who is actively engineering her own extrication ) and Jack . By the end of the story Rokoff is dead , while Paulvitch , his cohort , is presumed dead but manages to escape into the jungle . The Tarzan family returned to London along with Mugambi , who is offered a place at Tarzan 's Waziri estate . The Son of Tarzan ( 1914 ) The story begins 10 years after the conclusion of the previous novel , which places it about 1923 . Tarzan ( John Clayton ) would be about 34 and his son , Jack , around 11 . During the past decade , Alexis Paulvitch , who had escaped Tarzan at the end of the last novel , has lived a hideous life of abuse and disease among tribal people in Africa . Now he is discovered by a European ship and taken aboard . In the months that followed , Paulvitch encounters the ape , Akut , ( whom Tarzan had befriended in that previous story ) at one of the ship 's stops . Because of Akut 's interactions with Tarzan , he was unafraid of white men , and Paulvitch , unaware of the previous relationship , saw an opportunity to make some money . He took Akut to London and began displaying him publicly . After the trauma of the kidnappings ten years earlier , Jane had refused to return to Africa or to allow Jack to know anything about his father 's past for fear that he might somehow try to relive it . Perhaps she instinctively knew that Jack was somehow very connected to Tarzan 's old life , for Jack did have an avid interest in wildlife and he was extremely athletic . When the Claytons heard about the displayed ape , John decided to take Jack to see him . Tarzan was surprised to find the ape was his old friend , Akut , and began conversing with him . Jack was amazed to see that his father could do so . John then told Jack of his life as Tarzan . Jack started sneaking away to see Akut and began learning the language of the apes . Jack began to form a plan to take Akut back to the jungle . Paulvitch saw an opportunity for revenge , and agreed to help Jack . They escape to an African port where Paulvitch attacks Jack . Jack ( probably now 12 ) , like his father , was man-sized as a teen . Paulvitch is killed , and Jack , terrified , escapes into the jungle with Akut , thinking he will have to run for the rest of his life . Like Tarzan before him , Jack learns survival in the jungle and encounters the Mongani apes , who he can speak with because of his dialogue with Akut . The nearest they can manage of his name `` Jack '' in the ape tounge is `` Korak '' . This means `` killer '' which seems appropriate since Jack has proven himself to be such . By around the age of 13 Jack finds an abused girl of about 11 named Meriem and rescues her . He begins teaching her to survive the jungle and they begin a sibling type relationship and live adventurously in the jungle for several years . In the interim , Tarzan and Jane have begun living at their Wahiri estate in Africa again , not having any idea what became of their son . After about six years Tarzan and Jane encounter Korak ( now about 18 ) and Meriem ( now 16 ) and reunite with them and are returned to London and married . Arguably , the book is as much about Meriem as it is about Tarzan 's son . Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar ( 1916 ) At the end of the previous novel ( # 4 ) Tarzan ( John Clayton ) and Jane 's son , Jack a.k.a . Korak , had come into adulthood in about 1930 . This novel ( # 5 ) , while offering no dates , appears to take place during the interim of Jack 's childhood disappearance , perhaps around 1927 . John ( Tarzan ) and Jane Clayton have left London and returned to their Waziri ranch , some distance from Tarzan 's original stomping grounds in Africa ( where Jack will find them in novel # 4 ) . John Clayton finds that his fortunes have been embezzled , so he decides to return to the lost city of Opar , where he procured a large supply of gold from their forgotten vaults and reinforced his family fortune ( in novel # 2 ) . During this return trip Tarzan is injured in an earthquake and loses all memories of his adult , civilized life and about Jane . La , the high priestess of the Flaming god of Opar , takes advantage of his amnesia . She had fallen in lust with the ape man during their first encounter . But while La hopes his amnesia opens the door for her lustful advances , her priests are not going to allow Tarzan to escape their sacrificial knives this time . In the meanwhile , Jane is in trouble and wonders what is keeping her husband from coming to her rescue . Jungle Tales of Tarzan ( 1919 ) A collection of twelve loosely connected short stories of Tarzan 's late teenage years , probably 1907-1908 , within a year or two before Tarzan first sees white people including Jane Porter . # '' Tarzan 's First Love '' # '' The Capture of Tarzan '' # '' The Fight for the Balu '' # '' The God of Tarzan '' # '' Tarzan and the Black Boy '' # '' The Witch-Doctor Seeks Vengeance '' # '' The End of Bukawai '' # '' The Lion '' # '' The Nightmare '' # '' The Battle for Teeka '' # '' A Jungle Joke '' # '' Tarzan Rescues the Moon '' Tarzan the Untamed ( 1920 ) The action is commonly believed to be set during World War I ( 1914-1918 ) . However since the story involves Tarzan 's son as an adult ( he was 18 years old in 1930 in the 4th novel , The Son Of Tarzan ) and mentions him giving service in a military position for some time ( in the sequel to this novel ) , we must assume the year is at least 1933 , when Hitler began to take power at the beginnings of World War II . This would place Tarzan at about 45 years of age . This is the first novel to place Tarzan 's plantation in British East Africa some distance from Nairobi . Up until this point he had grown up on the west African coast and joined the Waziri tribe some days travel inland . Conversely , Tarzan himself states at the end of the novel , `` My home is on the west coast '' . While John Clayton , Lord Greystoke ( Tarzan ) is away from his plantation home in British East Africa , it is destroyed by invading German troops from Tanganyika . On his return he discovers among many burned bodies one that appears to be the corpse of his wife , Jane Porter Clayton . Another fatality is the Waziri warrior Wasimbu , left crucified by the Germans . ( Wasimbu 's father Muviro , first mentioned in this story , goes on to play a prominent role in later Tarzan novels . ) Maddened , the ape-man seeks revenge not only on the perpetrators of the tragedy but upon all Germans , and sets out for the battle front of the war in west Africa . On the way he has a run-in with a lion ( or Numa , as it is called by the apes among whom Tarzan was raised ) , which he traps in a gulch by blocking the entrance . Upon reaching the front he infiltrates the German headquarters and seizes Major Schneider , the officer he believes led the raid on his estate . Returning to the gulch , he throws Schneider to the lion . Tarzan goes on to help the British forces in various ways , including setting the lion loose in the enemy trenches . Tarzan later kills von Goss , another German officer involved in the attack on the Greystoke estate . He then becomes embroiled in the affairs of Bertha Kircher , a woman he has seen in both the German and British camps , and believes to be a German spy , particularly after he learns she possesses his mother 's locket , which he had given as a gift to Jane . His efforts to retrieve it lead him to a rendezvous between Kircher and Captain Fritz Schneider , brother of the major Schneider Tarzan previously threw to the lion , and the actual commander of the force that burned his estate . Killing Schneider , Tarzan believes his vengeance complete . Abandoning his vendetta against the Germans he departs for the jungle , swearing off all company with mankind . Seeking a band of Mangani , the species of apes among whom he had been raised , Tarzan crosses a desert , undergoing great privations . Indeed , the desert is almost his undoing . He only survives by feigning death to lure a vulture ( Ska in the ape language ) into his reach . He then catches and devours the vulture , which gives him the strength to go on . The scene is a powerful one , a highlight both of the novel and of the Tarzan series as a whole . On the other side of the desert Tarzan locates an ape band . While with them he once again encounters Bertha Kircher , who has just escaped from Sergeant Usanga , leader of a troop of native deserters from the German army , by whom she had been taken captive . Despite his suspicion of Bertha , Tarzan 's natural chivalry leads him to grant her shelter and protection among the apes . Later he himself falls captive to the tribe of cannibals the deserters have sheltered among , along with Harold Percy Smith-Oldwick , a British aviator who has been forced down in the jungle . Learning of Tarzan 's plight , Bertha heroically leads the apes against the natives and frees them both . Smith-Oldwick becomes infatuated with Bertha , and they search for his downed plane . They find it , but are captured again by Usanga , who attempts to fly off in it with Bertha . Tarzan arrives in time to pull Usanga from the plane . Smith-Oldwick and Bertha Kircher then try to pilot it back across the desert to civilization , but fail to make it . Seeing the plane go down , Tarzan once more sets out to rescue them . On the way he encounters another Numa , this one an unusual black lion caught in a pit trap , and frees it . He , the two lovers and the lion are soon reunited , but attacked by warriors from the lost city of Xuja , hidden in a secret desert valley . Tarzan is left for dead and Bertha and Smith-Oldwick taken prisoner . The Xujans are masters of the local lions and worshippers of parrots and monkeys . They are also completely insane as a consequence of long inbreeding . Recovering , Tarzan once more comes to the rescue of his companions , aided by the lion he had saved earlier . But the Xujans pursue them and they turn at bay to make one last stand . The day is saved by a search party from Smith-Oldwick 's unit , who turn the tide . Afterward , Tarzan and Smith-Oldwick find out that Bertha is a double agent who has actually been working for the British . Tarzan also learns from the diary of the deceased Fritz Schneider that Jane might still be alive . Tarzan the Terrible ( 1921 ) Two months have passed since the conclusion of the previous novel ( # 7 ) in which Tarzan spent many months wandering about Africa wreaking vengeance upon those whom he believed brutally murdered Jane . This places the story around 1933 in the beginning of World War II when Tarzan would be 45 years old . At the end of that novel Tarzan learns that her death was a ruse , that she had not been killed at all . In attempting to track Jane , Tarzan has come to a hidden valley called Pal-ul-don filled with dinosaurs , notably the savage Triceratops-like Gryfs , which , unlike their prehistoric counterparts . are carnivorous and stand 20 feet tall at the shoulder . The lost valley is also home to two different adversarial races of tailed human-looking creatures : the hairless and white skinned , city-dwelling Ho-don and the hairy and black-skinned , hill-dwelling Waz-don . Tarzan befriends a Ho-don warrior , and the Waz-don chief , actuating some uncustomary relations . In this new world Tarzan becomes a captive but so impresses his captors with his accomplishments and skills that they name him Tarzan-Jad-Guru ( Tarzan the Terrible ) . Having been brought there by her German captor , it turns out Jane is also being held captive in Pal-ul-don . She becomes a center-piece in a religious power struggle that consumes much of the novel until she escapes , after which her German captor becomes dependent on her due to his own lack of jungle survival skills . With the aid of his native allies , Tarzan continues to pursue his beloved , going through an extended series of fights and escapes to do so . In the end success seems beyond even his ability to achieve , until in the final chapter he and Jane are saved by their son Korak , who has been searching for Tarzan just as Tarzan has been searching for Jane . Tarzan and the Golden Lion ( 1922/23 ) The story picks up with the Clayton family , Tarzan , Jane and their son Korak , returning from their adventures in the previous novel ( # 8 ) . Along the way they find an orphaned lion cub , which Tarzan takes home and trains . Flora Hawkes , a previous housemaid of the Clayton 's had overheard of Tarzan 's discovery of the treasure chamber in the lost city of Opar ( The Return of Tarzan , Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar ) and had managed to copy his map to it . She concocted a plan to lead an expedition to collect the gold . As a contingency to discourage any local denizens from questioning them , she sought out and found a Tarzan look-alike to accompany them . Two years passed since the Clayton family picked up their lion cub , making the year around 1935 and Tarzan would have been about 47 years old . His Greystoke estate had become financially depleted due his support of the Allies war efforts , and he concluded it was time to return to Opar for another withdrawal . Tarzan encountered Hawkes ' party , where he was drugged and ended up in the hands of the Oparians . Queen La , who had come into disfavor with the high priest , felt she had nothing to lose by escaping with Tarzan through the only unguarded route -- a path to the legendary valley of diamonds , from which no one had ever returned . There , Tarzan found a race of humans who were little better than animals in intelligence , being enslaved by a race of intelligent gorillas . With the help of his golden lion , Tarzan utilized the natives to restore La to power . Before leaving he accepted a bag of diamonds for a reward . Meanwhile the fake Tarzan convinced Tarzan 's Waziri party to take the gold from Hawkes ' party while most of them were out hunting . He then buried the gold so he could retain it later . The real Tarzan eventually confronted the fake , who managed to pilfer Tarzan 's bag of diamonds . The fake was then chased by Tarzan 's golden lion , but escaped into a river . He was later captured and permanently imprisoned by a local tribe . Tarzan lost the diamonds , but was able to attain the gold and return with it . Tarzan and the Ant Men ( 1924 ) Tarzan , the king of the jungle , enters an isolated country called Minuni , inhabited by a people four times smaller than himself . The Minunians live in magnificent city-states which frequently wage war against each other . Tarzan befriends the king , Adendrohahkis , and the prince , Komodoflorensal , of one such city-state , called Trohanadalmakus , and joins them in war against the onslaught of the army of Veltopismakus , their warlike neighbours . Tarzan is captured on the battle-ground and taken prisoner by the Veltopismakusians . The Veltopismakusian scientist Zoanthrohago conducts an experiment reducing Tarzan to the size of a Minunian , and the ape-man is imprisoned and enslaved among other Trohanadalmakusian prisoners of war . He meets , though , Komodoflorensal in the dungeons of Veltopismakus , and together they are able to make a daring escape . Tarzan , Lord of the Jungle ( 1927/28 ) Tarzan finds an outpost of European knights and crusaders from a `` forbidden valley '' hidden in the mountains . Tarzan and the Lost Empire ( 1928 ) Tarzan and a young German find a lost remnant of the Roman empire hidden in the mountains of Africa . This novel is notable for the introduction of

tc_2380--Tarzan_(book_series).txt

In what year was the first Tarzan novel published?

The Last Supper is the final meal that , in the Gospel accounts , Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion . The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday . The Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist , also known as `` Holy Communion '' or `` The Lord 's Supper '' . The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper . The four canonical Gospels all state that the Last Supper took place towards the end of the week , after Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem and that Jesus and his Apostles shared a meal shortly before Jesus was crucified at the end of that week . During the meal Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the Apostles present , and foretells that before the next morning , Peter will deny knowing him . The three Synoptic Gospels and the First Epistle to the Corinthians include the account of the institution of the Eucharist in which Jesus takes bread , breaks it and gives it to the Apostles , saying : `` This is my body which is given for you '' . The Gospel of John does not include this episode , but tells of Jesus washing the feet of the Apostles , giving the new commandment `` to love one another as I have loved you '' , and has a detailed farewell discourse by Jesus , calling the Apostles who follow his teachings `` friends and not servants '' , as he prepares them for his departure . Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions . Others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practiceFunk , Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar . The acts of Jesus : the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus . HarperSanFrancisco . 1998 . Introduction , p. 1-40 as described by Paul in the mid-50s . The Last Supper served the dual purpose of venerating Passover , the escape of the Jews from slavery in Egypt , and the establishment of a new tradition , Christianity . Terminology The term `` Last Supper '' does not appear in the New Testament , The Gospel according to Luke : introduction , translation , and notes , Volume 28 , Part 1 by Joseph A. Fitzmyer 1995 ISBN 0-385-00515-6 page 1378 but traditionally many Christians refer to the New Testament accounts of the last meal Jesus shared with his Apostles as the `` Last Supper '' . Most Protestants use the term `` Lord 's Supper '' , stating that the term `` last '' suggests this was one of several meals and not the meal . The term `` Lord 's Supper '' refers both to the biblical event and the act of `` Holy Communion '' and Eucharistic ( `` thanksgiving '' ) celebration within their liturgy . Evangelical Protestants also use the term `` Lord 's Supper '' , but most do not use the terms `` Eucharist '' or the word `` Holy '' with the name `` Communion '' .Humanists and Reformers : A History of the Renaissance and Reformation by Bard Thompson 1996 ISBN 978-0-8028-6348-5 pages 493-494 The Eastern Orthodox use the term `` Mystical Supper '' which refers both to the biblical event and the act of Eucharistic celebration within liturgy . Scriptural basis The last meal that Jesus shared with his disciples is described in all four canonical Gospels ( , , and ) . This meal later became known as the Last Supper.The Encyclopedia of Christianity , Volume 4 by Erwin Fahlbusch , 2005 ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5 pages 52-56 The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among the early Christian community , and became a ritual which recounted that meal . Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians , which was likely written before the Gospels , includes a reference to the Last Supper but emphasizes the theological basis rather than giving a detailed description of the event or its background.The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 465-477 Background and setting The overall narrative that is shared in all Gospel accounts that leads to the Last Supper is that after the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem early in the week , and encounters with various people and the Jewish elders , Jesus and his disciples share a meal towards the end of the week . After the meal , Jesus is betrayed , arrested , tried , and then crucified . Key events in the meal are the preparation of the disciples for the departure of Jesus , the predictions about the impending betrayal of Jesus , and the foretelling of the upcoming denial of Jesus by Apostle Peter . Prediction of Judas ' betrayal In , , and during the meal , Jesus predicted that one of his Apostles would betray him.Steven L. Cox , Kendell H Easley , 2007 Harmony of the Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 page 182 Jesus is described as reiterating , despite each Apostle 's assertion that he would not betray Jesus , that the betrayer would be one of those who were present , and saying that there would be woe to the man who betrays the Son of man ! It would be better for him if he had not been born . In and , Judas is specifically identified as the traitor . In the Gospel of John , when asked about the traitor , Jesus states : “ It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish. ” Then , dipping the piece of bread , he gave it to Judas , the son of Simon Iscariot . As soon as Judas took the bread , Satan entered into him . '' Institution of the Eucharist In the course of the Last Supper , Jesus divides up some bread , says a prayer , and hands the pieces of bread to his disciples , saying `` this is my body . '' He then takes a cup of wine , offers another prayer , and hands it around , saying `` this is my blood of the everlasting covenant , which is poured for many . '' Finally , according to Paul and Luke , he tells the disciples `` do this in remembrance of me . '' This event has been regarded by Christians of most denominations as the institution of the Eucharist . There is recorded celebration of the Eucharist by the early Christian community in Jerusalem.Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church / editors , F. L. Cross & E. A. Livingstone 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3 , article Eucharist The institution of the Eucharist is recorded in the three Synoptic Gospels and in Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians . The words of institution differ slightly in each account , reflecting a Marcan tradition ( upon which Matthew is based ) and a Pauline tradition ( upon which Luke is based ) . In addition , is a disputed text which does not appear in some of the early manuscripts of Luke . Some scholars , therefore , believe that it is an interpolation , while others have argued that it is original . A comparison of the accounts given in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians is shown in the table below , with text from the ASV . The disputed text from Luke 22:19b-20 is in italics . Jesus ' actions in sharing the bread and wine have been linked with which refers to a blood sacrifice that , as recounted in , Moses offered in order to seal a covenant with God . Scholars often interpret the description of Jesus ' action as asking his disciples to consider themselves part of a sacrifice , where Jesus is the one due to physically undergo it . Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread and wine ritual during the Last Supper , most scholars agree that ( the Bread of Life Discourse ) has a Eucharistic nature and resonates with the `` words of institution '' used in the Synoptic Gospels and the Pauline writings on the Last Supper . Prediction of Peter 's denial In , , and Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him , stating that Peter will disown him three times before the rooster crows the next morning . The three Synoptic Gospels mention that after the arrest of Jesus Peter denied knowing him three times , but after the third denial , heard the rooster crow and recalled the prediction as Jesus turned to look at him . Peter then began to cry bitterly . Elements unique to the Gospel of John In John , Jesus ' last supper is not explicitly referred to as a Passover meal . Furthermore , John places the official Jewish Passover a few hours after Jesus ' crucifixion , so that Jesus dies in the hour that the Passover lambs are slaughtered . Astronomical calculations of ancient Passover dates support John 's chronology as being historical , apparently in contrast with the synoptic description of Jesus celebrating a Passover meal before his death . The resulting scholarly debate is detailed in the Date section below . includes the account of the washing the feet of the Apostles by Jesus before the meal . In this episode , Apostle Peter objects and does not want to allow Jesus to wash his feet , but Jesus answers him , “ Unless I wash you , you have no part with me ” , after which Peter agrees . In the Gospel of John , after the departure of Judas from the Last Supper , Jesus tells his remaining eleven disciples that he will be with them for only a short time , then gives them a New Commandment , stating : Encountering John : The Gospel in Historical , Literary , and Theological Perspective by Andreas J. Kostenberger 2002 ISBN 0801026032 pages 149-151 “ A new command I give you : Love one another . As I have loved you , so you must love one another . By this everyone will know that you are my disciples , if you love one another. ” in . Two similar statements also appear later in : `` My command is this : Love each other as I have loved you '' , and : `` This is my command : Love each other . `` 1 , 2 , and 3 John by Robert W. Yarbrough 2008 ISBN 0801026873 Baker Academic Press page 215 At the Last Supper in the Gospel of John , Jesus gives an extended sermon to his disciples . This discourse resembles farewell speeches called testaments , in which a father or religious leader , often on the deathbed , leaves instructions for his children or followers . This sermon is referred to as the Farewell discourse of Jesus , and has historically been considered a source of Christian doctrine , particularly on the subject of Christology . is generally known as the Farewell Prayer or the High Priestly Prayer , given that it is an intercession for the coming Church.The Gospel according to John by Herman Ridderbos 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-0453-2 The Farewell Prayer : pages 546-576 The prayer begins with Jesus ' petition for his glorification by the Father , given that completion of his work and continues to an intercession for the success of the works of his disciples and the community of his followers . Time and place Date Historians estimate that the date of the crucifixion fell in the range AD 30-36 . Physicists such as Isaac Newton and Colin Humphreys have ruled out the years 31 , 32 , 35 , and 36 on astronomical grounds , leaving 7 April AD 30 and 3 April AD 33 as possible crucifixion dates . Humphreys proposes narrowing down the date of the Last Supper as having occurred in the evening of Wednesday , 1 April AD 33 , by revising Annie Jaubert 's double-Passover theory . The rationale is as follows . All Gospels agree that Jesus held a Last Supper with his disciples prior to dying on a Friday at or just before the time of Passover ( annually on 15 Nisan , the official Jewish day beginning at sunset ) and that his body was left in the tomb for the whole of the next day , which was a Shabbat ( Saturday ) . However , while the Synoptic Gospels present the Last Supper as a Passover meal , the Gospel of John makes no explicit mention that the Last Supper was a Passover meal and presents the official Jewish Passover feast as beginning in the evening a few hours after the death of Jesus . John thus implies that the Friday of the crucifixion was the day of preparation for the feast ( 14 Nisan ) , not the feast itself ( 15 Nisan ) , and astronomical calculations of ancient Passover dates initiated by Isaac Newton in 1733 support John 's chronology . Historically , various attempts to reconcile the three synoptic accounts with John have been made , some of which are indicated in the [ http : //www.newadvent.org/cathen/14341a.htm article on the Last Supper ] by Francis Mershman in the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia . The Maundy Thursday church tradition assumes that the Last Supper was held on the evening before the crucifixion day ( although , strictly speaking , in no Gospel is it unequivocally said that this meal took place on the night before Jesus died ) . A new approach to resolve this contrast was undertaken in the wake of the excavations at Qumran in the 1950s when Annie Jaubert argued that there were two Passover feast dates : while the official Jewish lunar calendar had Passover begin on a Friday evening in the year that Jesus died , a solar calendar was also used , for instance by the Essene community at Qumran , which always had the Passover feast begin on a Tuesday evening . According to Jaubert , Jesus would have celebrated the Passover on Tuesday , and the Jewish authorities three days later , on Friday . However , Humphreys has calculated that Jaubert 's proposal can not be correct , as the Qumran solar Passover would always fall after the official Jewish lunar Passover . Nevertheless , he agrees with the approach of two Passover dates , and argues that the Last Supper took place on the evening of Wednesday 1 April 33 , based on his recent discovery of the Essene , Samaritan , and Zealot lunar calendar , which is based on Egyptian reckoning . Humphreys ' implication is that Jesus and other communities were following the original Jewish calendar putatively imported from Egypt by Moses ( which requires calculating the time of the invisible new moon ) , rather than the official Jewish calendar which had been modified more recently , in the 6th century BC during the Babylonian exile ( which simply requires observing the visible waxing moon ) . A Last Supper on Wednesday , he argues , would allow more time than in the traditional view ( Last Supper on Thursday ) for the various interrogations of Jesus and his presentation to Pilate before he was crucified on Friday . Furthermore , a Wednesday Last Supper , followed by a Thursday daylight Sanhedrin trial , followed by a Friday judicial confirmation and crucifixion would not require violating Jewish court procedure as documented in the 2nd century , which forbade capital trials at night and moreover required a confirmatory session the following day . In a review of Humphreys ' book , the Bible scholar William R Telford points out that the non-astronomical parts of his argument are based on the assumption that the chronologies described in the New Testament are historical and based on eyewitness testimony . In doing so , Telford says , Humphreys has built an argument upon unsound premises which `` does violence to the nature of the biblical texts , whose mixture of fact and fiction , tradition and redaction , history and myth all make the rigid application of the scientific tool of astronomy to their putative data a misconstrued enterprise . '' Location According to later tradition , the Last Supper took place in what is today called The Room of the Last Supper on Mount Zion , just outside the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem , and is traditionally known as The Upper Room . This is based on the account in the Synoptic Gospels that states that Jesus had instructed a pair of unnamed disciples to go to `` the city '' to meet `` a man carrying a jar of water '' , who would lead them to a house , where they would find `` a large upper room furnished and ready '' . In this upper room they `` prepare the Passover '' . But , in Luke 22:8 , it is noted that Jesus sent Peter and John . No more specific indication of the location is given in the New Testament , and the `` city '' referred to may be a suburb of Jerusalem , such as Bethany , rather than Jerusalem itself . The traditional location is in an area that , according to archaeology , had a large Essene community , a point made by scholars who suspect a link between Jesus and the group ( Kilgallen 265 ) . Saint Mark 's Syrian Orthodox Church in Jerusalem is another possible site for the room in which the Last Supper was held , and contains a Christian stone inscription testifying to early reverence for that spot . Certainly the room they have is older than that of the current coenaculum ( crusader - 12th century ) and as the room is now underground the relative altitude is correct ( the streets of 1st century Jerusalem were at least twelve feet ( 3.6 metres ) lower than those of today , so any true building of that time would have even its upper storey currently under the earth ) . They also have a revered Icon of the Virgin Mary , reputedly painted from life by St Luke . Bargil Pixner claims the original site is located beneath the current structure of the Cenacle on Mount Zion . Theology of the Last Supper St. Thomas Aquinas viewed The Father , Christ , and the Holy Spirit as teachers and masters who provide lessons , at times by example . For Aquinas , the Last Supper and the Cross form the summit of the teaching that wisdom flows from intrinsic grace , rather than external power . For Aquinas , at the Last Supper Christ taught by example , showing the value of humility ( as reflected in John 's foot washing narrative ) and self-sacrifice , rather than by exhibiting external , miraculous powers.Reading John with St. Thomas Aquinas by Michael Dauphinais , Matthew Levering 2005 ISBN page xixA-Z of Thomas Aquinas by Joseph Peter Wawrykow 2005 ISBN 0-334-04012-4 pages 124-125 Aquinas stated that based on ( in the Farewell discourse ) in which Jesus said : `` No longer do I call you servants ; ... but I have called you friends '' . Those who are followers of Christ and partake in the Sacrament of the Eucharist become his friends , as those gathered at the table of the Last Supper . For Aquinas , at the Last Supper Christ made the promise to be present in the Sacrament of the Eucharist , and to be with those who partake in it , as he was with his disciples at the Last Supper . John Calvin believed only in the two sacraments of Baptism and the `` Lord 's Supper '' ( i.e. , Eucharist ) . Thus , his analysis of the Gospel accounts of the Last Supper were an important part of his entire theology.Reformed worship by Howard L. Rice , James C. Huffstutler 2001 ISBN 0-664-50147-8 pages 66-68Calvin 's Passion for the Church and the Holy Spirit by David S. Chen 2008 ISBN 978-1-60647-346-7 pages 62-68 Calvin related the Synoptic Gospel accounts of the Last Supper with the Bread of Life Discourse in that states : `` I am the bread of life . He who comes to me will never go hungry . '' Calvin also believed that the acts of Jesus at the Last Supper should be followed as an example , stating that just as Jesus gave thanks to the Father before breaking the bread , those who go to the `` Lord 's Table '' to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist must give thanks for the `` boundless love of God '' and celebrate the sacrament with both joy and thanksgiving . Remembrances The institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper is remembered by Roman Catholics as one of the Luminous Mysteries of the Rosary , the First Station of the Scriptural Way of the Cross and by most Christians as the `` inauguration of the New Covenant '' , mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah , fulfilled at the last supper when Jesus `` took bread , and after blessing it broke it and gave it to them , and said , 'Take ; this is my body . ' And he took a cup , and when he had given thanks he gave it to them , and they all drank of it . And he said to them , 'This is my blood of the covenant , which is poured out for many . Other Christian groups consider the Bread and Wine remembrance to be a change to the Passover ceremony , as Jesus Christ has become `` our Passover , sacrificed for us '' , and hold that partaking of the Passover Communion ( or fellowship ) is now the sign of the New Covenant , when properly understood by the practicing believer . These meals evolved into more formal worship services and became codified as the Mass in the Catholic Church , and as the Divine Liturgy in the Eastern Orthodox Church ; at these liturgies , Catholics and Eastern Orthodox celebrate the Sacrament of the Eucharist . The name `` Eucharist '' is from the Greek word εὐχαριστία ( eucharistia ) which means `` thanksgiving '' . Early Christianity observed a ritual meal known as the `` agape feast '' These `` love feasts '' were apparently a full meal , with each participant bringing food , and with the meal eaten in a common room . They were held on Sundays , which became known as the Lord 's Day , to recall the resurrection , the appearance of Christ to the disciples on the road to Emmaus , the appearance to Thomas and the Pentecost which all took place on Sundays after the Passion . Passover parallels Raymond Brown has argued that during the Jewish Passover Seder , the first cup of wine is drunk before the eating of the ( unleavened ) bread , but here it occurs after . This may indicate that the event was not the first Passover Seder ( which occurs on Nisan 15 ) , and hence more in line with John 's chronology which places it on Nisan 14 , although the meal could easily have been altered during the Last Supper for symbolic or religious purposes . Among Christian denominations , the Eastern Orthodox Church holds that this Eucharistic meal was not the Passover Seder , but a separate meal . The Presbyterian Church ( U.S.A. ) documents also specifically reject the Seder arguments and state that given that no Jewish Seder texts exist earlier than the 9th century , it is historically implausible to attempt a reconstruction of the Seder to create a parallel to the Last Supper , and that the Gospel accounts clearly indicate that the purpose of the Last Supper was not the annual repetition of the Exodus . The fifth chapter in Quran , Al-Ma'ida ( the table ) contains a reference to a meal ( Sura 5:114 ) with a table sent down from God to ʿĪsá ( i.e. , Jesus ) and the apostles ( Hawariyyin ) . However , there is nothing in Sura 5:114 to indicate that Jesus was celebrating that meal regarding his impending death , especially as the Qur'an insists that Jesus was never crucified to begin with . Thus although , Sura 5:114 refers to `` a meal '' , there is no indication that it is the Last Supper . However , some scholars believe that Jesus ' manner of speech during which the table was sent down suggests that it was an affirmation of the apostles ' resolves and to strengthen their faiths as the impending trial was about to befall them . Historicity Some scholars consider the Lord 's supper to have derived not from Jesus ' last supper with the disciples but rather from the gentile tradition of memorial dinners for the dead.Funk , Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar . The acts of Jesus : the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus . HarperSanFrancisco . 1998 . `` Mark , '' p. 51-161 In this view , the Last Supper is a tradition associated mainly with the gentile churches that Paul established , rather than with the earlier , Jewish congregations . However , there is little evidence that this is correct . Luke is the only Gospel in which Jesus tells his disciples to repeat the ritual of bread and wine . Bart D. Ehrman states that these particular lines do not appear in certain ancient manuscripts and might not be original to the text . However , it is in the earliest Greek manuscripts , e.g . P75 , Sinaticus , Vaticanus and Ephraemi Rescriptus . However , many early Church Fathers have attested to the belief that at the Last Supper , Christ made the promise to be present in the Sacrament of the Eucharist , with attestations dating back to the first century AD . The teaching was also affirmed by many councils throughout the Church 's history . Artistic depictions The Last Supper has been a popular subject in Christian art . Such depictions date back to early Christianity and can be seen in the Catacombs of Rome . Byzantine artists frequently focused on the Apostles receiving Communion , rather than the reclining figures having a meal . By the Renaissance , the Last Supper was a favorite topic in Italian art.Vested angels : eucharistic allusions in early Netherlandish paintings by Maurice B. McNamee 1998 ISBN 978-90-429-0007-3 pages 22-32 There are three major themes in the depictions of the Last Supper : the first is the dramatic and dynamic depiction of Jesus ' announcement of his betrayal . The second is the moment of the institution of the tradition of the Eucharist . The depictions here are generally solemn and mystical . The third major theme is the farewell of Jesus to his disciples , in which Judas Iscariot is no longer present , having left the supper . The depictions here are generally melancholy , as Jesus prepares his disciples for his departure.Gospel figures in art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0-89236-727-6 pages 254-259 There are also other , less frequently depicted scenes , such as the washing of the feet of the disciples.Gospel figures in art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0-89236-727-6 pages 252 Well known examples include Leonardo da Vinci 's depiction , which is considered the first work of High Renaissance art due to its high level of harmony , Experiencing art around us by Thomas Buser 2005 ISBN 978-0-534-64114-6 pages 382-383 Tintoretto 's depiction which is unusual in that it includes secondary characters carrying or taking the dishes from the table and Salvadore Dali 's depiction combines the typical Christian themes with modern approaches of Surrealism . File : Last Supper miniature from a Psalter c1220-40.png|miniature depiction from circa 1230 File : Comunione degli apostoli , cella 35.jpg|Communion of the Apostles , by Fra Angelico , with donor portrait , 1440–41 File : Domenico ghirlandaio , cenacolo di ognissanti 01.jpg|Domenico Ghirlandaio , 1480 , depicting Judas separately File : Valentin de Boulogne , Last Supper.jpg|Valentin de Boulogne , 1625-1626 File : Wrocław Last Supper.jpg |Last Supper , sculpture File : Jaume Huguet - Last Supper - WGA11797.jpg|Last Supper by Jaume Huguet File : Tiepolo Last Supper.jpg|Last Supper by Tiepolo File : BouveretLastSupper.jpg|The Last Supper , by Bouveret , 19th century

bb_2256--Last_Supper.txt

What is the Christian service or ceremony, named from Greek meaning grateful, commemorating the Last Supper?

The Pritzker Architecture Prize is awarded annually `` to honor a living architect or architects whose built work demonstrates a combination of those qualities of talent , vision and commitment , which has produced consistent and significant contributions to humanity and the built environment through the art of architecture . '' Founded in 1979 by Jay A. Pritzker and his wife Cindy , the award is funded by the Pritzker family and sponsored by the Hyatt Foundation and is considered to be one of the world 's premier architecture prizes ; it is often referred to as the Nobel Prize of architecture . The most recent winner , in 2016 , is the Chilean architect Alejandro Aravena . The prize is said to be awarded `` irrespective of nationality , race , creed , or ideology . '' The recipients receive US $ 100,000 , a citation certificate , and since 1987 , a bronze medallion . The designs on the medal are inspired by the work of architect Louis Sullivan , while the Latin inspired inscription on the reverse of the medallion—firmitas , utilitas , venustas ( English : firmness , commodity and delight ) —is from Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius . Before 1987 , a limited edition Henry Moore sculpture accompanied the monetary prize . The Executive Director of the prize , Martha Thorne , solicits nominations from a range of people , including past Laureates , academics , critics and others `` with expertise and interest in the field of architecture '' . Any licensed architect can also make a personal application for the prize before 1 November every year . In 1988 Gordon Bunshaft nominated himself for the award and eventually won it . The jury , each year consisting of five to nine `` experts ... recognized professionals in their own fields of architecture , business , education , publishing , and culture '' , deliberate early the following year before announcing the winner in spring . , the prize Chair is the Lord Palumbo ( and has been since 2005 ) ; earlier chairs were J. Carter Brown ( 1979–2002 ) , and the Lord Rothschild ( 2003–04 ) . Controversy In 2013 , `` Women in Design '' , a student organization at the Harvard Graduate School of Design started a petition on behalf of Denise Scott Brown to receive joint recognition with her partner , past prize winner Robert Venturi , furthering a debate about sexism in architecture . The petition , according to The New York Times has `` reignited long-simmering tensions in the architectural world over whether women have been consistently denied the standing they deserve in a field whose most prestigious award was not given to a woman until 2004 , when Zaha Hadid won . '' Although the petition received international support of several past recipients , the jury said that it can not revisit the work of past juries , in order to acknowledge the work of Denise Scott Brown and Lu Wenyu , both women and equal partners to their spouses Venturi and Wang Shu , who won in 1991 and 2012 respectively . Scott Brown told CNN that `` as a woman , she had felt excluded by the elite of architecture throughout her career , '' and that `` the Pritzker Prize was based on the fallacy that great architecture was the work of a 'single lone male genius ' at the expense of collaborative work . '' Laureates Inaugural winner Philip Johnson was cited `` for 50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums , theaters , libraries , houses , gardens and corporate structures '' . The 2004 laureate Zaha Hadid was the first female prize winner . Ryue Nishizawa became the youngest winner in 2010 at age 44 . The 32nd prize winners , Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa , were cited for `` architecture that is simultaneously delicate and powerful , precise and fluid , ingenious but not overly or overtly clever '' . The most recent winner , in 2016 , is the Chilean architect Alejandro Aravena Table notes A. Roche was born in Ireland . B. Pei was born in China . C. Gehry was born in Canada . D. Hadid was born in Iraq . E. Rogers was born in Italy .

odql_3435--Pritzker_Architecture_Prize.txt

What is the 'Pritzker Prize' awarded for?

James `` Buster '' Douglas ( born April 7 , 1960 ) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1981 to 1999 . He is best known for his stunning upset of Mike Tyson on February 11 , 1990 in Tokyo to win the undisputed heavyweight title . At the time Tyson was undefeated and considered to be the best boxer in the world , as well as one of the most feared heavyweight champions in history due to his utter domination of the division over the previous three years . The only casino to make odds for the fight ( all others declining to do so as they considered the fight such a foregone conclusion ) had Douglas as a 42-to-1 underdog for the fight , making his victory , in commentator Jim Lampley 's words , `` The biggest upset in the history of heavyweight championship fights . '' Douglas held the title for eight months and two weeks , losing on October 25 , 1990 to Evander Holyfield via third-round knockout , in his only title defense . Early life The son of professional boxer William `` Dynamite '' Douglas , Douglas grew up in Columbus , Ohio , in the predominantly black Linden neighborhood of Windsor Terrace . He attended Linden McKinley High School , where he played football and basketball , leading Linden to a Class AAA state basketball championship in 1977 . After high school , Douglas played basketball for the Coffeyville Community College Red Ravens in Coffeyville , Kansas , from 1977 to 1978 ; the seventeen-year-old was a 6 feet 0 inch power forward . He is in the Coffeyville Community College Men 's Basketball Hall of Fame . He also played basketball at Sinclair Community College from 1979 to 1980 in Dayton , Ohio , before attending Mercyhurst University on a basketball scholarship . He moved back to Columbus to focus on boxing . For a brief period of time during his early twenties , Douglas was known as the `` Desert Fox '' within the Columbus boxing community . This moniker was affixed to Douglas because of a misinterpreted encyclopedia entry regarding Douglas MacArthur and Erwin Rommel . Several friends of Buster Douglas mistakenly believed that Douglas MacArthur was known as the `` Desert Fox '' and subsequently addressed the future heavyweight champion as such . However , Buster Douglas distanced himself from the `` Desert Fox '' label no later than 1985 because of clarification from his promotional team and the concern that he might be confused with Syrian boxer Ghiath Tayfour . Boxing career Douglas made his debut on May 31 , 1981 and defeated Dan O'Malley in a four round bout . He won his first five fights before coming into a fight with David Bey twenty pounds heavier than he usually did in his early fights . Bey knocked Douglas out in the second round to hand him his first defeat . After six more fights , all wins , Douglas fought Steffen Tangstad to a draw on October 16 , 1982 . He was penalized two points during the course of the fight which proved to be the difference . After the draw Douglas beat largely journeyman fighters over the next fourteen months . Two of his wins were against Jesse Clark . Douglas fought him a total of three times and knocked him out all three times . In his last fight of 1983 , Douglas was dominating opponent Mike White , but White knocked him out in the ninth round . On November 9 , Douglas was scheduled to fight heavyweight contender Trevor Berbick in Las Vegas . Berbick pulled out of the bout three days before it was scheduled and Randall `` Tex '' Cobb elected to take the fight in Berbick 's place . Douglas defeated the former heavyweight contender by winning a majority decision . The next year he fought up-and-coming contender Jesse Ferguson , but was beaten by majority decision . Douglas fought three times in 1986 , defeating former champion Greg Page and fringe contender David Jaco in two of the fights . This earned him a shot at the International Boxing Federation championship that Michael Spinks was stripped of for refusing to defend it . Douglas started well against Tony Tucker and was ahead on points , but he ran out of gas and was stopped in the tenth round . After the Tucker defeat Douglas won four consecutive fights and went on to fight Trevor Berbick in 1989 , winning by a unanimous decision . He followed that up with a unanimous decision victory over future heavyweight champion Oliver McCall , and earned a shot at the undisputed heavyweight championship held by Mike Tyson , who became the universally recognized champion after knocking out Spinks in one round in 1988 . ( Douglas fought on the undercard of the event and defeated Mike Williams by TKO in seven rounds . ) Championship fight against Mike Tyson The fight against Mike Tyson was scheduled for February 11 , 1990 and took place in Tokyo at the Tokyo Dome . Almost everyone assumed that the bout was going to be another quick knockout for the champion . No challenger had taken Tyson beyond the fifth round since 1987 . Many thought it was just an easy tune-up for Tyson before a future mega-fight with undefeated Evander Holyfield , who had recently moved up to heavyweight from cruiserweight where he became the first boxer to be the undisputed champion of the weight class . Douglas was given so little chance of lasting against Tyson , let alone beating him , that nearly every betting parlor in Las Vegas refused to hold odds for the fight . The one casino that did , The Mirage , made Douglas a 42-to-1 underdog . Douglas 's mother , Lula Pearl , died 23 days before the title bout . Douglas , who had trained hard , surprised the world by dominating the fight from the beginning , using his 12-inch reach advantage to perfection . He seemingly hit Tyson at will with jabs and right hands and danced out of range of Tyson 's own punches . The champion had not taken Douglas seriously , expecting another quick and easy knockout victory . He was slow , refusing to move his head and slip his way in ( his usual effective strategy ) but rather setting his feet and throwing big , lunging hooks , repeatedly trying to beat Douglas with single punches . By the fifth round , Tyson 's left eye was swelling shut from Douglas 's many right jabs , and ringside HBO announcers proclaimed it was the most punishment they had ever seen the champion absorb . Larry Merchant memorably added , `` Well , if Mike Tyson , who loves pigeons , was looking for a pigeon in this bout , he has n't found him . '' Tyson 's cornermen appeared to be unprepared for the suddenly dire situation . They had not brought an endswell or an ice pack to the fight , so they were forced to put tap water into a latex glove to hold over Tyson 's swelling eye . By the end of the fight , Tyson 's eye had swollen almost completely shut . In the eighth round , Tyson landed a right uppercut that knocked Douglas down . The referee 's count created controversy as Douglas was on his feet when the referee reached nine , although the official knockdown timekeeper was two seconds ahead . In the ring the final arbiter of the knockdown seconds is the referee and a comparison with Douglas 's winning knockdown count issued to Tyson two rounds later revealed that both fighters had received long counts . Tyson came out aggressively in the dramatic ninth round and continued his attempts to end the fight with one big punch hoping that Douglas was still hurt from the eighth round knockdown . Both men traded punches before Douglas connected on a multi-punch combination that staggered Tyson back to the ropes . With Tyson hurt along the ropes Douglas unleashed a vicious attack to try to finish off a dazed Tyson but , amazingly , Tyson withstood the punishment and barely survived the 9th round . In the tenth round , the severe punishment Douglas had inflicted on Tyson finally began to take its toll on the champion . Douglas dominated the round from the outset . While setting Tyson up with his jab Douglas scored a huge uppercut that snapped Tyson 's head upward . He then followed with a rapid four-punch combination to the head , and knocked Tyson down for the first time in his career . Tyson struggled to his knees and picked up his mouthpiece lying on the mat next to him . He awkwardly attempted to place it back into his mouth . The image of Tyson with the mouthpiece hanging crookedly from his lips would become an enduring image from the fight . He was unable to beat the referee 's count , and Douglas was the new heavyweight champion of the world . As Douglas said in an interview years later , “ I thought Tyson was getting up until I had seen him looking for that mouth piece and then I knew that he was really hurt . So anytime you know you only got ten seconds to get up so you aren ’ t going to worry about anything but just getting up first . So when I had seen him looking around for that mouth piece I knew he was really hurt. ” By contrast , during Douglas 's knockdown two rounds earlier , Douglas shows to be ready to continue early in the count ( he bangs his fist against the canvas in frustration at having let Tyson land the crucial counterpunch , showing no signs of being seriously hurt ) . Douglas , however , clearly waits for the referee to count to 8 before getting up . Douglas 's joy over the victory soon turned to confusion and anger as manager John Johnson informed him in the dressing room that Tyson and Don King were lodging an official protest about the referee 's knockdown count in the eighth round . A week later , during an in-studio interview with HBO 's Larry Merchant , Douglas admitted that the protest and the post-fight confusion ruined what should have been the best time of his life . During that interview with both fighters , Merchant asked Tyson the first four questions , infuriating Douglas 's management crew , who stopped just short of walking out of the HBO studios . After the upset While the IBF immediately recognized Douglas as its champion , the WBA and WBC initially refused due to Tyson 's protest . However , Tyson withdrew his protest four days later amid worldwide public outcry and demands from boxing commissions around the world , and Douglas was officially recognized as undisputed heavyweight champion . While still champion , Douglas appeared on the February 23 , 1990 episode of the World Wrestling Federation 's `` WWF The Main Event '' , as special guest referee for a rematch between Hulk Hogan and `` Macho Man '' Randy Savage . Originally , Tyson was scheduled to be the guest referee , but following the upset , the WWF scrambled to sign on Douglas for the event . At the end of the match , Douglas was provoked into a 'storyline ' punch and knockout of Savage , who was the 'heel ' wrestler in the match . The defeated Tyson clamored for a rematch and Douglas was offered more money than he had ever made for a fight . Not wanting to deal with Tyson 's camp or his promoter Don King , Douglas decided to make his first defense against # 1 contender Evander Holyfield , who had watched the new champion dethrone Tyson from ringside in Tokyo . Douglas went into the October 25 , 1990 fight at 246 pounds , 15 pounds heavier than he was for the Tyson match and also the heaviest he had weighed in for a fight since a 1985 bout with Dion Simpson , in which he tipped the scale at just over 247 pounds . Douglas came out rather sluggish , and was thoroughly dominated by Holyfield during the first two rounds . In the third round Douglas attempted to hit Holyfield with a hard uppercut that he telegraphed . Holyfield avoided the uppercut and knocked an off-balance Douglas to the canvas with a straight right to the chin . Douglas did not get up , ending his brief reign . He retired after the fight . Later career Douglas vs Holyfield was a reported $ 24.6 million payday for Douglas . Doing little for the next several years , Douglas gained weight , reaching nearly 400 pounds . It was only after he nearly died during a diabetic coma that he decided to attempt a return to the sport . He went back into training and made a comeback . He was successful at first , winning six straight fights , but his comeback almost came to a halt in a 1997 disqualification win over journeyman Louis Monaco . In a bizarre ending , Monaco landed a right hand , just after the bell ending round one , that knocked Douglas to the canvas . Douglas was unable to continue after a five-minute rest period and was consequently awarded the win by disqualification ( on account of Monaco 's illegal punch ) . A fight with light-heavyweight champion Roy Jones , Jr. was touted in the late 1990s , although ultimately fell through . In 1998 Douglas was knocked out in the first round of a fight with heavyweight contender Lou Savarese . Douglas subsequently had two more fights , winning both , and retired in 1999 with a final record of 38-6-1 . Film and game Douglas made his feature film acting debut in the Artie Knapp science fiction comedy film Pluto 's Plight . Douglas was the star of the video game James 'Buster ' Douglas Knockout Boxing for the Sega Master System and Sega Genesis . ( In reality , Sega took a pre-existing game , Final Blow , changed the name , and changed one of the character 's names to Douglas ' . ) This game is considered as a response to Nintendo 's Mike Tyson 's Punch-Out ! ! , especially since Tyson lost to Douglas , which Sega took advantage in order to promote their early `` Genesis does what Nintendo n't '' advertisements - an advertising campaign in which Douglas frequently participated in . In 1995 , HBO aired Tyson , a television movie based upon the life of Mike Tyson . Douglas was portrayed by actor Duane Davis . Honors Douglas is one of the few non-students to be honored by Ohio State University with the opportunity to dot the `` i '' during the performance of the Script Ohio by The Ohio State University Marching Band . Professional boxing record |- |align '' center '' colspan 8|38 Wins ( 25 knockouts ) , 6 Losses , 1 Draw , 1 No Contest [ http : //boxrec.com/list_bouts.php ? human_id000584 & cat boxer ] |- | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Result | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Record | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Opponent | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Type | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Round | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Date | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Location | align '' center '' style `` border-style : none none solid solid ; background : # e3e3e3 '' |Notes |-align=center |Win || 38-6-1 || align=left| Andre Crowder |TKO || 1 || February 19 , 1999 || align=left| || |-align=center |Win || 37-6-1 || align=left| Warren Williams |KO || 1 || December 12 , 1998 || align=left| || |-align=center |Loss || 36-6-1 || align=left| Lou Savarese |KO || 1 || June 25 , 1998 || align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win || 36-5-1 || align=left| Quinn Navarre |TKO || 4 || July 13 , 1997 || align=left| || |-align=center |Win || 35-5-1 || align=left| Louis Monaco |DQ || 1 || May 13 , 1997 || align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win || 34-5-1 || align=left| Brian Scott |KO || 6 || March 30 , 1997 || align=left| || |-align=center |Win || 33-5-1 || align=left| Dicky Ryan |UD || 10 || February 12 , 1997 || align=left| || |-align=center |Win || 32-5-1 || align=left| Rocky Pepeli |UD || 10 || January 10 , 1997 || align=left| || |-align=center |Win || 31-5-1 || align=left| Tony LaRosa |TKO || 4 || June 22 , 1996 || align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Loss || 30-5-1 || align=left| Evander Holyfield |KO || 3 || October 25 , 1990 || align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |30-4-1 |align=left| Mike Tyson |KO |10 |February 11 , 1990 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win || 29-4-1 || align=left| Oliver McCall |UD || 10 || July 21 , 1989 || align=left| || |-align=center |Win || 28-4-1 || align=left| Trevor Berbick |UD || 10 || February 25 , 1989 || align=left| || |-align=center |Win |27-4-1 |align=left| Mike Williams |TKO |7 |June 27 , 1988 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |26-4-1 |align=left| Jerry Halstead |TKO |9 |April 16 , 1988 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |25-4-1 |align=left| Percell Davis |RTD |9 |February 24 , 1988 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |24-4-1 |align=left| Donnie Long |KO |2 |November 19 , 1987 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Loss |23-4-1 |align=left| Tony Tucker |TKO |10 |May 30 , 1987 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |23-3-1 |align=left| Dee Collier |UD |10 |September 6 , 1986 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |22-3-1 |align=left| David Jaco |UD |10 |April 19 , 1986 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |21-3-1 |align=left| Greg Page |UD |10 |January 17 , 1986 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Loss |20-3-1 |align=left| Jesse Ferguson |MD |10 |May 9 , 1985 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |20-2-1 |align=left| Dion Simpson |KO |1 |March 27 , 1985 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |19-2-1 |align=left| Randall Cobb |MD |10 |November 9 , 1984 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |style= '' background : # ddd ; '' |NC |18-2-1 |align=left| David Starkey |NC |1 |July 9 , 1984 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Loss |18-2-1 |align=left| Mike White |TKO |9 |December 17 , 1983 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |18-1-1 |align=left| Eugene Cato |TKO |1 |September 28 , 1983 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |17-1-1 |align=left| Dave Johnson |MD |10 |July 5 , 1983 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |16-1-1 |align=left| Henry Porter |TKO |2 |April 28 , 1983 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |15-1-1 |align=left| Jesse Clark |KO |2 |April 16 , 1983 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |14-1-1 |align=left| Leroy Diggs |TKO |7 |March 29 , 1983 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |13-1-1 |align=left| Jesse Clark |KO |2 |March 9 , 1983 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |12-1-1 |align=left| Tim Johnson |KO |1 |November 20 , 1982 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |style= '' background : # abcdef ; '' |Draw |11-1-1 |align=left| Steffen Tangstad |PTS |8 |October 16 , 1982 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |11–1 |align=left| Mel Daniels |TKO |1 |April 24 , 1982 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |10–1 |align=left| Rick Enis |UD |6 |April 8 , 1982 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |9–1 |align=left| Marvin Earle |TKO |2 |February 15 , 1982 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |8–1 |align=left| Donny Townsend |UD |6 |February 13 , 1982 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |7–1 |align=left| Hubert Adams |KO |1 |January 23 , 1982 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |6–1 |align=left| Don Johnson |TKO |3 |December 23 , 1981 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Loss |5–1 |align=left| David Bey |TKO |2 |November 6 , 1981 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |5–0 |align=left| Jesse Clark |KO |3 |October 23 , 1981 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |4–0 |align=left| Abdul Muhaymin |TKO |5 |October 14 , 1981 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |3–0 |align=left| Mike Rodgers |TKO |3 |September 27 , 1981 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |2–0 |align=left| Mike Lear |UD |4 |July 24 , 1981 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center |Win |1–0 |align=left| Dan O'Malley |TKO |3 |May 31 , 1981 |align=left| |align=left| |-align=center

jp_670--Buster_Douglas.txt

Who did Buster Douglas knock out in 1990?

Pierre Laval ( ; 28 June 1883 – 15 October 1945 ) was a French politician . During the time of the Third Republic , he served as Prime Minister of France from 27 January 1931 to 20 February 1932 , and also headed another government from 7 June 1935 to 24 January 1936 . Laval began his career as a socialist , but over time drifted far to the right . Following France 's surrender and armistice with Germany in 1940 , he served in the Vichy Regime . He took a prominent role under Philippe Pétain , first as the vice-president of Vichy 's Council of Ministers from 11 July 1940 to 13 December 1940 , and later as the head of government from 18 April 1942 to 20 August 1944 . After the liberation of France in 1944 , Laval was arrested by the French government under General Charles de Gaulle . In what some historians consider a flawed trial , Laval was found guilty of high treason , and after a thwarted suicide attempt , he was executed by firing squad . His manifold political activities have left a complicated and controversial legacy , and there are more than a dozen biographies of him . Early life Laval was born 28 June 1883 at Châteldon , Puy-de-Dôme , in the northern part of Auvergne . His father worked in the village as a café proprietor , butcher and postman ; he also owned a vineyard and horses . Laval was educated at the village school in Châteldon . At age 15 , he was sent to a Paris lycée to study for his baccalauréat . Returning south to Lyon , he spent the next year reading for a degree in zoology . Laval joined the Socialists in 1903 , when he was living in Saint-Étienne , 62 km southwest of Lyon . `` I was never a very orthodox socialist '' , he said in 1945 , `` by which I mean that I was never much of a Marxist . My socialism was much more a socialism of the heart than a doctrinal socialism ... I was much more interested in men , their jobs , their misfortunes and their conflicts than in the digressions of the great German pontiff . '' Laval returned to Paris in 1907 at the age of 24 . He was called up for military service and , after serving in the ranks , was discharged for varicose veins . In April 1913 he said : `` Barrack-based armies are incapable of the slightest effort , because they are badly-trained and , above all , badly commanded . '' He favoured abolition of the army and replacement by a citizens ' militia . During this period , Laval became familiar with the left-wing doctrines of Georges Sorel and Hubert Lagardelle . In 1909 , he turned to the law . Marriage and family Shortly after becoming a member of the Paris bar , he married the daughter of a Dr Joseph Claussat and set up a home in Paris with his new wife . Their only child , a daughter , was born in 1911 . Although Laval 's wife came from a political family , she never participated in politics . Laval was generally considered to be devoted to his family . Before the war The years before the First World War were characterised by labour unrest , and Laval defended strikers , trade unionists , and left-wing agitators against government attempts to prosecute them . At a trade union conference , Laval said : During the First World War Socialist Deputy for the Seine In April 1914 , as fear of war swept the nation , the Socialists and Radicals geared up their electoral campaign in defence of peace . Their leaders were Jean Jaurès and Joseph Caillaux . The Bloc des Gauches ( Leftist Bloc ) denounced the law passed in July 1913 extending compulsory military service from two to three years . The Confédération générale du travail trade union sought Laval as Socialist candidate for the Seine , the district comprising Paris and its suburbs . He won . The Radicals , with the support of Socialists , held the majority in the French Chamber of Deputies . Together they hoped to avert war . The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 and of Jaurès on 31 July 1914 shattered those hopes . Laval 's brother , Jean , died in the first months of the war . Laval and 2,000 others were listed by the military in the Carnet B , a compilation of potentially subversive elements who might hinder mobilisation . In the name of national unity , Minister of the Interior Jean-Louis Malvy , despite pressure from chiefs of staff , refused to have anyone apprehended . Laval remained true to his pacifist convictions during the war . In December 1915 , Jean Longuet , grandson of Karl Marx , proposed to Socialist parliamentarians that they communicate with socialists of other states , hoping to press governments into a negotiated peace . Laval signed on , but the motion was defeated . With France 's resources geared for war , goods were scarce or overpriced . On 30 January 1917 , in the National Assembly Laval called upon the Supply Minister Édouard Herriot to deal with the inadequate coal supply in Paris . When Herriot said , `` If I could , I would unload the barges myself '' , Laval retorted `` Do not add ridicule to ineptitude . '' The words delighted the assembly and attracted the attention of George Clemenceau , but left the relationship between Laval and Herriot permanently strained . Stockholm , the `` polar star '' Laval scorned the conduct of the war and the poor supply of troops in the field . When mutinies broke out after General Robert Nivelle 's offensive of April 1917 at Chemin des Dames , he spoke in defence of the mutineers . When Marcel Cachin and Marius Moutet returned from St. Petersburg in June 1917 with the invitation to a socialist convention in Stockholm , Laval saw a chance for peace . In an address to the Assembly , he urged the chamber to allow a delegation to go : `` Yes , Stockholm , in response to the call of the Russian Revolution .... Yes , Stockholm , for peace .... Yes , Stockholm the polar star . '' The request was denied . The hope of peace in spring 1917 was overwhelmed by discovery of traitors , some real , some imagined , as with Malvy . Because he had refused to arrest Frenchmen on the Carnet B , Malvy became a suspect . Laval 's `` Stockholm , étoile polaire '' speech had not been forgotten . Many of Laval 's acquaintances , the publishers of the anarchist Bonnet rouge , and other pacifists were arrested or interrogated . Though Laval frequented pacifist circles – it was said that he was acquainted with Leon Trotsky – the authorities did not pursue him . His status as a deputy , his caution , and his friendships protected him . In November 1917 , Clemenceau offered him a post in government , but the Socialist Party had by then refused to enter any government . Laval toed the party line , but he questioned the wisdom of such a policy in a meeting of the Socialist members of parliament . Initial postwar career From Socialist to Independent In 1919 a conservative wave swept the Bloc National into control . Laval was not re-elected . The Socialists ' record of pacifism , their opposition to Clemenceau , and anxiety arising from the excesses of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia contributed to their defeat . The General Confederation of Labour ( CGT ) , with 2,400,000 members , launched a general strike in 1920 , which petered out as thousands of workers were laid off . In response , the government sought to dissolve the CGT . Laval , with Joseph Paul-Boncour as chief counsel , defended the union 's leaders , saving the union by appealing to the ministers Théodore Steeg ( interior ) and Auguste Isaac ( commerce and industry ) . Laval 's relations with the Socialist Party drew to an end . The last years with the Socialist caucus in the chamber combined with the party 's disciplinary policies eroded Laval 's attachment to the cause . With the Bolshevik victory in Russia the party was changing ; at the Congress of Tours in December 1920 , the Socialists split into two ideological components : the French Communist Party ( SFIC later PCF ) , inspired by Moscow , and the more moderate French Section of the Workers ' International ( SFIO ) . Laval let his membership lapse , not taking sides as the two factions battled over the legacy of Jean Jaurès . Mayor of Aubervilliers In 1923 Aubervilliers in northern Paris needed a mayor . As a former deputy of the constituency , Laval was an obvious candidate . To be eligible for election , Laval bought farmland , Les Bergeries . Few were aware of his defection from the Socialists . Laval was also asked by the local SFIO and Communist Party to head their lists . Laval chose to run under his own list , of former socialists he convinced to leave the party and work for him . This was an independent Socialist Party of sorts that existed only in Aubervilliers . In a four-way race , Laval won in the second round . He served as mayor of Aubervilliers until just before his death . Laval won over those he defeated by cultivating personal contacts . He developed a network among the humble and the well-to-do in Aubervilliers , and with mayors of neighbouring towns . He was the only independent politician in the suburb . He avoided entering the ideological war between socialists and communists . Independent Deputy for the Seine In the 1924 legislative elections , the SFIO and the Radicals formed a national coalition known as the Cartel des Gauches . Laval headed a list of independent socialists in the Seine . The cartel won and Laval regained a seat in the National Assembly . His first act was to bring back Joseph Caillaux , former Prime Minister , Cabinet member and member of the National Assembly and once the star of the Radical Party . Clemenceau had had Caillaux arrested toward the end of the war for collusion with the enemy . He spent two years in prison and lost his civic rights . Laval stood for Caillaux 's pardon and won . Caillaux became an influential patron . As a member of the government Minister and senator Laval 's reward for support of the cartel was appointment as Minister of Public Works in the government of Paul Painlevé in April 1925 . Six months later , the government collapsed . Laval from then on belonged to the club of former ministers from which new ministers were drawn . Between 1925 and 1926 Laval participated three more times in governments of Aristide Briand , once as under-secretary to the premier and twice as Minister of Justice ( garde des sceaux ) . When he first became Minister of Justice , Laval abandoned his law practice to avoid conflict of interest . Laval 's momentum was frozen after 1926 through a reshuffling of the cartel majority orchestrated by the Radical-Socialist mayor and deputy of Lyon , Édouard Herriot . Founded in 1901 , the Radical Party became the hinge faction of the Third Republic . Its support or defection often meant survival or collapse of governments . Through this latest swing , Laval was excluded from the direction of France for four years . Author Gaston Jacquemin suggested that Laval chose not to partake in a Herriot government , which he judged incapable of handling the financial crisis . 1926 marked the definitive break between Laval and the left , but he maintained friends on the left . In 1927 Laval was elected Senator for the Seine , withdrawing from and placing himself above the political battles for majorities in the National Assembly . He longed for a constitutional reform to strengthen the executive branch and eliminate political instability , the flaw of the Third Republic . On 2 March 1930 Laval returned as Minister of Labour in the second André Tardieu government . Tardieu and Laval knew each other from the days of Clemenceau , which developed into mutual appreciation . Tardieu needed men he could trust : his previous government had collapsed a little over a week earlier because of the defection of the minister of Labor , Louis Loucheur . But , when the Radical Socialist Camille Chautemps failed to form a viable government , Tardieu was called back . Personal investments From 1927 to 1930 , Laval began to accumulate a sizeable personal fortune ; after the war his wealth resulted in charges that he had used his political position to line his own pockets . `` I have always thought '' , he wrote to the examining magistrate on 11 September 1945 , `` that a soundly based material independence , if not indispensable , gives those statesmen who possess it a much greater political independence . '' Until 1927 his principal source of income had been his fees as a lawyer and in that year they totalled 113,350 francs , according to his income tax returns . Between August 1927 and June 1930 , he undertook large-scale investments in various enterprises , totalling 51 million francs . Not all this money was his own ; it came from a group of financiers who had the backing of an investment trust , the Union Syndicale et Financière and two banks , the Comptoir Lyon Allemand and the Banque Nationale de Crédit . Two of the investments which Laval and his backers acquired were provincial newspapers , Le Moniteur du Puy-de-Dôme and its associated printing works at Clermont-Ferrand , and the Lyon Républicain . The circulation of the Moniteur stood at 27,000 in 1926 before Laval took it over . By 1933 , it had more than doubled to 58,250 . Thereafter circulation declined and never surpassed this peak . Profits varied , but during the seventeen years of his control , Laval earned some 39 million francs in income from the paper and the printing works combined . The renewed plant was valued at 50 million francs , which led the high court expert in 1945 to say with some justification that it had been `` an excellent deal for him . '' Minister of Labour and Social Insurance More than 150,000 textile workers were on strike , and violence was feared . As Minister of Public Works in 1925 , Laval had ended the strike of mine workers . Tardieu hoped he could do the same as Minister of Labour . The conflict was settled without bloodshed . Socialist politician Léon Blum , never one of Laval 's allies , conceded that Laval 's `` intervention was skillful , opportune and decisive . '' Social insurance had been on the agenda for ten years . It had passed the Chamber of Deputies , but not the Senate , in 1928 . Tardieu gave Laval until May Day to get the project through . The date was chosen to stifle the agitation of Labour Day . Laval 's first effort went into clarifying the muddled collection of texts . He then consulted employer and labour organisations . Laval had to reconcile the divergent views of Chamber and Senate . `` Had it not been for Laval 's unwearying patience '' , Laval 's associate Tissier wrote , `` an agreement would never have been achieved '' , In two months Laval presented the Assembly a text which overcame its original failure . It met the financial constraints , reduced the control of the government , and preserved the choice of doctors and their billing freedom . The Chamber and the Senate passed the law with an overwhelming majority . When the bill had passed its final stages , Tardieu described his Minister of Labour as `` displaying at every moment of the discussion as much tenacity as restraint and ingenuity . '' First Laval government Tardieu 's government ultimately proved unable to weather the Oustric Affair . After the failure of the Oustric Bank , it appeared that members of the government had improper ties to it . The scandal involved Minister of Justice Raoul Péret , and Under-Secretaries Henri Falcoz and Eugène Lautier . Though Tardieu was not involved , on 4 December 1930 , he lost his majority in the Senate . President Gaston Doumergue called on Louis Barthou to form a government , but Barthou failed . Doumergue turned to Laval , who fared no better . The following month the government formed by Théodore Steeg floundered . Doumergue renewed his offer to Laval . On 27 January 1931 Laval successfully formed his first government . In the words of Léon Blum , the Socialist opposition was amazed and disappointed that the ghost of Tardieu 's government reappeared within a few weeks of being defeated with Laval at its head , `` like a night bird surprised by the light . '' Laval 's nomination as premier led to speculation that Tardieu , the new agriculture minister , held the real power in the Laval Government . Although Laval thought highly of Tardieu and Briand , and applied policies in line with theirs , Laval was not Tardieu 's mouthpiece . Ministers who formed the Laval government were in great part those who had formed Tardieu governments but that was a function of the composite majority Laval could find at the National Assembly . Raymond Poincaré , Aristide Briand and Tardieu before him had offered ministerial posts to Herriot 's Radicals , but to no avail . Besides Briand , André Maginot , Pierre-Étienne Flandin , Paul Reynaud , Laval brought in as his advisors , friends such as Maurice Foulon from Aubervilliers , and Pierre Cathala , whom he knew from his days in Bayonne and who had worked in Laval 's Labour ministry . Cathala began as Under-Secretary of the Interior and was appointed as Minister of the Interior in January 1932 . Blaise Diagne of Senegal , the first African deputy , had been elected to the National Assembly at the same time as Laval in 1914 . Laval invited Diagne to join his cabinet as under-secretary to the colonies ; he was the first Black African appointed to a cabinet position in a French government . Laval also called on financial experts such as Jacques Rueff , Charles Rist and Adéodat Boissard . André François-Poncet was appointed as under-secretary to the premier and then as ambassador to Germany . Laval 's government included an economist , Claude-Joseph Gignoux , when economists in government service were rare . France in 1931 was unaffected by the world economic crisis . Laval declared on embarking for the United States on 16 October 1931 , `` France remained healthy thanks to work and savings . '' Agriculture , small industry , and protectionism were the bases of France 's economy . With a conservative policy of contained wages and limited social services , France had accumulated the largest gold reserves in the world after the United States . France reaped the benefit of devaluation of the franc orchestrated by Poincaré , which made French products competitive on the world market . In the whole of France , 12,000 people were recorded as unemployed . Laval and his cabinet considered the economy and gold reserves as means to diplomatic ends . Laval left to visit London , Berlin and Washington . He attended conferences on the world crisis , war reparations and debt , disarmament , and the gold standard . Role in 1931 Austrian financial crisis In 1931 , Austria underwent a banking crisis when its largest bank , the Creditanstalt , was revealed to be nearly bankrupt , threatening a worldwide financial crisis . World leaders began negotiating the terms for an international loan to Austria 's central government to sustain its financial system ; however , Laval blocked the proposed package for nationalistic reasons . He demanded that France receive a series of diplomatic concessions in exchange for its support , including renunciation of a prospective German-Austrian customs union . This proved to be fatal for the negotiations , which ultimately fell through . As a result , the Creditanstalt declared bankruptcy on 11 May 1931 , precipitating a crisis that quickly spread to other nations . Within four days , bank runs in Budapest were underway , and the bank failures began spreading to Germany and Britain , among others . Hoover Moratorium ( 20 June 1931 ) The Hoover Moratorium of 1931 , a proposal made by American President Herbert Hoover to freeze all intergovernmental debt for a one-year period , was , according to author and political advisor McGeorge Bundy , `` the most significant action taken by an American president for Europe since Woodrow Wilson 's administration . '' The United States had enormous stakes in Germany : long-term German borrowers owed the United States private sector more than $ 1.25 billion ; the short-term debt neared $ 1 billion . By comparison , the entire United States national income in 1931 was just $ 54 billion . To put it into perspective , authors Walter Lippmann and William O. Scroggs stated in The United States in World Affairs , An Account of American Foreign Relations , that `` the American stake in Germany 's government and private obligations was equal to half that of all the rest of the world combined . '' The proposed moratorium would also benefit Great Britain 's investment in Germany 's private sector , making more likely the repayment of those loans while the public indebtedness was frozen . It was in Hoover 's interest to offer aid to an ailing British economy in the light of the indebtedness of Great Britain to the United States . France , on the other hand , had a relatively small stake in Germany 's private debt but a huge interest in German reparations ; and payment to France would be compromised under Hoover 's moratorium . The scheme was further complicated by ill timing , perceived collusion among the US , Great Britain and Germany , and the fact that it constituted a breach of the Young Plan . Such breach could only be approved in France by the National Assembly ; the survival of the Laval Government rested on the legislative body 's approval of the moratorium . Seventeen days elapsed between the proposal and the vote of confidence of the French legislators . That delay was blamed for the lack of success of the Hoover Moratorium . The US Congress did not approve it until December 1931 . In support of the Hoover Moratorium Laval undertook a year of personal and direct diplomacy by which he traveled to London , Berlin and the United States . While he were considerable domestic achievements to his name , his international efforts were short on results . British Premier Ramsay MacDonald and Foreign Secretary Arthur Anderson— preoccupied by internal political divisions and the collapse of the pound sterling— were unable to help . German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning and Foreign Minister Julius Curtius , both eager for Franco-German reconciliation , were under siege on all sides : they faced a very weak economy which made meeting government payroll a weekly miracle . Private bankruptcies and constant layoffs had the communists on a short fuse . On the other end of the political spectrum , the German Army was spying on the Brüning cabinet and feeding information to the Stahlhelm , Bund der Frontsoldaten and the National Socialists , effectively freezing any overtures towards France . In the United States the conference between Hoover and Laval was an exercise in mutual frustration . Hoover 's plan for a reduced military had been rebuffed—albeit gently . A solution to the Danzig corridor had been retracted . The concept of introducing silver standard for the countries that went off the gold standard was disregarded as a frivolous proposal by Laval and Albert-Buisson . Hoover thought it might have helped `` Mexico , India , China and South America '' , but Laval dismissed the silver solution as an inflationary proposition , adding that `` it was cheaper to inflate paper . '' Laval did not get a security pact , without which the French would never consider disarmament , nor did he obtain an endorsement for the political moratorium . The promise to match any reduction of German reparations with a decrease of the French debt was not put in the communiqué . The joint statement declared the attachment of France and the United States to the gold standard . The two governments also agreed that the Banque de France and the Federal Reserve would consult each other before transfers of gold . This was welcome news after the run on American gold in the preceding weeks . In light of the financial crisis , the leaders agreed to review the economic situation in Germany before the Hoover moratorium had run its course . These were meagre political results . The Hoover–Laval encounter , however , had other effects : it made Laval more widely known and raised his standing in the United States and France . The American and French press were smitten . His optimism was such a contrast to his grim-sounding international contemporaries that in Time magazine named him as the 1931 Man of the Year . An honour never bestowed before on a Frenchman . He followed Mohandas K. Gandhi and preceded Franklin D. Roosevelt in receiving the honour . 1934–36 The second Cartel des Gauches ( Left-Wing Cartel ) was driven from power by the riots of 6 February 1934 , staged by fascist , monarchist , and other far-right groups . ( These groups had contacts with some conservative politicians , among whom were Laval and Marshal Philippe Pétain . ) Laval became Minister of Colonies in the new right-wing government of Gaston Doumergue . In October , Foreign Minister Louis Barthou was assassinated ; Laval succeeded him , holding that office until 1936 . At this time , Laval was opposed to Germany , the `` hereditary enemy '' of France , and he pursued anti-German alliances . He met with Mussolini in Rome , and they signed the Franco-Italian Agreement of 1935 on 4 January . The agreement ceded parts of French Somaliland to Italy and allowing her a free hand in Abyssinia , in exchange for support against any German aggression . Laval denied that he gave Mussolini a free hand in Abyssinia , he even wrote to Il Duce on the subject . In April 1935 , Laval persuaded Italy and Great Britain to join France in the Stresa Front against German ambitions in Austria . On 2 May 1935 , he likewise signed the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance . Laval 's primary aim during the build-up to the Italo-Abyssinian War was to retain Italy as an anti-German power and not to drive her into Germany 's hands by adopting a hostile attitude to an invasion of Abyssinia . According to the English historian Correlli Barnett , in Laval 's view `` all that really mattered was Nazi Germany . His eyes were on the demilitarised zone of the Rhineland ; his thoughts on the Locarno guarantees . To estrange Italy , one of the Locarno powers , over such a question as Abyssinia did not appeal to Laval 's Auvergnat peasant mind '' . In June 1935 , he became Prime Minister as well . In October 1935 , Laval and British foreign minister Samuel Hoare proposed a realpolitik solution to the Abyssinia Crisis . When leaked to the media in December , the Hoare–Laval Pact was widely denounced as appeasement to Mussolini . Laval was forced to resign on 22 January 1936 , and was driven completely out of ministerial politics . The victory of the Popular Front in 1936 meant that Laval had a left-wing government as a target for his media . Under Vichy France Formation of the Vichy Government During the Phoney War , Laval 's attitude towards the conflict reflected a cautious ambivalence . He was on record as saying that although the war could have been avoided by diplomatic means , it was now up to the government to prosecute it with the utmost vigour . On 9 June 1940 , the Germans were advancing on a

bb_8522--Pierre_Laval.txt

Which French prime minister was executed for treason in 1945?

Red Square ( ) is a city square ( plaza ) in Moscow , Russia . It separates the Kremlin , the former royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia , from a historic merchant quarter known as Kitai-gorod . Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow since Moscow 's major streets , which connect to Russia 's major highways , originate from the square . Origin and name The name Red Square neither originates from the pigment of the surrounding bricks ( which , in fact , were whitewashed at certain periods ) nor from the link between the colour red and communism . Rather , the name came about because the Russian word красная ( krasnaya ) , which means `` red , '' was applied to a small area between St . Basil 's Cathedral , the Spassky Tower of the Kremlin , and the Lobnoe Mesto ( it actually never was a place of execution ) , and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich officially extended the name to the entire square , which had previously been called Pozhar , or `` burnt-out place '' , in reference to the fact that several buildings had to be burned down to make place for the square . Several ancient Russian towns , such as Suzdal , Yelets , and Pereslavl-Zalessky , have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad . History The rich history of Red Square is reflected in many paintings by Vasily Surikov , Konstantin Yuon and others . The square was meant to serve as Moscow 's main marketplace . It was also the site of various public ceremonies and proclamations , and occasionally a coronation for Russia 's Tsars would take place . The square has been gradually built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established . Before the 18th century The East side of the Kremlin triangle , lying adjacent to Red Square and situated between the rivers Moskva and the now underground Neglinnaya River was deemed the most vulnerable side of the Kremlin to attack , since it was neither protected by the rivers , nor any other natural barriers , as the other sides were . Therefore , the Kremlin wall was built to its greatest height on this side , and the Italian architects involved in the building of these fortifications convinced Ivan the Great to clear the area outside of the walls to create a field for shooting . The relevant decrees were issued in 1493 and 1495 . They called for the demolition of all buildings within 110 sazhens ( 234 metres ) of the wall . From 1508 to 1516 , the Italian architect Aloisio the New arranged for the construction of a moat in front of the Eastern wall , which would connect the Moskva and Neglinnaya and be filled in with water from Neglinnaya . This moat , known as the Alevizov moat having a length of 541 metres , width of 36 metres , and a depth of 9.5–13 m was lined with limestone and , in 1533 , fenced on both sides with low , 4‑metre thick cogged brick walls . Three square gates existed on this side of the wall , which in the 17th century , were known as : Konstantino-Eleninsky , Spassky , Nikolsky ( owing their names to the icons of Constantine and Helen , the Saviour and St. Nicholas which hung over them ) . The last two are directly opposite Red Square , while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basil 's Cathedral . In the early 19th century , the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks , but the Spassky Gate was the main front gate of the Kremlin and used for royal entrances . From this gate , wooden and ( following the 17th century improvements ) stone bridges stretched across the moat . Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – `` raskats '' . The Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto . The square was called Veliky Torg ( Great market ) or simply Torg ( Market ) , then Troitskaya by the name of the small Troitskaya ( Trinity ) Church , burnt down in the great fire during the Tatar invasion in 1571 . After that , the square held the name Pozhar , which means `` burnt '' . It was not until 1661–62 , when it was first mentioned by its contemporary Krasnaya – `` Red '' name . Red Square was the landing stage and trade centre for Moscow . Ivan the Great decreed that trade should only be conducted from person to person , but in time , these rules were relaxed and permanent market buildings began appearing on the square . After a fire in 1547 , Ivan the Terrible reorganised the lines of wooden shops on the Eastern side into market lines . The streets Ilyinka and Varvarka were divided into the Upper lines ( now GUM department store ) , Middle lines and Bottom lines , although Bottom Lines were already in Zaryadye ) . After a few years , the Cathedral of Intercession of the Virgin , commonly known as Saint Basil 's Cathedral , was built on the moat under the rule of Ivan IV . This was the first building which gave the square its present-day characteristic silhouette ( pyramidal roofs had not yet been built on the Kremlin towers ) . In 1595 , the wooden market lines were replaced with stone . By that time , a brick platform for the proclamation of the tsar 's edicts , known as Lobnoye Mesto , had also been constructed . Red Square was considered a sacred place . Various festive processions were held there , and during Palm Sunday , the famous `` procession on a donkey '' was arranged , in which the patriarch , sitting on a donkey , accompanied by the tsar and the people went out of Saint Basil 's Cathedral in the Kremlin . During the expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612 , Prince Dmitry Pozharsky entered the Kremlin through the square . In memory of this event , he built the Kazan Cathedral – in honour of the Kazan Icon of the Mother of God , followed his army in a campaign . At the same time ( 1624–1625 ) , Spasskaya tower received contemporary tent roofs . This was done on the proposal and the draught of Christopher Galloway from Scotland , who was summoned to design the new tower 's clock and suggested the arrangement of the tent roof over the clock . In the mid-century a gilded double-headed eagle was set on top of the tower . After this , the square became known as Krasivaya ( `` beautiful '' ) . In the late 17th century ( 1679-1680 ) the square was cleared of all wooden structures . Then all Kremlin towers received tent roofs , except Nikolskaya . One tent was erected on the wall above Red Square ( the so‑called Tsarskaya Tower , so that the tsar could watch from this spot the ceremonies in the square ) . Tent roofs were also constructed at Voskrerensky ( Iberian ) gates , arranged in the wall of Kitai-gorod . These were the fortified gates at Voskresensky Bridge over the River Neglinnaya . In 1697 and 1699 , gates on both sides of Voskresensky Bridge were rebuilt into large stone buildings : the Mint and Zemsky prikaz ( department in charge of urban and police matters ) . Zemsky prikaz ( on the site of current Historical Museum ) was then known as the Main Pharmacy , founded under orders of Peter The Great . In 1755 the first Russian University was originally housed in the building of Zemsky prikaz , before moving to the better known building on Mokhovaya street further across Manege Square . At the same time the ( by then already drained ) Alevizov moat was used as a state Pharmacy 's garden for growing medicinal plants . Wjatscheslaw Grigorjewitsch Schwarz 002.jpg|17th century Palm Sunday procession leaving Saint Basil for Kremlin . Surikov streltsi.jpg|Execution of streltsy by Tsar Peter I ( to the right on a horse ) in Red Square , 1698 ( painted 1881 ) Kniznije lavki.jpg|Book shops at the Spassky bridge at the main gate of the Kremlin The Kazan Cathedral.jpg|Kazan Cathedral ( 1993 reconstruction , it originates back to 1612-25 ) Moscow Red Square rathaus , survey by Bove , 1816.jpg|Zemsky prikaz , town hall built 1700 18th century In 1702 , the first public theatre in Russia was built near the Nikolsky gate ; It stood until 1737 , when it was destroyed in a fire . In the 1730s , a new mint building , called the Gubernskoye pravlenie ( Provincial Board ) , was built in front of the old one . During her reign , Catherine the Great decided to make improvements to the square . In 1786 the upper floor of the market lines was made of stone . This line was built on the opposite side of the square , near a moat between the Spasskaya and Nikolskaya towers . Then architect Matvey Kazakov built ( in the old forms ) the new Lobnoye mesto of hewn stone , slightly West of the place where it was before . 19th and early 20th centuries In 1804 , at the request of merchants , the square was paved in stone . In 1806 Nikolskaya Tower was reconstructed in the Gothic style , and received a tent roof . The new phase of improvement of the square began after the Napoleonic invasion and fire in 1812 . The moat was filled in 1813 and in its place , rows of trees were planted . The market Line along the moat , dilapidated after the fire , had been demolished , and on the Eastern side , Joseph Bové constructed new building of lines in the Empire style . In 1818 the Monument to Minin and Pozharsky , was erected , symbolising the rise in patriotic consciousness during the war . In 1874 the historic building of Zemsky prikaz was demolished . In its place the Imperial Historical Museum was built in pseudo-Russian style . After Bové 's lines were demolished , new large buildings were erected between 1888 and 1893 , also in the pseudo-Russian style : upper lines ( Gum department store ) and middle lines . The upper lines were intended for retail sale and together in fact comprised the first department store in Moscow . Middle lines were intended for wholesale trade . At the same time ( in 1892 ) the square was illuminated by electric lanterns . In 1909 a tram appeared on the square for the first time . Nikolskaya bashnya.jpg|The Kremlin with Alevizov moat and Nikolskaya Tower in front . By Fedor Alekseev , 1800 . Krasnaya Ploshad1802.jpg|Left-right : Zemsky prikaz , Voskresensky gates , Provincial Board and Kazan Cathedral , 1802 Krasnaya plocshad 19 cent.jpg|Left-right : market lines by Bove , Saint Basil and Kremlin . View from 1816 . Market lines were replaced by GUM store in 1893 . Minin-Pozharsky.jpg|Minin-Pozharsky monument from 1818 commemorating the expulsion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Moscow , 19th century Красная площадь ( Moscow clad in snow ) .jpg|Saint Basil 's Cathedral , Monument to Minin and Pozharsky and Spasskaya Tower in 1908 Red Square in Moscow ( 1801 ) by Fedor Alekseev.jpg|Red Square with St . Basil 's Cathedral and Moscow Kremlin in background , by Fedor Alekseev , 1801 . Soviet era and modern era During the Soviet era , Red Square maintained its significance , becoming a focal point for the new state . Besides being the official address of the Soviet government , it was renowned as a showcase for military parades from 1919 onward . Lenin 's Mausoleum would from 1924 onward be a part of the square complex , and also as the grandstand for important dignitaries in all national celebrations . In the 1930s , Kazan Cathedral and Iverskaya Chapel with the Resurrection Gates were demolished to make room for heavy military vehicles driving through the square ( both were later rebuilt after the fall of the Soviet Union ) . There were plans to demolish Moscow 's most recognized building , Saint Basil 's Cathedral , as well to make way for a larger Red Square , as well as the State Historical Museum . The legend is that Lazar Kaganovich , Stalin 's associate and director of the Moscow reconstruction plan , prepared a special model of Red Square , in which the cathedral could be removed , and brought it to Stalin to show how the cathedral was an obstacle for parades and traffic . But when he jerked the cathedral out of the model , Stalin objected with his rather famous quote : `` Lazar ! Put it back ! `` . Two of the most significant military parades on Red Square were November 7 , 1941 , when the city was besieged by Germans and troops were leaving Red Square straight to the front lines , and the Victory Parade in 1945 , when the banners of defeated Nazi armies were thrown at the foot of Lenin 's Mausoleum . The Soviet Union held many parades in Red Square for May Day , Victory Day , and the October Revolution , which consisted of propaganda , flags , a labour demonstration , and a troops march and show off of tanks and missiles . On Victory Day in 1945 , 1965 , 1985 , 1990 , and 2015 there were military marches and parades as well . In 1963 a group of African students organised a protest on Red Square in response to the alleged murder of a medical student Edmund Assare-Addo . This was the first recorded political protest on Red Square since the late 1920s . On May 28 , 1987 , a West German pilot named Mathias Rust landed a Cessna 172 light aircraft at St . Basil next to Red Square , causing a major scandal in the Soviet Air Defence Forces . In 1990 the Kremlin and Red Square were among the very first sites in the USSR added to UNESCO 's World Heritage List . Red Square has also served as a venue for high-profile concerts . Linkin Park , The Prodigy , t.A.T.u. , Shakira , Scorpions , Paul McCartney , Roger Waters , Red Hot Chili Peppers , and other celebrities performed there . For the New Year 2006 , 2007 , and 2008 celebrations , a skating rink was set up on Red Square . Paul McCartney 's performance there was a historic moment for many , as The Beatles were banned in the Soviet Union , preventing any live performances there of any of The Beatles . The Soviet Union also banned the sales of Beatles records . While McCartney 's performance was historic , he was not the first Beatle to perform in Russia . Former Beatle Ringo Starr and His All Starr Band performed at Moscow 's Russia Hall in August 1998 . In January 2008 , Russia announced it would resume parading military vehicles through Red Square , although recent restoration of Iverski Gate complicated this , by closing one of existing passages along Historical Museum for the heavy vehicles . In May 2008 , Russia held its annual Victory day parade , marking the 63rd anniversary of the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II . For the first time since the collapse of the USSR in 1991 , Russian military vehicles paraded through the square . On December 4 , 2008 , The KHL announced they would be holding their first all-star game outdoors on January 10 at Red Square . On May 9 , 2010 , to commemorate the 65th anniversary of the capitulation of Germany in 1945 , the armed forces of France , the United Kingdom , and the United States marched in the Moscow Victory Day parade for the first time in history . File : Lenin 's mausoleum 2.jpg|Lenin 's mausoleum File : Victory Day Parade 2008-14.jpg|2008 Military parade marking the sixty-third anniversary of Victory in the Great Patriotic War File : Moscow Strikes Back 11-25 cheering Red Army parade , bayonets fixed.jpg|Red Army soldiers cheer Joseph Stalin in Red Square in a scene from the 1942 film Moscow Strikes Back Main sights The buildings surrounding the Square are all significant in some respect . Lenin 's Mausoleum , for example , contains the embalmed body of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin , the founder of the Soviet Union . Nearby to the South is the elaborate brightly domed Saint Basil 's Cathedral and the palaces and cathedrals of the Kremlin . On the Eastern side of the square is the GUM department store , and next to it the restored Kazan Cathedral . The Northern side is occupied by the State Historical Museum , whose outlines echo those of Kremlin towers . The Iberian Gate and Chapel have been rebuilt to the Northwest . The only sculptured monument on the square is a bronze statue of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky , who helped to clear Moscow from the Polish invaders in 1612 , during the Times of Trouble . Nearby is the so‑called Lobnoye Mesto , a circular platform where public ceremonies used to take place . Both the Minin and Pozharskiy statue and the Lobnoye Mesto were once located more centrally in Red Square but were moved to their current locations to facilitate the large military parades of the Soviet era . The square itself is around 330 m long and 70 m wide . World Heritage Listing The Kremlin and Red square were together recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990 , due to their inextricable links to Russian history since the 13th century .

sfq_1843--Red_Square.txt

The rather exotic cathedral, on Red Square, in Moscow, is dedicated to which saint?

Webbed toes is the common name for syndactyly affecting the feet . It is characterised by the fusion of two or more digits of the feet . This is normal in many birds , such as ducks ; amphibians , such as frogs ; and mammals , such as kangaroos . In humans it is considered unusual , occurring in approximately one in 2,000 to 2,500 live births . There are various levels of webbing , from partial to complete . For example , the rare Hose 's civet , a viverrid endemic to northern Borneo , has partially webbed feet . Most commonly the second and third toes are webbed or joined by skin and flexible tissue . This can reach either part way up or nearly all the way up the toe . Diagnosis This condition is normally discovered at birth . If other symptoms are present , a specific syndrome may be indicated . Diagnosis of a specific syndrome is based on family history , medical history , and a physical exam . Webbed toes are also known as `` twin toes , '' `` duck toes , '' `` turkey toes '' and `` tiger toes . '' Cause The exact cause of the condition is unknown . In some cases , close family members may share this condition . In other cases , no other related persons have this condition . The scientific name for the condition is syndactyly , although this term covers both webbed fingers and webbed toes . Syndactyly occurs when apoptosis or programmed cell death during gestation is absent or incomplete . Webbed toes occur most commonly in the following circumstances : * Syndactyly or Familial Syndactyly * Down syndrome It is also associated with a number of rare conditions , notably : * Aarskog–Scott syndrome * Acrocallosal syndrome * Apert 's syndrome * Bardet-Biedl syndrome * Carpenter syndrome * Cornelia de Lange syndrome * Edwards syndrome * Jackson-Weiss syndrome * Fetal hydantoin syndrome * Miller syndrome * Pfeiffer syndrome * Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome * Timothy syndrome * Ectodermal Dysplasia * Klippel-Feil Syndrome Consequences Webbed toes in humans are a purely cosmetic condition . This condition does not impair the ability to perform any activity , including walking , running , or swimming . People with webbed toes may have a slight disadvantage for activities that benefit from prehensile toes . Psychological stress may arise from the fear of negative reactions to this condition from people who do not have webbed toes . However a disadvantage would be a difficulty in wearing flip-flops or other such footwear in warm countries . Surgery Webbed toes can be separated through surgery . Surgical separation of webbed toes is an example of body modification . As with any form of surgery , there are risks of complications . The end results depend on the extent of the webbing and underlying bone structure . There is usually some degree of scarring , and skin grafts may be required . In rare instances , nerve damage may lead to loss of feeling in the toes and a tingling sensation . There are also reports of partial web grow-back . The skin grafts needed to fill in the space between the toes can lead to additional scars in the places where the skin is removed . Famous webbed feet * Dan Aykroyd – Canada , actor * Tricia Helfer - Canada , actress * Jacqui Hurley - Ireland , sports broadcaster * Ashton Kutcher - United States , actor * Joseph Stalin – Soviet Union , General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union * Danielle Panabaker - United States , actress

sfq_8381--Webbed_toes.txt

A bird described as a 'palmiped' has which characteristic feature?

In musical terminology , tempo ( `` time '' in Italian ; plural : tempi ) is the speed or pace of a given piece or subsection thereof , how fast or slow . Tempo is related to meter and is usually measured by beats per minute , with the beats being a division of the measures , though tempo is often indicated by terms which have acquired standard ranges of beats per minute or assumed by convention without indication . Tempo may be separated from articulation , or articulation may be indicated along with tempo , and tempo contributes to the overall texture . While the ability to hold a steady tempo is a desirable skill , tempo is changeable , and often indicated by a conductor or drummer . While practicing , an electronic or mechanical device , a metronome , may indicate the tempo , as one usually works one 's way up to being able to perform at the proper tempo . Measuring tempo A piece of music 's tempo is typically written at the start of the score , and in modern Western music is usually indicated in beats per minute ( bpm ) . This means that a particular note value ( for example , a quarter note , or crotchet ) is specified as the beat , and that the amount of time between successive beats is a specified fraction of a minute . The greater the number of beats per minute , the smaller the amount of time between successive beats , and thus faster a piece must be played . For example , a tempo of 60 beats per minute signifies one beat per second , while a tempo of 120 beats per minute is twice as rapid , signifying one beat every 0.5 seconds . Mathematical tempo markings of this kind became increasingly popular during the first half of the 19th century , after the metronome had been invented by Johann Nepomuk Maelzel , although early metronomes were somewhat inconsistent . Beethoven was one of the first composers to use the metronome ; in the 1810s he published metronomic indications for the eight symphonies he had composed up to that time.Some of these markings are today contentious , such as those on his `` Hammerklavier '' Sonata and Ninth Symphony , seeming to many to be almost impossibly fast , as is also the case for many of the works of Schumann . See `` metronome '' entry in Apel ( 1969 ) , p. 523 . With the advent of modern electronics , bpm became an extremely precise measure . Music sequencers use the bpm system to denote tempo . Instead of beats per minute , some 20th-century composers ( e.g. , Béla Bartók , Alberto Ginastera , and John Cage ) specify the total playing time for a piece , from which the performer can derive tempo . Tempo is as crucial in contemporary music as it is in classical . In electronic dance music , accurate knowledge of a tune 's bpm is important to DJs for the purposes of beatmatching . Musical vocabulary for tempo Some musical pieces do not have a mathematical time indication . In classical music it is customary to describe the tempo of a piece by one or more words . Most of these words are Italian , because many of the most important composers of the 17th century were Italian , and this period was when tempo indications were first used extensively and codified . Before the metronome , it was difficult to specify the tempo of a composition ; attempts were made using pendulums or the human pulse . Yet , after the metronome 's invention , musicians continued to use these words , often additionally indicating the mood of the piece . This blurred the traditional distinction between tempo and mood indicators . For example , presto and allegro both indicate a speedy execution ( presto being faster ) , but allegro also connotes joy ( from its original meaning in Italian ) . Presto , on the other hand , simply indicates speed . Additional Italian words also indicate tempo and mood . For example , the `` agitato '' in the Allegro agitato of the last movement of George Gershwin 's piano concerto in F has both a tempo indication ( undoubtedly faster than a usual Allegro ) and a mood indication ( `` agitated '' ) . Understood tempo In some cases ( quite often up to the end of the Baroque period ) , the conventions that governed musical composition were so strong that composers did n't need to indicate tempo . For example , the first movement of Bach 's Brandenburg Concerto No . 3 has no tempo or mood indication whatsoever . To provide movement names , publishers of recordings resort to ad hoc measures , for instance marking the Brandenburg movement `` Allegro '' , `` ( Allegro ) '' , `` ( Without indication ) '' , and so on . In Renaissance music , performers understood most music to flow at a tempo defined by the tactus ( roughly the rate of the human heartbeat ) . The mensural time signature indicated which note value corresponded to the tactus . Often a particular musical form or genre implies its own tempo , so composers need place no further explanation in the score . Thus , musicians expect a minuet to be at a fairly stately tempo , slower than a Viennese waltz ; a perpetuum mobile quite fast , and so on . Genres imply tempos . Thus , Ludwig van Beethoven wrote `` In tempo d'un Menuetto '' over the first movement of his Piano Sonata Op . 54 , though that movement is not a minuet . Popular music charts use terms such as bossa nova , ballad , and Latin rock in much the same way . Note that not only did tempos change over historical time and even in different places , but sometimes even the ordering of terms changed . For example , a modern largo is slower than an adagio , but in the Baroque period it was faster . Beats per minute Beats per minute ( bpm ) is a unit typically used as a measure of tempo in music and heart rate . The bpm tempo of a piece of music is conventionally shown in its score as a metronome mark , as illustrated to the right . This indicates that every one minute there should be 120 quarter notes ( or crotchets ) . In simple time signatures , it is conventional to show the tempo in terms of the note duration on the bottom . So a would show a crotchet ( or quarter note ) , as shown to the right , while a would show a minim ( or half note ) . In compound time signatures , the beat consists of three note durations ( so there are 3 quavers ( eighth notes ) per beat in a time signature ) , so a dotted form of the next note duration up is used . The most common compound signatures : , , and , therefore use a dotted quarter note to indicate their bpm . Exotic time and particularly slow time signatures may indicate their bpm tempo using other note durations . bpm became common terminology in disco because of its usefulness to DJs , and remain important in the same genre and other dance music . In this context the beats measured are either quarter notes in the time signature ( sometimes ambiguously called down-beats ) , or drum beats ( typically bass-drum or another functionally similar synthesized sound ) , whichever is more frequent . Higher bpm values are therefore achievable by increasing the number of drum beats , without increasing the tempo of the music . House music is faster around 120–128 bpm ( from regular house music to UK garage ) , trance music ranges from 125 to 150 bpm , and drum and bass generally ranges between 150–180 bpm . Psytrance is almost exclusively produced at 145 bpm , whereas Gabber can exceed 180–220 bpm . Speedcore can exceed 200 -1000+ bpm . Extreme tempos More extreme tempos are achievable at the same underlying tempo with very fast drum patterns , often expressed as drum rolls . Such compositions often exhibit a much slower underlying tempo , but may increase the tempo by adding additional percussive beats . Extreme music subgenres such as speedcore and grindcore often strive to reach unusually fast tempos . The use of extreme tempo was very common in the fast bebop jazz from the 1940s and 1950s . A common jazz tune such as `` Cherokee '' was often performed at quarter note equal to or sometimes exceeding 368 bpm . Some of Charlie Parker 's famous tunes ( `` Bebop '' , `` Shaw Nuff '' ) have been performed at 380 bpm plus . John Coltrane 's `` Giant Steps '' was performed at 374 bpm . Beatmatching Beat-matching is a technique DJs use that involves speeding up or slowing down a record to match the tempo of a previous track so both can be seamlessly mixed . DJs often beatmatch the underlying tempos of recordings , rather than their strict bpm value suggested by the kick drum , particularly when dealing with high tempo tracks . A 240 bpm track , for example , matches the beat of a 120 bpm track without slowing down or speeding up , because both have an underlying tempo of 120 quarter notes per minute . Thus , some soul music ( around 75–90 bpm ) mixes well with a drum and bass beat ( from 150–185 bpm ) . When speeding up or slowing down a record on a turntable , the pitch and tempo of a track are linked : spinning a disc 10 % faster makes both pitch and tempo 10 % higher . Software processing to change the pitch without changing the tempo , or vice versa , is called time-stretching or pitch-shifting . While it works fairly well for small adjustments ( ± 20 % ) , the result can be noisy and unmusical for larger changes . Measures per minute The speed of a piece of music can also be gauged according to measures per minute ( mpm ) or bars per minute , the number of measures of the piece performed in one minute . This measure is commonly used in ballroom dance music . Italian tempo markings The definitions of the Italian tempo markings mentioned in this section can be found in the Harvard Dictionary of Music and/or the online Italian-English dictionary , both of which are listed in Sources . Basic tempo markings By adding an -issimo ending , the word is amplified . By adding an -ino or -etto ending , the word is diminished . The beats per minute ( bpm ) values are rough approximations . From slowest to fastest : * Larghissimo – very , very slow ( 24 bpm ( beats per minute in a time ) and under ) * Grave – very slow ( 25–45 bpm ) * Largo – broadly ( 40–60 bpm ) * Lento – slowly ( 45–60 bpm ) * Larghetto – rather broadly ( 60–66 bpm ) * Adagio – slow and stately ( literally , `` at ease '' ) ( 66–76 bpm ) * Adagietto – slower than andante ( 72–76 bpm ) * Andante – at a walking pace ( 76–108 bpm ) * Andantino – slightly faster than Andante ( although in some cases it can be taken to mean slightly slower than andante ) ( 80–108 bpm ) * Marcia moderato – moderately , in the manner of a march ( 83–85 bpm ) * Andante moderato – between andante and moderato ( thus the name andante moderato ) ( 92–112 bpm ) * Moderato – moderately ( 108–120 bpm ) * Allegretto – moderately fast ( 112–120 bpm ) * Allegro moderato – close to but not quite allegro ( 116–120 bpm ) * Allegro – fast , quickly , and bright ( 120–168 bpm ) ( molto allegro is slightly faster than allegro , but always in its range ) * Vivace – lively and fast ( 168–176 bpm ) * Vivacissimo – very fast and lively ( 172–176 bpm ) * Allegrissimo or Allegro vivace – very fast ( 172–176 bpm ) * Presto – very , very fast ( 168–200 bpm ) * Prestissimo – even faster than Presto ( 200 bpm and over ) Terms for tempo change : * Rallentando – gradually slowing down * Ritardando – gradually slowing down ( but not as much as rallentando ) * Ritenuto – immediately slowing down * Stringendo – gradually speeding up Additional terms * A piacere – the performer may use his or her own discretion with regard to tempo and rhythm ; literally `` at pleasure '' * A tempo – resume previous tempo * L'istesso , L'istesso tempo , or Lo stesso tempo – at the same speed ; L'istesso is used when the actual speed of the music has not changed , despite apparent signals to the contrary , such as changes in time signature or note length ( half notes in could change to whole notes in , and they would all have the same duration ) * Tempo comodo – at a comfortable ( normal ) speed * Tempo di ... – the speed of a ... ( such as Tempo di valse ( speed of a waltz , ≈ 60 bpm ) , Tempo di marcia ( speed of a march , ≈ 120 bpm ) ) * Tempo giusto – at a consistent speed , at the 'right ' speed , in strict tempo * Tempo semplice – simple , regular speed , plainly * Tempo primo – resume the original ( first ) tempo Common qualifiers * alla – in the manner or style of , as in : * * alla breve – in short style , i.e. , duple time , with the half note ( minim ) rather than the quarter note ( crotchet ) as the beat ; cut time ; instead of ; often marked as ( see Time signature ) * * alla marcia – in the manner of a march ( e.g. , Beethoven , op . 101 ) * * all ' ongarese – in Hungarian style * * alla ( danza ) tedesca – in the style of the Ländler ( c. 1800 ) , and similar dances in rather quick triple meter ( see Beethoven , op . 79 , op . 130 ) * * alla turca – in the Turkish style , that is , in imitation of Turkish military music ( Janissary Music ) , which became popular in Europe in the late 18th century ( e.g. , Mozart , K. 331 , K. 384 ) * * alla zingarese – in the style of Gypsy music * assai – very much , as in allegro assai , quite fast * ben – well , as in ben marcato ( well marked or accented ) * con – with , as in * * con bravura – with skill * * con brio – with vigor and spirit * * con dolcezza – with softness ; delicately * * con fuoco – with fire * * con moto – with motion * deciso – decidedly , decisively * fugato – in fugal style , usually part of a non-fugal composition ; such passages often occur in the development sections of symphonies , sonatas , and quartets * in modo – in the manner of , in the style of : in modo napolitano ( in Neapolitan style ) , in modo di marcia funebre ( in the manner of a funeral march ) * meno – less , as in meno mosso ( less quickly ) * appena – almost none , as in appena forte ( almost not at all loud ) * misterioso – mysterious * molto – much , very , as in molto allegro ( very quick ) or molto adagio ( very slow ) * non troppo – not too much , e.g . allegro non troppo ( or allegro ma non troppo ) means `` fast , but not too much '' * non tanto – not so much * più – more , as in più allegro ( more quickly ) ; used as a relative indication when the tempo changes * piuttosto – rather , as in piuttosto allegro ( rather quick ) * poco – slightly , little , as in Poco adagio * poco a poco – little by little * polacca – generic name for Polish dances , usually the polonaise , as in tempo di polacca ; note , however , that the `` Polacca '' in Bach 's Brandenburg Concerto No . 1 shows little resemblance to the polonaise * primo – principal or early , as in tempo primo , the same tempo as at the beginning * quasi – almost , nearly , as if ( such as Più allegro quasi presto , `` faster , as if presto '' ) * senza – without , as in senza interruzione ( without interruption or pause ) , senza tempo or senza misura ( without strict measure ) * sostenuto – sustained , prolonged * subito – suddenly Note : In addition to the common allegretto , composers freely apply Italian diminutive and superlative suffixes to various tempo indications : andantino , larghetto , adagietto , and larghissimo . Mood markings with a tempo connotation Some markings that primarily mark a mood ( or character ) also have a tempo connotation : * Affettuoso – with feeling/emotion * Agitato – agitated , with implied quickness * Appassionato – to play passionately * Animato – animatedly , lively * Brillante – sparkling , glittering , as in Allegro brillante , Rondo brillante , or Variations brillantes ; became fashionable in titles for virtuoso pieces * Bravura – bravely ; a brilliant and indulgent demonstration of skill * Cantabile – in singing style ( lyrical and flowing ) * Calando – dying away , slowing , diminishing * Caloroso - heart-warming * Cataclismico – very loud , short * Dolce – sweetly * Dolcissimo – very sweetly and delicately * Dolente - sadly , sorrowfully * Energico – energetic , strong , forceful * Eroico – heroically * Espressivo – expressively * Furioso – to play in an angry or furious manner * Giocoso – merrily , funny * Gioioso – joyfully * Grandioso – magnificently , grandly * Grazioso – gracefully * Incalzando – encouraging , building * Lacrimoso – tearfully , sadly * Lamentoso – lamenting , mournfully * Leggiero – to play lightly , or with light touch * Leggiadro – lightly and gracefully * Maestoso – majestic or stately ( which generally indicates a solemn , slow march-like movement ) * Malinconico – melancholic * Marcato – marching tempo , marked with emphasis * Marziale – in a march style , usually in simple , strongly marked rhythm and regular phrases * Mesto – sad , mournful * Misterioso – mystical , in a shady manner * Morendo – dying * Nobilmente – nobly ( in a noble way ) * Patetico – with great emotion * Pesante – heavily * Pomposo – dignified , in grand style * Saltando – jumpy , fast , and short * Scherzando – playfully * Smorzando – dying away , decreasing to nothing in both speed and dynamic * Sospirando – listless , with little energy ; almost indifferent ; as if sighing * Sostenuto – sustained , with a slowing of tempo * Spiccato – slow sautillé , with a bouncy manner * Tenerezza – tenderness * Tranquillamente – adverb of tranquillo , `` calmly '' * Trionfante – triumphantly * Vivace – lively and fast , over 140 bpm ( which generally indicates a fast movement ) Terms for change in tempo Composers may use expressive marks to adjust the tempo : * Accelerando – speeding up ( abbreviation : accel . ) * Allargando – growing broader ; decreasing tempo , usually near the end of a piece * Calando – going slower ( and usually also softer ) * Doppio movimento / doppio più mosso – double speed * Doppio più lento – half speed * Lentando – gradual slowing and softer * Meno mosso – less movement or slower * Mosso – movement , more lively , or quicker , much like più mosso , but not as extreme * Più mosso – more movement or faster * Precipitando – hurrying , going faster/forward * Rallentando – gradual slowing down ( abbreviation : rall . ) * Ritardando – slowing down gradually ; also see rallentando and ritenuto ( abbreviations : rit. , ritard . ) * Ritenuto – slightly slower , but achieved more immediately than ritardando or rallentando ; a sudden decrease in tempo ; temporarily holding back . ( Note that the abbreviation for ritenuto can also be rit . Thus a more specific abbreviation is riten . Also sometimes ritenuto does not reflect a tempo change but a character change instead . ) * Rubato – free adjustment of tempo for expressive purposes ( literally `` theft '' , so more strictly , take time from one beat to slow another ) * Stretto – in faster tempo , often near the conclusion of a section . ( Note that in fugal compositions , the term stretto refers to the imitation of the subject in close succession , before the subject is completed , and as such , suitable for the close of the fugue . Used in this context , the term is not necessarily related to tempo . ) * Stringendo – pressing on faster ( literally `` tightening '' ) * Tardando – slowing down gradually ( same as ritardando ) While the base tempo indication ( such as allegro ) appears in large type above the staff , these adjustments typically appear below the staff or ( in the case of keyboard instruments ) in the middle of the grand staff . They generally designate a gradual change in tempo ; for immediate tempo shifts , composers normally just provide the designation for the new tempo . ( Note , however , that when Più mosso or Meno mosso appears in large type above the staff , it functions as a new tempo , and thus implies an immediate change . ) Several terms , e.g. , assai , molto , poco , subito , control how large and how gradual a change should be ( see common qualifiers ) . After a tempo change , a composer may return to a previous tempo in two different ways : * a tempo – returns to the base tempo after an adjustment ( e.g . ritardando ... a tempo undoes the effect of the ritardando ) . * Tempo primo or Tempo Io – denotes an immediate return to the piece 's original base tempo after a section in a different tempo ( e.g . Allegro ... Lento ... Moderato ... Tempo Io indicates a return to the Allegro ) . This indication often functions as a structural marker in pieces in binary form . These terms also indicate an immediate , not a gradual , tempo change . Although they are Italian , composers typically use them even if they have written their initial tempo marking in some other language . Tempo markings in other languages Although Italian has been the prevalent language for tempo markings throughout most of classical music history , many composers have written tempo indications in their own language . This section lists tempo markings from in the Harvard Dictionary of Music or the online foreign language dictionaries listed in Sources . French tempo markings Several composers have written markings in French , among them baroque composers François Couperin and Jean-Philippe Rameau as well as Claude Debussy , Olivier Messiaen , Maurice Ravel and Alexander Scriabin . Common tempo markings in French are : * Au mouvement – play the ( first or main ) tempo . * Grave – slowly and solemnly * Lent – slowly * Modéré – at a moderate tempo * Moins – less , as in Moins vite ( less fast ) * Rapide – fast * Très – very , as in Très vif ( very lively ) * Vif – lively * Vite – fast Erik Satie was known to write extensive tempo ( and character ) markings by defining them in a poetical and literal way , as in his Gnossiennes . German tempo markings Many composers have used German tempo markings . Typical German tempo markings are : * Langsam – slowly * Lebhaft – lively ( mood ) * Mäßig – moderately * Rasch – quickly * Schnell – fast * Bewegt – animated , with motion One of the first German composers to use tempo markings in his native language was Ludwig van Beethoven . The one using the most elaborate combined tempo and mood markings was probably Gustav Mahler . For example , the second movement of his Symphony No . 9 is marked Im Tempo eines gemächlichen Ländlers , etwas täppisch und sehr derb , indicating a slowish folk-dance-like movement , with some awkwardness and much vulgarity in the execution . Mahler would also sometimes combine German tempo markings with traditional Italian markings , as in the first movement of his sixth symphony , marked Allegro energico , ma non troppo . Heftig , aber markig ( Energetically quick , but not too much . Violent , but vigorous ) . English tempo markings English indications , for example quickly , have also been used , by Benjamin Britten and Percy Grainger , among many others . In jazz and popular music charts , terms like `` fast '' , `` laid back '' , `` steady rock '' , `` medium '' , `` medium-up '' , `` ballad '' , `` brisk '' , `` up '' , `` slowly '' , and similar style indications may appear . Tom Lehrer 's anthology Too Many Songs by Tom Lehrer , uses fake English tempo markings to humorous effect . For example , Lehrer specifies that the song National Brotherhood Week should be played `` fraternally , '' We Will All Go Together be played `` eschatologically , '' and Masochism Tango be played `` painstakingly . '' Tempo markings as movement names and compositions with a tempo indicator name Often , composers ( or music publishers ) name movements of compositions after their tempo ( or mood ) marking . For instance , the second movement of Samuel Barber 's first String Quartet is an Adagio . Some such movements may start to lead a life of their own , and become known with the tempo/mood marker name , for instance the string orchestra version of the second movement of Barber 's first string quartet became known as Adagio for Strings . A similar example is the Adagietto from Mahler 's Symphony No . 5 . Sometimes the link between a musical composition with a `` tempo '' name and a separate movement of a composition is less clear . For instance , Albinoni 's Adagio is a 20th-century creative `` reconstruction '' based on an incomplete manuscript . Some composers chose to include tempo indicators in the name of a separate composition , for instance Bartók in Allegro barbaro ( `` barbaric Allegro '' ) , a single movement composition .

odql_12632--Tempo.txt

Which musical instruction or notation indicates a piece should be played with a tempo having slow movement; restful, at ease?

The Spanish Armada ( , literally `` Great and Most Fortunate Navy '' ) was a Spanish fleet of 130 ships that sailed from A Coruña in August 1588 , under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia with the purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to invade England . The strategic aim was to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I of England and the Tudor establishment of Protestantism in England , with the expectation that this would put a stop to English interference in the Spanish Netherlands and to the harm caused to Spanish interests by English and Dutch privateering . The Armada chose not to attack the English fleet at Plymouth , then failed to establish a temporary anchorage in the Solent , after one Spanish ship had been captured by Francis Drake in the English Channel . The Armada finally dropped anchor off Calais . While awaiting communications from the Duke of Parma 's army the Armada was scattered by an English fireship attack . In the ensuing Battle of Gravelines the Spanish fleet was damaged and forced to abandon its rendezvous with Parma 's army , who were blockaded in harbour by Dutch flyboats . The Armada managed to regroup and , driven by southwest winds , withdrew north , with the English fleet harrying it up the east coast of England . The commander ordered a return to Spain , but the Armada was disrupted during severe storms in the North Atlantic and a large number of the vessels were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland . Of the initial 130 ships over a third failed to return . As Martin and Parker explain , `` Philip II attempted to invade England , but his plans miscarried , partly because of his own mismanagement , and partly because the defensive efforts of the English and their Dutch allies prevailed . '' The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War ( 1585–1604 ) . The following year , England organised a similar large-scale campaign against Spain , the Drake–Norris Expedition or `` counter-Armada of 1589 '' , which was also unsuccessful , had serious economic consequences and saw the loss of many English lives and ships . Etymology The word armada is from the Spanish armada , cognate with English army . Originally from the Latin armāta , the past participle of armāre to arm , used in Romance languages as a noun , for armed force , army , navy , fleet . Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy . History Background Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife , Catherine of Aragon . Over time it became increasingly aligned with the Protestant reformation taking place in Europe , especially during the reign of Henry 's son , Edward VI . Edward 's death without an heir led to Henry 's daughter Mary I taking the throne . A devout Catholic , Mary ( with her co-monarch and husband , Philip II of Spain ) began to reassert Roman influence over church affairs . Her attempts led to over 260 people being burned at the stake , earning her the nickname Bloody Mary . Mary 's death in 1558 led to her half-sister , Elizabeth I , taking the throne . Unlike Mary , Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp , and quickly reimplemented many of Edwards ' reforms . Philip , no longer co-monarch , deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England . Under Roman law , Henry had never officially divorced Catherine , making Elizabeth illegitimate . It is alleged that Phillip supported plots to have Elizabeth overthrown in favour of her Catholic cousin and heir presumptive , Mary , Queen of Scots ; however these were thwarted when Elizabeth had the Queen of Scots imprisoned and finally executed in 1587 . Elizabeth retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain , as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic . In retaliation , Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth and reinstate Catholicism . Through this , it would end the English material support for the United Provinces – the part of the Low Countries that had successfully seceded from Spanish rule – and cut off English attacks on Spanish trade and settlements in the New World . The King was supported by Pope Sixtus V , who treated the invasion as a crusade , with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land . A raid on Cadiz , led by Francis Drake in April 1587 , had captured or destroyed some thirty ships and great quantities of supplies , setting preparations back by a year . Philip initially favoured a triple attack , starting with a diversionary raid on Scotland , while the main Armada would capture the Isle of Wight , or Southampton , to establish a safe anchorage in the Solent . The Duke of Parma would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel . Parma was uneasy about mounting such an invasion without any possibility of surprise . He was also alarmed by the costs that would be incurred , and advised Philip to postpone or abandon it . The Armada 's appointed commander was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán , Marquis of Santa Cruz , but he died in February 1588 , and the Duke of Medina Sidonia , a high-born courtier , took his place . While a competent soldier and distinguished administrator , Medina Sidonia had no naval experience . He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign but this was prevented from reaching the King by courtiers on the grounds that God would ensure the Armada 's success . Planned invasion of England Prior to the undertaking , Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences . The blessing of the Armada 's banner on 25 April 1588 , was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 . On 28 May 1588 , the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel . The fleet was composed of 130 ships , 8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers , and bore 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns . The full body of the fleet took two days to leave port . It included twenty eight purpose-built warships , of which twenty were galleons , four galleys and four ( Neapolitan ) galleasses . The remainder of the heavy vessels were mostly armed carracks and hulks together with thirty-four light ships . In the Spanish Netherlands , 30,000 soldiers awaited the arrival of the Armada , the plan being to use the cover of the warships to convey the army on barges to a place near London . All told , 55,000 men were to have been mustered , a huge army for that time . On the day the Armada set sail , Elizabeth 's ambassador in the Netherlands , Valentine Dale , met Parma 's representatives in peace negotiations . The English made a vain effort to intercept the Armada in the Bay of Biscay . On 6 July negotiations were abandoned , and the English fleet stood prepared , if ill-supplied , at Plymouth , awaiting news of Spanish movements . The English fleet outnumbered the Spanish , 200 ships to 130 , [ http : //britishbattles.com/spanish-war/spanish-armada.htm The Spanish Armada : Sir Francis Drake ] while the Spanish fleet outgunned the English—its available firepower was 50 % more than that of the English . The English fleet consisted of the 34 ships of the Royal Fleet ( 21 of which were galleons of 200 to 400 tons ) and 163 other ships ( 30 of which were of 200 to 400 tons and carried up to 42 guns each ) , 12 of these were privateers owned by Lord Howard of Effingham , Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake . The Armada was delayed by bad weather , forcing the four galleys and one of the galleons to leave the fleet , and was not sighted in England until 19 July , when it appeared off The Lizard in Cornwall . The news was conveyed to London by a system of beacons that had been constructed all the way along the south coast . On that evening , the English fleet was trapped in Plymouth Harbour by the incoming tide . The Spanish convened a council of war , where it was proposed to ride into the harbour on the tide and incapacitate the defending ships at anchor and from there to attack England ; but Medina Sidonia declined to act because this had been explicitly forbidden by Philip , and decided to sail on to the east and towards the Isle of Wight . As the tide turned , 55 English ships set out to confront them from Plymouth under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham , with Sir Francis Drake as Vice Admiral . Howard ceded some control to Drake , given his experience in battle . The rear admiral was Sir John Hawkins . First actions ( 1588 ) On 20 July the English fleet was off Eddystone Rocks , with the Armada upwind to the west . That night , in order to execute their attack , the English tacked upwind of the Armada , thus gaining the weather gage , a significant advantage . At daybreak on 21 July the English fleet engaged the Armada off Plymouth near the Eddystone rocks . The Armada was in a crescent-shaped defensive formation , convex towards the east . The galleons and great ships were concentrated in the centre and at the tips of the crescent 's horns , giving cover to the transports and supply ships in between . Opposing them the English were in two sections , Drake to the north in with 11 ships , and Howard to the south in with the bulk of the fleet . Given the Spanish advantage in close-quarter fighting , the English ships used their superior speed and manoeuvrability to keep beyond grappling range and bombarded the Spanish ships from a distance with cannon fire . However the distance was too great for this to be effective , and at the end of the first day 's fighting neither fleet had lost a ship in action , although the Spanish carrack Rosario and galleon San Salvador were abandoned after they collided . When night fell , Francis Drake turned his ship back to loot the Spanish ships , capturing supplies of much-needed gunpowder , and gold . However , Drake had been guiding the English fleet by means of a lantern . Because he snuffed out the lantern and slipped away for the abandoned Spanish ships , the rest of his fleet became scattered and was in complete disarray by dawn . It took an entire day for the English fleet to regroup and the Armada gained a day 's grace . The English ships then used their superior speed and manoeuvrability to catch up with the Spanish fleet after a day of sailing . On 23 July the English fleet and the Armada engaged once more , off Portland . This time a change of wind gave the Spanish the weather-gage , and they sought to close with the English , but were foiled by the smaller ships ' greater manoeuvrability . At one point Howard formed his ships into a line of battle , to attack at close range bringing all his guns to bear , but this was not followed through and little was achieved . If the Armada could create a temporary base in the protected waters of the Solent ( a strait separating the Isle of Wight from the English mainland ) , they could wait there for word from Parma 's army . However , in a full-scale attack , the English fleet broke into four groups – Martin Frobisher of Aid now also being given command over a squadron – with Drake coming in with a large force from the south . At the critical moment Medina Sidonia sent reinforcements south and ordered the Armada back to open sea to avoid The Owers shoals . There were no other secure harbours further east along England 's south coast , so the Armada was compelled to make for Calais , without being able to wait for word of Parma 's army . On 27 July the Armada anchored off Calais in a tightly-packed defensive crescent formation , not far from Dunkirk , where Parma 's army , reduced by disease to 16,000 , was expected to be waiting , ready to join the fleet in barges sent from ports along the Flemish coast . Communication had proven to be far more difficult than anticipated , and it only now became known that this army had yet to be equipped with sufficient transport or assembled in the port , a process which would take at least six days , while Medina Sidonia waited at anchor ; and that Dunkirk was blockaded by a Dutch fleet of thirty flyboats under Lieutenant-Admiral Justinus of Nassau . Parma wanted the Armada to send its light pataches to drive away the Dutch , but Medina Sidonia could not do this because he feared that he might need these ships for his own protection . There was no deep-water port where the fleet might shelter – always acknowledged as a major difficulty for the expedition – and the Spanish found themselves vulnerable as night drew on . The Dutch flyboats mainly operated in the shallow waters off Zeeland and Flanders that larger warships with a deeper draught , like the Spanish and English galleons , could not safely enter . The Dutch therefore enjoyed unchallenged naval superiority in these waters , even though their navy was inferior in naval armament . An essential element of the plan of invasion , as it was eventually implemented , was the transportation of a large part of Parma 's Army of Flanders as the main invasion force in unarmed barges across the English Channel . These barges would be protected by the large ships of the Armada . However , to get to the Armada , they would have to cross the zone dominated by the Dutch navy , where the Armada could not go . This problem seems to have been overlooked by the Spanish planners , but it was insurmountable . Because of this obstacle , England never was in any real danger , at least from the Duke of Parma and the Army of Flanders . Because of the eventual English victory at sea , the Army of Flanders escaped the drowning death Justinus and his men had in mind for them , ready to fight another day . At midnight on 28 July , the English set alight eight fireships , sacrificing regular warships by filling them with pitch , brimstone , some gunpowder and tar , and cast them downwind among the closely anchored vessels of the Armada . The Spanish feared that these uncommonly large fireships were `` hellburners '' , . specialised fireships filled with large gunpowder charges , which had been used to deadly effect at the Siege of Antwerp . Two were intercepted and towed away , but the remainder bore down on the fleet . Medina Sidonia 's flagship and the principal warships held their positions , but the rest of the fleet cut their anchor cables and scattered in confusion . No Spanish ships were burnt , but the crescent formation had been broken , and the fleet now found itself too far to leeward of Calais in the rising southwesterly wind to recover its position . The English closed in for battle . Battle of Gravelines The small port of Gravelines was then part of Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands , close to the border with France and the closest Spanish territory to England . Duke Medina Sidonia tried to re-form his fleet there and was reluctant to sail further east knowing the danger from the shoals off Flanders , from which his Dutch enemies had removed the sea marks . The English had learned more of the Armada 's strengths and weaknesses during the skirmishes in the English Channel and had concluded it was necessary to close within 100 yards to penetrate the oak hulls of the Spanish ships . They had spent most of their gunpowder in the first engagements and had , after the Isle of Wight , been forced to conserve their heavy shot and powder for a final attack near Gravelines . During all the engagements , the Spanish heavy guns could not easily be run in for reloading because of their close spacing and the quantities of supplies stowed between decks , as Francis Drake had discovered on capturing the damaged Rosario in the Channel . Instead the gunners fired once and then jumped to the rigging to attend to their main task as marines ready to board enemy ships , as had been the practice in naval warfare at the time . In fact , evidence from Armada wrecks in Ireland shows that much of the fleet 's ammunition was never spent . Their determination to fight by boarding , rather than cannon fire at a distance , proved a weakness for the Spanish ; it had been effective on occasions such as the battles of Lepanto and Ponta Delgada ( 1582 ) , but the English were aware of this strength and sought to avoid it by keeping their distance . With its superior manoeuvrability , the English fleet provoked Spanish fire while staying out of range . The English then closed , firing repeated and damaging broadsides into the enemy ships . This also enabled them to maintain a position to windward so that the heeling Armada hulls were exposed to damage below the water line . Many of the Spanish gunners were killed or wounded by the English broadsides , and the task of manning the cannon often fell to the regular foot soldiers on board , who did not know how to operate the guns . The ships were close enough for sailors on the upper decks of the English and Spanish ships to exchange musket fire . After eight hours , the English ships began to run out of ammunition , and some gunners began loading objects such as chains into cannons . Around 4:00 pm , the English fired their last shots and were forced to pull back . Five Spanish ships were lost . The galleass San Lorenzo , flagship of Don Hugo de Moncada , ran aground at Calais and was taken by Howard after murderous fighting between the crew , the galley slaves , the English who eventually killed all Spanish and slaves , and the French , who ultimately took possession of the wreck . The galleons San Mateo and San Felipe drifted away in a sinking condition , ran aground on the island of Walcheren the next day , and were taken by the Dutch . One carrack ran aground near Blankenberge ; another foundered . Many other Spanish ships were severely damaged , especially the Portuguese and some Spanish Atlantic-class galleons ( including some Neapolitan galleasses ) which had to bear the brunt of the fighting during the early hours of the battle in desperate individual actions against groups of English ships . The Spanish plan to join with Parma 's army had been defeated and the English had gained some breathing space , but the Armada 's presence in northern waters still posed a great threat to England . Tilbury speech On the day after the battle of Gravelines , the wind had backed southerly , enabling Medina Sidonia to move his fleet northward away from the French coast . Although their shot lockers were almost empty , the English pursued in an attempt to prevent the enemy from returning to escort Parma . On 2 August Old Style ( 12 August New Style ) Howard called a halt to the pursuit in the latitude of the Firth of Forth off Scotland . By that point , the Spanish were suffering from thirst and exhaustion , and the only option left to Medina Sidonia was to chart a course home to Spain , by a very hazardous route . The threat of invasion from the Netherlands had not yet been discounted by the English , and Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester maintained a force of 4,000 soldiers at West Tilbury , Essex , to defend the Thames Estuary against any incursion up-river towards London . On 8 August ( 18 August New Style ) Elizabeth went to Tilbury to encourage her forces , and the next day gave to them what is probably her most famous speech : `` My loving people , we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety , to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes for fear of treachery ; but , I do assure you , I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people . Let tyrants fear , I have always so behaved myself , that under God I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of my subjects ; and , therefore , I am come amongst you as you see at this time , not for my recreation and disport , but being resolved , in the midst and heat of battle , to live or die amongst you all – to lay down for my God , and for my kingdoms , and for my people , my honour and my blood even in the dust . I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman ; but I have the heart and stomach of a king – and of a King of England too , and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain , or any prince of Europe , should dare to invade the borders of my realm ; to which , rather than any dishonour should grow by me , I myself will take up arms – I myself will be your general , judge , and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field . I know already , for your forwardness , you have deserved rewards and crowns , and , we do assure you , on the word of a prince , they shall be duly paid you . In the mean time , my lieutenant general shall be in my stead , than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject ; not doubting but by your obedience to my general , by your concord in the camp , and your valour in the field , we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my God , of my kingdom , and of my people . '' Return to Spain In September 1588 the Armada sailed around Scotland and Ireland into the North Atlantic . The ships were beginning to show wear from the long voyage , and some were kept together by having their hulls bundled up with cables . Supplies of food and water ran short . The intention would have been to keep well to the west of the coast of Scotland and Ireland , in the relative safety of the open sea . However , there being at that time no way of accurately measuring longitude , the Spanish were not aware that the Gulf Stream was carrying them north and east as they tried to move west , and they eventually turned south much further to the east than planned , a devastating navigational error . Off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland the fleet ran into a series of powerful westerly winds , which drove many of the damaged ships further towards the lee shore . Because so many anchors had been abandoned during the escape from the English fireships off Calais , many of the ships were incapable of securing shelter as they reached the coast of Ireland and were driven onto the rocks . Local inhabitants looted the ships . The late 16th century , and especially 1588 , was marked by unusually strong North Atlantic storms , perhaps associated with a high accumulation of polar ice off the coast of Greenland , a characteristic phenomenon of the `` Little Ice Age . '' As a result , more ships and sailors were lost to cold and stormy weather than in direct combat . Following the gales it is reckoned that 5,000 men died , by drowning , starvation and slaughter at the hands of English forces after they were driven ashore in Ireland . The English Lord Deputy 's orders were for the English soldiers in Ireland to kill Spanish prisoners which was done on several occasions instead of asking for ransom as was common during that period . Reports of the passage around Ireland abound with strange accounts of hardship and survival . In the end , 67 ships and fewer than 10,000 men survived . Many of the men were near death from disease , as the conditions were very cramped and most of the ships ran out of food and water . Many more died in Spain , or on hospital ships in Spanish harbours , from diseases contracted during the voyage . It was reported that , when Philip II learned of the result of the expedition , he declared , `` I sent the Armada against men , not God 's winds and waves '' . English Armada The English fleet was still cautious of the remaining Armada after the Battle of Gravelines , requiring it to remain on duty even as some of its sailors died . The following year Elizabeth I launched the Counter Armada , under Sir Francis Drake , but it was unsuccessful in its goals , resulting in Spain retaining naval superiority . The Spanish failed to gain control of the Channel from the English , nor stop their intervention in the region of Flanders or their privateer transatlantic raids ; however , for the sixteen years that the war continued , the English ultimately failed to disrupt the various fleets of the Indies , despite the great number of military personnel mobilised every year . The English were also unsuccessful in plots to support Portuguese separation from the Spanish crown . Spanish naval power not only continued its hegemony in the key trade routes but also in the creation of the Armada de Barlovento . An important fortification effort ensued in different fortifications at both sides of the Atlantic , notably in Cartagena or Portobelo . Despite the efforts by the English and Dutch , Spain remained the predominant power in Europe for several decades , thanks to sufficient financing and organisation as well as superior technology to enhance its naval strength . Technological revolution The outcome seemed to vindicate the English strategy and resulted in a revolution in naval battle tactics with the promotion of gunnery , which until then had played a supporting role to the tasks of ramming and boarding . Most military historians hold that the battle of Gravelines reflected a lasting shift in the balance of naval power in favour of the English , in part because of the gap in naval technology and armament it confirmed between the two nations , which continued into the next century . In the words of Geoffrey Parker , by 1588 'the capital ships of the Elizabethan navy constituted the most powerful battlefleet afloat anywhere in the world . ' The English navy yards were leaders in technical innovation , and the captains devised new tactics . Parker argues that the full-rigged ship was one of the greatest technological advances of the century and permanently transformed naval warfare . In 1573 English shipwrights introduced designs , first demonstrated in , that allowed the ships to sail faster and manoeuvre better and permitted heavier guns . Whereas before warships had tried to grapple with each other so that soldiers could board the enemy ship , now they more often stood off and fired broadsides that could sink the enemy vessel . Superior English ships and seamanship had foiled the invasion . The English also took advantage of Spain 's over-complex strategy that required coordination between the invasion fleet and the Spanish army on shore . But the poor design of the Spanish cannon meant they were much slower in reloading in a close-range battle , allowing the English to take control . Spain still had numerically larger fleets , but England was catching up . Legacy In England , the boost to national pride lasted for years , and Elizabeth 's legend persisted and grew

sfq_4243--Spanish_Armada.txt

Which admiral commanded the British fleet sent to repel the Spanish Armada in 1588?

Stephen Maturin , FRS , is a fictional character in the Aubrey-Maturin series of novels by Patrick O'Brian . The series portrays his career as a physician , naturalist and spy in the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars , and the long pursuit of his beloved Diana Villiers . Maturin was played by Paul Bettany in the 2003 film Master and Commander : The Far Side of the World and by Richard Dillane in the BBC Radio 4 adaptations of the O'Brian novels . Biography Early life Stephen Maturin , called by his Catalan family Esteban Maturin y Domanova , a Roman Catholic , is the illegitimate son of an Irish officer serving in the Spanish Army and a Catalan lady . He is cousin to the historical Lord Edward FitzGerald . As a boy he lived in Ireland , fostered by a family of pig-herders in Cahirciveen and County Clare , and spent his teenage years in Catalonia – most notably with his grandmother in Lleida , his uncle in Barcelona and his godfather in Ullastret . He received a largely Benedictine education , focussing on the Classics ( he speaks Ancient Greek and Latin fluently , and can recite The Aeneid ) . He returned to Ireland in his adolescence , and performed premedical studies at Trinity College , Dublin , and received further training in Paris , conceding to have `` dissected with Dupuytren '' while there . He was in Paris during the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 , of which he was at first an ardent supporter . Returning to Ireland he was a member of the United Irishmen . While in Ireland he became engaged to a woman called Mona , who died in unspecified circumstances . He had become disabused of political enthusiasms and was against the 1798 rebellion , in which he refused to take part . Naval career Master and Commander , the first book in the series , opens in 1800 . Maturin has travelled to Minorca with a patient who died there , leaving him penniless and stranded . A chance meeting with newly-promoted Jack Aubrey at a musical performance gains him the position of ship 's surgeon aboard Aubrey 's first command , HMS Sophie , a fictional brig-rigged sloop-of-war . Being that ships surgeons in that era usually received very limited training or advanced education , the officers and crew of the Sophie are very pleased to have a true physician on board . Their esteem for Maturin 's medical skill increases early on when he successfully performs delicate surgery on deck , repairing a crew member 's serious head injury by removing a damaged portion of his skull and replacing it with a coin hammered flat . The feat was witnessed by most of the crew , and they mention it several times in subsequent books in the series . As a passionate advocate of Catalan independence and a resolute opponent of Bonaparte 's tyranny , Maturin had become involved in intelligence gathering , and as he begins his career with the Royal Navy , he becomes a renowned volunteer secret agent for the Admiralty . His political and intelligence missions are of such vital importance that Jack Aubrey is often sent to far-flung corners of the world primarily to discretely allow his apparent ship 's surgeon to perform a task for the British government . His work put him in some difficult and dangerous situations , particularly when he was captured and tortured in Port Mahon in HMS Surprise , the third novel in the series . While being held by French intelligence agents , Maturin was subjected to the rack ( among other implements ) , making him a temporary invalid and permanently damaging his hands . Aubrey leads a cutting-out mission to save his friend , who spends the next few months recuperating . The extent of the torture is revealed slowly across the novels following it . In 1802 , Maturin meets and falls in love with Diana Villiers while he and Aubrey are renting a small estate along with several crewmates during the Peace of Amiens . Diana 's cousin , Sophia Williams , becomes close friends with Maturin and eventually marries Aubrey . Sophie encourage Diana and ( particularly ) Stephen to express their feelings towards each other . However , Maturin does not risk a rejection , and Diana leaves on the first of what becomes a series of affairs that take her around the world , leading to a years-long and extremely frustrating pursuit by Maturin . He saves her from her American `` protector '' in Boston in 1812 , killing two French agents in the process . He finally proposes marriage , but Diana is still hesitant . They eventually do marry in 1813 after she trades her most valuable diamond in exchange for his freedom from a French prison . They have a daughter , Brigid , who shows signs of being autistic before seemingly overcoming her issues . Diana dies in a coach accident in 1815 before the opening of The Hundred Days . Maturin is despondent , but later strikes up a relationship with fellow naturalist Christine Hatherleigh Wood and proposes marriage relatively quickly . She turns him down because she is disillusioned with marriage due to a poor relationship with her first husband . However , they remain close friends , and she becomes close to the Aubrey family and Maturin 's daughter Brigid after spending time with them at the Aubrey estate . In the unfinished last novel , their relationship is unresolved . Personal characteristics Stephen Maturin is described as short , slight , and dark-haired , with `` curious '' pale blue eyes and pale skin if not exposed to the sun . He does become fairly dark-skinned when he travels to tropical climes , a result of his Hiberno-Spanish heritage and predilection for naked sun-bathing . He weighs `` barely 9 stone '' ( 126 pounds , 56 kg ) . A French spy who saw him in Brazil as a prisoner on the USS Constitution , after HMS Java rescued them from the tropical seas , wrote that Maturin was `` Five foot six , slight build , black hair , pale eyes , muddy complexion , three nails on the right hand torn out , both hands somewhat crippled : speaks perfect French with a southern accent '' . ( quoted in The Surgeon 's Mate Chapter 11 ) . Maturin is fluent in Catalan , English , French , Irish , Latin and Spanish , and on his travels , he develops a working knowledge of Greek , Malay , Arabic and Urdu . Although a skilled linguist , Maturin never quite grasps naval jargon or the workings of a ship , a narrative ploy which allows the author to provide the reader with technical information by having helpful crewmates explain things to the ship 's doctor . Maturin is habitually untidy or even disreputable in appearance ; he spends as little as possible on clothes , preferring an `` old rusty coat '' unless the occasiona calls for dressier clothes . As a physician , he often wears a old periwig over his sparse close-cropped hair . His frugal habits personal persist despite a considerable share of prize money earned over the years , and a fortune inherited from his Catalan godfather in The Reverse of the Medal . He uses part of his fortune to buy the recently decommissioned HMS Surprise , giving its command to Jack Aubrey when he had been framed for stock manipulation and temporarily lost his commission . Surprise was a letter of marque , and later as His Majesty 's Hired Vessel when Aubrey is restored to the Navy List . As well as his activities as a physician and agent , Maturin is a celebrated natural philosopher in the age of scientific discovery . He is , like Aubrey , a member of the Royal Society . His interests are wide , but he has particular interest in wildlife , particularly birds and their anatomy . He discovers and names the hitherto unknown species of giant tortoise Testudo aubreii on a remote and uninhabited island in the Indian Ocean . An unending frustration for him is to be pulled away from the flora and faun a never before seen by a scientific eye , for the naval mission on which the ship travels . This is most poignant when he and his assistant Martin are promised time to explore and collect samples in the Galapagos Islands , which permission is abruptly rescinded when HMS Surprise must sail immediately on information as to where USS Norfolk can be found , the target of Aubrey 's mission in The Far Side of the World . He is considered an expert in suprapubic cystostomy ( spelled `` cystotomy '' , without the `` s '' ) . Dr. Maturin is prone to self-medication . While pining over Diana , he becomes addicted to opium in the form of a tincture of laudanum . In The Letter of Marque he states his own `` moderate dose '' is `` a thousand drops '' , when twenty-five drops is a usual dose for a man in pain ; in Desolation Island it is implied that he daily takes eighteen thousand drops . Later , he switches to coca leaves , and is a frequent user of khat and tobacco and a devotee of particularly strong coffee with his breakfast . Maturin is an excellent observer of people , a skill useful in his profession of physician and in his work in naval intelligence . He has a wide network of friends , relatives , fellow students , fellow natural philosophers and , over time , those who work in intelligence . He loves playing and listening to music , and whenever possible , he enjoys duets on cello with Aubrey on violin . He is renowned for his ability to nearly drown , and his frequent falls from every manner of ship are a bit of a running joke in the series . While fairly sure-footed on land , he manages to get into mortal peril in even the calmest water – allowing Jack Aubrey to demonstrate his proficiency at diving rescues – and is prone to plunging down hatches and companionways on board ship . His clumsiness may ( in part ) be due to his torture by the French at Mahon early in the book series . Despite this , he is a crack shot with both pistol and rifle , and is an expert swordsman and veteran duelist , and continues to perform successful surgeries . Critical response to Maturin In reviewing the film made from the series of books , Christopher Hitchens finds `` the summa of O'Brian 's genius was the invention of Dr. Stephen Maturin . He is the ship 's gifted surgeon , but he is also a scientist , an espionage agent for the Admiralty , a man of part Irish and part Catalan birth—and a revolutionary . He joins the British side , having earlier fought against it , because of his hatred for Bonaparte 's betrayal of the principles of 1789—principles that are perfectly obscure to bluff Capt . Jack Aubrey . Any cinematic adaptation of O'Brian must stand or fall by its success in representing this figure . On this the film does n't even fall , let alone stand . It skips the whole project . '' He finds the film 's action scenes more inspirational : `` In one respect the action lives up to its fictional and actual inspiration . This was the age of Bligh and Cook and of voyages of discovery as well as conquest , and when HMS Surprise makes landfall in the Galapagos Islands we get a beautifully filmed sequence about how the dawn of scientific enlightenment might have felt . ''

sfq_10040--Stephen_Maturin.txt

Who wrote the Napoleonic war novels featuring Stephen Maturin?

In geometry , an icosahedron ( or ) is a polyhedron with 20 faces . The name comes . The plural can be either `` icosahedra '' or `` icosahedrons '' . There are many kinds of icosahedra , with some being more symmetrical than others . The best known is the Platonic , convex regular icosahedron . Regular icosahedra There are two objects , one convex and one concave , that can both be called regular icosahedra . Each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices . Both have icosahedral symmetry . The term `` regular icosahedron '' generally refers to the convex variety , while the nonconvex form is called a great icosahedron . Convex regular icosahedron The convex regular icosahedron is usually referred to simply as the regular icosahedron , one of the five regular Platonic solids , and is represented by its Schläfli symbol { 3 , 5 } , containing 20 triangular faces , with 5 faces meeting around each vertex . Its dual polyhedron is the regular dodecahedron { 5 , 3 } having three regular pentagonal faces around each vertex . Great icosahedron The great icosahedron is one of the four regular star Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra . Its Schläfli symbol is { 3 , } . Like the convex form , it also has 20 equilateral triangle faces , but its vertex figure is a pentagram rather than a pentagon , leading to geometrically intersecting faces . The intersections of the triangles do not represent new edges . Its dual polyhedron is the great stellated dodecahedron ( , 3 ) , having three regular star pentagonal faces around each vertex . Stellated icosahedra Stellation is the process of extending the faces or edges of a polyhedron until they meet to form a new polyhedron . It is done symmetrically so that the resulting figure retains the overall symmetry of the parent figure . In their book The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra , Coxeter et al . enumerated 58 such stellations of the regular icosahedron . Of these , many have a single face in each of the 20 face planes and so are also icosahedra . The great icosahedron is among them . Other stellations have more than one face in each plane or form compounds of simpler polyhedra . These are not strictly icosahedra , although they are often referred to as such . Pyritohedral symmetry A regular icosahedron can be constructed with pyritohedral symmetry , and is called a snub octahedron or snub tetratetrahedron or snub tetrahedron . this can be seen as an alternated truncated octahedron . If all the triangles are equilateral , the symmetry can also be distinguished by colouring the 8 and 12 triangle sets differently . Pyritohedral symmetry has the symbol ( 3 * 2 ) , [ 3+,4 ] , with order 24 . Tetrahedral symmetry has the symbol ( 332 ) , [ 3,3 ] + , with order 12 . These lower symmetries allow geometric distortions from 20 equilateral triangular faces , instead having 8 equilateral triangles and 12 congruent isosceles triangles . These symmetries offer Coxeter diagrams : and respectively , each representing the lower symmetry to the regular icosahedron , ( * 532 ) , [ 5,3 ] icosahedral symmetry of order 120 . Cartesian coordinates The coordinates of the 12 vertices can be defined by the vectors defined by all the possible cyclic permutations and sign-flips of coordinates of the form ( 2 , 1 , 0 ) . These coordinates represent the truncated octahedron with alternated vertices deleted . This construction is called a snub tetrahedron in its regular icosahedron form , generated by the same operations carried out starting with the vector ( ϕ , 1 , 0 ) , where ϕ is the golden ratio . Jessen 's icosahedron In Jessen 's icosahedron , sometimes called Jessen 's orthogonal icosahedron , the 12 isosceles faces are arranged differently such that the figure is non-convex . It has right dihedral angles . It is scissors congruent to a cube , meaning that it can be sliced into smaller polyhedral pieces that can be rearranged to form a solid cube . Other icosahedra Rhombic icosahedron The rhombic icosahedron is a zonohedron made up of 20 congruent rhombs . It can be derived from the rhombic triacontahedron by removing 10 middle faces . Even though all the faces are congruent , the rhombic icosahedron is not face-transitive . Pyramid and prism symmetries Common icosahedra with pyramid and prism symmetries include : * 19-sided pyramid ( plus 1 base = 20 ) . * 18-sided prism ( plus 2 ends = 20 ) . * 9-sided antiprism ( 2 sets of 9 sides + 2 ends = 20 ) . * 10-sided bipyramid ( 2 sets of 10 sides = 20 ) . * 10-sided trapezohedron ( 2 sets of 10 sides = 20 ) . Johnson solids Several Johnson solids are icosahedra :

qw_8485--Icosahedron.txt

What are the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedron known as?

Mark Wynter ( born Terence Sidney Lewis ; 29 January 1943 ) is an English actor and former singer , who had four Top 20 singles in the 1960s , including `` Venus in Blue Jeans '' and `` Go Away Little Girl '' . He enjoyed a lengthy career from 1960 to 1968 as a pop singer and teen idol , but developed later into an actor in film , musicals and plays . Career With his early musical career on a proper footing , Terry Lewis decided to change his name to lessen the confusion with the American comedian , Jerry Lewis . He was entered as one of the contenders for the UK 's place in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1961 , with `` Dream Girl '' , but finished fourth behind The Allisons . His cover version of the American hit by Jimmy Clanton – `` Venus in Blue Jeans '' ( 1962 ) – was his biggest success . Although he recorded a number of singles for the Decca and Pye labels in the UK , he made few albums . Some recorded material came to light in 2004 when Wynter discovered old tapes , which have subsequently been remastered and are now available as four CDs . These were entitled I Believe in Music , Reflections , Ballads and Big Band and Movies and Musicals . On 8 April 1968 Wynter escorted a dazed young girl away from a burning Boeing 707 aircraft , BOAC Flight 712 , upon which he had been a passenger , and which had exploded shortly after landing back at Heathrow Airport following a fire in its number 2 engine , killing five people , including stewardess Barbara Jane Harrison , who was posthumously awarded the George Cross . Wynter played the leading role in Conduct Unbecoming for more than a year at the Queen 's Theatre in London , and for six months in Australia . He appeared with Julia McKenzie in On the Twentieth Century , and in Charley 's Aunt . He also starred in Side By Side By Sondheim in Toronto , Chichester , and on the UK tour . In the 1982 Chichester Festival season he acted in several plays including On The Rocks and Henry V , and also sang in Valmouth . His other work in musicals during the 1980s included the role of the King in a revival of The King and I , the title roles in Hans Andersen and Barnum , the 1986 revival of Charlie Girl with Cyd Charisse and Paul Nicholas in London , and the part of Robert Browning in Robert and Elizabeth . During the 1990s Wynter spent two years in Cats , and was also seen as the Phantom and M. Andre in The Phantom of the Opera , and starred as Vittorio opposite Bonnie Langford in the 1998 West End revival of Sweet Charity . He has appeared frequently in the rest of the UK and portrayed Emile de Becque in a UK national tour of South Pacific . In 1994 he created the role of Van Helsing in the studio recording of the opera/musical `` Nosferatu '' by Bernard J. Taylor . His warm , melifluous speaking voice was heard many times on BBC Radio 2 during the early 1990s when he presented daytime shows as well as documentaries such as `` Happy Times '' , a programme about the American entertainer Danny Kaye , which was nominated for a New York radio award . Wynter was still working actively and successfully in theatre throughout the English speaking world well into the 1990s . Although his Decca singles output is scattered in the CD catalogue , in 2000 Castle Communications released Go Away Little Girl : The Pye Anthology , a double album compiling his complete output for the label . In 2007 , Wynter toured the UK in a number of plays and musicals . Personal life He now lives in Sussex , and tours the country with an Agatha Christie theatre company . He is married to Emma , and has three children ; Barnaby , Josh and Darcey . Singles * 1960 : `` Image of a Girl '' / `` Glory of Love '' ( UK # 11 ) * 1960 : `` Kickin ' Up the Leaves '' ( Bart ) / `` That 's What I Thought '' ( UK # 24 ) * 1961 : `` Dream Girl '' / `` Two Little Girls '' ( UK # 27 ) * 1961 : `` Exclusively Yours '' / `` Warm and Willing '' ( UK # 32 ) * 1961 : `` Girl for Ev'ry Day '' / `` The Best Time for Love '' * 1962 : `` Heaven 's Plan '' / `` In Your Heart '' * 1962 : `` Angel Talk '' / `` I Love Her Still '' * 1962 : `` Venus in Blue Jeans '' ( Greenfield/Keller ) / `` Please Come Back to Me '' ( UK # 4 ) * 1962 : `` Go Away Little Girl '' / `` That Kinda Talk '' ( UK # 6 ) * 1963 : `` Aladdin 's Lamp '' / `` It Can Happen Any Day '' * 1963 : `` Shy Girl '' / `` Because of You '' ( UK # 28 ) * 1963 : `` Running to You '' / `` Do n't Cry '' * 1963 : `` It 's Almost Tomorrow '' / `` Music to Midnight '' ( UK # 12 ) * 1964 : `` The Boy You 're Kissin ' '' / `` I Learned a Lot from You '' * 1964 : `` Only You ( And You Alone ) '' / `` It 's Love You Want '' ( Wynter ) ( UK # 38 ) * 1964 : `` Answer Me '' / `` I Wish You Everything '' * 1964 : `` Love Hurts '' / `` Ca n't Help Forgiving You '' ( DeShannon/Sheeley ) * 1964 : `` Forever and a Day '' / `` And I Love Her '' * 1965 : `` Can I Get to Know You Better '' / `` Am I Living a Dream '' ( Wynter ) * 1965 : `` Someday You 'll Want Me to Want You '' / `` Here Comes '' Filmography * Just for Fun ( 1963 ) * Just for You ( 1964 ) * The Haunted House of Horror ( 1969 ) * Red ( 1976 )

dpql_5795--Mark_Wynter.txt

What proper noun links titles by Bjork, Bananarama, Shocking Blue and Mark Wynter?

France ( French : ) , officially the French Republic ( ) , is a sovereign state comprising territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories . The European , or metropolitan , area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea , and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean . France spans 643801 km2 and has a total population of 66.7 million . It is a unitary semi-presidential republic with the capital in Paris , the country 's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre . During the Iron Age , what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls , a Celtic people . The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome , which held Gaul until 486 , when the Germanic Franks conquered the region and formed the Kingdom of France . France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages , with its victory in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 to 1453 ) strengthening state-building and political centralization . During the Renaissance , French culture flourished and a global colonial empire was established , which by the 20th century would be the second largest in the world . The 16th century was dominated by religious civil wars between Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots ) . France became Europe 's dominant cultural , political , and military power under Louis XIV . In the late 18th century , the French Revolution overthrew the absolute monarchy , established one of modern history 's earliest republics , and saw the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which expresses the nation 's ideals to this day . In the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire , whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe . Following the collapse of the Empire , France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870 . France was a major participant in the First World War , from which it emerged victorious , and was one of the Allied Powers in the Second World War , but came under occupation by the Axis Powers in 1940 . Following liberation in 1944 , a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War . The Fifth Republic , led by Charles de Gaulle , was formed in 1958 and remains to this day . Algeria and the colonies in Indochina became independent in the 1950s after long , bloody wars . Nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic and military connections with France . France has long been a global center of art , science , and philosophy . It hosts Europe 's third-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites ( after Italy and Spain ) and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually , the most of any country in the world . France is a developed country with the world 's sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity . In terms of aggregate household wealth , it ranks fourth in the world . France performs well in international rankings of education , health care , life expectancy , and human development . France remains a great power in the world , being a founding member of the United Nations , where it serves as one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council , and a founding and leading member state of the European Union ( EU ) . It is also a member of the Group of 7 , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , and La Francophonie . Etymology Originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire , the name `` France '' comes from the Latin ' , or `` country of the Franks '' . Modern France is still named today Francia in Italian and Spanish , Frankreich in German and Frankrijk in Dutch , all of which have the same historical meaning . There are various theories as to the origin of the name Frank . Following the precedents of Edward Gibbon and Jacob Grimm , the name of the Franks has been linked with the word frank ( free ) in English . It has been suggested that the meaning of `` free '' was adopted because , after the conquest of Gaul , only Franks were free of taxation . Another theory is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon , which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca . However , it has been determined that these weapons were named because of their use by the Franks , not the other way around . History Prehistory ( before the 6th century BC ) The oldest traces of human life in what is now France date from approximately 1.8 million years ago . Humans were then confronted by a harsh and variable climate , marked by several glacial eras . Early homonids led a nomadic hunter-gatherer life . France has a large number of decorated caves from the upper Paleolithic era , including one of the most famous and best preserved : Lascaux ( approximately 18,000 BC ) . At the end of the last glacial period ( 10,000 BC ) , the climate became milder ; from approximately 7,000 BC , this part of Western Europe entered the Neolithic era and its inhabitants became sedentary . After strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia , metallurgy appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium , initially working gold , copper and bronze , and later iron . France has numerous megalithic sites from the Neolithic period , including the exceptionally dense Carnac stones site ( approximately 3,300 BC ) . Antiquity ( 6th century BC–5th century AD ) In 600 BC , Ionian Greeks , originating from Phocaea , founded the colony of Massalia ( present-day Marseille ) , on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea . This makes it France 's oldest city . At the same time , some Gallic Celtic tribes penetrated parts of the current territory of France , and this occupation spread to the rest of France between the 5th and 3rd century BC . The concept of Gaul emerged at that time ; it corresponds to the territories of Celtic settlement ranging between the Rhine , the Atlantic Ocean , the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean . The borders of modern France are roughly the same as those of ancient Gaul , which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls . Gaul was then a prosperous country , of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman influences . Around 390 BC the Gallic chieftain Brennus and his troops made their way to Italy through the Alps , defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia , and besieged and ransomed Rome . The Gallic invasion left Rome weakened , and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC when they entered into a formal peace treaty with Rome . But the Romans and the Gauls would remain adversaries for the next several centuries , and the Gauls would continue to be a threat in Italia . Around 125 BC , the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans , who called this region Provincia Nostra ( `` Our Province '' ) , which over time evolved into the name Provence in French . Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt carried out by the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC . Gaul was divided by Augustus into Roman provinces.Carpentier et al . 2000 , pp . 53–55 Many cities were founded during the Gallo-Roman period , including Lugdunum ( present-day Lyon ) , which is considered the capital of the Gauls . These cities were built in traditional Roman style , with a forum , a theatre , a circus , an amphitheatre and thermal baths . The Gauls mixed with Roman settlers and eventually adopted Roman culture and Roman speech ( Latin , from which the French language evolved ) . The Roman polytheism merged with the Gallic paganism into the same syncretism . From the 250s to the 280s AD , Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis with its fortified borders being attacked on several occasions by barbarians.Carpentier et al . 2000 , pp . 76–77 Nevertheless , the situation improved in the first half of the 4th century , which was a period of revival and prosperity for Roman Gaul . In 312 , the emperor Constantin I converted to Christianity . Subsequently , Christians , who had been persecuted until then , increased rapidly across the entire Roman Empire . But , from the beginning of the 5th century , the Barbarian Invasions resumed , and Germanic tribes , such as the Vandals , Suebi and Alans crossed the Rhine and settled in Gaul , Spain and other parts of the collapsing Roman Empire . Early Middle Ages ( 5th century–10th century ) At the end of the Antiquity period , ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory , known as the Kingdom of Syagrius . Simultaneously , Celtic Britons , fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain , settled the western part of Armorica . As a result , the Armorican peninsula was renamed Brittany , Celtic culture was revived and independent petty kingdoms arose in this region . The pagan Franks , from whom the ancient name of `` Francie '' was derived , originally settled the north part of Gaul , but under Clovis I conquered most of the other kingdoms in northern and central Gaul . In 498 , Clovis I was the first Germanic conqueror after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity , rather than Arianism ; thus France was given the title `` Eldest daughter of the Church '' ( ' ) by the papacy , and French kings would be called `` the Most Christian Kings of France '' ( ' ) . The Franks embraced the Christian Gallo-Roman culture and ancient Gaul was eventually renamed Francia ( `` Land of the Franks '' ) . The Germanic Franks adopted Romanic languages , except in northern Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where Germanic languages emerged . Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty , but his kingdom would not survive his death . The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among their heirs , so four kingdoms emerged from Clovis 's : Paris , Orléans , Soissons , and Rheims . The last Merovingian kings lost power to their mayors of the palace ( head of household ) . One mayor of the palace , Charles Martel , defeated an Islamic invasion of Gaul at the Battle of Tours ( 732 ) and earned respect and power within the Frankish kingdoms . His son , Pepin the Short , seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the Carolingian dynasty . Pepin 's son , Charlemagne , reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built a vast empire across Western and Central Europe . Proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III and thus establishing in earnest the French government 's longtime historical association with the Catholic Church , Charlemagne tried to revive the Western Roman Empire and its cultural grandeur . Charlemagne 's son , Louis I ( emperor 814–840 ) , kept the empire united ; however , this Carolingian Empire would not survive his death . In 843 , under the Treaty of Verdun , the empire was divided between Louis ' three sons , with East Francia going to Louis the German , Middle Francia to Lothair I , and West Francia to Charles the Bald . West Francia approximated the area occupied by , and was the precursor , to modern France . During the 9th and 10th centuries , continually threatened by Viking invasions , France became a very decentralised state : the nobility 's titles and lands became hereditary , and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and thus was less effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen . Thus was established feudalism in France . Over time , some of the king 's vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king . For example , after the Battle of Hastings in 1066 , William the Conqueror added `` King of England '' to his titles , becoming both the vassal to ( as Duke of Normandy ) and the equal of ( as king of England ) the king of France , creating recurring tensions . Late Middle Ages ( 10th century–15th century ) The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987 , when Hugh Capet , Duke of France and Count of Paris , was crowned King of the Franks . His descendantsthe Capetians , the House of Valois , and the House of Bourbonprogressively unified the country through wars and dynastic inheritance into the Kingdom of France , which was fully declared in 1190 by Philip II Augustus . The French kings played a prominent role in most Crusades in order to restore Christian access to the Holy Land . French knights made up the bulk of the steady flow of reinforcements throughout the two-hundred-year span of the Crusades , in such a fashion that the Arabs uniformly referred to the crusaders as Franj caring little whether they really came from France . The French Crusaders also imported the French language into the Levant , making French the base of the lingua franca ( `` Frankish language '' ) of the Crusader states . French knights also comprised the majority in both the Hospital and the Temple orders . The latter , in particular , held numerous properties throughout France and by the 13th century were the principal bankers for the French crown , until Philip IV annihilated the order in 1307 . The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the southwestern area of modern-day France . In the end , the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed into the kingdom of France . Later kings expanded their domain to cover over half of modern continental France , including most of the north , centre and west of France . Meanwhile , the royal authority became more and more assertive , centred on a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility , clergy , and commoners . Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in 1328 . Under the rules of the Salic law the crown of France could not pass to a woman nor could the line of kingship pass through the female line . Accordingly , the crown passed to Philip of Valois , a cousin of Charles , rather than through the female line to Charles ' nephew , Edward , who would soon become Edward III of England . During the reign of Philip of Valois , the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power . Philip 's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337 , on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death , England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years ' War . The exact boundaries changed greatly with time , but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for decades . With charismatic leaders , such as Joan of Arc and La Hire , strong French counterattacks won back English continental territories . Like the rest of Europe , France was struck by the Black Death ; half of the 17 million population of France died . Early modern period ( 15th century–1789 ) The French Renaissance saw a spectacular cultural development and the first standardization of the French language , which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe 's aristocracy . It also saw a long set of wars , known as the Italian Wars , between the Kingdom of France and the powerful Holy Roman Empire . French explorers , such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain , claimed lands in the Americas for France , paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire . The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion , where , in the most notorious incident , thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew 's Day massacre of 1572 . The Wars of Religion were ended by Henry IV 's Edict of Nantes , which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots . Under Louis XIII , the energetic Cardinal Richelieu reinforced the centralization of the state , royal power and French dominance in Europe , foreshadowing the reign of Louis XIV . During Louis XIV 's minority and the regency of Queen Anne and Cardinal Mazarin , a period of trouble known as the Fronde occurred in France , which was at that time at war with Spain . This rebellion was driven by the great feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the rise of royal power in France . The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV . By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles , Louis XIV 's personal power became unchallenged . Remembered for his numerous wars , he made France the leading European power . France became the most populous country in Europe and had tremendous influence over European politics , economy , and culture . French became the most-used language in diplomacy , science , literature and international affairs , and remained so until the 20th century . France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas , Africa and Asia . Louis XIV also revoked the Edict of Nantes , forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile . Under Louis XV , Louis XIV 's grandson , France lost New France and most of its Indian possessions after its defeat in the Seven Years ' War , which ended in 1763 . Its European territory kept growing , however , with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine ( 1766 ) and Corsica ( 1770 ) . An unpopular king , Louis XV 's weak rule , his ill-advised financial , political and military decisions as well as the debauchery of his court discredited the monarchy and arguably led to the French Revolution 15 years after his death . Louis XVI , Louis XV 's grandson , actively supported the Americans , who were seeking their independence from Great Britain ( realized in the Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) ) . The financial crisis that followed France 's involvement in the American Revolutionary War was one of many contributing factors to the French Revolution . Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles , and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions , such as the discovery of oxygen ( 1778 ) and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers ( 1783 ) , were achieved by French scientists . French explorers , such as Bougainville and Lapérouse , took part in the voyages of scientific exploration through maritime expeditions around the globe . The Enlightenment philosophy , in which reason is advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority , undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and helped pave the way for the French Revolution . Modern period ( 1789–1914 ) Facing financial troubles , Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General ( gathering the three Estates of the realm ) in May 1789 to propose solutions to his government . As it came to an impasse , the representatives of the Third Estate formed into a National Assembly , signaling the outbreak of the French Revolution . Fearing that the king would suppress the newly created National Assembly , insurgents stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789 , a date which would become France 's National Day . The absolute monarchy was subsequently replaced by a constitutional monarchy . Through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , France established fundamental rights for men . The Declaration affirms `` the natural and imprescriptible rights of man '' to `` liberty , property , security and resistance to oppression '' . Freedom of speech and press were declared , and arbitrary arrests outlawed . It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges and proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men , as well as access to public office based on talent rather than birth . While Louis XVI , as a constitutional king , enjoyed popularity among the population , his disastrous flight to Varennes seemed to justify rumours he had tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion . His credibility was so deeply undermined that the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a republic became an increasing possibility . European monarchies gathered against the new régime , to restore the French absolute monarchy . The foreign threat exacerbated France 's political turmoil and deepened the sense of urgency among the various factions and war was declared against Austria on 20 April 1792 . Mob violence occurred during the insurrection of 10 August 1792 and the following month . As a result of this violence and the political instability of the constitutional monarchy , the Republic was proclaimed on 22 September 1792 . Louis XVI was convicted of treason and guillotined in 1793 . Facing increasing pressure from European monarchies , internal guerrilla wars and counterrevolutions ( such as the War in the Vendée or the Chouannerie ) , the young Republic fell into the Reign of Terror . Between 1793 and 1794 , between 16,000 and 40,000 people were executed . In Western France , the civil war between the Bleus ( `` Blues '' , supporters of the Revolution ) and the Blancs ( `` Whites '' , supporters of the Monarchy ) lasted from 1793 to 1796 and led to the loss of between 200,000 and 450,000 lives . Both foreign armies and French counter-revolutionaries were crushed and the French Republic survived . Furthermore , it extended greatly its boundaries and established `` Sister Republics '' in the surrounding countries . As the threat of a foreign invasion receded and France became mostly pacified , the Thermidorian Reaction put an end to Robespierre 's rule and to the Terror . The abolition of slavery and male universal suffrage , enacted during this radical phase of the revolution , were cancelled by subsequent governments . After a short-lived governmental scheme , Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the Republic in 1799 becoming First Consul and later Emperor of the French Empire ( 1804–1814/1815 ) . As a continuation of the wars sparked by the European monarchies against the French Republic , changing sets of European Coalitions declared wars on Napoleon 's Empire . His armies conquered most of continental Europe with swift victories such as the battles of Jena-Auerstadt or Austerlitz . He redrew the European political map , while members of the Bonaparte family were appointed as monarchs in some of the newly established kingdoms . These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms , such as the Metric system , the Napoleonic Code and the Declaration of the Rights of Man . After the catastrophic Russian campaign , and the ensuing uprising of European monarchies against his rule , Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy restored . About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars . After his brief return from exile , Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo , the monarchy was re-established ( 1815–1830 ) , with new constitutional limitations . The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830 , which established the constitutional July Monarchy , which lasted until 1848 , when the French Second Republic was proclaimed , in the wake of the European Revolutions of 1848 . The abolition of slavery and male universal suffrage , both briefly enacted during the French Revolution were re-enacted in 1848 . In 1852 , the president of the French Republic , Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte , Napoleon I 's nephew , was proclaimed emperor of the second Empire , as Napoleon III . He multiplied French interventions abroad , especially in Crimea , in Mexico and Italy which resulted in the annexation of the duchy of Savoy and the county of Nice , then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia . Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the Third Republic . France had colonial possessions , in various forms , since the beginning of the 17th century , but in the 19th and 20th centuries , its global overseas colonial empire extended greatly and became the second largest in the world behind the British Empire . Including metropolitan France , the total area of land under French sovereignty almost reached 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s , 8.6 % of the world 's land . Known as the Belle Époque , the turn of the century was a period characterized by optimism , regional peace , economic prosperity and technological , scientific and cultural innovations . In 1905 , state secularism was officially established . Contemporary period ( 1914–present ) France was a member of the Triple Entente when World War I broke out . A small part of Northern France was occupied , but France and its allies emerged victorious against the Central Powers at a tremendous human and material cost . World War I left 1.4 million French soldiers dead , 4 % of its population . Between 27 and 30 % of soldiers conscripted from 1912–1915 were killed . The interbellum years were marked by intense international tensions and a variety of social reforms introduced by the Popular Front government ( annual leave , eight-hour workdays , women in government , etc ... ) . In 1940 France was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany . Metropolitan France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north and Vichy France , a newly established authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany , in the south , while Free France , the government-in-exile led by Charles de Gaulle , was set up in London . From 1942 to 1944 , about 160,000 French citizens , including around 75,000 Jews , were deported to death camps and concentration camps in Germany and Poland . On 6 June 1944 the Allies invaded Normandy and in August they invaded Provence . Over the following year the Allies and the French Resistance emerged victorious over the Axis powers and French sovereignty was restored with the establishment of the Provisional Government of the French Republic ( GPRF ) . This interim government , established by de Gaulle , aimed to continue to wage war against Germany and to purge collaborators from office . It also made several important reforms ( suffrage extended to women , creation of a social security system ) . The GPRF laid the groundwork for a new constitutional order that resulted in the Fourth Republic , which saw spectacular economic growth ( les Trente Glorieuses ) . France was one of the founding members of NATO ( 1949 ) . France attempted to regain control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh in 1954 at the climactic Battle of Dien Bien Phu . Only months later , France faced another anti-colonialist conflict in Algeria . Torture and illegal executions were perpetrated by both sides and the debate over whether or not to keep control of Algeria , then home to over one million European settlers , wracked the country and nearly led to a coup and civil war . In 1958 , the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic , which included a strengthened Presidency . In the latter role , Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war . The Algerian War was concluded with the Évian Accords in 1962 that led to Algerian independence . A vestige of the colonial empire are the French overseas departments and territories . In the context of the Cold War , de Gaulle pursued a policy of `` national independence '' towards the Western and Eastern blocs . To this end , he withdrew from NATO 's military integrated command , he launched a nuclear development program and made France the fourth

tc_2032--France.txt

Which home of champagne in France was also where the German High Command surrendered in WWII?

Yellowstone National Park is a national park located primarily in the U.S. state of Wyoming , although it also extends into Montana and Idaho . It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1 , 1872 . Yellowstone , the first National Park in the U.S. and widely held to be the first national park in the world , is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features , especially Old Faithful Geyser , one of the most popular features in the park . It has many types of ecosystems , but the subalpine forest is the most abundant . It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion . Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years . Aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century , organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s . Management of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior . However , the U.S. Army was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30-year period between 1886 and 1916 . In 1917 , administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service , which had been created the previous year . Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance , and researchers have examined more than 1,000 archaeological sites . Yellowstone National Park spans an area of , comprising lakes , canyons , rivers and mountain ranges . Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera , the largest supervolcano on the continent . The caldera is considered an active volcano . It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years . Half of the world 's geothermal features are in Yellowstone , fueled by this ongoing volcanism . Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone . The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth 's northern temperate zone . Hundreds of species of mammals , birds , fish and reptiles have been documented , including several that are either endangered or threatened . The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants . Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the Continental United States . Grizzly bears , wolves , and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park . The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States . Forest fires occur in the park each year ; in the large forest fires of 1988 , nearly one third of the park was burnt . Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities , including hiking , camping , boating , fishing and sightseeing . Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls . During the winter , visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles . History The park is at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River , from which it takes its historical name . Near the end of the 18th century , French trappers named the river `` Roche Jaune '' , which is probably a translation of the Hidatsa name `` Mi tsi a-da-zi '' ( Rock Yellow River ) . Later , American trappers rendered the French name in English as `` Yellow Stone '' . Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone , the Native American name source is unclear . The human history of the park begins at least 11,000 years ago when Native Americans began to hunt and fish in the region . During the construction of the post office in Gardiner , Montana , in the 1950s , an obsidian projectile point of Clovis origin was found that dated from approximately 11,000 years ago . These Paleo-Indians , of the Clovis culture , used the significant amounts of obsidian found in the park to make cutting tools and weapons . Arrowheads made of Yellowstone obsidian have been found as far away as the Mississippi Valley , indicating that a regular obsidian trade existed between local tribes and tribes farther east . By the time white explorers first entered the region during the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805 , they encountered the Nez Perce , Crow , and Shoshone tribes . While passing through present day Montana , the expedition members heard of the Yellowstone region to the south , but they did not investigate it . In 1806 , John Colter , a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition , left to join a group of fur trappers . After splitting up with the other trappers in 1807 , Colter passed through a portion of what later became the park , during the winter of 1807–1808 . He observed at least one geothermal area in the northeastern section of the park , near Tower Fall . After surviving wounds he suffered in a battle with members of the Crow and Blackfoot tribes in 1809 , Colter described a place of `` fire and brimstone '' that most people dismissed as delirium ; the supposedly imaginary place was nicknamed `` Colter 's Hell '' . Over the next 40 years , numerous reports from mountain men and trappers told of boiling mud , steaming rivers , and petrified trees , yet most of these reports were believed at the time to be myth . After an 1856 exploration , mountain man Jim Bridger ( also believed to be the first or second European American to have seen the Great Salt Lake ) reported observing boiling springs , spouting water , and a mountain of glass and yellow rock . These reports were largely ignored because Bridger was a known `` spinner of yarns '' . In 1859 , a U.S. Army Surveyor named Captain William F. Raynolds embarked on a two-year survey of the northern Rockies . After wintering in Wyoming , in May 1860 , Raynolds and his party – which included naturalist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden and guide Jim Bridger – attempted to cross the Continental Divide over Two Ocean Plateau from the Wind River drainage in northwest Wyoming . Heavy spring snows prevented their passage , but had they been able to traverse the divide , the party would have been the first organized survey to enter the Yellowstone region . The American Civil War hampered further organized explorations until the late 1860s . The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition of 1869 , which consisted of three privately funded explorers . The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake . The members of the Folsom party kept a journal and based on the information it reported , a party of Montana residents organized the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870 . It was headed by the surveyor-general of Montana Henry Washburn , and included Nathaniel P. Langford ( who later became known as `` National Park '' Langford ) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane . The expedition spent about a month exploring the region , collecting specimens and naming sites of interest . A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges , who had been a member of the Washburn expedition , proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park ; he wrote detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870 and 1871 . Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher , who had previously commented that the region should be protected . Others made similar suggestions . In an 1871 letter from Jay Cooke to Ferdinand V. Hayden , Cooke wrote that his friend , Congressman William D. Kelley had also suggested `` Congress pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever '' . Park creation In 1871 , eleven years after his failed first effort , Ferdinand V. Hayden was finally able to explore the region . With government sponsorship , he returned to the region with a second , larger expedition , the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 . He compiled a comprehensive report , including large-format photographs by William Henry Jackson and paintings by Thomas Moran . The report helped to convince the U.S. Congress to withdraw this region from public auction . On March 1 , 1872 , President Ulysses S. Grant signed The Act of Dedication law that created Yellowstone National Park . Hayden , while not the only person to have thought of creating a park in the region , was its first and most enthusiastic advocate . He believed in `` setting aside the area as a pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people '' and warned that there were those who would come and `` make merchandise of these beautiful specimens '' . Worrying the area could face the same fate as Niagara Falls , he concluded the site should `` be as free as the air or Water . '' In his report to the Committee on Public Lands , he concluded that if the bill failed to become law , `` the vandals who are now waiting to enter into this wonder-land , will in a single season despoil , beyond recovery , these remarkable curiosities , which have required all the cunning skill of nature thousands of years to prepare '' . Hayden and his 1871 party recognized Yellowstone as a priceless treasure that would become rarer with time . He wished for others to see and experience it as well . Eventually the railroads and , some time after that , the automobile would make that possible . The Park was not set aside strictly for ecological purposes ; however , the designation `` pleasure ground '' was not an invitation to create an amusement park . Hayden imagined something akin to the scenic resorts and baths in England , Germany , and Switzerland . THE ACT OF DEDICATION AN ACT to set apart a certain tract of land lying near the headwaters of the Yellowstone River as a public park . Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled , That the tract of land in the Territories of Montana and Wyoming ... is hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement , occupancy , or sale under the laws of the United States , and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people ; and all persons who shall locate , or settle upon , or occupy the same or any part thereof , except as hereinafter provided , shall be considered trespassers and removed there from ... Approved March 1 , 1872 . Signed by : * JAMES G. BLAINE , Speaker of the House . * SCHUYLER COLFAX , Vice-President of the United States and President of the Senate . * ULYSSES S. GRANT , President of the United States . There was considerable local opposition to the Yellowstone National Park during its early years . Some of the locals feared that the regional economy would be unable to thrive if there remained strict federal prohibitions against resource development or settlement within park boundaries and local entrepreneurs advocated reducing the size of the park so that mining , hunting , and logging activities could be developed . To this end , numerous bills were introduced into Congress by Montana representatives who sought to remove the federal land-use restrictions . After the park 's official formation , Nathaniel Langford was appointed as the park 's first superintendent in 1872 . He served for five years but was denied a salary , funding , and staff . Langford lacked the means to improve the land or properly protect the park , and without formal policy or regulations , he had few legal methods to enforce such protection . This left Yellowstone vulnerable to poachers , vandals , and others seeking to raid its resources . He addressed the practical problems park administrators faced in the 1872 Report to the Secretary of the Interior and correctly predicted that Yellowstone would become a major international attraction deserving the continuing stewardship of the government . In 1875 , Colonel William Ludlow , who had previously explored areas of Montana under the command of George Armstrong Custer , was assigned to organize and lead an expedition to Montana and the newly established Yellowstone Park . Observations about the lawlessness and exploitation of park resources were included in Ludlow 's Report of a Reconnaissance to the Yellowstone National Park . The report included letters and attachments by other expedition members , including naturalist and mineralogist George Bird Grinnell . Grinnell documented the poaching of buffalo , deer , elk , and antelope for hides . `` It is estimated that during the winter of 1874–1875 , not less than 3,000 buffalo and mule deer suffer even more severely than the elk , and the antelope nearly as much . '' As a result , Langford was forced to step down in 1877 . Having traveled through Yellowstone and witnessed land management problems first hand , Philetus Norris volunteered for the position following Langford 's exit . Congress finally saw fit to implement a salary for the position , as well as to provide a minimal funding to operate the park . Norris used these funds to expand access to the park , building numerous crude roads and facilities . In 1880 , Harry Yount was appointed as a gamekeeper to control poaching and vandalism in the park . Yount had previously spent decades exploring the mountain country of present-day Wyoming , including the Grand Tetons , after joining F V. Hayden 's Geological Survey in 1873 . Yount is the first national park ranger , and Yount 's Peak , at the head of the Yellowstone River , was named in his honor . However , these measures still proved to be insufficient in protecting the park , as neither Norris , nor the three superintendents who followed , were given sufficient manpower or resources . The Northern Pacific Railroad built a train station in Livingston , Montana , connecting to the northern entrance in the early 1880s , which helped to increase visitation from 300 in 1872 to 5,000 in 1883 . Visitors in these early years faced poor roads and limited services , and most access into the park was on horse or via stagecoach . By 1908 visitation increased enough to attract a Union Pacific Railroad connection to West Yellowstone , though rail visitation fell off considerably by World War II and ceased around the 1960s . Much of the railroad line was converted to nature trails , among them the Yellowstone Branch Line Trail . During the 1870s and 1880s Native American tribes were effectively excluded from the national park . Under a half-dozen tribes had made seasonal use of the Yellowstone area , but the only year-round residents were small bands of Eastern Shoshone known as `` Sheepeaters '' . They left the area under the assurances of a treaty negotiated in 1868 , under which the Sheepeaters ceded their lands but retained the right to hunt in Yellowstone . The United States never ratified the treaty and refused to recognize the claims of the Sheepeaters or any other tribe that had used Yellowstone . The Nez Perce band associated with Chief Joseph , numbering about 750 people , passed through Yellowstone National Park in thirteen days during late August 1877 . They were being pursued by the U.S. Army and entered the national park about two weeks after the Battle of the Big Hole . Some of the Nez Perce were friendly to the tourists and other people they encountered in the park ; some were not . Nine park visitors were briefly taken captive . Despite Joseph and other chiefs ordering that no one should be harmed , at least two people were killed and several wounded . One of the areas where encounters occurred was in Lower Geyser Basin and east along a branch of the Firehole River to Mary Mountain and beyond . That stream is still known as Nez Perce Creek . A group of Bannocks entered the park in 1878 , alarming park Superintendent Philetus Norris . In the aftermath of the Sheepeater Indian War of 1879 , Norris built a fort to prevent Native Americans from entering the national park . Ongoing poaching and destruction of natural resources continued unabated until the U.S. Army arrived at Mammoth Hot Springs in 1886 and built Camp Sheridan . Over the next 22 years the army constructed permanent structures , and Camp Sheridan was renamed Fort Yellowstone . On May 7 , 1894 , the Boone and Crockett Club , acting through the personality of George G. Vest , Arnold Hague , William Hallett Phillips , W. A. Wadsworth , Archibald Rogers , Theodore Roosevelt , and George Bird Grinnell were successful in carrying through the Park Protection Act , which so saved the Park . The Lacey Act of 1900 provided legal support for the officials prosecuting poachers . With the funding and manpower necessary to keep a diligent watch , the army developed their own policies and regulations that permitted public access while protecting park wildlife and natural resources . When the National Park Service was created in 1916 , many of the management principles developed by the army were adopted by the new agency . The army turned control over to the National Park Service on October 31 , 1918 . Later history By 1915 , 1,000 automobiles per year were entering the park , resulting in conflicts with horses and horse-drawn transportation . Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited . The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) , a New Deal relief agency for young men , played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities . CCC projects included reforestation , campground development of many of the park 's trails and campgrounds , trail construction , fire hazard reduction , and fire-fighting work . The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers , campgrounds and the current system of park roads . During World War II , tourist travel fell sharply , staffing was cut , and many facilities fell into disrepair . By the 1950s , visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks . To accommodate the increased visitation , park officials implemented Mission 66 , an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities . Planned to be completed by 1966 , in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service , Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style . During the late 1980s , most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs . After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village , structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style . The visitor center at Canyon Village , which opened in 2006 , incorporates a more traditional design as well . The 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake just west of Yellowstone at Hebgen Lake damaged roads and some structures in the park . In the northwest section of the park , new geysers were found , and many existing hot springs became turbid . It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history . In 1963 , after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone , United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks . In a paper known as the Leopold Report , the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective , and recommended management of Yellowstone 's elk population . The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park . Approximately 793880 acre or 36 % of the parkland was impacted by the fires , leading to a systematic re-evaluation of fire management policies . The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid-July contributed to an extreme fire danger . On `` Black Saturday '' , August 20 , 1988 , strong winds expanded the fires rapidly , and more than 150000 acre burned . The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1,000 archeological sites that have been discovered . The park has 1,106 historic structures and features , and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks . Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26 , 1976 , and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8 , 1978 . The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism , infection of wildlife , and issues with invasive species . In 2010 , Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program . Justin Ferrell explores three moral sensibilities that motivated activists in dealing with Yellowstone . First came the utilitarian vision of maximum exploitation of natural resources , characteristic of developers in the late 19th century . Second was the spiritual vision of nature inspired by the Romanticism and the transcendentalists the mid-19th century . The twentieth century saw the biocentric moral vision that focuses on the health of the ecosystem as theorized by Aldo Leopold , which leds to the expansion of federally protected areas and to the surrounding ecosystems . Heritage and Research Center The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner , Montana , near the north entrance to the park . The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park 's museum collection , archives , research library , historian , archeology lab , and herbarium . The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service . The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone , as well as resource management records , records from major projects , and donated manuscripts and personal papers . The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration . Geography Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming . Another three percent is within Montana , with the remaining one percent in Idaho . The park is 63 mi north to south , and 54 mi west to east by air . Yellowstone is 2219789 acre in area , larger than the states of Rhode Island or Delaware . Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area , with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87040 acre . Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 ft deep and has 110 mi of shoreline . At an elevation of 7733 ft above sea level , Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America . Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park ; most of the rest is grassland . The Continental Divide of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park . The divide is a topographic feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages . About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide . The origins of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide . As a result , the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean , while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico . The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau , at an average elevation of 8000 ft above sea level . The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains , which range from 9000 to in elevation . The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak ( 11358 ft ) and the lowest is along Reese Creek ( 5282 ft ) . Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest , the Beartooth Mountains in the north , the Absaroka Range to the east , and the Teton Range and the Madison Range to the southwest and west . The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10243 ft . Yellowstone National Park has one of the world 's largest petrified forests , trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials . This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself . This is largely because Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano . There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 ft in the park , the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 ft . Three deep canyons are located in the park , cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640,000 years . The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south , and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons , the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north . Geology History Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain , a great U-shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise , Idaho some to the west . This feature traces the route of the North American Plate over the last 17 million years as it was transported by plate tectonics across a stationary mantle hotspot . The landscape of present-day Yellowstone National Park is the most recent manifestation of this hotspot below the crust of the Earth . The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America . It has been termed a `` supervolcano '' because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions . The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber , about 37 mi long , 18 mi wide , and 3 to 7 miles ( 5 to 12 km ) deep . The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago , which released more than 240 cubic miles ( 1,000 km³ ) of ash , rock and pyroclastic materials . This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens . It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile ( 1 km ) deep and 45 by in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff , a welded tuff geologic formation . The most violent known eruption , which occurred 2.1 million years ago , ejected 588 cubic miles ( 2,450 km³ ) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera . A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles ( 280 km³ ) of material 1.3 million years ago , forming the Henry 's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff . Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America , falling many hundreds of miles away . The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species , primarily in North America . A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago . It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake . Since the last supereruption , a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago , has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with > 80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff . Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone , where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows . The canyon is a classic V-shaped valley , indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation . Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano 's partially emptied magma

bt_3010--Yellowstone_National_Park.txt

What was the first national park in the USA

Australia ( , , ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania , and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . Neighbouring countries include Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east ; and New Zealand to the south-east . For about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians , who spoke languages grouped into roughly 250 language groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades ; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies were established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Since federation , Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states and on the coast . Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world , with the world 's 12th-largest economy . In 2014 Australia had the world 's fifth-highest per capita income . Australia 's military expenditure is the world 's 13th-largest . With the second-highest human development index globally , Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance , such as quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and the protection of civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum . Name The name Australia ( pronounced in Australian English ) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ( `` southern land '' ) a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times . The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in `` A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo , written by Sir Richard Hakluyt '' , published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus , a corruption of the original Spanish name `` Austrialia del Espíritu Santo '' ( Southern Land of the Holy Spirit ) for an island in Vanuatu . The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia ( Jakarta ) in 1638 , to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south . The first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Matthew Flinders ' charts of Australia . On 12 December 1817 , Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted . In 1824 , the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia . History Prehistory Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago , possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now Southeast Asia . These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians . At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century , most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers , with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime . The Torres Strait Islanders , ethnically Melanesian , were originally horticulturists and hunter-gatherers . The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia . European arrival The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland , and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent , are attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon . He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606 , and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York.Davison , Hirst and Macintyre , p. 233 . The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent `` New Holland '' during the 17th century , but made no attempt at settlement . William Dampier , an English explorer and privateer , landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip . In 1770 , James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast , which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain . With the loss of its American colonies in 1783 , the British Government sent a fleet of ships , the `` First Fleet '' , under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip , to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales . A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove , Port Jackson , on 26 January 1788 , a date which became Australia 's national day , Australia Day , although the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788 . The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney , and the exploration and settlement of other regions . A British settlement was established in Van Diemen 's Land , now known as Tasmania , in 1803 , and it became a separate colony in 1825 . The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Western Australia ( the Swan River Colony ) in 1828 . Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales : South Australia in 1836 , Victoria in 1851 , and Queensland in 1859 . The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia . South Australia was founded as a `` free province '' —it was never a penal colony . Victoria and Western Australia were also founded `` free '' , but later accepted transported convicts . A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony ; the last convict ship arrived in 1848 . The indigenous population , estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 in 1788 , declined for 150 years following settlement , mainly due to infectious disease . Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers . A government policy of `` assimilation '' beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—often referred to as the Stolen Generations—a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population . The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum . Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992 , when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland ( No 2 ) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius ( `` land belonging to no one '' ) before the European occupation . Colonial expansion A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience . Between 1855 and 1890 , the six colonies individually gained responsible government , managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire . The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters , notably foreign affairs , defence , and international shipping . Nationhood On 1 January 1901 , federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning , consultation and voting . This established the Commonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire . The Federal Capital Territory ( later renamed the Australian Capital Territory ) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra . Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed . The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911 . In 1914 , Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I , with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party . Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front . Of about 416,000 who served , about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded . Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZACs ) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action . The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II . Britain 's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK . Australia adopted it in 1942 , but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II . The shock of the United Kingdom 's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector . Since 1951 , Australia has been a formal military ally of the US , under the ANZUS treaty . After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe . Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy , immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted . As a result , Australia 's demography , culture , and self-image were transformed . The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986 , ending any British role in the government of the Australian States , and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London . In a 1999 referendum , 55 % of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament . Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972 , there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations , while maintaining close ties with Australia 's traditional allies and trading partners . Government Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia , a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms . The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level , who by convention act on the advice of her ministers . The most notable exercise to date of the Governor-General 's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister 's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975 . The federal government is separated into three branches : * The legislature : the bicameral Parliament , defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen ( represented by the Governor-General ) , the Senate , and the House of Representatives ; * The executive : the Federal Executive Council , which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet , comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the Governor-General ; * The judiciary : the High Court of Australia and other federal courts , whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Federal Executive Council . In the Senate ( the upper house ) , there are 76 senators : twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories ( the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory ) . The House of Representatives ( the lower house ) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions , commonly known as `` electorates '' or `` seats '' , allocated to states on the basis of population , with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats . Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously ; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories , whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house ; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution . Australia 's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which , along with the Senate and most state upper houses , combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote . Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction , as is enrolment ( with the exception of South Australia ) . The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister . In cases where no party has majority support , the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and , if necessary , dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament . There are two major political groups that usually form government , federally and in the states : the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner , the National Party . Within Australian political culture , the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left . Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments , mostly in upper houses . The most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majority government for the Coalition . Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was sworn into office as Prime Minister by the Governor-General of Australia on 18 September . In September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged Abbott for leadership of the Coalition , and was sworn in as the 29th Prime Minister of Australia . States and territories Australia has six states—New South Wales ( NSW ) , Queensland ( QLD ) , South Australia ( SA ) , Tasmania ( TAS ) , Victoria ( VIC ) and Western Australia ( WA ) —and two major mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) and the Northern Territory ( NT ) . In most respects these two territories function as states , but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments . By contrast , federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution ; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers , including those over schools , state police , the state judiciary , roads , public transport and local government , since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51 . Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory , the ACT and Queensland , and bicameral in the other states . The states are sovereign entities , although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution . The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly ( the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania ) ; the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council . The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister . The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor ; and in the Northern Territory , the Administrator . In the Commonwealth , the Queen 's representative is the Governor-General . The federal parliament directly administers the following territories : * Ashmore and Cartier Islands * Australian Antarctic Territory * Christmas Island * Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands * Coral Sea Islands * Heard Island and McDonald Islands * Jervis Bay Territory , a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the Queen . In 2015 , the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government , integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council . Macquarie Island is administered by Tasmania , and Lord Howe Island by New South Wales . Foreign relations and military Over recent decades , Australia 's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact , and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific , particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum . In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia , and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia . Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation . Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation . It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization , and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements , most recently the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand , with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China—the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan , South Korea in 2011 , Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement , and as of November 2015 has put the Trans-Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification . Along with New Zealand , the United Kingdom , Malaysia and Singapore , Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements , a regional defence agreement . A founding member country of the United Nations , Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance . The 2005–06 budget provides A $ 2.5 billion for development assistance . Australia ranks fifteenth overall in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index . Australia 's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) —comprise the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , in total numbering 81,214 personnel ( including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists ) as of November 2015 . The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General , who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government . Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief , while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence . In the 2015–16 budget , defence spending was A $ 31.9 billion or 1.92 % of GDP , representing the 13th largest defence budget . Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping , disaster relief and armed conflict , including the 2003 invasion of Iraq ; it currently has deployed about 2,241 personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including Iraq and Afghanistan . Geography and climate Australia 's landmass of 7617930 km2 is on the Indo-Australian Plate . Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans , it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas , with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast , and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand . The world 's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area , Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the `` island continent '' , and is sometimes considered the world 's largest island . Australia has 34218 km of coastline ( excluding all offshore islands ) , and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8148250 km2 . This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory . Apart from Macquarie Island , Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S , and longitudes 112° and 154°E . The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest coral reef , lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2000 km . Mount Augustus , claimed to be the world 's largest monolith , is located in Western Australia . At 2228 m , Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland . Even taller are Mawson Peak ( at 2745 m ) , on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island , and , in the Australian Antarctic Territory , Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies , at 3492 m and 3355 m respectively . Australia 's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes , with tropical rainforests in the north-east , mountain ranges in the south-east , south-west and east , and dry desert in the centre . It is the flattest continent , with the oldest and least fertile soils ; desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land . The driest inhabited continent , its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm . The population density , 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre , is among the lowest in the world , although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline . Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range , which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland , New South Wales and much of Victoria . The name is not strictly accurate , because parts of the range consist of low hills , and the highlands are typically no more than 1600 m in height . The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains , while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland . These include the western plains of New South Wales , and the Einasleigh Uplands , Barkly Tableland , and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland . The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula . The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Countrywith their tropical climateinclude forest , woodland , wetland , grassland , rainforest and desert . At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley , and below that the Pilbara . To the south of these and inland , lie more areas of grassland : the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands . At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia . Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru ( also known as Ayers Rock ) , the famous sandstone monolith , and the inland Simpson , Tirari and Sturt Stony , Gibson , Great Sandy , Tanami , and Great Victoria deserts , with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast . The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents , including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation , which is correlated with periodic drought , and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia . These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year . Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical , predominantly summer-rainfall ( monsoon ) climate . The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate . Much of the south-east ( including Tasmania ) is temperate . Environment Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert , it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests , and is recognised as a megadiverse country . Fungi typify that diversity ; an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5 % have been described—occur in Australia . Because of the continent 's great age , extremely variable weather patterns , and long-term geographic isolation , much of Australia 's biota is unique . About 85 % of flowering plants , 84 % of mammals , more than 45 % of birds , and 89 % of in-shore , temperate-zone fish are endemic . Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country , with 755 species . Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species , particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions ; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts . Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes ( the platypus and echidna ) ; a host of marsupials , including the kangaroo , koala , and wombat , and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra . Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world . The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE . Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement , including the Australian megafauna ; others have disappeared since European settlement , among them the thylacine . Many of Australia 's ecoregions , and the species within those regions , are threatened by human activities and introduced animal , chromistan , fungal and plant species . All these factors have led to Australia having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world . The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species . Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia 's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems ; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention , and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established . Australia was ranked 3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014 Environmental Performance Index . Environmental issues Protection of the environment is a major political issue in Australia . In 2007 , the First Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol . Nevertheless , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world , lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10–20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . According to the Bureau of Meteorology 's 2011 Australian Climate Statement , Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern ; however , `` the country 's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures , with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia , at above the long-term average '' . Furthermore , 2014 was Australia 's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910 . Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought . Throughout much of the continent , major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought , flushing out inland river systems , overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains , as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010 , 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought . A carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australia 's emissions but was scrapped in 2014 under the Liberal Government . Since the carbon tax was repealed , emissions have again continued to rise . Australian biota has been severely impacted by changes occurring since European settlement began in 1788 , with more than 10 % of mammal species lost in the past 225 years . There have also been 23 bird species or subspecies , 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant species known to be lost during this period . The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 was designed to minimise further impacts on ecological communities in Australia and its territories . Economy Australia is a wealthy country ; it generates its income from various sources including mining-related exports , telecommunications , banking and manufacturing . It has a market economy , a relatively high GDP per capita , and a relatively low rate of poverty . In terms of average wealth , Australia ranked

qw_15057--Australia.txt

As at early 2015, how many Prime Ministers have served in Australia since 2013?

David Joel Stern ( born September 22 , 1942 ) is the former commissioner of the National Basketball Association . He started with the Association in 1966 as an outside counsel , joined the NBA in 1978 as General Counsel , and became the league 's Executive Vice President in 1980 . He became Commissioner in 1984 , succeeding Larry O'Brien . He is credited with increasing the popularity of the NBA in the 1990s and 2000s . Stern has served on the Rutgers University Board of Overseers and is a Chair Emeritus of the Board of Trustees of Columbia University . He is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations . [ http : //www.nba.com/nba101/david_j_stern_bio.html David J. Stern ] , National Basketball Association . Retrieved September 3 , 2007 . On October 25 , 2012 , Stern announced that he would step down as NBA commissioner on February 1 , 2014 , 30 years to the day after beginning his tenure as commissioner . His deputy , Adam Silver , is his successor . On February 14 , 2014 , the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame announced that Stern would be a member of its 2014 induction class . In 2016 , he became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame . Early life David Stern was born on September 22 , 1942 in New York City , New York . He grew up in Teaneck , New Jersey in a Jewish family , and is a graduate of Teaneck High School . Stern attended Rutgers University , where in 1960 he pledged to the Sigma Delta Chapter of Sigma Alpha Mu Fraternity . He graduated as a history student in 1963 , graduated from Columbia Law School in 1966 , and was admitted to the bar in New York later that year after passing the state 's bar examination .. To search the site , go to the following URL : https : //iapps.courts.state.ny.us/attorney/AttorneySearchThe New York State Unified Court System prohibits direct links to its site from external websites . National Basketball Association His first association with the NBA in 1966 was as an outside counsel at Proskauer Rose . In 1978 , Stern became the NBA 's General Counsel under Larry O'Brien . By 1980 , he was Executive Vice President of the NBA . During this time , two landmark decisions were reached with the NBA Players ' Association : drug testing and team salary cap . The drug testing dealt with the perception that most basketball players used drugs , that the NBA admitted it had a problem , and it was cleaning it up . The salary cap created a revenue-sharing system where owner and player were effectively partners . Both of these agreements solidified Stern 's standing inside NBA circles . On February 1 , 1984 , Stern became the Commissioner of the NBA , succeeding Larry O'Brien . It was during that same year ( 1984-85 ) that four of the NBA 's biggest superstars — Hakeem Olajuwon , Michael Jordan , Charles Barkley , and John Stockton — entered the league . The arrival of Michael Jordan , in particular , ushered in a new era of commercial bounty for the NBA . With him came his flair and talent for the game , and that brought in shoe contracts from Nike which helped to give the league even more national attention . Jordan and the two other premier basketball legends of the 1980s , Larry Bird and Magic Johnson , took the game to new heights of popularity and profit . By 2004 , Stern oversaw the NBA expand from 10 to 30 franchises ( since 1966 ) , expand into Canada , and televise games in countries around the world . Stern also oversaw the creation of the WNBA , a professional women 's basketball league . Stern has been credited for developing and broadening the NBA 's audience , by setting up training camps , playing exhibition games around the world , and recruiting more international players . The NBA now has 11 offices in cities outside the United States , is televised in 215 countries around the world in 43 languages , and operates the Women 's National Basketball Association and the National Basketball Development League under Stern 's watch . Notable events during Stern 's tenure * Relocation of 6 NBA franchises ( Clippers , Kings , Grizzlies , Nets , Hornets and Sonics ) * 7 new NBA teams ( Hornets , Timberwolves , Heat , Magic , Grizzlies , Raptors , and Bobcats ) * Ratification of the NBA Dress Code * NBA Finals Trophy renamed to Larry O'Brien Trophy * NBA Finals MVP Trophy renamed to the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award * Four NBA lockouts ( 1995 , 1996 , 1998–99 , and 2011 ) Controversies Stern has been at the center of multiple controversies during his time as commissioner , with a noticeably more frequent trend in recent years . During the 1985 NBA Draft Lottery , the NBA used a system where seven envelopes representing the seven teams with the worst records were mixed in a tumbler , and then drawn by Stern one at a time to determine which of these clubs would get the 1st pick onwards up to the 7th pick . When these envelopes were added to the tumbler , two envelopes were put in forcibly , and banged against the edge , while all the rest were set in gently . When drawing the envelope for the 1st pick , Stern went for the one with a bent corner , which upon opening the envelope , it was revealed that the New York Knicks logo was inside . This fueled speculation of a draft fix , with the theory being that the NBA wanted to send the best player in the draft to New York to increase ratings in a large television market . In the 1997 NBA playoffs , the NBA suspended five players following a brawl between the New York Knicks and Miami Heat , which affected the outcome of that series . Some of the suspensions were required by a league rule , implemented under Stern , that provides an automatic one-game suspension to any player who leaves his team 's bench during a fight . In the 2007 Playoffs from the Suns-Spurs Game , several players who left the bench and were not involved in the altercation were also suspended , prompting complaints from officials on both teams . [ http : //archive.southcoasttoday.com/daily/05-97/05-16-97/d01sp147.htm NewStandard : 5/16/97 ] In 2000 , it was revealed that the Minnesota Timberwolves had tampered with Joe Smith two years earlier by promising him a more lucrative contract in future years in exchange for signing him below market value so they could sign more players in the short-term . The NBA voided the last year of Smith 's contract , fined the franchise $ 3.5 million and took away the Timberwolves ' next three 1st-round NBA Draft picks . [ http : //espn.go.com/columns/ratto_ray/841035.html ESPN.com - GEN - Joe Smith was worth all this trouble ? ] Although many believed that tampering is a common practice , Stern abided by arbitrator Kenneth Dam 's ruling that the Timberwolves had signed the secret agreement , and denied that the league was making an example of the Timberwolves . Before the 2005–06 season , the NBA announced a new dress code , which banned players from wearing headphones , chains , shorts , sleeveless shirts , indoor sunglasses , T-shirts , jerseys and headgear such as baseball caps during NBA-related public appearances . Allen Iverson criticized the policy : `` They 're targeting guys who dress like me , guys who dress hip-hop ... I think they went way overboard . '' For the 2006–07 season the NBA introduced a new `` microfiber '' basketball for use in NBA games , replacing the previous style ball used since 1970 . Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban agreed with the need for a new ball , claiming the old style ball was inconsistent . [ http : //www.blogmaverick.com/2006/10/05/the-new-nba-ball/ The New NBA Ball - Blog Maverick ] [ http : //www.blogmaverick.com/2006/11/10/the-new-nba-ball-p2/ The New NBA Ball P2 - Blog Maverick ] Many of the league 's most prominent players openly expressed their dislike for the new ball , such as Shaquille O'Neal who said , `` Feels like one of those cheap balls that you buy at the toy store . `` [ http : //sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story ? id=2610976 ESPN — Shaq : 'Whoever [ changed ball ] needs to be fired ' - NBA ] A study , financed by Cuban , claimed that the new ball `` bounces 5 to 8 % lower than typical leather balls when dropped from 4 feet ... [ and ] the new ball bounces 30 % more erratically . '' However , Stern initially refused to go back to the original ball despite many complaints by players about the new ball . [ http : //sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story ? id=2621347 ESPN - Stern confident new NBA ball will win over players - NBA ] Two months into the season Stern stated that the new ball may have been a poor choice and poorly tested and `` we could 've done a better job '' . On December 11 , 2006 the NBA announced that it would in fact switch back to the leather ball starting on January 1 , 2007 . In 2007 , Stern injected himself in the controversy surrounding the purchase and subsequent relocation of the Seattle SuperSonics by Oklahoman Clay Bennett and his ownership group . His support for the surprising move from the nation 's 14th-largest market to the 45th was questioned by many both in the public and media . Stern also led the NBA to intervene against a 2008 legal attempt by Howard Schultz to keep the team in Seattle . Additionally , leading up to and lasting throughout the 2010-11 season , Stern and Deputy Commissioner Adam Silver made a number of statements regarding the drafting of a new collective bargaining agreement for the 2011-2012 season . During the All-Star game in Los Angeles , an open meeting between players and owners was held over the agreement , with David Stern quoted as saying that he `` [ knew ] where the bodies are buried '' in the NBA , because he had buried them himself . This raised eyebrows in the room , including that of all-star point guard and eventual MVP , Derrick Rose , who shared his disbelief with fellow reports . '' I just stopped and thought , ‘ Whoa ... ’ '' Rose said . `` I couldn ’ t believe that he said it . '' This statement , coupled with others , served as a prelude to the labor dispute and later set the stage for a player lockout on July 1 , 2011 that would last for five months . On December 8 , 2011 , Stern vetoed a three-team trade that would have sent Chris Paul to the Lakers , Lamar Odom to the league-owned Hornets , and Pau Gasol to the Rockets for what a spokesman would only say were `` basketball reasons '' . Early reactions from around the league , fanbase , and media were all largely negative , with players taking to Twitter to express their concerns , and several noted sports journalists criticizing the decision . The deal was maligned especially because of the conflict of interest posed by the league 's ownership of one of its teams . In an interview with ESPN , then Lakers coach Phil Jackson noted that league ownership of the Hornets could be particularly troublesome in the event that Chris Paul requested a trade . In the aftermath of Stern 's veto , Jackson stated `` If you create a situation like that , the problem might arise and it certainly did . `` . Sports columnist Bill Simmons decried the move as the league `` intentionally jeopardizing its own credibility '' and called the league 's ownership of the Hornets `` the biggest conflict of interest in sports history . `` . The decision came immediately after a deal to ratify a new collective bargaining agreement for the next decade was finally reached . Ostensibly , one of the aims of the agreement was to bring parity to the 30 teams in the NBA , while still facilitating player movement . The feeling amongst many was that the commissioner was pressured by the league owners who shared collective ownership of the Hornets and did not want to facilitate a trade in which the Lakers would receive a star player of Paul 's caliber . In 2012 , Stern was involved in a controversy with sports talk show host Jim Rome . During an interview , Rome asked Stern about the conspiracy theories that the NBA Draft Lottery was fixed in favor of the New Orleans Hornets ( now Pelicans ) , and he asked , `` Was the fix in for the lottery ? '' Stern replied with two answers : `` Number one , no ; and a statement , shame on you for asking . '' He then proceeded to ask Rome , `` Have you stopped beating your wife yet ? '' and accused Rome of `` making a career out of cheap thrills '' . This led to a heated exchange between Rome and Stern , ending when Stern said he had `` to go call someone important like Stephen A . Smith . '' On November 29 , 2012 , San Antonio Spurs head coach Gregg Popovich sat out Tim Duncan , Tony Parker , Manu Ginóbili , and Danny Green for a nationally televised game against the Miami Heat . Popovich has frequently sat out his starters on road trips over the years in order to ensure they have enough rest for the playoffs , the Spurs are one of the oldest teams in the league . Stern was outraged when he learned of this , and said on the night of the game that the Spurs ' actions were `` unacceptable , '' and that `` substantial sanctions [ would ] be forthcoming . '' On November 30 , Stern fined the Spurs $ 250,000 for what he called `` a disservice to the league and the fans . '' According to Stern , Popovich had not informed the Heat , the league or the media in a suitable timeframe that the four players were not making the trip to Miami . Stern 's decision was criticized by commentators such as Adrian Wojnarowski of Yahoo ! Sports , who said , `` Stern does n't care about the realities of his league , just the appearances . To him , the appearance on Thursday night was that Popovich had tried to embarrass him on national television and that 's why the commissioner tossed that tantrum . '' Wojnarowski has argued that Stern has generally shown a pattern of bias against the San Antonio Spurs , while giving considerable leeway to the New York Knicks for their violations of league policy . Personal life He is married to Dianne Bock Stern , and they have two adult sons . They reside in Scarsdale , New York .

jp_2057--David_Stern.txt

David Stern was the commissioner of what organization?

Abraham Lincoln ( ; February 12 , 1809 – April 15 , 1865 ) was the 16th President of the United States , serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865 . Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and its greatest moral , constitutional , and political crisis . In doing so , he preserved the Union , abolished slavery , strengthened the federal government , and modernized the economy . Born in Hodgenville , Kentucky , Lincoln grew up on the western frontier in Kentucky and Indiana . Largely self-educated , he became a lawyer in Illinois , a Whig Party leader , and a member of the Illinois House of Representatives , in which he served for twelve years . Elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846 , Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks , tariffs , and railroads . Because he had originally agreed not to run for a second term in Congress , and because his opposition to the Mexican–American War was unpopular among Illinois voters , Lincoln returned to Springfield and resumed his successful law practice . Reentering politics in 1854 , he became a leader in building the new Republican Party , which had a statewide majority in Illinois . In 1858 , while taking part in a series of highly publicized debates with his opponent and rival , Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of slavery , but lost the U.S. Senate race to Douglas . In 1860 , Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state . Though he gained very little support in the slaveholding states of the South , he swept the North and was elected president in 1860 . Lincoln 's victory prompted seven southern slave states to form the Confederate States of America before he moved into the White House - no compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery and secession . Subsequently , on April 12 , 1861 , a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union in a declaration of war . As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party , Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans , who demanded harsher treatment of the South , War Democrats , who called for more compromise , anti-war Democrats ( called Copperheads ) , who despised him , and irreconcilable secessionists , who plotted his assassination . Politically , Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other , by carefully planned political patronage , and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory . His Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism , republicanism , equal rights , liberty , and democracy . Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war . His primary goal was to reunite the nation . He suspended habeas corpus , leading to the controversial ex parte Merryman decision , and he averted potential British intervention in the war by defusing the Trent Affair in late 1861 . Lincoln closely supervised the war effort , especially the selection of top generals , including his most successful general , Ulysses S. Grant . He also made major decisions on Union war strategy , including a naval blockade that shut down the South 's normal trade , moves to take control of Kentucky and Tennessee , and using gunboats to gain control of the southern river system . Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond ; each time a general failed , Lincoln substituted another , until finally Grant succeeded . As the war progressed , his complex moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 ; Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves , encouraged the border states to outlaw slavery , and pushed through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , which permanently outlawed slavery . An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state , Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re-election campaign in the 1864 presidential election . Anticipating the war 's conclusion , Lincoln pushed a moderate view of Reconstruction , seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness . On April 14 , 1865 , five days after the April 9th surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee , Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth , a Confederate sympathizer . Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public [ http : //www.gallup.com/poll/146183/Americans-Say-Reagan-Greatest-President.aspx `` Americans Say Reagan Is the Greatest President '' ] . Gallup Inc. February 28 , 2011. as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents . Family and childhood Early life and family ancestry Abraham Lincoln was born February 12 , 1809 , the second child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln , in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin County , Kentucky ( now LaRue County ) . He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln , who migrated from Norfolk , England to Hingham , Massachusetts , in 1638 . Samuel 's grandson and great-grandson began the family 's western migration , which passed through New Jersey , Pennsylvania , and Virginia . Lincoln 's paternal grandfather and namesake , Captain Abraham Lincoln , moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County , Kentucky in the 1780s . Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786 . His children , including six-year-old Thomas , the future president 's father , witnessed the attack . After his father 's murder , Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier , working at odd jobs in Kentucky and in Tennessee , before settling with members of his family in Hardin County , Kentucky , in the early 1800s . Lincoln 's mother , Nancy , is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks , although no record of Nancy Hanks ' birth has ever been found . According to William Ensign Lincoln 's book The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln , Nancy was the daughter of Joseph Hanks ; however , the debate continues over whether she was born out of wedlock . Still another researcher , Adin Baber , claims that Nancy Hanks was the daughter of Abraham Hanks and Sarah Harper of Virginia . Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12 , 1806 , in Washington County , and moved to Elizabethtown , Kentucky , following their marriage . They became the parents of three children : Sarah , born on February 10 , 1807 ; Abraham , on February 12 , 1809 ; and another son , Thomas , who died in infancy . Thomas Lincoln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky , including the Sinking Spring farm , where Abraham was born ; however , a land title dispute soon forced the Lincolns to move . Warren , p. 12 . In 1811 the family moved eight miles north , to Knob Creek Farm , where Thomas acquired title to 230 acre of land . In 1815 a claimant in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm . Of the 816.5 acres that Thomas held in Kentucky , he lost all but 200 acre of his land in court disputes over property titles . Frustrated over the lack of security provided by Kentucky courts , Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Kentucky in 1814 , and began planning a move to Indiana , where the land survey process was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles was more secure.Warren , p. 13 . In 1816 the family moved north across the Ohio River to Indiana , a free , non-slaveholding territory , where they settled in an `` unbroken forest '' in Hurricane Township , Perry County . ( Their land in southern Indiana became part of Spencer County , Indiana , when the county was established in 1818 . ) The farm is preserved as part of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial . In 1860 Lincoln noted that the family 's move to Indiana was `` partly on account of slavery '' ; but mainly due to land title difficulties in Kentucky . During the family 's years in Kentucky and Indiana , Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer , cabinetmaker , and carpenter . He owned farms , several town lots and livestock , paid taxes , sat on juries , appraised estates , served on country slave patrols , and guarded prisoners . Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of a Separate Baptists church , which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol , dancing , and slavery . Within a year of the family 's arrival in Indiana , Thomas claimed title to 160 acre of Indiana land . Despite some financial challenges he eventually obtained clear title to 80 acre of land in what became known as the Little Pigeon Creek Community in Spencer County . Prior to the family 's move to Illinois in 1830 , Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacent to his property . Several significant family events took place during Lincoln 's youth in Indiana . On October 5 , 1818 , Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness , leaving eleven-year-old Sarah in charge of a household that included her father , nine-year-old Abraham , and Dennis Hanks , Nancy 's nineteen-year-old orphaned cousin . On December 2 , 1819 , Lincoln 's father married Sarah `` Sally '' Bush Johnston , a widow from Elizabethtown , Kentucky , with three children of her own . Abraham became very close to his stepmother , whom he referred to as `` Mother '' . Those who knew Lincoln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah 's death on January 20 , 1828 , while giving birth to a stillborn son . As a youth , Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life . Some of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all his `` reading , scribbling , writing , ciphering , writing Poetry , etc . `` , and must have done it to avoid manual labor . His stepmother also acknowledged he did not enjoy `` physical labor '' , but loved to read . Lincoln was largely self-educated . His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermittent , the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year ; however , he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning . Family , neighbors , and schoolmates of Lincoln 's youth recalled that he read and reread the King James Bible , Aesop 's Fables , Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress , Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe , Weems 's The Life of Washington , and Franklin 's Autobiography , among others . As he grew into his teens , Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household . He also complied with the customary obligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the home until the age of twenty-one . Abraham became adept at using an axe . Tall for his age , Lincoln was also strong and athletic . He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as `` the Clary 's Grove boys '' . In early March 1830 , fearing a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River , the Lincoln family moved west to Illinois , a non-slaveholding state . They settled on a site in Macon County , Illinois , 10 mi west of Decatur . Historians disagree on who initiated the move . After the family relocated to Illinois , Abraham became increasingly distant from his father , Bartelt , p. 71. in part because of his father 's lack of education , and occasionally lent him money . In 1831 , as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County , Illinois , Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and struck out on his own . Traveling down the Sangamon River , he ended up in the village of New Salem in Sangamon County . Later that spring , Denton Offutt , a New Salem merchant , hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon , Illinois , and Mississippi rivers . After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—Lincoln returned to New Salem , where he remained for the next six years . Marriage and children Lincoln 's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge , whom he met when he first moved to New Salem ; by 1835 , they were in a relationship but not formally engaged . She died at the age of 22 on August 25 , 1835 , most likely of typhoid fever . In the early 1830s , he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister . Late in 1836 , Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem . Mary did return in November 1836 , and Lincoln courted her for a time ; however , they both had second thoughts about their relationship . On August 16 , 1837 , Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship . She never replied and the courtship ended . In 1840 , Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd , who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in Lexington , Kentucky . They met in Springfield , Illinois , in December 1839 and were engaged the following December . A wedding set for January 1 , 1841 , was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln 's initiative . They later met again at a party and married on November 4 , 1842 , in the Springfield mansion of Mary 's married sister . While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again , Lincoln , when asked where he was going , replied , `` To hell , I suppose . '' In 1844 , the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln 's law office . Mary Todd Lincoln kept house , often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl . He was an affectionate , though often absent , husband and father of four children . Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln ( Eddie ) in 1846 . Edward died on February 1 , 1850 , in Springfield , probably of tuberculosis . `` Willie '' Lincoln was born on December 21 , 1850 , and died of a fever on February 20 , 1862 . The Lincolns ' fourth son , Thomas `` Tad '' Lincoln , was born on April 4 , 1853 , and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16 , 1871 . Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children . His last descendant , great-grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith , died in 1985 . Lincoln `` was remarkably fond of children '' , and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own . The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents . Later in life , Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons , and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875 . Abraham Lincoln suffered from `` melancholy '' , a condition which now is referred to as clinical depression . Lincoln 's father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders . Lincoln was close to the Todds , and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington . During his term as President of the United States of America , Mary was known to cook for Lincoln often . Since she was raised by a wealthy family , her cooking abilities were simple , but satisfied Lincoln 's tastes , which included , particularly , imported oysters . Early career and militia service In 1832 , at age 23 , Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit in New Salem , Illinois . Although the economy was booming in the region , the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share . That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the Illinois General Assembly . He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural raconteur in New Salem , though he lacked an education , powerful friends , and money , which may be why he lost . He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River . Before the election , Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War . Following his return , Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly . At 6 ft , he was tall and `` strong enough to intimidate any rival '' . At his first speech , when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked , Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his `` neck and the seat of his trousers '' and threw him . Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates ( the top four were elected ) , though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct . Lincoln served as New Salem 's postmaster and later as county surveyor , all the while reading voraciously . He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England and other law books . Of his learning method , Lincoln stated : `` I studied with nobody '' . His second campaign in 1834 was successful . He won election to the state legislature ; though he ran as a Whig , many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent . Admitted to the bar in 1836 , he moved to Springfield , Illinois , and began to practice law under John T. Stuart , Mary Todd 's cousin . Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments . He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 1841 until 1844 . Then Lincoln began his practice with William Herndon , whom Lincoln thought `` a studious young man '' . Successful on his second run for office , Lincoln served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative from Sangamon County . He supported the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal , which he remained involved with later as a Canal Commissioner . In the 1835–36 legislative session , he voted to expand suffrage to white males , whether landowners or not . He was known for his `` free soil '' stance of opposing both slavery and abolitionism . He first articulated this in 1837 , saying , `` [ The ] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy , but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils . '' His stance closely followed Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society program of making the abolition of slavery practical by its advocation and helping the freed slaves to settle in Liberia in Africa . U.S. House of Representatives , 1847–49 From the early 1830s , Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be `` an old line Whig , a disciple of Henry Clay '' . The party , including Lincoln , favored economic modernization in banking , protective tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads , and espoused urbanization as well . In 1846 , Lincoln was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , where he served one two-year term . He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation , but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line . Lincoln , in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua R. Giddings , wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners , enforcement to capture fugitive slaves , and a popular vote on the matter . He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters . On foreign and military policy , Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican–American War , which he attributed to President Polk 's desire for `` military glory—that attractive rainbow , that rises in showers of blood '' . Lincoln also supported the Wilmot Proviso , which , if it had been adopted , would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico . Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions . The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had `` invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil . Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil . Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it , the national papers ignored it , and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district . One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him `` spotty Lincoln '' . Lincoln later regretted some of his statements , especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers . Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency , Lincoln , who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House , supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election . Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office , but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival , Justin Butterfield , considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer , but in Lincoln 's view , an `` old fossil '' . The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory . This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold , and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois , so he declined and resumed his law practice . Prairie lawyer Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield , handling `` every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer '' . Twice a year for 16 years , 10 weeks at a time , he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session . Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation 's western expansion , particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges . As a riverboat man , Lincoln initially favored those interests , but ultimately represented whoever hired him . In fact , he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge . In 1849 , he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water . The idea was never commercialized , but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent . In 1851 , he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of its shareholders , James A. Barret , who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route . Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret 's pledge ; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer , superior , and less expensive route , and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret 's payment . The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation . Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases , in 51 as sole counsel , of which 31 were decided in his favor . From 1853 to 1860 , another of Lincoln 's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad . Lincoln 's reputation with clients gave rise to his nickname `` Honest Abe . '' Lincoln 's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William `` Duff '' Armstrong , who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker . The case is famous for Lincoln 's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness . After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight , Lincoln produced a Farmers ' Almanac showing the moon was at a low angle , drastically reducing visibility . Based on this evidence , Armstrong was acquitted . Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom ; but in an 1859 case , where he defended a cousin , Peachy Harrison , who was accused of stabbing another to death , Lincoln angrily protested the judge 's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client . Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected , the judge , a Democrat , reversed his ruling , allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison . Republican politics 1854–60 Slavery and a `` House Divided '' By the 1850s , slavery was still legal in the southern United States , but had been generally outlawed in the northern states , including Illinois , whose original 1818 Constitution forbade slavery , as required by the Northwest Ordinance . Lincoln disapproved of slavery , and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west . He returned to politics to oppose the pro-slavery Kansas–Nebraska Act ( 1854 ) ; this law repealed the slavery-restricting Missouri Compromise ( 1820 ) . Senior Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois had incorporated popular sovereignty into the Act . Douglas ' provision , which Lincoln opposed , specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory , rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress . Eric Foner ( 2010 ) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin , with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress . Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle , opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers , especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence . On October 16 , 1854 , in his `` Peoria Speech '' , Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery , which he repeated en route to the presidency . Speaking in his Kentucky accent , with a very powerful voice , he said the Kansas Act had a `` declared indifference , but as I must think , a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery . I can not but hate it . I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself . I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ... '' In late 1854 , Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate . At that time , senators were elected by the state legislature . After leading in the first six rounds of voting , but unable to obtain a majority , Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull . Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat , and had received few votes in the earlier ballots ; his supporters , also antislavery Democrats , had vowed not to support any Whig . Lincoln 's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull 's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate , Joel Aldrich Matteson . Nationally , the Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue . Lincoln wrote , `` I think I am a Whig , but others say there are no Whigs , and that I am an abolitionist [ ... ] I do no more than oppose the

odql_11864--Abraham_Lincoln.txt

In which American state is Gettysburg, where Abraham Lincoln made his famous address?

Coot Club is the fifth book of Arthur Ransome 's Swallows and Amazons series of children 's books , published in 1934 . The book sees Dick and Dorothea Callum visiting the Norfolk Broads during the Easter holidays , eager to learn to sail and thus impress the Swallows and Amazons when they return to the Lake District later that year . Along with a cast of new characters , Dick and Dorothea explore the North and South Broads and become 'able seamen ' . Plot summary The Callum children spend their Easter holidays on The Broads with a family friend , Mrs Barrable , who is staying on a small yacht called the Teasel , moored near the village of Horning . There they encounter the Coot Club , a gang of local children comprising Tom Dudgeon , twin girls 'Port ' and 'Starboard ' ( Nell and Bess Farland ) , and three younger boys — Joe , Bill and Pete ( the Death and Glories ) . The Coot Club has been formed to protect local birds and their nests from egg collectors and disturbance by visiting boaters . A noisy and inconsiderate party of city-dwellers ( dubbed the 'Hullabaloos ' by the children ) hire the motor cruiser Margoletta and threaten an important nesting site ( one of many monitored by the Coots ) by mooring in front of it , and refuse to move even when politely requested to do so . Despite warnings `` not to mix with foreigners '' , Tom stealthily casts off the Margolettas moorings to save the nest and then hides behind the Teasel . He hides for fear of disgracing his father , who is the local doctor . Casting off boats is considered unthinkable on The Broads where the local economy is so dependent on boating . Mrs Barrable does not give Tom away to the Hullabaloos and instead asks him to teach the Callums to sail . Tom , Port , and Starboard join the crew of the Teasel , and together with Mrs Barrable and her pug William , the children teach Dick and Dorothea the basics of sailing up and down the Broads . The women of the party sleep in Teasel and Tom and Dick share Tom 's small sailing boat Titmouse . Dick shares the Coot Club 's keen interest in local bird life , and Dorothea uses the voyage as fodder for her new story , `` Outlaw Of The Broads '' , based on the Hullabaloos ' vow to catch Tom . They chase the crew of the Teasel all over the Broads . Through a piece of imprudence on the part of Mrs Barrable , Teasel and Titmouse are caught on a falling tide on Breydon Water and go aground , just too far apart to be able to communicate . William the pug is encouraged to make a heroic journey across the mud towing a thread , by which a rope is hauled across to share food , without which some of the party would have had to go unfed for 12 hours . They are still stranded on the mud when the Margoletta arrives . There is no escape , but the Hullabaloos , in their joy at running their quarry to earth , manage to crash the Margoletta into a wooden marker post , holing her hull and putting the crew in danger of drowning . At that moment the Death and Glories appear , having rowed all the way from Horning to warn Tom of the Hullabaloos ' approach . They conduct a dramatic rescue , and are rewarded by the owners of the Margoletta with a salvage award which enables them to refurbish their vessel . The Hullabaloos depart without thanking their rescuers , and Tom is able to return home in the knowledge that the reputation of the doctor 's family is intact . It turns out that the Hullabaloos were alerted to Tom 's whereabouts by George Owdon , a Horning youth who makes money by selling birds ' eggs to collectors , and who therefore has no love for the Coot Club . This rivalry is the subject of the sequel , The Big Six . Film , TV or theatrical adaptations The BBC produced a television series Swallows and Amazons Forever ! , based on Coot Club and The Big Six , in 1984 . [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0301909/ Swallows and Amazons Forever ! : Coot Club ( 1984 ) ( TV ) ] Footnotes

odql_9743--Coot_Club.txt

Who wrote the children's books 'Pigeon Post' and 'Coot Club'?

Sir Peter Robert Jackson ( born 31 October 1961 ) is a New Zealand filmmaker and screenwriter . He is best known as the director , writer and producer of The Lord of the Rings trilogy ( 2001–03 ) and The Hobbit trilogy ( 2012–14 ) , both of which are adapted from the novels of the same name by J. R. R. Tolkien . Other notable films include the critically lauded drama Heavenly Creatures ( 1994 ) , the mockumentary Forgotten Silver ( 1995 ) , the horror comedy The Frighteners ( 1996 ) , the epic monster remake film King Kong ( 2005 ) and the supernatural drama film The Lovely Bones ( 2009 ) . He also produced District 9 ( 2009 ) , The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn ( 2011 ) and the documentary West of Memphis ( 2012 ) . Jackson began his career with the `` splatstick '' horror comedy Bad Taste ( 1987 ) and the black comedy Meet the Feebles ( 1989 ) before filming the zombie comedy Braindead ( 1992 ) . He shared a nomination for Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay with his partner Fran Walsh for Heavenly Creatures , which brought him to mainstream prominence in the film industry . Jackson has been awarded three Academy Awards in his career , including the award for Best Director in 2003 . He has also received a Golden Globe , four Saturn Awards and three BAFTAs amongst others . His production company is Wingnut Films , and his most regular collaborators are co-writers and producers Walsh and Philippa Boyens . Jackson was made a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit in 2002 . He was later knighted ( as a Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit ) by Anand Satyanand , the Governor-General of New Zealand , at a ceremony in Wellington in April 2010 . In December 2014 , Jackson was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Early life Jackson was born on 31 October 1961 in Wellington and was raised at the nearby coastal town of Pukerua Bay . His parents—Joan ( née Ruck ) , a factory worker and housewife , and William `` Bill '' Jackson , a wages clerk—were both immigrants from England . Bill Jackson was a veteran of the Siege of Malta in World War II . As a child , Jackson was a keen film fan , growing up on Ray Harryhausen films , as well as finding inspiration in the television series Thunderbirds and Monty Python 's Flying Circus . After a family friend gave the Jacksons a Super 8 cine-camera with Peter in mind , he began making short films with his friends . Jackson has long cited King Kong as his favourite film , and around the age of nine he attempted to remake it using his own stop-motion models . Also , as a child Jackson made a WWII epic called `` The Dwarf Patrol '' seen on the Bad Taste bonus disc which featured his first special effect of poking pinholes in the film for gun shots , and a James Bond spoof named Coldfinger . Most notable though was a 20-minute short called The Valley , which won him a special prize because of the shots he used . In school , Jackson expressed no interest in sports . His classmates also remember him wearing a duffle coat with `` an obsession verging on religious '' . He had no formal training in film-making , but learned about editing , special effects and make-up largely through his own trial and error . As a young adult , Jackson discovered the work of author J. R. R. Tolkien after watching The Lord of the Rings ( 1978 ) , an animated film by Ralph Bakshi that was a part-adaptation of Tolkien 's fantasy trilogy . When he was 16 years old , Jackson left school and began working full-time as a photo-engraver for a Wellington newspaper , The Evening Post . For the seven years he worked there , Jackson lived at home with his parents so he could save as much money as possible to spend on film equipment . After two years of work Jackson bought a 16 mm camera , and began shooting a film that later became Bad Taste . Influences and inspirations Jackson has long cited several films as influences . It is well known that Jackson has a passion for King Kong , often citing it as his favourite film and as the film that inspired him early in his life . Jackson recalls attempting to remake King Kong when he was 12 . At the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con International , while being interviewed alongside Avatar and Titanic director James Cameron , Jackson said certain films gave him a `` kick '' . He mentioned Martin Scorsese 's crime films Goodfellas and Casino , remarking on `` something about those particular movies and the way Martin Scorsese just fearlessly rockets his camera around and has shot those films that I can watch those movies and feel inspired . '' Jackson said the 1970 film Waterloo inspired him in his youth . Career Splatter phase Jackson 's first feature was Bad Taste , a haphazard fashion splatter comedy , which included many of Jackson 's friends acting and working on it for free . Shooting was normally done in the weekends since Jackson was then working full-time . Bad Taste is about aliens that come to earth with the intention of turning humans into food . Jackson had two acting roles including a famous scene in which he fights himself on top of a cliff . The film was finally completed thanks to a late injection of finance from the New Zealand Film Commission , after Jim Booth , the body 's executive director , became convinced of Jackson 's talent ( Booth later left the Commission to become Jackson 's producer ) . In May 1987 , Bad Taste was unveiled at the Cannes Film Festival , where rights to the film quickly sold to twelve countries . Around this time , Jackson began working on writing a number of film scripts , in varied collaborative groupings with playwright Stephen Sinclair , writer Fran Walsh and writer/actor Danny Mulheron . Walsh would later become his life partner . Some of the scripts from this period , including a sequel to A Nightmare on Elm Street , have never been made into movies ; the proposed zombie film Braindead underwent extensive rewrites . Jackson 's next film to see release was Meet the Feebles ( 1989 ) , co-written with Sinclair , Walsh and Mulheron . An ensemble musical comedy starring Muppet-style puppets , Meet the Feebles originally began as a short film intended for television , but was rapidly expanded into a full-length film after unexpected enthusiasm from Japanese investors , and the collapse of Braindead , six weeks before filming . Begun on a very low budget , Meet the Feebles went weeks over schedule . Jackson stated of his second feature-length film , `` It 's got a quality of humour that alienates a lot of people .. It 's very black , very satirical , very savage . '' Feebles marked Jackson 's first collaboration with special effects team Richard Taylor and Tania Rodger , who would later work on all Jackson 's movies . Jackson 's next release was the horror comedy Braindead ( 1992 ) ( released in North America as Dead Alive ) . Heavenly Creatures and Forgotten Silver Released in 1994 after Jackson won a race to bring the story to the screen , Heavenly Creatures marked a major change for Jackson in terms of both style and tone . The film is based on the real Parker–Hulme murder case in which two teenage girls in 1950s Christchurch became close friends and later murdered the mother of one of the girls . It was Fran Walsh that persuaded him that these events had the makings of a movie ; Jackson has been quoted saying that the film `` only got made '' because of her enthusiasm for the subject matter.Webster , Andy ( 1996 ) . `` The Frightener '' [ Cover : `` The Twisted Genius Behind 'The Frighteners ' '' ] , Premiere ( magazine , U.S. ; discontinued ) , August , pp . 33-37 , esp . p. 26 . No online archive of magazine or article available ( October 2015 ) . The film 's fame coincided with the New Zealand media tracking down the real-life Juliet Hulme , who now writes books under the name Anne Perry . Jackson hired actresses Melanie Lynskey and Kate Winslet in the roles of Parker and Hulme . Heavenly Creatures received considerable critical acclaim , including an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay and making top ten of the year lists in Time , The Guardian , The Sydney Morning Herald , and The New Zealand Herald . The success of Heavenly Creatures won Jackson attention from US company Miramax , who promoted the film vigorously in America and signed the director to a first-look deal . The following year , in collaboration with Wellington film-maker Costa Botes , Jackson co-directed the mockumentary Forgotten Silver ( 1995 ) . This ambitious made-for-television piece told the story of New Zealand film pioneer Colin McKenzie , who had supposedly invented colour film and 'talkies ' , and attempted an epic film of Salome before being forgotten by the world . Though the programme played in a slot normally reserved for drama , no other warning was given that it was fictionalised and many viewers were outraged at discovering Colin McKenzie had never existed . The number of people who believed the increasingly improbable story provides testimony to Jackson and Botes ' skill at playing on New Zealand 's national myth of a nation of innovators and forgotten trail-blazers . Hollywood , Weta , and the Film Commission The success of Heavenly Creatures helped pave the way for Jackson 's first big budget Hollywood film , The Frighteners starring Michael J . Fox , in 1996 . Jackson was given permission to make this comedy/horror film entirely in New Zealand despite being set in a North American town . This period was a key one of change for both Jackson and Weta Workshop , the special effects company—born from the one-man contributions of George Port to Heavenly Creatures — with which Jackson is often associated . Weta , initiated by Jackson and key collaborators , grew rapidly during this period to incorporate both digital and physical effects , make-up and costumes , the first two areas normally commanded by Jackson collaborator Richard Taylor . The Frighteners was regarded as a commercial failure . Film critic Roger Ebert expressed disappointment stating that `` incredible effort has resulted in a film that looks more like a demo reel than a movie '' . In February 1997 , Jackson launched legal proceedings against the New Zealand Listener magazine for defamation , over a review of The Frighteners which claimed that the film was `` built from the rubble of other people 's movies '' . In the end , the case was not pursued further . Around this time Jackson 's remake of King Kong was shelved by Universal Studios , partly because of Mighty Joe Young and Godzilla , both giant monster movies , that had already gone into production . Universal feared it would be thrown aside by the two higher budget movies . This period of transition seems not to have been entirely a happy one ; it also marked one of the high points of tension between Jackson and the New Zealand Film Commission since Meet the Feebles had gone over-budget earlier in his career . Jackson has claimed the Commission considered firing him from Feebles , though the NZFC went on to help fund his next three films . In 1997 , the director submitted a lengthy criticism of the Commission for a magazine supplement meant to celebrate the body 's 20th anniversary , criticising what he called inconsistent decision-making by inexperienced board members . The magazine felt that the material was too long and potentially defamatory to publish in that form ; a shortened version of the material went on to appear in Metro magazine . In the Metro article Jackson criticized the Commission over funding decisions concerning a film he was hoping to executive produce , but refused to drop a client-confidentiality clause that allowed them to publicly reply to his criticisms . The Lord of the Rings Jackson won the rights to film Tolkien 's epic in 1997 after meeting with producer Saul Zaentz . Originally working with Miramax towards a two-film production , Jackson was later pressured to render the story as a single film , and finally overcame a tight deadline by making a last-minute deal with New Line , who were keen on a trilogy . Principal photography stretched from 11 October 1999 to 22 December 2000 with extensive location filming across New Zealand . With the benefit of extended post-production and extra periods of shooting before each film 's release , the series met huge success and sent Jackson 's popularity soaring . The Return of the King itself met with huge critical acclaim , winning eleven Oscars , including Best Picture and Best Director . The film was the first of the fantasy film genre to win the award for Best Picture and was the second sequel to win Best Picture ( the first being The Godfather Part II ) . Jackson 's mother , Joan , died three days before the release of the first movie in the trilogy , The Fellowship of the Ring . There was a special showing of the film after her funeral . Following The Return of the King , Jackson lost a large amount of weight –over 50 lb to the point of being unrecognisable to some fans . In The Daily Telegraph , he attributed his weight loss to his diet . He said , `` I just got tired of being overweight and unfit , so I changed my diet from hamburgers to yogurt and muesli and it seems to work . '' He appears to have gained much of this weight back in the following years . King Kong Universal Studios signed Jackson for a second time to remake the 1933 classic King Kong—the film that inspired him to become a film director as a child . He was reportedly paid a fee of US $ 20 million upfront , the highest salary ever paid to date to a film director in advance of production , against a 20 percent take of the box-office rentals ( the portion of the price of the ticket that goes to the film distributor , in this case Universal ) . The film was released on 14 December 2005 , and grossed around US $ 550 million worldwide . The Lovely Bones Jackson completed an adaptation of Alice Sebold 's bestseller , The Lovely Bones , which was released in the United States on 11 December 2009 . Jackson has said the film was a welcome relief from his larger-scale epics . The storyline 's combination of fantasy aspects and themes of murder bears some similarities to Heavenly Creatures . The film ended up receiving generally mixed reviews and middling box office returns . It currently holds 32 % rotten on Rotten Tomatoes . The Hobbit Jackson 's involvement in the making of a film version of The Hobbit has a long and chequered history . In November 2006 , a letter from Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh stated that due to an ongoing legal dispute between Wingnut Films ( Jackson 's production company ) and New Line Cinema , Jackson would not be directing the film . New Line Cinema 's head Robert Shaye commented that Jackson `` ... will never make any movie with New Line Cinema again while I 'm still working at the company ... '' . This prompted an online call for a boycott of New Line Cinema , and by August 2007 Shaye was trying to repair his working relationship . On 18 December 2007 , it was announced that Jackson and New Line Cinema had reached agreement to make two prequels , both based on The Hobbit , and to be released in 2012 and 2013 with Jackson as a writer and executive producer and Guillermo del Toro directing . In early 2010 , del Toro dropped out due to production delays and a month later Jackson was back in negotiations to direct The Hobbit ; and on 15 October he was finalised as the director —with New Zealand confirmed as the location a couple of weeks later . The film started production on 20 March 2011 . On 30 July 2012 , Jackson announced on his Facebook page that the two planned Hobbit movies would be expanded into a trilogy . The third film will not act as a bridge between The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings films , but would continue to expand The Hobbit story by using material found in the Lord of the Rings Appendices . Current and future projects Jackson had talked of producing films for others as early as 1995 , but a number of factors slowed developments in this regard , including the failure of Jack Brown Genius ( 1995 ) . After he became a force in Hollywood , he was set to produce a $ 128 million movie version of the science fiction video game series Halo , but the project went on hold when financial backers withdrew their support . Instead Jackson worked with Halo director Neill Blomkamp on science fiction project District 9 , which proved a box office hit and was nominated for an Oscar for Best Picture . Jackson was set to produce a remake of The Dam Busters , to be directed by longtime Weta designer Christian Rivers . Stephen Fry has written a screenplay . Originally scheduled for filming by 2009 , the project has been postponed . However , Jackson still holds movie rights as of August , 2015 . Jackson has also won the rights to a film adaptation of the fantasy novel series Temeraire , a novel about dragons being used in combat in the Napoleonic Wars and a dragon named Temeraire and his captain , Will Laurence , written by Naomi Novik . It remains to be seen if he will direct it . In recent years , Jackson has also directed a short film titled Crossing the Line to test a new model of digital cinema camera , the RED ONE . The film takes place during World War I , and was shot in two days . `` Crossing the Line '' was shown at NAB 2007 ( the USA National Association of Broadcasters ) . Clips of the film can be found at Reduser.net . Jackson and his newly formed studio Wingnut Interactive were working on an unrevealed project being developed by Microsoft Game Studios in collaboration with Bungie Studios . The project has been officially titled Halo : Chronicles but beyond speculation little else was known about its nature . He was to be the executive producer on a Halo film , developed and released by Universal Studios and 20th Century Fox but in October 2006 the film was postponed indefinitely . The film was never officially cancelled . In June 2008 Peter Jackson commented that , `` With upcoming developments ( Halo : Chronicles ) , I would n't know when to expect a movie , and I 'm the producer . '' Jackson spent $ 5 million to purchase 20 hectares of land in Wairarapa , a property containing a mansion , private lake , tunnel and the interior of Bag End from The Lord of the Rings . In 2009 , he purchased a Gulfstream G550 jet ; his total net worth is estimated by National Business Review at NZ $ 450 million . Jackson owns an aircraft restoration and manufacturing company , The Vintage Aviator , which is dedicated to World War I and World War II fighter planes among other planes from the 1920s and 1930s . He is chairman of the Omaka Aviation Heritage Trust , which hosts a biennial air show . In late December 2009 , Jackson announced his interest on the movie adaption of the novel Mortal Engines . Tintin franchise Jackson was one of three producers on The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , directed by Steven Spielberg and released in 2011 . He is officially labeled as producer but helped Spielberg , before he began working on The Hobbit , to direct the film . Jamie Bell and Andy Serkis were cast due to their collaboration with Peter Jackson on King Kong and The Lord of the Rings . Spielberg also chose to work with Peter Jackson due to the impressive digital work on the Lord of the Rings films , and knew Peter Jackson 's company Weta Workshop would make his vision a reality . It received positive reviews and grossed $ 374 million at the box office . In December 2011 , Spielberg said that a sequel would be made . Spielberg said that the Thompson detectives would `` have a much bigger role '' . The sequel would be produced by Spielberg and directed by Jackson . Kathleen Kennedy said the script might be done by February or March 2012 and motion-captured in summer 2012 , so that the movie would be on track to be released by Christmas 2014 or mid-2015 . In February 2012 , Spielberg said that a story outline for the sequel had been completed . In December 2012 , Jackson said that the Tintin schedule was to shoot performance-capture in 2013 , aiming for a release in 2015 . On March 12 , 2013 , Spielberg said , `` Do n't hold me to it , but we 're hoping the film will come out around Christmas-time in 2015 . We know which books we 're making , we ca n't share that now but we 're combining two books which were always intended to be combined by Herge . '' In December 2014 , Peter Jackson said that the Tintin sequel would be made `` at some point soon '' , although he intended to focus on directing two New Zealand films before that . The following year , Anthony Horowitz , who was hired as the sequel 's screenwriter even before the release of the first film , stated that he is no longer working on the sequel , and is unsure if it is still being made . In June 2016 , Spielberg confirmed the sequel is coming , but Jackson is working on a secret project in the meantime . Games Jackson was set to make games with Microsoft Game Studios , a partnership announced on 27 September 2006 , at X06 . Specifically , Jackson and Microsoft were teaming together to form a new studio called Wingnut Interactive . In collaboration with Bungie Studios , he was to co-write , co-design and co-produce a new game taking place in the Halo universe – tentatively called Halo : Chronicles . On 27 July 2009 , in an interview about his new movie ( as producer ) District 9 , he announced that Halo : Chronicles had been cancelled , while Microsoft confirmed that the game is `` on hold '' . Jackson 's game studio Wingnut Interactive is now at work on original intellectual property . Charitable activities Jackson has given NZ $ 500,000 to stem cell research . He purchased a church in the Wellington suburb of Seatoun for about $ 10 million , saving it from demolition . He also contributes his expertise to 48HOURS , a New Zealand film-making competition , through annually selecting 3 `` Wildcards '' for the National Final . Jackson , a World War I aviation enthusiast , is chair of the 14–18 Aviation Heritage Trust . He donated his services and provided replica aircraft to create a 10-minute multimedia display called Over the Front for the Australian War Memorial in 2008 . He contributed to the defense fund for the West Memphis Three . In 2011 , Jackson and Walsh purchased 1 Kent Terrace , the home of BATS Theatre in Wellington , effectively securing the theatre 's future . Style Jackson is known for his attention to detail , a habit of shooting scenes from many angles , a macabre sense of humour , and a general playfulness—the latter to a point that The Lord of the Rings conceptual designer Alan Lee jokingly remarked , `` the film is almost incidental really '' . Jackson was a noted perfectionist on the Lord of the Rings shoot , where he demanded numerous takes of scenes , requesting additional takes by repeatedly saying , `` one more for luck '' . Jackson is also renowned within the New Zealand film industry for his insistence on `` coverage '' —shooting a scene from as many angles as possible , giving him more options during editing . Jackson has been known to spend days shooting a single scene . This is evident in his work where even scenes featuring simple conversations often feature a wide array of multiple camera angles and shot-sizes as well as zooming closeups on characters ' faces . One of his most common visual trademarks is shooting close-ups of actors with wide-angle lenses . He was an early user of computer enhancement technology and provided digital special effects to a number of Hollywood films . Cameo roles Jackson is one of the lead actors in two of his films : in Bad Taste , he plays two characters named Derek and Robert , even engaging them both in a fight . In the mockumentary Forgotten Silver , he plays his own role . However he appears in most films he directed , mostly in cameos , just as director Alfred Hitchcock had done : * In Meet the Feebles , Jackson appears as an audience member disguised as one of the aliens from Bad Taste . * In Braindead , he is the mortician 's assistant . * In Heavenly Creatures , he is the tramp who gets kissed by Juliet Hulme . * In The Frighteners , Jackson is a biker bumped into by Frank Bannister . * In The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , Jackson plays a drunken , carrot-chomping citizen of Bree when the four hobbits are entering in town . * In The Lord of the Rings : The Two Towers , he plays a spear-throwing defender of Helm 's Deep . * In his significant cameo in The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King he is seen as the boatswain of a murderous corsair ship . This character is seen very briefly in the theatrical version . In the extended version he is onscreen for a longer period and is accidentally killed by Legolas 's `` warning shot '' . A detailed action figure of Jackson was made of this character in the same line as the rest of the Lord of the Rings toys . Jackson actually makes two cameos in Return of the King : during the scene of Shelob 's Lair , where Sam 's hands ( i.e . Jackson 's ) are seen entering the shot as Shelob is wrapping Frodo in webbing . This was due to Sean Astin 's temporary absence , and Jackson wanted to progress the production of the scene as much as possible , even without the actor . * Jackson appears in his version of King Kong as a biplane gunner attacking Kong in New York , reprising the cameo which original King Kong filmmaker Merian C. Cooper made in the original 1933 film . * In The Lovely Bones , he appears as a customer in a camera store playing with a camera . * In The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey , Jackson plays one of the dwarves escaping from Erebor after Smaug has attacked . * In The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug , he appears as a drunken , carrot-chomping citizen of Bree , much like his appearance in The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring . * At the end of The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies , when Bilbo Baggins restores the fallen portraits of his parents , Bungo Baggins and Belladonna Took , to the wall from which they had fallen or been removed , Jackson and wife have cameos as Bungo and Belladonna ,

qw_15255--Peter_Jackson.txt

"How many films were made by director Sir Peter Jackson from Tolkien's short book, ""The Hobbit""?"

Tungsten , also known as wolfram , is a chemical element with symbol W and atomic number 74 . The word tungsten comes from the Swedish language tung sten , which directly translates to heavy stone . Its name in Swedish is volfram , however , in order to distinguish it from scheelite , which in Swedish is alternatively named tungsten . A hard , rare metal under standard conditions when uncombined , tungsten is found naturally on Earth almost exclusively in chemical compounds . It was identified as a new element in 1781 , and first isolated as a metal in 1783 . Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite . The free element is remarkable for its robustness , especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the elements . Its high density is 19.3 times that of water , comparable to that of uranium and gold , and much higher ( about 1.7 times ) than that of lead . Polycrystalline tungsten is an intrinsically brittle and hard material , making it difficult to work . However , pure single-crystalline tungsten is more ductile , and can be cut with a hard-steel hacksaw . Tungsten 's many alloys have numerous applications , including incandescent light bulb filaments , X-ray tubes ( as both the filament and target ) , electrodes in TIG welding , superalloys , and radiation shielding . Tungsten 's hardness and high density give it military applications in penetrating projectiles . Tungsten compounds are also often used as industrial catalysts . Tungsten is the only metal from the third transition series that is known to occur in biomolecules , where it is used in a few species of bacteria and archaea . It is the heaviest element known to be essential to any living organism . Tungsten interferes with molybdenum and copper metabolism and is somewhat toxic to animal life . Characteristics Physical properties In its raw form , tungsten is a hard steel-grey metal that is often brittle and hard to work . If made very pure , tungsten retains its hardness ( which exceeds that of many steels ) , and becomes malleable enough that it can be worked easily . It is worked by forging , drawing , or extruding . Tungsten objects are also commonly formed by sintering . Of all metals in pure form , tungsten has the highest melting point ( 3422 °C , 6192 °F ) , lowest vapor pressure ( at temperatures above 1650 °C , 3000 °F ) and the highest tensile strength . Although carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than tungsten , carbon sublimes , rather than melts , so tungsten is considered to have a higher melting point . Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure metal . The low thermal expansion and high melting point and tensile strength of tungsten originate from strong covalent bonds formed between tungsten atoms by the 5d electrons . Alloying small quantities of tungsten with steel greatly increases its toughness . Tungsten exists in two major crystalline forms : α and β . The former has a body-centered cubic structure and is the more stable form . The structure of the β phase is called A15 cubic ; it is metastable , but can coexist with the α phase at ambient conditions owing to non-equilibrium synthesis or stabilization by impurities . Contrary to the α phase which crystallizes in isometric grains , the β form exhibits a columnar habit . The α phase has one third of the electrical resistivity and a much lower superconducting transition temperature TC relative to the β phase : ca . 0.015 K vs. 1–4 K ; mixing the two phases allows obtaining intermediate TC values . The TC value can also be raised by alloying tungsten with another metal ( e.g . 7.9 K for W-Tc ) . Such tungsten alloys are sometimes used in low-temperature superconducting circuits . Isotopes Naturally occurring tungsten consists of five isotopes whose half-lives are so long that they can be considered stable . Theoretically , all five can decay into isotopes of element 72 ( hafnium ) by alpha emission , but only 180W has been observed to do so with a half-life of ( 1.8 ± 0.2 ) ×1018 years ; on average , this yields about two alpha decays of 180W in one gram of natural tungsten per year . The other naturally occurring isotopes have not been observed to decay , constraining their half-lives to be : 182W , t1/2 > 7.7×1021 years 183W , t1/2 > 4.1×1021 years 184W , t1/2 > 8.9×1021 years 186W , t1/2 > 8.2×1021 years Another 30 artificial radioisotopes of tungsten have been characterized , the most stable of which are 181W with a half-life of 121.2 days , 185W with a half-life of 75.1 days , 188W with a half-life of 69.4 days , 178W with a half-life of 21.6 days , and 187W with a half-life of 23.72 h. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 3 hours , and most of these have half-lives below 8 minutes . Tungsten also has 4 meta states , the most stable being 179mW ( t1/2 6.4 minutes ) . Chemical properties Elemental tungsten resists attack by oxygen , acids , and alkalis . The most common formal oxidation state of tungsten is +6 , but it exhibits all oxidation states from −2 to +6 . Tungsten typically combines with oxygen to form the yellow tungstic oxide , WO3 , which dissolves in aqueous alkaline solutions to form tungstate ions , . Tungsten carbides ( W2C and WC ) are produced by heating powdered tungsten with carbon . W2C is resistant to chemical attack , although it reacts strongly with chlorine to form tungsten hexachloride ( WCl6 ) . In aqueous solution , tungstate gives the heteropoly acids and polyoxometalate anions under neutral and acidic conditions . As tungstate is progressively treated with acid , it first yields the soluble , metastable `` paratungstate A '' anion , , which over time converts to the less soluble `` paratungstate B '' anion , . Further acidification produces the very soluble metatungstate anion , , after which equilibrium is reached . The metatungstate ion exists as a symmetric cluster of twelve tungsten-oxygen octahedra known as the Keggin anion . Many other polyoxometalate anions exist as metastable species . The inclusion of a different atom such as phosphorus in place of the two central hydrogens in metatungstate produces a wide variety of heteropoly acids , such as phosphotungstic acid H3PW12O40 . Tungsten trioxide can form intercalation compounds with alkali metals . These are known as bronzes ; an example is sodium tungsten bronze . History In 1781 , Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered that a new acid , tungstic acid , could be made from scheelite ( at the time named tungsten ) . Scheele and Torbern Bergman suggested that it might be possible to obtain a new metal by reducing this acid . In 1783 , José and Fausto Elhuyar found an acid made from wolframite that was identical to tungstic acid . Later that year , at the Royal Basque Society in the town of Bergara , Spain , the brothers succeeded in isolating tungsten by reduction of this acid with charcoal , and they are credited with the discovery of the element . In World War II , tungsten played a significant role in background political dealings . Portugal , as the main European source of the element , was put under pressure from both sides , because of its deposits of wolframite ore at Panasqueira . Tungsten 's desirable properties such as resistance to high temperatures , its hardness and density , and its strengthening of alloys made it an important raw material for the arms industry , both as a constituent of weapons and equipment and employed in production itself , e.g. , in tungsten carbide cutting tools for machining steel . Etymology The name `` tungsten '' ( from the Swedish tung sten , `` heavy stone '' ) is used in English , French , and many other languages as the name of the element , but not in the Nordic countries . Tungsten was the old Swedish name for the mineral scheelite . The other name `` wolfram '' ( or `` volfram '' ) is used in most European ( especially Germanic and Slavic ) languages , and is derived from the mineral wolframite , which is the origin of its chemical symbol , W. The name `` wolframite '' is derived from German `` wolf rahm '' ( `` wolf soot '' or `` wolf cream '' ) , the name given to tungsten by Johan Gottschalk Wallerius in 1747 . This , in turn , derives from `` lupi spuma '' , the name Georg Agricola used for the element in 1546 , which translates into English as `` wolf 's froth '' , and is a reference to the large amounts of tin consumed by the mineral during its extraction . Occurrence Tungsten is found in wolframite ( iron–manganese tungstate ( Fe , Mn ) WO4 being a solid solution of the minerals ferberite FeWO4 and hübnerite MnWO4 ) and scheelite ( calcium tungstate ( CaWO4 ) . Other tungsten minerals are moderately to very rare and have no economical value . They include the recently approved native tungsten . Production About 61,300 tonnes of tungsten concentrates were produced in the year 2009 , and in 2010 , world production of tungsten was about 68,000 tonnes . The main producers were as follows ( data in tonnes ) : There is additional production in the U.S. , but the amount is proprietary company information . U.S. reserves are 140,000 tonnes . Tungsten is considered to be a conflict mineral due to the unethical mining practices observed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . There is a large deposit of tungsten ore on the edge of Dartmoor in the United Kingdom , which was exploited during World War I and World War II as the Hemerdon Mine . With recent increases in tungsten prices , as of 2014 this mine has been reactivated . Tungsten is extracted from its ores in several stages . The ore is eventually converted to tungsten ( VI ) oxide ( WO3 ) , which is heated with hydrogen or carbon to produce powdered tungsten . Because of tungsten 's high melting point , it is not commercially feasible to cast tungsten ingots . Instead , powdered tungsten is mixed with small amounts of powdered nickel or other metals , and sintered . During the sintering process , the nickel diffuses into the tungsten , producing an alloy . Tungsten can also be extracted by hydrogen reduction of WF6 : WF6 + 3 H2 → W + 6 HF or pyrolytic decomposition : WF6 → W + 3 F2 ( ΔHr = + ) Tungsten is not traded as a futures contract and can not be tracked on exchanges like the London Metal Exchange . The prices are usually quoted for tungsten concentrate or WO3 . If converted to the metal equivalent , they were about US $ 19 per kilogram in 2009 . Applications Approximately half of the tungsten is consumed for the production of hard materials – namely tungsten carbide – with the remaining major use being in alloys and steels . Less than 10 % is used in other chemical compounds . Hard materials Tungsten is mainly used in the production of hard materials based on tungsten carbide , one of the hardest carbides , with a melting point of 2770 °C . WC is an efficient electrical conductor , but W2C is less so . WC is used to make wear-resistant abrasives , and `` carbide '' cutting tools such as knives , drills , circular saws , milling and turning tools used by the metalworking , woodworking , mining , petroleum and construction industries . Carbide tooling is actually a ceramic/metal composite , where metallic cobalt acts as a binding ( matrix ) material to hold the WC particles in place . This type of industrial use accounts for about 60 % of current tungsten consumption . The jewelry industry makes rings of sintered tungsten carbide , tungsten carbide/metal composites , and also metallic tungsten . WC/metal composite rings use nickel as the metal matrix in place of cobalt because it takes a higher luster when polished . Sometimes manufacturers or retailers refer to tungsten carbide as a metal , but it is a ceramic . Because of tungsten carbide 's hardness , rings made of this material are extremely abrasion resistant , and will hold a burnished finish longer than rings made of metallic tungsten . Tungsten carbide rings are brittle , however , and may crack under a sharp blow . Alloys The hardness and density of tungsten are applied in obtaining heavy metal alloys . A good example is high speed steel , which can contain as much as 18 % tungsten . Tungsten 's high melting point makes tungsten a good material for applications like rocket nozzles , for example in the UGM-27 Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missile . Tungsten alloys are used in a wide range of different applications , including the aerospace and automotive industries and radiation shielding . Superalloys containing tungsten , such as Hastelloy and Stellite , are used in turbine blades and wear-resistant parts and coatings . Armaments Tungsten , usually alloyed with nickel and iron or cobalt to form heavy alloys , is used in kinetic energy penetrators as an alternative to depleted uranium , in applications where uranium 's radioactivity is problematic even in depleted form , or where uranium 's additional pyrophoric properties are not required ( for example , in ordinary small arms bullets designed to penetrate body armor ) . Similarly , tungsten alloys have also been used in cannon shells , grenades and missiles , to create supersonic shrapnel . Tungsten has also been used in Dense Inert Metal Explosives , which use it as dense powder to reduce collateral damage while increasing the lethality of explosives within a small radius . Chemical applications Tungsten ( IV ) sulfide is a high temperature lubricant and is a component of catalysts for hydrodesulfurization . MoS2 is more commonly used for such applications . Tungsten oxides are used in ceramic glazes and calcium/magnesium tungstates are used widely in fluorescent lighting . Crystal tungstates are used as scintillation detectors in nuclear physics and nuclear medicine . Other salts that contain tungsten are used in the chemical and tanning industries . Tungsten oxide ( WO3 ) is incorporated into selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) catalysts found in coal-fired power plants . These catalysts convert nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) to nitrogen ( N2 ) and water ( H2O ) using ammonia ( NH3 ) . The tungsten oxide helps with the physical strength of the catalyst and extends catalyst life . Niche uses Applications requiring its high density include weights , counterweights , ballast keels for yachts , tail ballast for commercial aircraft , and as ballast in race cars for NASCAR and Formula One ; depleted uranium is also used for these purposes , due to similarly high density . 75-kg blocks of tungsten were used as `` cruise balance mass devices '' on the entry vehicle portion of the 2012 Mars Science Laboratory spacecraft . It is an ideal material to use as a dolly for riveting , where the mass necessary for good results can be achieved in a compact bar . High-density alloys of tungsten with nickel , copper or iron are used in high-quality darts ( to allow for a smaller diameter and thus tighter groupings ) or for fishing lures ( tungsten beads allow the fly to sink rapidly ) . Some cello C strings are wound with tungsten . The extra density gives this sting more projection and often cellists will buy just this string and use it with 3 strings from a different set . Sodium tungstate is used in Folin-Ciocalteu 's reagent , a mixture of different chemicals used in the `` Lowry Assay '' for protein content analysis . Gold substitution Its density , similar to that of gold , allows tungsten to be used in jewelry as an alternative to gold or platinum . Metallic tungsten is hypoallergenic , and is harder than gold alloys ( though not as hard as tungsten carbide ) , making it useful for rings that will resist scratching , especially in designs with a brushed finish . Because the density is so similar to that of gold ( tungsten is only 0.36 % less dense ) , tungsten can also be used in counterfeiting of gold bars , such as by plating a tungsten bar with gold , which has been observed since the 1980s , or taking an existing gold bar , drilling holes , and replacing the removed gold with tungsten rods . The densities are not exactly the same , and other properties of gold and tungsten differ , but gold-plated tungsten will pass superficial tests . Gold-plated tungsten is available commercially from China ( the main source of tungsten ) , both in jewelry and as bars . Electronics Because it retains its strength at high temperatures and has a high melting point , elemental tungsten is used in many high-temperature applications , such as light bulb , cathode-ray tube , and vacuum tube filaments , heating elements , and rocket engine nozzles . Its high melting point also makes tungsten suitable for aerospace and high-temperature uses such as electrical , heating , and welding applications , notably in the gas tungsten arc welding process ( also called tungsten inert gas ( TIG ) welding ) . Because of its conductive properties and relative chemical inertness , tungsten is also used in electrodes , and in the emitter tips in electron-beam instruments that use field emission guns , such as electron microscopes . In electronics , tungsten is used as an interconnect material in integrated circuits , between the silicon dioxide dielectric material and the transistors . It is used in metallic films , which replace the wiring used in conventional electronics with a coat of tungsten ( or molybdenum ) on silicon . The electronic structure of tungsten makes it one of the main sources for X-ray targets , and also for shielding from high-energy radiations ( such as in the radiopharmaceutical industry for shielding radioactive samples of FDG ) . It is also used in gamma imaging as a material from which coded apertures are made , due to its excellent shielding properties . Tungsten powder is used as a filler material in plastic composites , which are used as a nontoxic substitute for lead in bullets , shot , and radiation shields . Since this element 's thermal expansion is similar to borosilicate glass , it is used for making glass-to-metal seals . Biological role Tungsten , at atomic number 74 , is the heaviest element known to be biologically functional , with the next heaviest being iodine ( Z = 53 ) . It is used by some bacteria , but not in eukaryotes . For example , enzymes called oxidoreductases use tungsten similarly to molybdenum by using it in a tungsten-pterin complex with molybdopterin ( molybdopterin , despite its name , does not contain molybdenum , but may complex with either molybdenum or tungsten in use by living organisms ) . Tungsten-using enzymes typically reduce carboxylic acids to aldehydes . The tungsten oxidoreductases may also catalyse oxidations . The first tungsten-requiring enzyme to be discovered also requires selenium , and in this case the tungsten-selenium pair may function analogously to the molybdenum-sulfur pairing of some molybdenum cofactor-requiring enzymes . One of the enzymes in the oxidoreductase family which sometimes employ tungsten ( bacterial formate dehydrogenase H ) is known to use a selenium-molybdenum version of molybdopterin . Acetylene hydratase is an unusual metalloenzyme in that it catalyzes a hydration reaction . Two reaction mechanisms have been proposed , in one of which there is a direct interaction between the tungsten atom and the C≡C triple bond . Although a tungsten-containing xanthine dehydrogenase from bacteria has been found to contain tungsten-molydopterin and also non-protein bound selenium , a tungsten-selenium molybdopterin complex has not been definitively described . In soil , tungsten metal oxidizes to the tungstate anion . It can be selectively or non-selectively imported by some prokaryotic organisms and may substitute for molybdate in certain enzymes . Its effect on the action of these enzymes is in some cases inhibitory and in others positive . The soil 's chemistry determines how the tungsten polymerizes ; alkaline soils cause monomeric tungstates ; acidic soils cause polymeric tungstates . Sodium tungstate and lead have been studied for their effect on earthworms . Lead was found to be lethal at low levels and sodium tungstate was much less toxic , but the tungstate completely inhibited their reproductive ability . Tungsten has been studied as a biological copper metabolic antagonist , in a role similar to the action of molybdenum . It has been found that tetrathiotungstates may be used as biological copper chelation chemicals , similar to the tetrathiomolybdates . Precautions Because tungsten is rare and its compounds are generally inert , the effects of tungsten on the environment are limited . The median lethal dose LD50 depends strongly on the animal and the method of administration and varies between 59 mg/kg ( intravenous , rabbits ) and 5000 mg/kg ( tungsten metal powder , intraperitoneal , rats ) . People can be exposed to tungsten in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin contact , and eye contact . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and a short term limit of 10 mg/m3 . Patent claim Tungsten is unique amongst the elements in that it has been the subject of patent proceedings . In 1928 , a US court rejected General Electric 's attempt to patent it , overturning granted in 1913 to William D. Coolidge .

sfq_8071--Tungsten.txt

Which chemical element, atomic number 74, used to be called Wolfram?

EastEnders is a British soap opera ; the first episode was broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 19 February 1985 . EastEnders storylines examine the domestic and professional lives of the people who live and work in the fictional London Borough of Walford in the East End of London . The series primarily centres on the residents of Albert Square , a Victorian square of terraced houses , and its neighbouring streets , namely Bridge Street , Turpin Road and George Street . The area encompasses a pub , street market , night club , community centre , funeral parlour , café , wine bar , various other small businesses , a park and allotments . The series was initially screened as two half-hour instalments per week . Since 2001 , episodes are broadcast each weekday , apart from Wednesday , on BBC One . A same-day repeat was shown on BBC Three , from 2004 until 15 February 2016 , after which W took over the showing . An omnibus edition was broadcast on a Sunday , from 1985 until its discontinuation , in 2015 , but , as with the repeat screening , this was picked up by W in 2016 . It is one of the UK 's highest-rated programmes , often appearing near or at the top of the week 's BARB ratings . Within eight months of its launch , it reached the number-one spot in the ratings , and has consistently remained among the top-rated TV programmes in Britain . In 2013 , the average audience share for an episode was around 30 per cent . Created by producer Julia Smith and script editor Tony Holland , EastEnders has remained a significant programme in terms of the BBC 's success and audience share , and also in the history of British television drama , tackling many controversial and taboo issues in British culture and social life previously unseen on United Kingdom mainstream television . , EastEnders has won nine BAFTA Awards and the Inside Soap Award for Best Soap for 14 years running ( from 1997 to 2012 ) , as well as twelve National Television Awards for Most Popular Serial Drama and 11 awards for Best Soap at the British Soap Awards . It has also won 13 TV Quick and TV Choice Awards for Best Soap , six TRIC Awards for Soap of The Year , four Royal Television Society Awards for Best Continuing Drama and has been inducted into the Rose d'Or Hall of Fame . Setting The central focus of EastEnders is the fictional Victorian square Albert Square in the fictional London Borough of Walford . In the show 's narrative , Albert Square is a 19th-century street , named after Prince Albert ( 1819–61 ) , the husband of Queen Victoria ( 1819–1901 , reigned 1837–1901 ) . Thus , central to Albert Square is The Queen Victoria Public House . Fans have tried to establish the location Walford would have within London if it were real . Walford East is a fictional tube station for Walford , and a tube map that was first seen on air in 1996 showed Walford East between Bow Road and West Ham , in the actual location of Bromley-by-Bow on the District and Hammersmith & City lines . Walford has the postal district of E20 . The postcode district was selected as if it were part of the actual E postcode area which covers much of east London although the next unused postcode district in the area was , and still is ( ) , E19 . The E stands for Eastern.HMSO , The Inner London Letter Post , ( 1980 ) In 1917 the current postal districts in London were assigned alphabetically according to the name of the main sorting office for each district . If Walford had been assigned in this scheme it would have been given E17 , which is the current postcode district for Walthamstow . In March 2011 , Royal Mail allocated the E20 postal district to the 2012 Olympic Park . The postal district in EastEnders was entirely fictional up to that point , as London East postal districts stopped at E18 at that time . The show 's creators opted for E20 instead of E19 as it was thought to sound better . In September 2011 the postal code for Albert Square was revealed in an episode as E20 6PQ . An Albert Square exists in the East End of London in Ratcliff , and a further such square exists just beyond the East End in Stratford , but the show 's producers based the square 's design on Fassett Square in Dalston . There is also a market close to Fassett Square at Ridley Road . The postcode for the area , E8 , was one of the working titles for the series . The name Walford is both a street in Dalston where Tony Holland lived and a blend of Walthamstow and Stratford—the areas of Greater London where the creators were born . Other parts of the Square and set interiors are based on other locations . The bridge is based upon one near the BBC Television Centre , the Queen Vic on the old pub at the end of Scrubs Lane/Harrow Road NW10 , and the interior to the Fowlers ' is based on a house in Manor Road , Colchester , close to where the supervising art director lived . The fictional local newspaper , the Walford Gazette , in which local news events such as the arrests or murders of characters appear , mirrors the real Hackney Gazette . Characters EastEnders is built around the idea of relationships and strong families , with each character having a place in the community . This theme encompasses the whole Square , making the entire community a family of sorts , prey to upsets and conflict , but pulling together in times of trouble . Co-creator Tony Holland was from a large East End family , and such families have typified EastEnders . The first central family was the combination of the Fowler family , consisting of Pauline Fowler , her husband Arthur Fowler , and teenage children Mark Fowler and Michelle Fowler and the Beale family , consisting of Pete Beale ( Pauline 's twin brother ) , his wife Kathy Beale and their teenage son Ian Beale . Pauline and Pete 's mother was the domineering Lou Beale , who lived with Pauline and her family . Holland drew on the names of his own family for the characters . The Watts and Mitchell families have been central to many notable EastEnders storylines , the show having been dominated by the Watts in the 1980s , with the 1990s focusing on the Mitchells . The early 2000s saw a shift in attention towards the newly introduced female Slater clan , before a renewal of emphasis upon the restored Watts family beginning in 2003 . Since 2006 , EastEnders has largely been dominated by the Mitchell and Branning families , though the early 2010s also saw a renewed focus on the Moon family , and from 2013 onwards , on the Carters . The Beales are the show 's longest running family , having been in EastEnders since it began in 1985 . Key people involved in the production of EastEnders have stressed how important the idea of strong families is to the programme . Peggy Mitchell , in particular , is notorious for her ceaseless repetition of such statements as `` You 're a Mitchell ! '' and `` It 's all about family ! `` . Pauline Fowler is also known for her insistence on family and mentioning her brother and husband to instil loyalty from family members . Her mother Lou Beale is renowned for her family meetings and traditional approach to family . More recently , Derek Branning regularly expresses the importance of a strong family unit . As the eldest sibling , he is constantly asserting his position as head of his family and reminding everyone to pull together in times of trouble . Additionally , Derek commonly refers to himself , Max Branning and Jack Branning as `` the Branning brothers . '' Some families feature a stereotypical East End matriarch . Indeed , the matriarchal role is one that has been seen in various reincarnations since the programme 's inception , often depicted as the centre of the family unit . The original matriarch was Lou Beale , though later examples include Pauline Fowler , Mo Harris , Pat Butcher , Peggy Mitchell , Zainab Masood , Cora Cross , and to some extent Dot Cotton . These characters are seen as being loud and interfering but most importantly , responsible for the well-being of the family and usually stressing the importance of family , reflecting on the past . As is traditional in British soaps , female characters in general are central to the programme . These characters include strong , brassy , long-suffering women who exhibit diva-like behaviour and stoically battle through an array of tragedy and misfortune . Such characters include Angie Watts , Kathy Beale , Sharon Watts , Pat Butcher , Denise Fox and Tanya Branning . Conversely there are female characters who handle tragedy less well , depicted as eternal victims and endless sufferers , who include Sue Osman , Little Mo Mitchell , Laura Beale , Lisa Fowler , Ronnie Mitchell and Linda Carter . The 'tart with a heart ' is another recurring character , often popular with viewers . Often their promiscuity masks a hidden vulnerability and a desire to be loved . Such characters have included Pat Butcher ( though in her latter years , this changed ) , Tiffany Mitchell , Kat Slater , Stacey Slater , Dawn Swann and Roxy Mitchell . A gender balance in the show is maintained via the inclusion of various `` macho '' male personalities such as Mick Carter , Phil Mitchell , Grant Mitchell , Jack Branning and Max Branning , `` bad boys '' such as Den Watts , Michael Moon and Vincent Hubbard , and `` heartthrobs '' such as Simon Wicks , Jamie Mitchell , Dennis Rickman and Joey Branning . Another recurring male character type is the smartly dressed businessman , often involved in gang culture and crime and seen as a local authority figure . Examples include Derek Branning , Steve Owen , Jack Dalton , Andy Hunter and Johnny Allen . Following criticism aimed at the show 's over-emphasis on 'gangsters ' in 2005 , such characters have been significantly reduced . Another recurring male character seen in EastEnders is the 'loser ' or 'soft touch ' , males often comically under the thumb of their female counterparts , which have included Arthur Fowler , Ricky Butcher , Lofty Holloway and Billy Mitchell . Other recurring character types that have appeared throughout the serial are `` cheeky-chappies '' Pete Beale , Alfie Moon , Garry Hobbs and Kush Kazemi , `` lost girls '' such as Mary Smith , Donna Ludlow and Mandy Salter , delinquents such as Stacey Slater , Jay Brown and Lola Pearce , `` villains '' such as Nick Cotton , Trevor Morgan , May Wright , Yusef Khan , Archie Mitchell and Dean Wicks , `` bitches '' such as Cindy Beale , Janine Butcher , Lucy Beale , Abi Branning and Babe Smith and cockney `` wide boys '' or `` wheeler dealers '' such as Frank Butcher , Alfie Moon , Kevin Wicks , Darren Miller and Fatboy . Over the years EastEnders has typically featured a number of elderly residents , who are used to show vulnerability , nostalgia , stalwart-like attributes and are sometimes used for comedic purposes . The original elderly residents included Lou Beale , Ethel Skinner and Dot Cotton . Over the years they have been joined by the likes of Mo Butcher , Jules Tavernier , Marge Green , Nellie Ellis , Jim Branning , Charlie Slater , Mo Harris , Patrick Trueman , Cora Cross , Les Coker , Rose Cotton , Pam Coker , Stan Carter , Babe Smith and Claudette Hubbard . Focus on elderly characters has decreased since the show 's inception . The programme has more recently included a higher number of teenagers and successful young adults in a bid to capture the younger television audience . This has spurred criticism , most notably from the actress Anna Wing , who played Lou Beale in the show . She commented `` I do n't want to be disloyal , but I think you need a few mature people in a soap because they give it backbone and body ... if all the main people are young it gets a bit thin and inexperienced . It gets too lightweight . '' EastEnders has been known to feature a 'comedy double-act ' , originally demonstrated with the characters of Dot and Ethel , whose friendship was one of the serial 's most enduring . Other examples include Paul Priestly and Trevor Short , Huw Edwards and Lenny Wallace , Shirley Carter and Heather Trott , Garry Hobbs and Minty Peterson , Denise Fox and Zainab Masood , and Poppy Meadow and Jodie Gold . The majority of EastEnders characters are working-class . Middle-class characters do occasionally become regulars , but have been less successful and rarely become long-term characters . In the main , middle-class characters exist as villains , such as James Wilmott-Brown , May Wright , Stella Crawford and Yusef Khan , or are used to promote positive liberal influences , such as Colin Russell or Rachel Kominski . EastEnders has always featured a culturally diverse cast which has included black , Asian , Turkish , Polish and Latvian characters . `` The expansion of minority representation signals a move away from the traditional soap opera format , providing more opportunities for audience identification with the characters and hence a wider appeal '' . Despite this , the programme has been criticised by the Commission for Racial Equality , who argued in 2002 that EastEnders was not giving a realistic representation of the East End 's `` ethnic make-up '' . They suggested that the average proportion of visible minority faces on EastEnders was substantially lower than the actual ethnic minority population in East London boroughs , and it therefore reflected the East End in the 1960s , not the East End of the 2000s . Furthermore , it was suggested that an element of `` tokenism '' and stereotyping surrounded many of these minority characters . The programme has since attempted to address these issues . A sari shop was opened and various characters of differing ethnicities were introduced throughout 2006 and 2007 , including the Fox family , the Masoods , and various background artists . This was part of producer Diederick Santer 's plan to `` diversify '' , to make EastEnders `` feel more 21st century '' . On 24 February 2009 for the first time in the soaps history , an entire episode was screened consisting entirely of Black actors . EastEnders has had varying success with ethnic minority characters . Possibly the least successful were the Indian Ferreira family , who were not well received by critics or viewers and were dismissed as unrealistic by the Asian community in the UK . EastEnders has been praised for its portrayal of characters with disabilities , including Adam Best ( spina bifida ) , Noah Chambers ( deaf ) , Jean Slater and her daughter Stacey ( bipolar disorder ) , Janet Mitchell ( Down 's syndrome ) , Jim Branning ( stroke ) . EastEnders has a high cast turnover and characters are regularly changed to facilitate storylines or refresh the format . The show has also become known for the return of characters after they have left the show . Sharon Rickman returned in August 2012 for her seventh stint on the show . Den Watts returned 14 years after he was believed to have died , a feat repeated by Kathy Beale in 2015 . Speaking extras , including Tracey the barmaid ( who has been in the show since the first episode in 1985 ) , have made appearances throughout the show 's duration , without being the focus of any major storylines . The character of Nick Cotton gained a reputation for making constant exits and returns since the programme 's first year , until the character 's death in 2015 . Over EastEnders 30-year history , Sharon , Kathy Beale and Ian Beale are the only three original characters remaining in the soap , following Kathy 's return from the dead during EastEnders 30th anniversary episode . Ian Beale is the only character to have appeared continuously from the first episode without officially leaving , and is the longest serving character in EastEnders . Dot Cotton is the longest serving female character in the show having served since 1985 , while Pat Butcher is the longest-serving former character , appearing from 1986 until early 2012 . Production Filming The majority of EastEnders episodes are filmed at the BBC Elstree Centre in Borehamwood , Hertfordshire . When the number of episodes was increased to four per week , more studio space was needed , so Top of the Pops was moved from its studio at Elstree to BBC Television Centre in April 2001 . Episodes are produced in `` quartets '' of four episodes , each of which starts filming on a Tuesday and takes nine days to record . Each day , between 25 and 30 scenes are recorded . During the filming week , actors can film for as many as eight to twelve episodes . Exterior scenes are filmed on a specially constructed film lot , and interior scenes take place in four studios . The episodes are usually filmed about six to eight weeks in advance of broadcast . During the winter period , filming can take place up to twelve weeks in advance , due to less daylight for outdoor filming sessions . This time difference has been known to cause problems when filming outdoor scenes . On 8 February 2007 , heavy snow fell on the set and filming had to be cancelled as the scenes due to be filmed on the day were to be transmitted in April . EastEnders is normally recorded using four cameras . When a quartet is completed , it is edited by the director , videotape editor and script supervisor . The producer then reviews the edits and decides if anything needs to be re-edited , which the director will do . A week later , sound is added to the episodes and they are technically reviewed , and are ready for transmission if they are deemed of acceptable quality . Although episodes are predominantly recorded weeks before they are broadcast , occasionally , EastEnders includes current events in their episodes . In 1987 , EastEnders covered the general election . Using a plan devised by co-creators Smith and Holland , five minutes of material was cut from four of the pre-recorded episodes preceding the election . These were replaced by specially recorded election material , including representatives from each major party , and a scene recorded on the day after the election reflecting the result , which was broadcast the following Tuesday . The result of the 2010 general election was referenced in the 7 May 2010 episode . During the 2006 FIFA World Cup , actors filmed short scenes following the tournament 's events that were edited into the programme in the following episode . Last-minute scenes have also been recorded to reference the fiftieth anniversary of the end of the Second World War in 1995 , the two-minute silence on Remembrance Day 2005 ( 2005 also being the year for the sixtieth anniversary of the end of the Second World War and the 200th anniversary of the Battle of Trafalgar ) , Barack Obama 's election victory in 2008 , the death of Michael Jackson in 2009 , the 2010 Comprehensive Spending Review , Andy Murray winning the Men 's Singles at the 2013 Wimbledon Championships , the wedding of Prince William and Kate Middleton , the birth of Prince George of Cambridge. , Scotland voting no against independence in 2014 , and the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the Great War . EastEnders is often filmed on location , away from the studios in Borehamwood . Sometimes an entire quartet is filmed on location , which has a practical function and are the result of EastEnders making a `` double bank '' , when an extra week 's worth of episodes are recorded at the same time as the regular schedule , enabling the production of the programme to stop for a two-week break at Christmas . These episodes often air in late June or early July and again in late October or early November . The first time this happened was in December 1985 when Pauline ( Wendy Richard ) and Arthur Fowler ( Bill Treacher ) travelled to the Southend-on-Sea to find their son Mark , who had run away from home . In 1986 , EastEnders filmed overseas for the first time , in Venice , and this was also the first time it was not filmed on videotape , as a union rule at the time prevented producers taking a video crew abroad and a film crew had to be used instead . If scenes during a normal week are to be filmed on location , this is done during the normal recording week . Off-set locations that have been used for filming include Clacton ( 1989 ) , Devon ( September 1990 ) , Hertfordshire ( used for scenes set in Gretna Green in July 1991 ) , Portsmouth ( November 1991 ) , Milan ( 1997 ) , Ireland ( 1997 ) , Amsterdam ( December 1999 ) , Brighton ( 2001 ) and Portugal ( 2003 ) . In 2003 , filming took place at Loch Fyne Hotel and Leisure Club in Inveraray , The Arkinglass Estate in Cairndow and Grims Dyke Hotel , Harrow Weald , north London , for a week of episodes set in Scotland . 9 April 2007 episode featured scenes filmed at St Giles Church and The Blacksmiths Arms public house in Wormshill , the Ringlestone Inn , two miles away and Court Lodge Farm in Stansted , Kent . Other locations have included the court house , a disused office block , Evershed House , and St Peter 's Church , all in St Albans , an abandoned mental facility in Worthing , Carnaby Street in London , and a wedding dress shop in Muswell Hill , north London . A week of episodes in 2011 saw filming take place on a beach in Thorpe Bay and a pier in Southend-on-Sea—during which a stuntman was injured when a gust of wind threw him off balance and he fell onto rocks— with other scenes filmed on the Essex coast . In 2012 , filming took place in Keynsham , Somerset . In January 2013 , on-location filming at Grahame Park in Colindale , north London , was interrupted by at least seven youths who threw a firework at the set and threatened to cut members of the crew . In October 2013 , scenes were filmed on a road near London Southend Airport in Essex . The two-handers ( when only two actors appear in an episode ) were originally done for speed ; while a two-hander is being filmed , the rest of the cast can be making another episode . EastEnders has featured seven live broadcasts . For its 25th anniversary in February 2010 , a live episode was broadcast in which Stacey Slater ( Lacey Turner ) was revealed as Archie Mitchell 's ( Larry Lamb ) killer . Turner was told only 30 minutes before the live episode and to maintain suspense , she whispers this revelation to former lover and current father-in-law , Max Branning , in the very final moments of the live show . Many other cast members only found out at the same time as the public , when the episode was broadcast . On 23 July 2012 , a segment of that evening 's episode was screened live as Billy Mitchell ( Perry Fenwick ) carried the Olympic Flame around Walford in preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics . In February 2015 , for the soap 's 30th anniversary , five episodes in a week featured live inserts throughout them . Episodes airing on Tuesday 17 , Wednesday 18 and Thursday 19 ( which featured an hour long episode and a second episode ) all featured at least one live insert . The show revealed that the killer of Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) was her younger brother , Bobby ( Eliot Carrington ) , during the second episode on Thursday , after a ten month mystery regarding who killed her . Bobby killed his sister in a flashback episode which revisited the night of the murder . The aftermath episode , which aired on Friday 20 , was completely live and explained in detail Lucy 's death . Carrington was told he was Lucy 's killer on Monday 16 , while Laurie Brett ( who plays Bobby 's adoptive mother , Jane ) was informed in November , due to the character playing a huge role in the cover-up of Lucy 's murder . Bywater only discovered Bobby was responsible for Lucy 's death on the morning of Thursday 19 , several hours before they filmed the scenes revealing Bobby as Lucy 's killer . Budgets and costs According to the book How to Study Television , in 1995 EastEnders cost the BBC £40,000 per episode on average . A 2012 agreement between the BBC , the Writers ' Guild of Great Britain and the Personal Managers ' Association set out the pay rate for EastEnders scripts as £137.70 per minute of transmission time ( £4,131 for 30 minutes ) , which is 85 % of the rate for scripts for other BBC television series . The writers would be paid 75 % of that fee for any repeats of the episode . In 2011 , it was reported that actors receive a per-episode fee of between £400 and £1,200 , and are guaranteed a certain number of episodes per year , perhaps as few as 30 or as many as 100 , therefore annual salaries could range from £12,000 to £200,000 depending on the popularity of a character . Some actors ' salaries were leaked in 2006 , revealing that Natalie Cassidy ( Sonia Fowler ) was paid £150,000 , Cliff Parisi ( Minty Peterson ) received £220,000 , Barbara Windsor ( Peggy Mitchell ) and Steve McFadden ( Phil Mitchell ) were both on £360,000 and Wendy Richard ( Pauline Fowler ) had a salary of £370,000 . A 2011 report from the National Audit Office showed that EastEnders had an annual budget of £29.9 million . Of that , £2.9 million was spent on scripts and £6.9 million went towards paying actors , extras and chaperones for child actors . According to National Audit Office , BBC executives approved £500,000 of additional funding for the 25th anniversary live episode ( 19 February 2010 ) . With a total cost of £696,000 , the difference was covered from the 2009-10 series budget for EastEnders . Rebuilding the EastEnders set Executive producer Dominic Treadwell-Collins has said that he wants Albert Square to look like a real-life east London neighbourhood in 2014 so that soon the soap will `` better reflect the more fashionable areas of east London beloved of young professionals '' giving a flavour of the `` creeping gentrification '' of east London . He added , `` It should feel more like London . It 's been frozen in aspic for too long . '' In 2014 , the BBC announced that they will rebuild the EastEnders set , to secure the long-term future of the show , with completion expected to be in 2018 . The set will provide a modern , upgraded exterior filming resource for EastEnders , and will copy the appearance of the existing buildings . However , it will be 20 % bigger than the current set , in order to enable greater editorial ambition and improve working conditions for staff . A temporary set will be created on site to enable filming to continue while the permanent structure is rebuilt . Realism EastEnders programme makers took the decision that the show was to be about `` everyday life '' in the inner city `` today '' and regarded it as a `` slice of life '' . Creator/producer Julia Smith declared that `` We do n't make life , we reflect it '' . She also said , `` We decided to go for a realistic , fairly outspoken type of drama which could encompass stories about homosexuality , rape , unemployment , racial prejudice , etc. , in a believable context . Above all , we wanted realism '' . In

qb_7293--EastEnders.txt

The fictitious station of Walford East, which features in the UK television series ‘Eastenders’, replaces which London Underground station on the tube map?

Table Long list Austrian drainage basin * Elbe ( near Cuxhaven , Germany ) * * Vltava ( in Mělník , Czech Republic ) * * * Lužnice/Lainsitz ( in Týn nad Vltavou , Czech Republic ) johibuhubibuhuhbu pixel mon minecraft gfytxtfygvyuifi6y * Rhine/Rhein ( main branch at Hoek van Holland , Netherlands ) * * Bregenzer Ach ( into Lake Constance in Bregenz ) * * Dornbirner Ach ( into Lake Constance near Bregenz ) * * Ill ( near Feldkirch ) Belgian drainage basin * Yser ( in Nieuwpoort ) - France , Belgium Danish drainage basins * Gudenå ( into Kattegat near Randers ) * Skjern Å ( near Skjern ) English drainage basins Flowing into the North Sea - Thames and Medway From Foreness Point to Shoeburyness * River Medway ( shares the Thames estuary ) * * River Beult * * River Teise * * * River Bewl * * River Eden , Kent * * River Bourne , Kent * * River Len * * Loose Stream * * East Malling Stream * * Wateringbury Stream * River Thames ( From Oxford up to its source , the Thames is also known as the River Isis ) * * River Darent * * * River Cray * * * * River Shuttle * * * * * Wyncham Stream * * River Ingrebourne ( tidal reach known as Rainham Creek ) * * River Beam ( downstream name for River Rom ) * * * The Ravensbourne * * River Roding ( tidal reach known as Barking Creek ) * * River Lea ( or Lee ) * * * River Moselle ( mostly subterranean , original tributary of Lee , now empties into Pymme 's Brook ) * * * The Hackney Brook ( subterranean , and probably now diverted to the Thames ) * * * New River ( artificial distributary , partly subterranean ) * * * River Beane * * * * River Rib * * * River Mimram * * River Ravensbourne ( tidal reach known as Deptford Creek ) * * * Spring Brook * * * River Pool * * * * River Beck * * * * Chaffinch Brook * * * River Quaggy ( upper reaches known as Kyd Brook ) * * * * Quaggy Hither Green * * * * Middle Kid Brooke * * * * Lower Kid Brooke * * * * Little Quaggy * * * * Grove Park Ditch * * * * Milk Street Ditch * * * * East Branch * * * * Main Branch * * River Neckinger ( See also Subterranean rivers of London for this and the others marked 'subterranean ' below ) * * Walbrook ( subterranean ) * * River Fleet ( subterranean , also known as the Holbourne ) * * River Effra ( subterranean ) * * River Tyburn ( subterranean ) * * Falconbrook ( subterranean ) * * River Westbourne ( subterranean ) * * * Tyburn Brook ( subterranean ) * * Counter 's Creek ( subterranean ) * * River Wandle * * * River Graveney * * Beverley Brook * * * Pyl Brook * * Stamford Brook ( subterranean - tidal reach known as Hammersmith Creek ) * * Bollar or Bollo Brook ( subterranean ) * * River Brent * * * Dollis Brook * * Duke of Northumberland 's River * * River Crane * * Hogsmill River * * The Rythe * * River Ember * * * River Mole * * Longford River * * River Ash * * River Wey * * * River Tillingbourne * * * River Ock , Surrey * * River Bourne , north branch * * River Bourne , south branch * * River Colne * * * Wraysbury River * * * Frays River * * * * River Pinn * * * River Misbourne * * * River Chess * * * River Gade * * * * River Bulbourne * * * River Ver * * Colne Brook * * River Wye * * River Loddon * * * St Patrick 's Stream * * * River Broadwater * * * Emm Brook * * * River Blackwater * * * * River Whitewater * * * * * River Hart * * River Kennet * * * Foudry Brook * * * River Enborne * * * River Lambourn * * * River Dun * * * River Og * * River Pang * * * River Bourne * * River Thame * * River Ock * * River Cherwell * * * River Ray * * * River Swere * * River Evenlode * * * River Glyme * * * * River Dorn * * River Windrush * * River Cole * * River Leach * * River Coln * * River Ray * * River Key * * River Churn Flowing into the North Sea - North of the Thames Estuary From Shoeburyness to St Abb 's Head * River Crouch * * River Roach * River Blackwater * * River Chelmer * * * River Ter * * River Brain * River Colne * River Stour * River Orwell * * River Gipping * River Deben * River Alde/River Ore * Minsmere River * River Blyth * River Yox * River Yare * * River Bure * * * River Thurne * * * River Ant * * River Waveney * * River Chet * * River Wensum * * River Tas * River Burn * River Great Ouse * * River Nar * * River Wissey * * River Little Ouse * * * River Thet * * River Lark * * River Cam * * River Ivel * * * River Hiz * * River Ouzel or Lovat * * River Tove * River Nene * * River Ise * * Willow Brook * River Welland * * Whaplode River * * New River * * Car Dyke ( Peterborough ) * * Eye Brook * * River Chater * * River Gwash * * Vernatt 's Drain * * * South Drove Drain * * River Glen * * * West Glen River * * * East Glen River * * * Bourne Eau * * Risegate Eau * Boston Haven * * South Forty-Foot Drain * * * Hammond Beck * * * North Forty Foot Drain * * * Clay Dike * * * Skerth Drain * * River Witham * * * River Slea * * * Billinghay Skirth * * * River Brant * * * Fossdyke Navigation * * * River Bain * * * * River Waring * * * Newham Drain * * * * Castle Dike * * Maud Foster Drain * * * West Fen Drain * * * * Medlam Drain * * * Stone Bridge Drain * * * * West Fen Catchwater Drain * * * * East Fen Catchwater Drain * * Hobhole Drain * * * Cowbridge Drain * * * Bell Water Drain * * * Fodder Dike * Steeping River * * River Lymn * * Cow Bank Drain * Saltfleet Haven * * Great Eau * * * Long Eau * * * Mar Dike * * South Dike * Grainthorpe Haven * * River Lud Canalised and diverted as Louth Navigation . * Tetney Haven * * Louth Navigation * * * Waithe Beck * River Humber * * Buck Beck * * River Freshney * * East Halton Beck * * The Beck * * River Ancholme * * * West Drain * * Halton Drain * * River Trent * * * Pauper 's Drain * * * River Torne * * * River Eau * * * River Idle * * * * River Maun * * * * River Meden * * * * River Ryton * * * River Devon * * * River Greet * * * River Leen * * * River Erewash * * * River Soar * * * * River Wreake * * * * River Sence * * * River Derwent * * * * River Amber * * * * River Wye * * * * * River Lathkill * * * * * * River Bradford * * * * River Noe * * * * River Ashop * * * * * River Alport * * * * River Westend * * * River Dove * * * * River Manifold * * * * * River Hamps * * * River Tame * * * * River Blythe * * * * * River Cole * * * * River Rea * * * * River Anker * * * River Sow * * * * River Penk * * River Ouse * * * Swinefleet Warping Drain * * * River Don * * * * River Rother * * * * * River Doe Lea * * * * * River Hipper * * * * * River Drone * * * * River Sheaf * * * * * Porter Brook * * * * * Meers Brook * * * * River Rivelin * * * * River Loxley * * * * River Little Don * * * * River Dearne * * * * * River Dove * * * * River Went * * * River Aire * * * * River Worth * * * * River Calder * * * * * River Colne * * * * * * River Holme * * * * * River Hebble * * * River Derwent * * * * River Rye * * * * * River Seven * * * * * River Dove * * * * * River Riccal * * * * River Hertford * * * River Wharfe * * * * River Dibb * * * * River Skirfare * * * * River Washburn * * * River Foss * * * River Nidd * * * River Ure * * * * River Swale * * * * * Cod Beck * * * * * River Wiske * * * * River Cover * * * * River Bain * * River Hull * * Sands Drain * * Winestead Drain * Gypsey Race * Scalby Beck * River Esk * * Iburndale Beck * * * Little Beck * * * * May Beck * Skelton Beck * River Tees * * River Leven * * River Skerne * * River Greta * * River Balder * * River Lune * River Wear * * River Browney * * * River Deerness * * River Gaunless * River Tyne * * River South Tyne * * * River Allen * * * * River East Allen * * * * River West Allen * * * Haltwhistle Burn * * River North Tyne * * * Warks Burn * * * Chirdon Burn * * * Lewis Burn * * Devil 's Water * * River Derwent * * River Team * River Blyth * River Wansbeck * * River Font * River Coquet * River Aln * River Tweed * * Whiteadder Water , Scotland * * * Blackadder Water , Scotland * * River Till * * * River Glen * * Eden Water , Scotland * * River Teviot , Scotland * * Leader Water , Scotland * * Gala Water , Scotland * * Ettrick Water , Scotland * * Leithen Water , Scotland * * Quair Water , Scotland * * Eddleston Water , Scotland * * Manor Water , Scotland * * Holms Water , Scotland French drainage basin The Aa is an 89 km long river in northern France . Its source is near the village Bourthes . It flows through the départements and cities of Pas-de-Calais : Saint-Omer and Nord : Gravelines . * Aa ( in Gravelines ) German drainage basin The three main rivers in Germany are the Rhine ( Rhein in German ) ( main tributaries including the Neckar , the Main and the Moselle ( Mosel ) ) ; the Elbe ( also drains into the North Sea ) ; and , the Danube ( Donau ) . German rivers draining into the North Sea The rivers in this section are sorted south-west ( Netherlands ) to east ( Danish border ) . * Maas ( main branch at Stellendam , Netherlands ) * * Niers ( in Gennep , Netherlands ) * * Rur/Roer ( in Roermond , Netherlands ) * * * Wurm ( near Heinsberg ) * * * Inde ( in Jülich ) * Rhine/Rhein ( main branch at Hoek van Holland , Netherlands ) * * Lippe ( in Wesel ) * * * Alme ( in Paderborn ) * * Emscher ( near Dinslaken ) * * Ruhr ( in Duisburg ) * * * Volme ( near Hagen ) * * * Lenne ( near Hagen ) * * * Möhne ( in Neheim-Hüsten ) * * Erft ( in Neuss ) * * Wupper/Wipper ( in Leverkusen ) * * Sieg ( in Bonn ) * * * Agger ( in Siegburg ) * * * Nister ( in Wissen ) * * Ahr ( near Sinzig ) * * Wied ( in Neuwied ) * * Moselle ( in Koblenz ) * * * Elzbach ( in Moselkern ) * * * Alf ( in Alf ) * * * Lieser ( near Bernkastel-Kues ) * * * Salm ( near Klüsserath ) * * * Kyll ( near Trier-Ehrang ) * * * Saar ( near Konz ) * * * * Nied ( near Rehlingen-Siersburg ) * * * * Prims ( in Dillingen ) * * * * Blies ( in Sarreguemines ) * * * * * Schwarzbach ( near Zweibrücken ) * * * Sauer ( in Wasserbillig ) * * * * Prüm ( near Echternach ) * * * * * Nims ( in Irrel ) * * * * Our ( in Wallendorf ) * * Lahn ( in Lahnstein ) * * * Aar ( in Diez ) * * * Weil ( in Weilburg ) * * * Dill ( in Wetzlar ) * * * Ohm ( in Cölbe ) * * Nahe ( in Bingen ) * * * Alsenz ( near Bad Kreuznach ) * * * Glan ( near Bad Sobernheim ) * * Selz ( in Ingelheim ) * * Main ( in Mainz ) * * * Nidda ( in Frankfurt-Höchst ) * * * * Wetter ( in Niddatal ) * * * Kinzig ( in Hanau ) * * * Tauber ( in Wertheim am Main ) * * * Fränkische Saale ( in Gemünden am Main ) * * * Regnitz ( in Bamberg ) * * * * Pegnitz ( in Fürth ) * * * * Rednitz ( in Fürth ) * * * * * Fränkische Rezat ( in Georgensgmünd ) * * * * * Schwäbische Rezat ( in Georgensgmünd ) * * * Itz ( in Baunach ) * * * Red Main ( near Kulmbach ) * * Neckar ( in Mannheim ) * * * Jagst ( near Bad Friedrichshall ) * * * Kocher ( in Bad Friedrichshall ) * * * Enz ( in Besigheim ) * * * Murr ( in Marbach am Neckar ) * * * Rems ( in Remseck ) * * * Fils ( in Plochingen ) * * Queich ( near Germersheim ) * * Pfinz ( near Germersheim ) * * Lauter ( in Lauterbourg ) * * Murg ( near Rastatt ) * * Sauer ( in Seltz , France ) * * Acher ( near Lichtenau ) * * Rench ( near Lichtenau ) * * Kinzig ( near Kehl ) * * Elz ( near Lahr ) * * Wiese ( near Basel ) * * Wutach ( in Waldshut-Tiengen ) * IJssel ( into the IJsselmeer near Kampen , Netherlands ) * * Berkel ( in Zutphen , Netherlands ) * * Oude IJssel/Issel ( in Doesburg , Netherlands ) * Zwarte Water ( into the IJsselmeer near Genemuiden , Netherlands ) * * Vechte ( near Zwolle , Netherlands ) * * * Dinkel ( in Neuenhaus ) * Ems ( near Delfzijl , Netherlands ) * * Hase ( in Meppen ) * Weser ( near Bremerhaven ) * * Hunte ( in Elsfleth ) * * Lesum ( in Bremen-Vegesack ) * * * Wümme ( in Ritterhude ) * * Aller ( near Verden ( Aller ) ) * * * Böhme ( near Rethem ) * * * Leine ( near Schwarmstedt ) * * * * Innerste ( near Sarstedt ) * * * * Rhume ( in Northeim ) * * * * * Oder ( Harz ) ( in Katlenburg-Lindau ) * * * Örtze ( in Winsen an der Aller ) * * * Fuhse ( in Celle ) * * * Oker ( in Müden ( Aller ) ) * * * * Schunter ( near Braunschweig ) * * Werre ( in Bad Oeynhausen ) * * Diemel ( in Bad Karlshafen ) * * Fulda ( in Hannoversch Münden ) * * * Eder ( in Edermünde ) * * * * Schwalm ( near Fritzlar ) * * * Haune ( in Bad Hersfeld ) * * Werra ( in Hannoversch Münden ) * * * Hörsel ( near Eisenach ) * * * Ulster ( in Philippsthal ) * Elbe ( near Cuxhaven ) * * Oste ( near Otterndorf ) * * Stör ( near Glückstadt ) * * Alster ( in Hamburg ) * * Bille ( near Hamburg ) * * Ilmenau ( near Winsen ( Luhe ) ) * * Jeetzel ( in Hitzacker ) * * Löcknitz ( near Dömitz ) * * * Elde ( near Lenzen ) * * Aland ( in Schnackenburg ) * * Stepenitz ( in Wittenberge ) * * Havel ( near Havelberg ) * * * Dosse ( near Havelberg ) * * * Rhin ( near Warnau ) * * * Plane ( near Brandenburg ) * * * Nuthe ( in Potsdam ) * * * Spree ( in Berlin-Spandau ) * * * * Dahme ( in Berlin-Köpenick ) * * Ohre ( near Magdeburg ) * * Saale ( in Barby ) * * * Bode ( in Nienburg ( Saale ) ) * * * Wipper ( Saale ) ( near Bernburg ) * * * White Elster ( near Halle ( Saale ) ) * * * * Parthe ( in Leipzig ) * * * * Pleiße ( in Leipzig ) * * * * Weida ( near Gera ) * * * Unstrut ( near Naumburg ) * * * * Wipper ( Unstrut ) ( near Heldrungen ) * * * * Gera ( in Straußfurt ) * * * Ilm ( in Großheringen ) * * * Schwarza ( in Schwarza ) * * Mulde ( in Dessau ) * * * Zwickauer Mulde ( near Colditz ) * * * * Chemnitz ( near Wechselburg ) * * * Freiberger Mulde ( near Colditz ) * * * * Zschopau ( near Döbeln ) * * Black Elster ( near Wittenberg ) * * Weißeritz ( in Dresden ) * * * Wilde Weißeritz ( in Freital ) * * Wesenitz ( in Pirna ) * * Ohře/Eger ( in Litoměřice , Czech Republic ) * * Vltava ( in Mělník , Czech Republic ) * * * Berounka ( near Prague , Czech Republic ) * * * * Mže/Mies ( in Pilsen , Czech Republic ) * Eider ( in Tönning ) * * Treene ( in Friedrichstadt ) Netherlands drainage basin * Zwarte Water ( into IJsselmeer near Genemuiden ) - Netherlands * * Vecht ( Overijssel ) /Vechte ( near Zwolle ) * * * Regge ( near Ommen ) * * * Dinkel ( in Neuenhaus ) * IJssel ( into IJsselmeer near Kampen ) - Netherlands * * Berkel ( in Zutphen ) * * Oude IJssel ( in Doesburg ) * * branch of the river Rhine ( near Pannerden ) * Rhine/Rhein ( main branch at Hoek van Holland ) - Switzerland , Liechtenstein , Austria , Germany , France , Belgium , Netherlands * * Linge ( in Gorinchem ) * * Lippe ( in Wesel ) * * Emscher ( near Dinslaken ) * * Ruhr ( in Duisburg ) * * * Lenne ( near Hagen ) * * Düssel ( in Düsseldorf ) * * Erft ( in Neuss ) * * Wupper ( in Leverkusen ) * * Sieg ( in Bonn ) * * Ahr ( near Sinzig ) * * Wied ( in Neuwied ) * * Moselle ( in Koblenz ) * * * Kyll ( near Trier-Ehrang ) * * * Ruwer ( near Trier-Ruwer ) * * * Saar ( near Konz ) * * * * Nied ( near Rehlingen-Siersburg ) * * * Sauer ( in Wasserbillig ) * * * * Prüm ( near Echternach ) * * * * Our ( in Wallendorf ) * * * * Alzette ( in Ettelbrück ) * * * Seille ( in Metz ) * * * Meurthe ( in Frouard ) * * * Madon ( in Neuves-Maisons ) * * * Vologne ( near Éloyes ) * * * Moselotte ( in Remiremont ) * * Lahn ( in Lahnstein ) * * * Ohm ( in Cölbe ) * * Nahe ( in Bingen ) * * Main ( in Mainz ) * * * Nidda ( in Frankfurt-Höchst ) * * * Kinzig ( in Hanau ) * * * Tauber ( in Wertheim am Main ) * * * Franconian Saale ( in Gemünden ) * * * Regnitz ( in Bamberg ) * * * * Pegnitz ( river ) ( in Fürth ) * * * * Rednitz ( in Fürth ) * * Neckar ( in Mannheim ) * * * Jagst ( near Bad Friedrichshall ) * * * Kocher ( in Bad Friedrichshall ) * * * Enz ( in Besigheim ) * * * Fils ( in Plochingen ) * * Lauter ( in Lauterbourg ) * * Murg ( near Rastatt ) * * Ill ( near Strasbourg ) * * Kinzig ( near Kehl ) * * Elz ( near Lahr ) * * Wiese ( in Basel ) * * Aare ( in Koblenz ) * * * Limmat ( in Brugg ) * * * Reuss ( in Brugg ) * * * Emme ( near Solothurn ) * * * Saane/Sarine ( near Bern ) * * Thur ( near Schaffhausen ) * * Ill ( near Feldkirch ) * * Vorderrhein ( near Chur ) * * Hinterrhein ( near Chur ) * Meuse/Maas ( main branch near Hellevoetsluis ) - France , Belgium , Netherlands * * Dieze ( near 's-Hertogenbosch ) * * * Aa ( in 's-Hertogenbosch ) * * * Dommel ( in 's-Hertogenbosch ) * * Niers ( in Gennep ) * * Swalm ( in Swalmen ) * * Rur/Roer ( in Roermond ) * * * Wurm ( near Heinsberg ) * * * Inde ( in Jülich ) * * Geul ( near Meerssen ) * * Jeker/Geer ( in Maastricht ) * * Ourthe ( in Liège ) * * * Vesdre ( near Liège ) * * * Amblève ( in Comblain-au-Pont ) * * * * Salm ( in Trois-Ponts ) * * Sambre ( in Namur ) * * Lesse ( in Dinant-Anseremme ) * * Viroin ( in Vireux-Molhain ) * * Semois/Semoy ( in Monthermé ) * * Bar ( near Dom-le-Mesnil ) * * Chiers ( in Bazeilles ) * Scheldt/Schelde/Escaut ( near Flushing , Netherlands ) - France , Belgium , Netherlands * * Rupel ( in Rupelmonde ) * * * Nete ( in Rumst ) * * * Dijle ( in Rumst ) * * * * Zenne ( in Mechelen ) * * * * Demer ( in Rotselaar ) * * Durme ( in Temse ) * * Dender ( in Dendermonde ) * * * Mark ( near Lessines ) * * Leie ( in Ghent ) * * * Deûle ( in Deûlémont ) * * Scarpe ( Mortagne-du-Nord ) * * Haine ( in Condé-sur-l'Escaut ) Norwegian drainage basin * Otta ( in Oppland into Gudbrandsdalslågen at Otta ) * Gudbrandsdalslågen ( into Lake Mjøsa in Oppland ) * Vorma ( out of Lake Mjøsa into Glomma at Årnes ) * Glomma ( into Oslofjord at Fredrikstad ) * Renaelva ( in Hedmark into Glomma at Åmot ) * Numedalslågen ( in Larvik , Vestfold ) * Hallingdalselva ( through Hallingdal into Lake Krøderen , Buskerud ) * Begna ( in Buskerud ) * Dramselva ( into Oslofjord in Drammen , Buskerud ) * Skien ( into Møsvatn , Telemark ) * Tinn ( into Møsvatn , Telemark ) * Nidelva ( in Arendal , Aust-Agder ) * Otra ( in Kristiansand , Vest-Agder ) Scotland drainage basin * Tyne ( near Dunbar ) * Tay ( near Dundee ) * Dee ( in Aberdeen ) * Don ( in Aberdeen ) * Ythan ( in Newburgh , Aberdeenshire )

sfq_20503--List_of_rivers_discharging_into_the_North_Sea.txt

Which river flows into the North Sea at Hamburg?

Geoffrey Boycott OBE ( born 21 October 1940 ) is a former Yorkshire and England cricketer . In a prolific and sometimes controversial playing career from 1962 to 1986 , Boycott established himself as one of England 's most successful opening batsmen and since retiring as a player , he has found further success as a cricket commentator . Boycott made his international debut in a 1964 Test match against Australia . He was noted for his ability to occupy the crease and became a key feature of England 's Test batting line up for many years , although he was less successful in his limited One Day International ( ODI ) appearances . He accumulated large scores – he is the equal fifth highest accumulator of first-class centuries in history , eighth in career runs and the first English player to average over 100 in a season ( 1971 and 1979 ) – but often encountered friction with his team mates . Journalist Ian Wooldridge commented that `` Boycott , in short , walks alone '' , while cricket writer John Arlott wrote that Boycott had a `` lonely '' career . Others , however , have stated that the extent of his introverted nature has been exaggerated , and that while he was `` obsessed with success '' he was not a selfish player . After 108 Test match appearances for England , Boycott ended his international career in 1982 as the leading Test run scorer with over 8,000 Test match runs , earning an OBE for services to cricket . When dropped from the Yorkshire team in 1986 he was the leading run scorer in first-class cricket . In 1965 while still a young player he had been named as one of five Cricketers of the Year by Wisden , the cricket almanack , and he was inducted into the International Cricket Council 's Hall of Fame in 2009 . After his playing career ended , Boycott became an often outspoken and controversial cricket commentator on both radio and television . In 1998 , he was convicted in France , of assaulting his former girlfriend Margaret Moore ; he was given a suspended sentence and fined . He always maintained his innocence . In 2002 , after being diagnosed with throat cancer , he underwent successful radiation treatment , and went into remission . He revived his commentating career in 2003 , and continues to attract both criticism and praise . He is currently a member of BBC Radio 4 long wave 's Test Match Special commentary team , and was President of Yorkshire County Cricket Club between March 2012 and March 2014 , succeeded by Dickie Bird . Early life Boycott was born in the mining village of Fitzwilliam , near Wakefield and Pontefract in the West Riding of Yorkshire . He was the eldest of three sons of Jane ( née Speight ) and Thomas Wilfred Boycott , a colliery worker from Shropshire . When Boycott was eight years old , he was impaled through his chest by the handle of a mangle after falling off an iron railing near his home . Boycott nearly died , and in the efforts to save his life , his spleen was removed . In March 1950 , McKinstry , p. 15 . Boycott 's father had a serious accident while working as a coalminer . His spine was severely damaged after he was hit by empty coal carts ; Thomas Boycott never fully recovered , and died in 1967 . Boycott attended Fitzwilliam Primary School . There he won a Len Hutton batting award for scoring 45 runs and capturing six wickets for 10 runs in a school match . At age 10 , he joined Ackworth Cricket Club , demonstrating `` outstanding ability . '' At the age of 11 he failed the examinations that would have taken him to grammar school , and instead went to the local Kinsley Secondary Modern School.McKinstry , p. 22 . A year later , however , he passed his late-entry exams , and transferred to Hemsworth Grammar School . His cricket prowess was such that he captained the school 's Cricket First XI at the age of 15 . During winters he attended an indoor cricket school , where he was coached by former county professional Johnny Lawrence . While studying for his O-levels he began to have difficulties reading the blackboard and was initially devastated when told he would need glasses . At first , he played poorly at school , encumbered by the fragile spectacles , before a more robust pair was fashioned for him at the behest of his uncle , similar to those glasses worn by cricketer Roy Marshall . His uncle would go on to be a strong influence on Boycott 's early cricketing game whilst playing for Brierley Juniors Football Club . In 1958 , Boycott left school with seven O-level passes and the school 's Individual Cricket Cup . That summer he played for the Leeds United under-18 football team alongside Billy Bremner and attracted the attention of Leeds United scouts . During the winter he continued to play nets with uncle Lawrence . Boycott told the BBC in 1965 that he chose to leave school at 17 because he no longer wished to be a financial strain on his parents , and because he wanted to pursue his cricketing career . He worked as a clerk in the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in Barnsley from 1958 to 1963 , at the same time playing for a number of cricket clubs . Boycott captained the South Elmsall district team , and achieved a batting average of 70 . He also played for the Yorkshire Federation 's Under-18 team , and for Barnsley , where he was noticed by Clifford Hesketh , a member of Yorkshire 's County Cricket team committee.McKinstry , p. 27 . County career Boycott began playing for his home county in 1962 after topping the averages for Leeds , Yorkshire Colts and Yorkshire Second XI . In 414 matches for Yorkshire he scored 32,570 runs at an average of 57.85 , with a highest score of 260 not out against Essex , and 103 centuries in all . He scored another 8,699 runs in List A cricket , averaging 40.08 . Boycott twice averaged over 100 in an English first-class season : 100.12 in 1971 , and 102.53 in 1979 . He is one of only two players to have achieved this twice , Mark Ramprakash being the other . Boycott was appointed captain of Yorkshire in 1971 , but was sacked in 1978 after failing to win a trophy while in charge . He was then dismissed as a player , but reinstated after a members ' revolt . During his career Boycott frequently clashed with other strong personalities at the club , including Fred Trueman , Brian Close and Ray Illingworth , but remained popular with the Yorkshire crowds.Hill and Williams , p. 150 . First years Before he played in first-class cricket , Boycott played for the successful Barnsley Cricket Club , making his debut in 1959 and becoming a regular team member in 1959 alongside Dickie Bird , Bill Foord and Michael Parkinson . In one match , Boycott faced a delivery from Foord which he dispatched to the boundary for four . Foord turned to Parkinson and asked : `` Christ almighty , what 's this lad 's name ? '' Bird remembered his `` application , concentration and absolute belief in himself . He had one great gift , mental strength . You can have all the coaching in the world but the most important thing is to be mentally strong . '' Though Bird later left Boycott out of his choice XI , he would write : `` of all the great players I have seen , if I had to pick a batsman to bat for my life , I would go for Geoffrey . '' He made his Yorkshire Second XI debut on 6 July 1959 against Cumberland at Penrith , scoring five and 15 . Boycott made his Yorkshire first team debut on 16 June 1962 against the Pakistan touring team . He opened the batting , scoring four in both innings – the first from a boundary off of his first ball in first class cricket – and taking one catch , but he did not bowl . He then went on to play his first County Championship match the next day , on 20 June , against Northamptonshire . Batting at number four , he scored six and 21 * . Early in his career , Boycott continued to play in his spectacles , and later switched to contact lenses . He feared his career would have ended had he not used such aids as his eyesight was poor . Boycott 's initial appearances for Yorkshire failed to impress , and he was compared unfavourably to his main rival , John Hampshire . When Brian Close took over from Vic Wilson as captain of Yorkshire in 1963 he persuaded the committee to keep Boycott on , and was rewarded when , on 2 June 1963 , Boycott scored 145 against Lancashire . His century was also part of a 249-run fourth wicket partnership which became a Yorkshire record . Boycott cemented his place in the Yorkshire XI in the 1963 season with successive scores of 76 , 53 , 49 not out and 50 , and on 29 August made a century partnership in both innings of a match against Leicestershire with Ken Taylor . Boycott handed in his notice to the Ministry of Pensions that same year . After a brief loss of form he kept his place with scores of 62 , 28 and 113 in the following matches . This second century again came against Lancashire , making Boycott the first Yorkshire cricketer to score his first two centuries in a Roses match , as the hotly contested Yorkshire versus Lancashire matches were termed . Boycott went on to hit his highest score thus far , 165 not out , against Leicestershire , and ended his first full season with 1,446 runs at an average of 46.64 , placing him second in the 1963 national batting averages . He was awarded his county cap on 2 October . At the start of the 1964 season Boycott hit 151 against Middlesex , followed by another hundred against Lancashire in May , and then played for the MCC against the Australian touring side at Lord 's , where he scored 63 . On 16 May he completed a third consecutive century , and on 31 May he was called up for the First Test against Australia at Trent Bridge . By the end of the 1964 season , Boycott had topped the country 's domestic averages with 59.45 . Although he later became renowned for his ability to occupy the crease for hours of defensive play , he was capable of playing attacking cricket . His highest one day score , a match-winning 146 , came in the 1965 Gillette Cup final against Surrey . In his previous Gillette Cup match , the quarter-final against Somerset , Boycott took 32 overs to accumulate 23 runs . According to captain , Close , at Lord 's after Yorkshire had slowly reached 22/1 , Close promoted himself to number three in the batting order so that he could urge Boycott into action . `` I joined Geoffrey in the middle and said to him : `` Listen , if I call , you bloody well run . '' Boycott later claimed this plan had been agreed on a fortnight previously , and denied such an incident ever occurring . Boycott subsequently hit 15 fours and three sixes , even though the modern-day fielding restrictions , which facilitate rapid scoring , did not exist in 1965 . One shot , a lofted straight drive off England paceman Geoff Arnold was nearly caught by Boycott 's team mates on the players ' balcony in the pavilion . Close and Boycott added 192 runs for the second wicket , as Yorkshire posted a then record total of 317 . Cricket writer John Woodcock wrote in The Times that `` his magnificent innings contained every stroke in the book. `` In the 1966 season Boycott scored two centuries in one match for the first time , against Nottinghamshire on 18 July . Against Leicestershire on 15 June 1968 he carried his bat through an entire Yorkshire innings of 297 all out , remaining unbeaten on 114 * . It was the first time he had been unbeaten at the end of an innings . He ended the season top of the national averages for the first time . On 27 July 1970 he scored 260 * , his highest first-class score in England , against Essex . At the end of the season , Close was sacked by the club committee in what Boycott called in 1987 `` one of the cruelest incidents in the history of sport . '' Boycott , on tour in Australia , was awarded the captaincy . Captaincy Boycott captained Yorkshire for eight seasons from 1971 to 1978 , having been appointed following the sacking of Brian Close in 1970 . Despite well publicised conflict between the two players , Boycott recorded in 1987 that he regretted Close 's removal from the club , and wrote him a letter in admiration for his contributions to Yorkshire . To captain Yorkshire had been one of Boycott 's aims since he started county cricket in 1962 . Yorkshire 's scorer Ted Lester commented later that Boycott `` never got the support he deserved from the committee . After the captaincy was decided on a casting vote , the half that did n't want him never wanted him . '' Some members of the committee wanted to remove him almost immediately . He also caused strife between his fellow players , including a reciprocated dislike for Richard Hutton , with many players leaving the club citing personal differences with Boycott as the reason for their departure . After his first season as captain he spent the winter of 1971 playing in South Africa for Northern Transvaal . He played only one match , however , scoring 107 and 41 . Boycott 's eight seasons of captaincy were among Yorkshire 's least successful . The club failed to win any competitions and ranked low in the Championship table , in contrast to their one-time dominance of English cricket . The beginning of the end of his captaincy came after BBC Radio Leeds interviews in which two Yorkshire committee members and former players , Don Brennan and Mel Ryan , said that a change in leadership was needed . Boycott himself did not suffer a loss of form to mirror that of his county ; in his first year as captain , he scored 2,503 runs at an average of 100.12 , included a century in his first match as captain . His success was cited by Trueman as evidence that his selfish nature was harming Yorkshire . Boycott headed the national batting averages in 1972 with 72.35 , and was second in 1973 with 63.62 . In 1973 , however , Yorkshire failed to win any of the 8 championship games with Boycott in charge , and Wisden called the season `` disturbingly unsuccessful '' . It led to further calls for Boycott to be stripped of the captaincy . He was also coming into increased conflict with Richard Hutton , Close , and several members of the committee and senior players . `` Looking back , '' Boycott wrote in 1987 `` I wish I had given up the Yorkshire captaincy at the end of that year . '' In 1974 Boycott 's form dipped , when he scored only 75 runs in the first innings of the season , other than a non-championship century against Cambridge University . He did , however , score 152 * against Worcestershire on 15 May to complete his tour of centuries against every first-class county . Both he and Yorkshire suffered through 1975 and 1976 , as did his international career , since he refused to play for England from 1974 until 1977 . During the summer of 1978 Boycott broke a finger , so John Hampshire temporarily took over as captain . Boycott returned later in the season , scoring 968 runs at 50.94 , but this was second to Hampshire 's 1,463 at 54.18 . A poll of the dressing room showed that 95 % of the players wanted a permanent change in the captaincy . On 15 September 1978 Boycott 's mother , to whom he was very close , died of cancer , placing further pressure on him . On 29 September , the Yorkshire club committee met with Boycott to discuss terminating his captaincy . A statement by the club outlined Yorkshire 's intention to retain Boycott as a player while giving the captaincy to Hampshire . Boycott , in response , attacked the Yorkshire club and its decision in an appearance on the BBC 's flagship chatshow Parkinson on 7 October , prompting both strong criticism from the club and strong public support for his own position . Later years Boycott , after much thought , continued as a player at Yorkshire , scoring 1,941 runs at 61.70 in 1979 , hitting six hundreds to pass Len Hutton 's record of 129 first-class centuries . In 1980 he scored his ninth Roses century , equalling Herbert Sutcliffe 's record . He also finished the season with an average of over 50.00 for a record eleventh consecutive year , surpassing the achievement of Jack Hobbs . He would experience growing friction with Hutton 's son , Yorkshire 's Richard , as well as with later Yorkshire captain John Hampshire . In the early 1980s Boycott continued his run of form , although a slow 347-ball knock of 140 * incensed captain , Ray Illingworth , and created friction between Boycott and the rest of the Yorkshire Committee . In 1982 Boycott and Graham Stevenson added a record 149 runs for Yorkshire 's tenth wicket against Warwickshire , Stevenson scoring 115 of these runs . On 3 October 1983 the friction between Boycott and the committee culminated in a unanimous decision not to offer Boycott a contract for the next season . This generated much protest from Boycott supporters , who rallied , calling for his reinstatement at a meeting on 9 October in Ossett , Yorkshire . Bill Athey left the club at this time , and while Boycott in his biography maintained that he had no reason to believe that his actions had caused Athey 's departure , Athey later stated to biographer Leo McKinstry that `` Boycott 's attitude and the atmosphere he created had everything to do with my decision to leave Yorkshire . '' The `` Members 84 Group '' , consisting of strong supporters of Boycott , met regularly to clamour for the batsman 's reinstatement . Their leader , Peter Briggs , stated `` Geoffrey Boycott is a giant playing among pygmies . '' On 21 January 1984 the Yorkshire Club committee , in the face of this rising pressure , agreed to offer Boycott a contract for 1984 . Several members of the committee , including Trueman , Billy Sutcliffe and Ronnie Burnet , resigned . Of the replacement members , 17 were from the Members 84 Group , and Boycott himself was elected , leaving him with both a position on the team and on the Yorkshire Club committee . The 1984 season was , however , not the most prolific for Boycott . McKinstry records that he scored slowly in several matches : 60 in 52 overs against Somerset ; 53 in 51 overs against Hampshire ; 17 in 26 overs against Leicestershire ; 77 in 67 overs against Sussex . This was coupled with continued friction between himself and both players and club members . In particular , Boycott 's place on both the team and the committee led to feelings of distrust from both – though Boycott denies this – which led to the loss of support from long-term ally Sid Fielden . His success on the field resumed in 1985 , where he scored 1,657 runs at 75.31 , second only to Viv Richards in the national averages . He also shared a record opening partnership of 351 with Martyn Moxon . In contrast to the poor relations between Boycott and the senior players , many junior members of the team remember 1985 and 1986 as pleasant times to be around Boycott , who often coached them on their technique . 1986 saw Boycott score 890 runs at 52.35 , his season cut short by injuries which were becoming more frequent as he passed the age of 45 . This season was the first since 1962 that he had not hit an overall total of 1,000 runs ; he finished eight short in his final match , when he was run out for 61 . He advised the then captain to enforce the follow-on , and did not bat again . Since 1984 , support for Boycott had waned in light of his slow scoring , multiple injuries and the general atmosphere around him . Both Brian Close and Ray Illingworth increasingly advocated his removal to Yorkshire 's committee , and on 23 September 1986 it was confirmed that he would not be offered a contract for the following year . A few months later , captain David Bairstow , a long term ally of Boycott whose leadership had Boycott 's support , was ruled out of the running for captaincy for the following season , which was instead given to Phil Carrick , of whom Boycott disapproved . Boycott paid tribute to the Reform Group in 1987 , describing them as `` dedicated Yorkshire members with a heartfelt stake in their club . '' He suggests that Close and Illingworth feared his popularity . Boycott was offered contracts by other counties , including Derbyshire and Glamorgan , but he never took these offers up , nor played professional cricket again . At the time of his retirement he had scored more first-class runs than any other player . Test Match career Over Boycott 's 18-year career he scored 8,114 runs in 108 Test matches for England . He was the first England cricketer to pass 8,000 Test runs and , as of 2015 , is sixth on England 's all-time run scoring list ( behind Alastair Cook , Graham Gooch , Alec Stewart , David Gower and Kevin Pietersen ) . His average of 47.72 runs over 193 innings is the highest completed career average among England players since 1970 . His Test career included 22 centuries ( an England record held jointly with Wally Hammond , Colin Cowdrey , Kevin Pietersen , and current England captain Alastair Cook until December 2012 when Cook made his 23rd England century ) . England did not lose a Test match in which he scored a century and only 20 of his 108 Tests ended in defeat . John Arlott wrote in 1979 that `` any expectation of an English win , except in freak bowling conditions , is based on a major innings from Boycott . '' Debut year Boycott began his Test career on 4 June 1964 , only two years after his first-class debut , in the first Test against Australia . He top scored with 48 runs from 118 deliveries before he was bowled by Grahame Corling . The match ended as a rain-affected draw , and Boycott did not bat in the second innings as he had suffered a cracked finger . He made 58 at Old Trafford , and then hit 113 at The Oval , his maiden Test century . He finished his first Test series with 291 runs at 48.50 . In the winter of 1964 , Boycott was selected for the England team touring South Africa . After a series of low scores during the warm up matches , he was more successful in the Test series . His innings included scores of 73 runs in the opening Test , 76 in the fourth , and 117 in the fifth and final match . He averaged 49.66 in all first-class cricket during the tour , and took five wickets with the ball as England won the Test series 1–0 . He made a mixed impression on the other England players , who were impressed by his talent but perplexed by his introverted attitude each time he was dismissed . Early career England hosted New Zealand and South Africa in 1965 . Against New Zealand , Boycott scored 23 and 44 not out in the first Test at Edgbaston and 76 in the second at Lord 's , but missed the third Test owing to injury . He returned against South Africa at Lord 's , but after scores of 31 and a slow 28 in 105 minutes , the press began to speculate that his may lose his place in the team . In the second Test , Boycott made a duck in the first innings and later took 140 minutes to score 16 runs when England needed to score quickly ; Wisden described the latter innings as a `` dreadful effort when courage was needed '' . Subsequently , Boycott was dropped and replaced by Eric Russell.McKinstry , pp . 65–66 . Boycott returned to the team at the end of the season for the tour to Australia . In the 1965-66 Ashes series , illness dogged his performance initially . He then hit a form of `` brighter cricket '' during the First and Second Tests . Uncharacteristically , he hit a four from his very first delivery at Perth , and put on 98 in 16 overs with Bob Barber in the Second Test . In the Third Test , Boycott and Barber shared an opening partnership of 234 in four hours ; Boycott hit 84 , his highest score of the series . But in the Fifth Test he monopolised the strike , ran out Bob Barber and took 75 minutes to make 17 runs . His form deserted him again when the MCC went on to tour New Zealand . In 1966 , England faced the West Indies . Boycott was omitted from the first Test , but shared a partnership of 115 with Tom Graveney . However , he struggled during the series , and managed an average of 26.57 . It was a disappointing year for Boycott both for England and Yorkshire , and his average for the former fell to 36.60 . Furthermore , he had only passed 50 twice in his last 12 first-class innings . The following summer , he rediscovered his form . On 8 and 9 June 1967 , he made his highest Test score of 246 not out against India on his home ground of Headingley . Batting for 573 minutes , [ http : //content-uk.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/match/63004.html England v India – 1st Test , 1967 ] from CricInfo . Retrieved 7 May 2009 . Boycott struck thirty fours and a six at a strike rate of 44.32 . He began his innings slowly , taking six hours over his first 106 runs ; he scored 17 in the first hour and 8 in the second . This particularly frustrated the England selectors as the pitch was excellent for batting , and the Indian attack was weakened by injury.McKinstry , p. 73 . Their frustration was exacerbated when Boycott added 140 runs in four hours on the second day . Ian Wooldridge wrote in the Daily Mail that Boycott `` could not be excused by his nearest and dearest relations . '' He did not bat in the second innings and England won by six wickets . Boycott 's slow scoring led to increasing media pressure , and owing to his perceived selfish attitude , he was dropped from the team after the match.McKinstry , pp . 73–74 . He remembered in 1987 that `` the decision stunned me at the time , though looking back now I see that it had become inevitable . I was mortified with embarrassment and filled with an angry , burning sense of injustice which I can remember clearly and painfully to this day . '' A combination of low confidence and a throat infection limited Boycott to two further Test appearances , playing once more against India and once against Pakistan , for the rest of the year . He nevertheless again topped the domestic averages with 1260 at 48.46 . In 1967 , Boycott toured the West Indies with England , where he hit a rich seam of form . He scored 463 runs at 66.14 in a series England won 1–0 . Over the next two years , Boycott appeared only intermittently in the Test team . A back injury forced him to miss half of the 1967 season , and an average of 32.40 against the Australians during the 1968 Ashes was unspectacular . Domestically , his injury

qb_4612--Geoffrey_Boycott.txt

In June 1978, who became the first cricketer to score a century and take eight wickets in one inning in a Test Match?

Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions . It is one of the plastic arts . Durable sculptural processes originally used carving ( the removal of material ) and modelling ( the addition of material , as clay ) , in stone , metal , ceramics , wood and other materials but , since Modernism , there has been an almost complete freedom of materials and process . A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving , assembled by welding or modelling , or molded , or cast . Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art in perishable materials , and often represents the majority of the surviving works ( other than pottery ) from ancient cultures , though conversely traditions of sculpture in wood may have vanished almost entirely . However , most ancient sculpture was brightly painted , and this has been lost . Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many cultures , and until recent centuries large sculptures , too expensive for private individuals to create , were usually an expression of religion or politics . Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean , India and China , as well as many in South America and Africa . The Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece , and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period . During the Middle Ages , Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith . The revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelo 's David . Modernist sculpture moved away from traditional processes and the emphasis on the depiction of the human body , with the making of constructed sculpture , and the presentation of found objects as finished art works . Types of sculpture A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round , free-standing sculpture , such as statues , not attached ( except possibly at the base ) to any other surface , and the various types of relief , which are at least partly attached to a background surface . Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief , high relief , and sometimes an intermediate mid-relief . Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt . Relief is the usual sculptural medium for large figure groups and narrative subjects , which are difficult to accomplish in the round , and is the typical technique used both for architectural sculpture , which is attached to buildings , and for small-scale sculpture decorating other objects , as in much pottery , metalwork and jewellery . Relief sculpture may also decorate steles , upright slabs , usually of stone , often also containing inscriptions . Another basic distinction is between subtractive carving techniques , which remove material from an existing block or lump , for example of stone or wood , and modelling techniques which shape or build up the work from the material . Techniques such as casting , stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work ; many of these allow the production of several copies . The term `` sculpture '' is often used mainly to describe large works , which are sometimes called monumental sculpture , meaning either or both of sculpture that is large , or that is attached to a building . But the term properly covers many types of small works in three dimensions using the same techniques , including coins and medals , hardstone carvings , a term for small carvings in stone that can take detailed work . The very large or `` colossal '' statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity ; the largest on record at 128 m is the 2002 Chinese Spring Temple Buddha . Another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse , which has become rare in recent decades . The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the `` head '' , showing just that , or the bust , a representation of a person from the chest up . Small forms of sculpture include the figurine , normally a statue that is no more than 18 in tall , and for reliefs the plaquette , medal or coin . Modern and contemporary art have added a number of non-traditional forms of sculpture , including sound sculpture , light sculpture , environmental art , environmental sculpture , street art sculpture , kinetic sculpture ( involving aspects of physical motion ) , land art , and site-specific art . Sculpture is an important form of public art . A collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden . Purposes and subjects One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in some form of association with religion . Cult images are common in many cultures , though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art , like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia . The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples , of which none have survived , were evidently rather small , even in the largest temples . The same is often true in Hinduism , where the very simple and ancient form of the lingam is the most common . Buddhism brought the sculpture of religious figures to East Asia , where there seems to have been no earlier equivalent tradition , though again simple shapes like the bi and cong probably had religious significance . Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to the earliest prehistoric art , and the use of very large sculpture as public art , especially to impress the viewer with the power of a ruler , goes back at least to the Great Sphinx of some 4,500 years ago . In archaeology and art history the appearance , and sometimes disappearance , of large or monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as of great significance , though tracing the emergence is often complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in wood and other perishable materials of which no record remains ; the totem pole is an example of a tradition of monumental sculpture in wood that would leave no traces for archaeology . The ability to summon the resources to create monumental sculpture , by transporting usually very heavy materials and arranging for the payment of what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors , is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture in terms of social organization . Recent unexpected discoveries of ancient Chinese bronze age figures at Sanxingdui , some more than twice human size , have disturbed many ideas held about early Chinese civilization , since only much smaller bronzes were previously known . Some undoubtedly advanced cultures , such as the Indus Valley civilization , appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all , though producing very sophisticated figurines and seals . The Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use , with small stone figures , when it collapsed . Other cultures , such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture , seem to have devoted enormous resources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from a very early stage . The collecting of sculpture , including that of earlier periods , goes back some 2,000 years in Greece , China and Mesoamerica , and many collections were available on semi-public display long before the modern museum was invented . From the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly , with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common . Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums , and the ability to transport and store the increasingly large works is a factor in their construction . Small decorative figurines , most often in ceramics , are as popular today ( though strangely neglected by modern and Contemporary art ) as they were in the Rococo , or in ancient Greece when Tanagra figurines were a major industry , or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art . Small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity , as in the Nimrud ivories , Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun . Portrait sculpture began in Egypt , where the Narmer Palette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE , and Mesopotamia , where we have 27 surviving statues of Gudea , who ruled Lagash c. 2144 – 2124 BCE . In ancient Greece and Rome , the erection of a portrait statue in a public place was almost the highest mark of honour , and the ambition of the elite , who might also be depicted on a coin . In other cultures such as Egypt and the Near East public statues were almost exclusively the preserve of the ruler , with other wealthy people only being portrayed in their tombs . Rulers are typically the only people given portraits in Pre-Columbian cultures , beginning with the Olmec colossal heads of about 3,000 years ago . East Asian portrait sculpture was entirely religious , with leading clergy being commemorated with statues , especially the founders of monasteries , but not rulers , or ancestors . The Mediterranean tradition revived , initially only for tomb effigies and coins , in the Middle Ages , but expanded greatly in the Renaissance , which invented new forms such as the personal portrait medal . Animals are , with the human figure , the earliest subject for sculpture , and have always been popular , sometimes realistic , but often imaginary monsters ; in China animals and monsters are almost the only traditional subjects for stone sculpture outside tombs and temples . The kingdom of plants is important only in jewellery and decorative reliefs , but these form almost all the large sculpture of Byzantine art and Islamic art , and are very important in most Eurasian traditions , where motifs such as the palmette and vine scroll have passed east and west for over two millennia . One form of sculpture found in many prehistoric cultures around the world is specially enlarged versions of ordinary tools , weapons or vessels created in impractical precious materials , for either some form of ceremonial use or display or as offerings . Jade or other types of greenstone were used in China , Olmec Mexico , and Neolithic Europe , and in early Mesopotamia large pottery shapes were produced in stone . Bronze was used in Europe and China for large axes and blades , like the Oxborough Dirk . Materials and techniques The materials used in sculpture are diverse , changing throughout history . The classic materials , with outstanding durability , are metal , especially bronze , stone and pottery , with wood , bone and antler less durable but cheaper options . Precious materials such as gold , silver , jade , and ivory are often used for small luxury works , and sometimes in larger ones , as in chryselephantine statues . More common and less expensive materials were used for sculpture for wider consumption , including hardwoods ( such as oak , box/boxwood , and lime/linden ) ; terracotta and other ceramics , wax ( a very common material for models for casting , and receiving the impressions of cylinder seals and engraved gems ) , and cast metals such as pewter and zinc ( spelter ) . But a vast number of other materials have been used as part of sculptures , in ethnographic and ancient works as much as modern ones . Sculptures are often painted , but commonly lose their paint to time , or restorers . Many different painting techniques have been used in making sculpture , including tempera , oil painting , gilding , house paint , aerosol , enamel and sandblasting . Many sculptors seek new ways and materials to make art . One of Pablo Picasso 's most famous sculptures included bicycle parts . Alexander Calder and other modernists made spectacular use of painted steel . Since the 1960s , acrylics and other plastics have been used as well . Andy Goldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculptures from almost entirely natural materials in natural settings . Some sculpture , such as ice sculpture , sand sculpture , and gas sculpture , is deliberately short-lived . Recent sculptors have used stained glass , tools , machine parts , hardware and consumer packaging to fashion their works . Sculptors sometimes use found objects , and Chinese scholars ' rocks have been appreciated for many centuries . Stone Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone . Owing to the permanence of the material , evidence can be found that even the earliest societies indulged in some form of stone work , though not all areas of the world have such abundance of good stone for carving as Egypt , Greece , India and most of Europe . Petroglyphs ( also called rock engravings ) are perhaps the earliest form : images created by removing part of a rock surface which remains in situ , by incising , pecking , carving , and abrading . Monumental sculpture covers large works , and architectural sculpture , which is attached to buildings . Hardstone carving is the carving for artistic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade , agate , onyx , rock crystal , sard or carnelian , and a general term for an object made in this way . Alabaster or mineral gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller works and still relatively durable . Engraved gems are small carved gems , including cameos , originally used as seal rings . The copying of an original statue in stone , which was very important for ancient Greek statues , which are nearly all known from copies , was traditionally achieved by `` pointing '' , along with more freehand methods . Pointing involved setting up a grid of string squares on a wooden frame surrounding the original , and then measuring the position on the grid and the distance between grid and statue of a series of individual points , and then using this information to carve into the block from which the copy is made . Metal Bronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and still the most popular metals for cast metal sculptures ; a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a `` bronze '' . Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set , thus filling the finest details of a mold . Their strength and lack of brittleness ( ductility ) is an advantage when figures in action are to be created , especially when compared to various ceramic or stone materials ( see marble sculpture for several examples ) . Gold is the softest and most precious metal , and very important in jewellery ; with silver it is soft enough to be worked with hammers and other tools as well as cast ; repoussé and chasing are among the techniques used in gold and silversmithing . Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material ( bronze , copper , glass , aluminum , iron ) is ( usually ) poured into a mold , which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape , and then allowed to solidify . The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process , although a final stage of `` cold work '' may follow on the finished cast . Casting may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after mixing of components ( such as epoxies , concrete , plaster and clay ) . Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods . The oldest surviving casting is a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC . Specific techniques include lost-wax casting , plaster mold casting and sand casting . Glass Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of working techniques , though the use of it for large works is a recent development . It can be carved , with considerable difficulty ; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but unique . Hot casting can be done by ladling molten glass into molds that have been created by pressing shapes into sand , carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds . Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a kiln until they are liquid and flow into a waiting mold below it in the kiln . Glass can also be blown and/or hot sculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as part of a blown object . Pottery Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture , as well as clay being the medium in which many sculptures cast in metal are originally modelled for casting . Sculptors often build small preliminary works called maquettes of ephemeral materials such as plaster of Paris , wax , unfired clay , or plasticine . Many cultures have produced pottery which combines a function as a vessel with a sculptural form , and small figurines have often been as popular as they are in modern Western culture . Stamps and moulds were used by most ancient civilizations , from ancient Rome and Mesopotamia to China . Wood carving Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced , but survives much less well than the other main materials , being vulnerable to decay , insect damage , and fire . It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures . Outdoor wood sculpture does not last long in most parts of the world , so that we have little idea how the totem pole tradition developed . Many of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in particular are in wood , and the great majority of African sculpture and that of Oceania and other regions . Wood is light , so suitable for masks and other sculpture intended to be carried , and can take very fine detail . It is also much easier to work than stone . It has been very often painted after carving , but the paint wears less well than the wood , and is often missing in surviving pieces . Painted wood is often technically described as `` wood and polychrome '' . Typically a layer of gesso or plaster is applied to the wood , and then the paint is applied to that . Social status of sculptors Worldwide , sculptors have usually been tradesmen whose work is unsigned ; in some traditions , for example China , where sculpture did not share the prestige of literati painting , this has affected the status of sculpture itself . Even in ancient Greece , where sculptors such as Phidias became famous , they appear to have retained much the same social status as other artisans , and perhaps not much greater financial rewards , although some signed their works . In the Middle Ages artists such as the 12th century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work , and were sought after by different cities , especially from the Trecento onwards in Italy , with figures such as Arnolfo di Cambio , and Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni . Goldsmiths and jewellers , dealing with precious materials and often doubling as bankers , belonged to powerful guilds and had considerable status , often holding civic office . Many sculptors also practised in other arts ; Andrea del Verrocchio also painted , and Giovanni Pisano , Michelangelo , and Jacopo Sansovino were architects . Some sculptors maintained large workshops . Even in the Renaissance the physical nature of the work was perceived by Leonardo da Vinci and others as pulling down the status of sculpture in the arts , though the reputation of Michelangelo perhaps put this long-held idea to rest . From the High Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo , Leone Leoni and Giambologna could become wealthy , and ennobled , and enter the circle of princes , after a period of sharp argument over the relative status of sculpture and painting . Much decorative sculpture on buildings remained a trade , but sculptors producing individual pieces were recognised on a level with painters . From the 18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middle-class students , although it was slower to do so than painting . Women sculptors took longer to appear than women painters , and were less prominent until the 20th century . Anti-sculpture movements Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism , which did not accept figurative sculpture until the 19th century , Zoroastrian and some other religions , before expanding to Early Buddhism and Early Christianity , neither of which initially accepted large sculptures . In both Christianity and Buddhism these early views were later reversed , and sculpture became very significant , especially in Buddhism . Christian Eastern Orthodoxy has never accepted monumental sculpture , and Islam has consistently rejected nearly all figurative sculpture , except for very small figures in reliefs and some animal figures that fulfill a useful function , like the famous lions supporting a fountain in the Alhambra . Many forms of Protestantism also do not approve of religious sculpture . There has been much iconoclasm of sculpture from religious motives , from the Early Christians , the Beeldenstorm of the Protestant Reformation to the 2001 destruction of the Buddhas of Bamyan by the Taliban . History of sculpture Prehistoric periods The earliest undisputed examples of sculpture belong to the Aurignacian culture , which was located in Europe and southwest Asia and active at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic . As well as producing some of the earliest known cave art , the people of this culture developed finely-crafted stone tools , manufacturing pendants , bracelets , ivory beads , and bone-flutes , as well as three-dimensional figurines . The 30 cm tall Löwenmensch found in the Hohlenstein Stadel area of Germany is an anthropomorphic lion-man figure carved from woolly mammoth ivory . It has been dated to about 35-40,000BP , making it , along with the Venus of Hohle Fels , the oldest known uncontested example of figurative art . Much surviving prehistoric art is small portable sculptures , with a small group of female Venus figurines such as the Venus of Willendorf ( 24-26,000BP ) found across central Europe . The Swimming Reindeer of about 13,000 years ago is one of the finest of a number of Magdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in the art of the Upper Paleolithic , although they are outnumbered by engraved pieces , which are sometimes classified as sculpture . Two of the largest prehistoric sculptures can be found at the Tuc d'Audobert caves in France , where around 12-17,000 years ago a masterful sculptor used a spatula-like stone tool and fingers to model a pair of large bison in clay against a limestone rock . With the beginning of the Mesolithic in Europe figurative sculpture greatly reduced , and remained a less common element in art than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period , despite some works such as the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Age and the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot . File : Lion man photo.jpg| Löwenmensch , from Hohlenstein-Stadel , now in Ulmer Museum , Ulm , Germany , the oldest known anthropomorphic animal-human statuette , Aurignacian era , c.35-40,000BP File : Venus of Willendorf frontview retouched 2.jpg|Venus of Willendorf , c.24,000−26,000BP File : Magdalenian horse.jpg|Magdalenian Horse , c.17,000BP Musée d'Archéologie Nationale , France File : Speerschleuder LaMadeleine.jpg|Creeping Hyena , c.12-17,000BP , mammoth ivory , found in La Madeleine , France File : Sleeping Reindeer 3 2918856445 7d66cc4796 o.jpg|Swimming Reindeer c.13,000 BP , female and male swimming reindeer - late Magdalenian period , found at Montastruc , Tarn et Garonne , France Image : Solvognen - Do 2010 1276.jpg|The Trundholm sun chariot , perhaps 1800–1500 BCE ; this side is gilded , the other is `` dark '' . Image : Laussel.jpg|Venus of Laussel c.27,000BP , an Upper Palaeolithic carving , Bordeaux museum , France Image : JomonStatue.JPG|A Jōmon statue , Japan Ancient Near East The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia , dominated by Uruk , saw the production of sophisticated works like the Warka Vase and cylinder seals . The Guennol Lioness is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of about 3000–2800 BC , part human and part lioness . A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed priests and worshippers , mostly in alabaster and up to a foot high , who attended temple cult images of the deity , but very few of these have survived . Sculptures from the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large , staring eyes , and long beards on the men . Many masterpieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur ( c. 2650 BC ) , including the two figures of a Ram in a Thicket , the Copper Bull and a bull 's head on one of the Lyres of Ur . From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BCE Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms : cylinder seals , relatively small figures in the round , and reliefs of various sizes , including cheap plaques of moulded pottery for the home , some religious and some apparently not . The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and relatively large ( 20 x 15 inches , 50 x 37 cm ) terracotta plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird of prey , and attendant owls and lions . It comes from the 18th or 19th centuries BCE , and may also be moulded . Stone stelae , votive offerings , or ones probably commemorating victories and showing feasts , are also found from temples , which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions that would explain them ; the fragmentary Stele of the Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type , and the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and solid late one . The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger and wealthier state than the region had known before , and very grandiose art in palaces and public places , no doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art of the neighbouring Egyptian empire . The Assyrians developed a style of extremely large schemes of very finely detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces , with scenes of war or hunting ; the British Museum has an outstanding collection . They produced very little sculpture in the round , except for colossal guardian figures , often the human-headed lamassu , which are sculpted in high relief on two sides of a rectangular block , with the heads effectively in the round ( and also five legs , so that both views seem complete ) . Even before dominating the region they had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs which are often exceptionally energetic and refined . File : Guennol Lioness.jpg|The Guennol Lioness , 3rd millennium BCE , high File : Statue Gudea Met 59.2.jpg|One of 18 Statues of Gudea , a ruler around 2090 BCE File : Lilith Periodo de Isin Larsa y Babilonia.JPG|The Burney Relief , Old Babylonian , around 1800 BCE File : Britishmuseumassyrianrelieftwohorsemennimrud.jpg|Assyrian relief from Nimrud , from c. 728 BCE Ancient Egypt The monumental sculpture of ancient Egypt is world-famous , but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers . The Egyptians used the distinctive technique of sunk relief , which is well suited to very bright sunlight . The main figures in reliefs adhere to the same figure convention as in painting , with parted legs ( where not seated ) and head shown from the side , but the torso from the front , and a standard set of proportions making up the figure , using 18 `` fists '' to go from the ground to the hair-line on the forehead . This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I . However , there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor figures shown engaged in some activity , such as the captives and corpses . Other conventions make statues of males darker than females ones . Very conventionalized portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II , before 2,780 BCE , and with the exception of

odql_12528--Sculpture.txt

Which British sculptor is famed for simple geometric shapes carved in wood, stone, bronze and alabaster, such as Pierced Form and Four Square?

Gaston Alibert ( February 22 , 1878 in Paris – December 26 , 1917 ) was a French fencer and olympic champion in épée competition . He received a gold medal in épée individual and a gold medal in épée team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London . [ http : //www.databaseolympics.com/games/gamessport.htm ? g 5 & sp=FEN `` 1908 Summer Olympics – London , United Kingdom – Fencing '' ] databaseOlympics.com ( Retrieved on June 26 , 2008 ) Eight years before , Alibert already participated in the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris placing seventh in the épée individual event . He contacted tuberculosis while at the front in World War I .

qw_4555--Gaston_Alibert.txt

In which sport did Olympic gold medallists Roger Ducret, Lucien Gaudin, Laura Flessel-Colovic, Gaston Alibert, Pascale Trinquet, Christian d'Oriola, Jehan Buhan and Albert Robert Ayat represent France?

HMS Providence was a sloop of the Royal Navy , famous for being commanded by William Bligh on his second breadfruit voyage between 1791 and 1794 . The Providence was purchased on the stocks from Perry & Co , Blackwall Yard in February 1791 . She was launched on 23 April 1791 and commissioned under Bligh that month . She was coppered at Woolwich for the sum of £1,267 , and then again at Deptford for £3,981 . Second Breadfruit Voyage Rated as a sixth rate , she sailed for the Pacific on 2 August 1791 on Bligh 's Second Breadfruit Voyage . Bligh completed a mission to collect breadfruit trees and other botanical specimens from the Pacific , which he transported to the West Indies . Specimens were given to the Royal Botanic Gardens in St. Vincent . Providence returned to Britain in August 1793 , having been re-rated as a sloop on 30 September 1793 . See also : [ http : //www.fatefulvoyage.com/providence.html Providence Logbooks 1791-3 ] Vancouver Expedition She underwent another refit at Woolwich and was recommissioned in October 1793 under the command of Commander William Robert Broughton . Broughton was ordered to rejoin the Vancouver Expedition and departed Britain on 15 February 1795 . Reaching Monterrey long after the expedition made its final departure , Broughton decided ( correctly ) that Vancouver would not have left his surveying task unfinished and departed to chart the coast of east Asia . In the course of his explorations , he named Caroline Island Carolina ( which later became `` Caroline '' ) `` in compliment to the daughter of Sir Philip Stephens of the Admiralty . '' This name superseded that given by Pedro Fernández de Quirós , a Portuguese explorer sailing on behalf of Spain ; his account names the island `` San Bernardo . '' Providence voyaged to Asia as the crew surveyed the coast of Hokkaidō before wintering at Macau . There Broughton purchased a small schooner which proved providential when , on 16 May 1797 Providence was wrecked when she struck a coral reef at Miyako-jima , south of Okinawa . The wreck is described by the Ship 's Astronomer John Crosley in a passage copied from the ship 's log book . Broughton and his crew continued the mission in the schooner , exploring northeast Asia , and returned home in February 1799 . See also : [ http : //cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-RGO-00014-00068/293 Astronomical log ] of John Crosley

bb_8929--HMS_Providence_(1791).txt

Whose second 'breadfruit voyage' as captain was on the ship HMS Providence, 1791-94?

Walter Frederick `` Fritz '' Mondale ( born January 5 , 1928 ) is an American Democratic Party politician who served as the 42nd Vice President of the United States ( 1977–81 ) under President Jimmy Carter , and as a United States Senator from Minnesota ( 1964–76 ) . He was the Democratic Party 's presidential candidate in the United States presidential election of 1984 , but lost to Ronald Reagan in a landslide . Reagan won 49 states while Mondale was only able to win his home state of Minnesota and Washington D.C . Mondale was born in Ceylon , Minnesota , and graduated from Macalester College in 1951 . He then served in the U.S. Army during the Korean War before earning a law degree in 1956 . He married Joan Adams in 1955 . Working as a lawyer in Minneapolis , Mondale was appointed to the position of attorney general in 1960 by Governor Orville Freeman and was elected to a full term as attorney general in 1962 with 60 % of votes cast . He was appointed to the U.S. Senate by Governor Karl Rolvaag upon the resignation of Senator Hubert Humphrey consequent to Humphrey 's election as vice president . Mondale was subsequently elected to a full Senate term in 1966 and again in 1972 , resigning that post in 1976 as he prepared to succeed to the vice presidency in 1977 . While in the Senate , he supported consumer protection , fair housing , tax reform , and the desegregation of schools . Importantly , he served as a member of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities ( `` Church Committee '' ) . In 1976 , Carter , the Democratic presidential nominee , chose Mondale as his vice presidential running mate in the forthcoming election . The Carter/Mondale ticket defeated incumbent president Gerald Ford and his vice presidential running mate , Bob Dole . Carter and Mondale 's time in office was marred by a worsening economy and , although both were renominated by the Democratic Party , they lost the 1980 election to Republicans Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush . In 1984 , Mondale won the Democratic presidential nomination and campaigned for a nuclear freeze , the Equal Rights Amendment , an increase in taxes , and a reduction of U.S. public debt . After his defeat by Reagan , Mondale joined the Minnesota-based law firm of Dorsey & Whitney and the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs ( 1986–93 ) . President Bill Clinton appointed Mondale United States Ambassador to Japan in 1993 ; he retired in 1996 . In 2002 , Mondale ran for his old Senate seat , agreeing to be the last-minute replacement for Democratic Senator Paul Wellstone , who had been killed in a plane crash during the final two weeks of his re-election campaign . However , Mondale narrowly lost that race . He then returned to working at Dorsey & Whitney and remained active in the Democratic Party . Mondale later took up a part-time teaching position at the University of Minnesota 's Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs . Early life Walter Frederick Mondale was born in Ceylon , Minnesota , the son of Claribel Hope ( née Cowan ) , a part-time music teacher , and Theodore Sigvaard Mondale , a Methodist minister . Walter 's half-brother Lester Mondale became a Unitarian minister . His paternal grandparents were Norwegian immigrants , and his mother , the daughter of an immigrant from Ontario , was of Scottish and English descent . The surname `` Mondale '' comes from Mundal , a valley and town in the Fjærland region of Norway . Mondale attended public schools . He then attended Macalester College in St. Paul , and the University of Minnesota , where he earned a B.A . in political science in 1951 . He did not have enough money to attend law school . He enlisted in the U.S. Army and served for two years at Fort Knox during the Korean War , reaching the rank of corporal . He married Joan Adams in 1955 . Through the support of the G.I . Bill he graduated from the University of Minnesota Law School in 1956 . While at law school , he served on the Minnesota Law Review and as a law clerk in the Minnesota Supreme Court under Justice Thomas F. Gallagher . He then practiced law in Minneapolis , and continued to do so for four years before entering the political arena . Entry into politics Mondale became involved in national politics in the 1940s . At the age of 20 , he was visible in Minnesota politics by helping organize Hubert Humphrey 's successful Senate campaign in 1948 . Humphrey 's campaign assigned Mondale to cover the staunchly Republican 2nd district . Mondale , who had been raised in the region , was able to win the district for Humphrey by a comfortable margin . After working with Humphrey , Mondale went on to work on several campaigns for Orville Freeman . Mondale worked on Freeman 's unsuccessful 1952 campaign for governor as well as his successful campaign in 1954 and his re-election campaign in 1958 . In 1960 , Governor Freeman appointed Mondale as Minnesota Attorney General following the resignation of Miles Lord . At the time he was appointed , Mondale was only 32 years old and had been practicing law for four years . He won re-election to the post in his own right in the 1962 election . During his tenure as Minnesota Attorney General , the case Gideon v. Wainwright ( which ultimately established the right of defendants in state courts to have a lawyer ) was being heard by the U.S. Supreme Court . When those opposed to the right to counsel organized a Friend of the Court brief representing several state attorneys general for that position , Mondale organized a countering Friend of the Court brief from many more state attorneys general , arguing that defendants must be allowed a lawyer . Mondale also continued the investigation of former Minneapolis mayor Marvin L. Kline and the mismanagement of the Sister Kenny Foundation . At the 1964 Democratic National Convention , Mondale played a major role in the proposed but ultimately unsuccessful compromise by which the national Democratic Party offered the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party two at-large seats . Mondale also served as a member of the President 's Consumer Advisory Council from 1960 to 1964 . U.S . Senator On December 30 , 1964 , Mondale was appointed by Minnesota Governor Karl Rolvaag to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by Hubert Humphrey 's resignation after being elected Vice President of the United States . Mondale was elected to the Senate for the first time in 1966 , defeating Republican candidate Robert A. Forsythe , by 53.9 % to 45.2 % . In 1972 , Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern offered Mondale an opportunity to be his vice presidential running mate , which he declined . That year , Mondale won reelection to the Senate with over 57 % of the vote , even as President Nixon carried Minnesota . He served in the 88th , 89th , 90th , 91st , 92nd , 93rd , and 94th congresses . Policies Mondale worked hard to build up the center of the party on economic and social issues . Unlike his own father , a fervent liberal , he was not a crusader for the New Deal . Instead he realized the Democratic base ( especially ethnic blue-collar workers ) was gradually moving to the right and he worked to keep their support . Mondale showed little or no interest in foreign policy until about 1974 , when he realized that some knowledge was necessary if he had loftier aspirations than the Senate . He developed a centrist position , avoiding alignment with either the party 's hawks ( such as Henry M. Jackson ) or its doves ( such as George McGovern ) . He took a liberal position on civil rights issues , which proved acceptable in Minnesota , a state with `` a minuscule black population '' . Mondale was a chief sponsor of the federal Fair Housing Act , which prohibits discrimination in housing and created HUD 's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity as the primary enforcer of the law . During the Johnson presidency , Mondale supported the Vietnam War , but after Richard Nixon became President in 1969 , he began to oppose it and participated in legislation aimed at restricting Nixon 's ability to prolong the war . Mondale is pro-choice on the issue of abortion . Committees Mondale rotated on and off numerous committees , including the Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee ; the Finance Committee ; the Labor and Public Welfare Committee ; the Budget Committee ; and the Banking , Housing , and Urban Affairs Committee . He also served as chairman of the Select Committee on Equal Education Opportunity and as chairman of the Intelligence Committee 's Domestic Task Force . He additionally served as chairman of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee 's subcommittee on Children and Youth , as well as chairman of the Senate subcommittee on social security financing . Apollo 204 accident In 1967 , Mondale served on the Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee , then chaired by Clinton P. Anderson , when astronauts Virgil `` Gus '' Grissom , Edward H. White , and Roger Chaffee were killed in a fire on January 27 while testing the Apollo 204 ( later renumbered Apollo 1 ) spacecraft . NASA Administrator James E. Webb secured the approval of President Lyndon B. Johnson for NASA to internally investigate the cause of the accident according to its established procedures , subject to Congressional oversight . NASA 's procedure called for the Deputy Administrator ( and de facto general manager ) , Dr. Robert C. Seamans , to appoint and oversee an investigative panel . In February , a reporter passed a leak to Mondale , of the existence of an internal NASA report issued in 1965 by Apollo program director Samuel C. Phillips , detailing management , cost , delivery , and quality problems of the Apollo prime contractor North American Aviation . In the February 27 hearing , Mondale asked Webb if he knew of such a report . Webb had not yet seen the December 1965 written report , so he responded in the negative . Seamans had passed along to Webb , neither the written report , nor the briefing presentation made to him in January 1966 by Phillips and Phillips ' boss , Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller . Both Seamans and Mueller had also been called to testify at this session . Mueller denied the report 's existence , even though he must have been well aware of it , as he had appended his own strongly-worded letter to the copy sent to North American president Lee Atwood . Seamans was afraid Mondale might somehow be in possession of a copy ( which he was not ) , so he admitted that NASA often reviewed its contractors ' performance , with both positive and negative results , however that was nothing extraordinary . Under repeated questioning from Mondale , Webb promised that he would investigate whether this `` Phillips Report '' existed , and if so , to see if a controlled release could be made to Congress . Immediately after the hearing , Webb saw the Phillips report for the first time . The controversy spread to both houses of Congress and grew ( through the efforts of three of Mondale 's fellow committee members , Republicans Margaret Chase Smith , Edward Brooke and Charles H. Percy ) to include the second-guessing of NASA 's original selection in 1961 of North American as the prime Apollo spacecraft contractor , which Webb became forced to defend . The House of Representatives NASA oversight committee , which was conducting its own hearings and had picked up on the controversy , was ultimately given a copy of the Phillips report . While the Committee , as a whole , believed that NASA should have informed Congress of the Phillips review results in 1966 , its final report issued on January 30 , 1968 , concluded ( as had NASA 's own accident investigation completed on April 5 , 1967 ) , that `` the findings of the [ Phillips ] task force had no effect on the accident , did not lead to the accident , and were not related to the accident '' . Yet Mondale wrote a minority opinion accusing NASA of `` evasiveness , ... lack of candor , ... patronizing attitude exhibited toward Congress , ... refusal to respond fully and forthrightly to legitimate congressional inquiries , and ... solicitous concern for corporate sensitivities at a time of national tragedy '' . Mondale explained his actions in a 2001 interview : `` ... I think that by forcing a public confrontation about these heretofore secret and deep concerns about the safety and the management of the program , it forced NASA to restructure and reorganize the program in a way that was much safer . '' ( In the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon , Mondale is portrayed ( by John Slattery ) as being entirely against the space program and wanting to shut it down following the disaster , although after a moving testimony delivered by astronaut Frank Borman ( David Andrews ) , Mondale is seen to acquiesce . ) Church intelligence committee In 1975 , Mondale served on the Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities , chaired by Idaho Senator Frank Church , that investigated alleged abuses by the Central Intelligence Agency and the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Vice Presidency When Jimmy Carter won the Democratic nomination for president in 1976 , he chose Mondale as his running mate . The ticket was narrowly elected on November 2 , 1976 , and Mondale was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20 , 1977 . He became the fourth vice president in four years , the other three being : Spiro Agnew ( 1969–73 ) , Gerald Ford ( 1973–1974 ) , and Nelson Rockefeller ( 1974–77 ) . Under Carter , Mondale traveled extensively throughout the nation and the world advocating the administration 's foreign policy . His travels also included a visit to the , which was on station at the time in the Indian Ocean , during the Iranian hostage crisis . Mondale was the first vice president to have an office in the White House and established the concept of an `` activist Vice President . '' Mondale established the tradition of weekly lunches with the president , which continues to this day . More importantly , he expanded the vice president 's role from that of figurehead to presidential advisor , full-time participant , and troubleshooter for the administration . Subsequent vice presidents have followed this model in the administrations in which they serve . 1980 election Carter and Mondale were renominated at the 1980 Democratic National Convention , but soundly lost to the Republican ticket of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush . That year , Mondale opened the XIII Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid , New York . Carter and Walter Mondale are the longest-living post-presidential team in American history . On May 23 , 2006 , they had been out of office for 9,254 days ( 25 years , 4 months and 3 days ) , surpassing the former record established by President John Adams and Vice President Thomas Jefferson , both of whom died on July 4 , 1826 . On September 8 , 2012 , Carter surpassed Herbert Hoover as the President with the longest retirement from the office . On April 23 , 2014 , Mondale surpassed Richard Nixon as the Vice-President with the longest retirement from that office at 12,146 days ( 33 years , 3 months and 3 days ) . Mondale faced difficulties in the 1984 Presidential election because he `` lacked charisma '' in comparison to rivals like Senator Gary Hart or the Reverend Jesse Jackson . Post Vice-Presidency 1984 presidential campaign After losing the 1980 election , Mondale returned briefly to the practice of law at Winston and Strawn , a large Chicago-based law firm , but he had no intention of staying out of politics for long . Mondale ran for the Democratic presidential nomination in the 1984 election , and from the early going , he was the frontrunner . His opposition included Rev . Jesse Jackson and Senator Gary Hart of Colorado . Hart pulled an upset by winning the New Hampshire primary in March , but Mondale had a large portion of the party leadership behind him . To great effect , Mondale used the Wendy 's slogan `` Where 's the beef ? '' to describe Hart 's policies as lacking depth . Jackson , widely regarded as the first serious African-American candidate for president , held on longer , but Mondale clinched the nomination with the majority of delegates on the first ballot . At the Democratic Convention , Mondale chose U.S. Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate , making her the first woman nominated for that position by a major party . Aides later said that Mondale was determined to establish a precedent with his vice presidential candidate , considering San Francisco Mayor Dianne Feinstein ( female and Jewish ) ; Los Angeles Mayor Tom Bradley , an African American ; and San Antonio Mayor Henry Cisneros , a Mexican American , as other finalists for the nomination . Others preferred Senator Lloyd Bentsen because he would appeal to the Deep South , or even nomination rival Gary Hart . Ferraro , as a Catholic , came under fire from some Catholic Church leaders for being pro-choice . Much more controversy erupted over her changing positions regarding the release of her husband 's tax returns , and her own ethics record in the House . Ferraro was on the defensive throughout much of the campaign , largely negating her breakthrough as the first woman on a major national ticket , and the first Italian American to reach that level in American politics . When Mondale made his acceptance speech at the Democratic Convention , he said : `` By the end of my first term , I will reduce the Reagan budget deficit by two‑thirds . Let 's tell the truth . It must be done , it must be done . Mr. Reagan will raise taxes , and so will I . He wo n't tell you . I just did . '' While this was meant to show that Mondale would be honest with voters , it was largely interpreted as a campaign pledge to raise taxes to spend on domestic programs , which was unappealing to many voters . Mondale ran a liberal campaign , supporting a nuclear freeze and the Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) . He spoke against Reagan 's economic policies and in support of reducing federal budget deficits . However , he was going up against a popular incumbent and his campaign was widely considered ineffective . Also , he was perceived as supporting the poor at the expense of the middle class . Southern whites and northern blue-collar workers who usually voted Democratic switched their support to Reagan because they credited him with the economic boom and saw him as strong on national security issues . In the first televised debate , Mondale performed unexpectedly well , questioning Reagan 's age and capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency ( Reagan was the oldest person to serve as president—73 at the time—while Mondale was 56 ) . In the next debate on October 21 , 1984 , Reagan deflected the issue by quipping , `` I will not make age an issue of this campaign . I am not going to exploit , for political purposes , my opponent 's youth and inexperience . '' In the election , Mondale was defeated in a landslide , winning only the District of Columbia and his home state of Minnesota , and even there his margin of victory was fewer than 3,800 votes , securing only 13 electoral votes to Reagan 's 525 . The result was the worst electoral college defeat for any Democratic Party candidate in history , and the worst for any major-party candidate since Alf Landon 's loss to Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1936 . Mondale received 37,577,352 votes—a total of 40.6 % of the popular vote in the election . Mondale received 40–49 % in California , Hawaii , Illinois , Iowa , Maryland , Massachusetts , Michigan , Missouri , New York , Ohio , Oregon , Pennsylvania , Rhode Island , Tennessee , Vermont , Washington , West Virginia , and Wisconsin . Private citizen and ambassador Following the election , Mondale returned to private law practice , with Dorsey & Whitney in Minneapolis in 1987 . From 1986 to 1993 , Mondale was chairman of the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs . During the presidency of Bill Clinton , he was U.S . Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996 , chaired a bipartisan group to study campaign finance reform , and was Clinton 's special envoy to Indonesia in 1998 . Until his appointment as U.S . Ambassador to Japan , Mondale was a Distinguished University Fellow in Law and Public Affairs at the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Minnesota . In 1990 Mondale established the Mondale Policy Forum at the Humphrey Institute . The forum has brought together leading scholars and policymakers for annual conferences on domestic and international issues . He also served on nonprofit boards of directors for the Guthrie Theater Foundation , the Mayo Foundation , the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs , the Diogenes Institute of Higher Learning , the Prince Hall Masonic Temple , the RAND Corporation , and the University of Minnesota Foundation . His corporate board memberships included BlackRock Advantage Term Trust and other BlackRock Mutual Funds , Cargill Incorporated , CNA Financial Corporation , the Encyclopædia Britannica , First Financial Fund , and other Prudential Mutual Funds , Northwest Airlines , and United HealthCare Corporation . Mondale spoke before the Senate on September 4 , 2002 , when he delivered a lecture on his service , with commentary on the transformation of the office of the Vice President during the Carter administration , the Senate cloture rule for ending debate , and his view on the future of the Senate in U.S. political history . The lecture was a part of a continuing Senate `` Leaders Lecture Series '' that ran from 1998 to 2002 . [ http : //www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/Leaders_Lecture_Series_Mondale.htm Address by Vice President Walter Mondale , September 4 , 2002 in the United States Senate ] [ http : //www.senate.gov/pagelayout/history/f_two_sections_with_teasers/leader_lecture_series.htm Leader 's Lecture Series Speakers ] 2002 Senate election and beyond In 2002 Democratic U.S . Senator Paul Wellstone of Minnesota , who was running for re-election , died in a plane crash just 11 days before the November 5 election . At the age of 74 , Mondale replaced Wellstone on the ballot , at the urging of Wellstone 's relatives . This Senate seat was the one that Mondale himself had held , before resigning to become Vice President in 1977 . During his debate with the Republican nominee , former St. Paul Mayor Norm Coleman , Mondale emphasized his own experience in foreign affairs while painting Coleman as a finger-in-the-wind opportunist . `` We 've seen you shift around , Norman '' , Mondale said , alluding to Coleman 's past as an anti-war college activist and , more recently , as a Democrat who had changed his party allegiance to the GOP while serving as mayor of St. Paul . Mondale lost the election , finishing with 1,067,246 votes ( 47.34 % ) to Coleman 's 1,116,697 ( 49.53 % ) out of 2,254,639 votes cast , earning him the unique distinction of having lost a statewide election in all 50 states as the nominee of a major party ( he lost the other 49 in the 1984 Presidential Election ) . Upon conceding defeat , Mondale stated : `` At the end of what will be my last campaign , I want to say to Minnesota , you always treated me well , you always listened to me . '' In 2004 Mondale became co-chairman of the Constitution Project 's bipartisan Right to Counsel Committee . He endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton ( D-NY ) for the Presidency of the United States and supported her campaign for the White House in 2008 . On June 3 , 2008 , following the final primary contests , Mondale switched his endorsement to Senator Barack Obama ( D-Ill. ) , who had clinched the nomination the previous evening . Following the U.S. presidential election of 2004 and the mid‑term elections of 2006 , Mondale is seen talking with Al Franken about the possibility of the latter running for Norm Coleman 's U.S. Senate seat in 2008 in the documentary Al Franken : God Spoke . In the film , Mondale encourages Franken to run , but cautions him , saying that Coleman 's allies and the Republican Party were going to look for anything they could use against him . Franken ultimately ran and won the 2008 Senate election by 312 votes after the election results had been contested in court by Coleman until June 30 , 2009 . Mondale and Senator Amy Klobuchar stood with Franken in the Senate chamber when Franken was sworn in on July 7 , 2009 . Family and personal life His wife , Joan Mondale , was a national advocate for the arts and was the Honorary Chairman of the Federal Council on the Arts and Humanities during the Carter Administration . On February 3 , 2014 , she died at a hospice in Minneapolis surrounded by members of their family . The Mondales ' eldest son Ted is an entrepreneur and the CEO of Nazca Solutions , a technology fulfillment venture . He is also a former Minnesota state senator . In 1998 , Ted Mondale unsuccessfully sought the Democratic nomination for Minnesota governor , running as a fiscal moderate who had distanced himself from labor . The Mondales ' daughter , Eleanor , was a television personality . She also had radio talk shows in Chicago , and a long-running program on WCCO ( AM ) in Minneapolis . She died of brain cancer at her home in Minnesota on September 17 , 2011 , at the age of 51 . Walter Mondale has a residence near Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis . Mondale is a Presbyterian . He enjoys fishing , reading Shakespeare and historical accounts , barbecuing , skiing , watching Monty Python , and playing tennis . Mondale has maintained strong ties to the University of Minnesota Law School . In 2002 the law school renamed its building Walter F. Mondale Hall . Mondale has contributed cameo appearances to the Law School 's annual T.O.R.T . ( `` Theater of the Relatively Talentless '' ) productions and has allowed his name to be used as the nickname of the school 's hockey team : the `` Fighting Mondales '' . Mondale has deep connections to his ancestral Norway . Upon entering the Senate in 1964 , he took over the seat of vice president Hubert Humphrey , another Norwegian-American . In later years , Mondale has served on the executive committee of the Peace Prize Forum , an annual conference co-sponsored by the Norwegian Nobel Institute and five Midwestern colleges of Norwegian heritage . During Norway 's Centennial Celebration in 2005 , he chaired the committee to promote and develop cultural activities between Norway and Norwegian-American organizations . While he was in office , Twin Cities Public Television produced a documentary about him entitled Walter Mondale : There 's a Fjord in Your Past , a play on the well-known advertising slogan , `` There 's a Ford in Your Future '' . On December 5 , 2007 , Norwegian minister of foreign affairs Jonas Gahr Støre announced that Walter Mondale would be named Honorary Consul-General of Norway , representing the Norwegian state in Minnesota . Mondale was hospitalized with influenza at the Mayo Clinic , in Rochester , Minnesota , in March 2015 . In popular culture Portrayals * Bill Murray played Mondale

sfq_234--Walter_Mondale.txt

Who was Walter Mondale's running mate in the 1984 US Presidential Election?

Mary of Teck ( Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Claudine Agnes ; 26 May 1867 – 24 March 1953 ) was Queen consort of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions , and Empress consort of India , as the wife of King-Emperor George V . Although technically a princess of Teck , in the Kingdom of Württemberg , she was born and raised in England . Her parents were Francis , Duke of Teck , who was of German extraction , and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge , a granddaughter of King George III . She was informally known as `` May '' , after her birth month . At the age of 24 she was betrothed to Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , the eldest son of the Prince of Wales , but six weeks after the announcement of the engagement he died unexpectedly of pneumonia . The following year she became engaged to Albert Victor 's next surviving brother , George , who subsequently became King . Before her husband 's accession she was successively Duchess of York , Duchess of Cornwall and York and Princess of Wales . As queen consort from 1910 , she supported her husband through the First World War , his ill health and major political changes arising from the aftermath of the war and the rise of socialism and nationalism . After George 's death in 1936 , she became queen mother when her eldest son , Edward , ascended the throne , but to her dismay he abdicated later the same year in order to marry twice-divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson . She supported her second son , Albert , who succeeded to the throne as George VI , until his death in 1952 . She died the following year , during the reign of her granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II , who had not yet been crowned . Early life Princess Victoria Mary ( `` May '' ) of Teck was born on 26 May 1867 at Kensington Palace , London . Her father was Prince Francis , Duke of Teck , the son of Duke Alexander of Württemberg by his morganatic wife , Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde . Her mother was Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge , the third child and younger daughter of Prince Adolphus , Duke of Cambridge , and Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel . She was baptised in the Chapel Royal of Kensington Palace on 27 July 1867 by Charles Thomas Longley , Archbishop of Canterbury , and her three godparents were Queen Victoria , the Prince of Wales ( later King Edward VII and May 's future father-in-law ) , and Princess Augusta , the Duchess of Cambridge . Before she became Queen , she was known to her family , friends and the public by the diminutive name of `` May '' , after her birth month . May 's upbringing was `` merry but fairly strict '' .Pope-Hennessy , p. 66 She was the eldest of four children , the only girl , and `` learned to exercise her native discretion , firmness and tact '' by resolving her three younger brothers ' petty boyhood squabbles . They played with their cousins , the children of the Prince of Wales , who were similar in age . May was educated at home by her mother and governess ( as were her brothers until they were sent to boarding schools ) . The Duchess of Teck spent an unusually long time with her children for a lady of her time and class , and enlisted May in various charitable endeavours , which included visiting the tenements of the poor . Although her mother was a grandchild of King George III , May was only a minor member of the British Royal Family . Her father , the Duke of Teck , had no inheritance or wealth , and carried the lower royal style of Serene Highness because his parents ' marriage was morganatic . However , the Duchess of Teck was granted a parliamentary annuity of £5,000 , and received about £4,000 a year from her mother , the Duchess of Cambridge . Despite this , the family was deeply in debt and lived abroad from 1883 , in order to economise . The Tecks travelled throughout Europe , visiting their various relations . They stayed in Florence , Italy , for a time , where May enjoyed visiting the art galleries , churches , and museums . In 1885 , the Tecks returned to London , and took up residence at White Lodge , in Richmond Park . May was close to her mother , and acted as an unofficial secretary , helping to organise parties and social events . She was also close to her aunt , the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz , and wrote to her every week . During the First World War , the Crown Princess of Sweden helped pass letters from May to her aunt , who lived in enemy territory in Germany until her death in 1916 . Engagements In December 1891 , May was engaged to her second cousin once removed , Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , the eldest son of the Prince of Wales . The choice of May as bride for the Duke owed much to Queen Victoria 's fondness for her , as well as to her strong character and sense of duty . However , Albert Victor died six weeks later , in the worldwide influenza pandemic that swept through Britain in the winter of 1891–92 . Albert Victor 's brother , Prince George , Duke of York , now second in line to the throne , evidently became close to May during their shared period of mourning , and Queen Victoria still favoured May as a suitable candidate to marry a future king . In May 1893 , George proposed , and May accepted . They were soon deeply in love , and their marriage was a success . George wrote to May every day they were apart and , unlike his father , never took a mistress . Duchess of York May married Prince George , Duke of York , in London on 6 July 1893 at the Chapel Royal , St James 's Palace . The new Duke and Duchess of York lived in York Cottage on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk , and in apartments in St James 's Palace . York Cottage was a modest house for royalty , but it was a favourite of George , who liked a relatively simple life . They had six children : Edward , Albert , Mary , Henry , George , and John . The Duchess loved her children , but she put them in the care of a nanny , as was usual in upper-class families at the time . The first nanny was dismissed for insolence and the second for abusing the children . This second woman , anxious to suggest that the children preferred her to anyone else , would pinch Edward and Albert whenever they were about to be presented to their parents , so that they would start crying and be speedily returned to her . On discovery , she was replaced by her effective and much-loved assistant , Charlotte Bill . Sometimes , Mary appears to have been a distant mother . At first , she failed to notice the nanny 's abuse of the young Princes Edward and Albert , and her youngest son , Prince John , was housed in a private farm on the Sandringham Estate , in the care of Mrs. Bill , perhaps to hide his epilepsy from the public . However , despite her austere public image and her strait-laced private life , Mary was a caring mother in many respects , revealing a fun-loving and frivolous side to her children and teaching them history and music . Edward wrote fondly of his mother in his memoirs : `` Her soft voice , her cultivated mind , the cosy room overflowing with personal treasures were all inseparable ingredients of the happiness associated with this last hour of a child 's day ... Such was my mother 's pride in her children that everything that happened to each one was of the utmost importance to her . With the birth of each new child , Mama started an album in which she painstakingly recorded each progressive stage of our childhood '' . He expressed a less charitable view , however , in private letters to his wife after his mother 's death : `` My sadness was mixed with incredulity that any mother could have been so hard and cruel towards her eldest son for so many years and yet so demanding at the end without relenting a scrap . I 'm afraid the fluids in her veins have always been as icy cold as they are now in death . '' As Duke and Duchess of York , George and May carried out a variety of public duties . In 1897 , she became the Patron of the London Needlework Guild in succession to her mother . The Guild , initially established as The London Guild in 1882 , was renamed several times , and was named after May between 1914 and 2010 . Samples of her own embroidery range from chair seats to tea cosies . On 22 January 1901 , Queen Victoria died , and May 's father-in-law ascended the throne as King Edward VII . For most of the rest of that year , George and May were styled Their Royal Highnesses The Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York . For eight months they toured the British Empire , visiting Gibraltar , Malta , Egypt , Ceylon , Singapore , Australia , New Zealand , Mauritius , South Africa and Canada . No royal had undertaken such an ambitious tour before . She broke down in tears at the thought of leaving her children , who were to be left in the care of their grandparents , for such a long time . Princess of Wales On 9 November 1901 , nine days after arriving back in Britain and on the King 's sixtieth birthday , George was created Prince of Wales . The family moved their London residence from St James 's Palace to Marlborough House . As Princess of Wales , May accompanied her husband on trips to Austria-Hungary and Württemberg in 1904 . The following year , she gave birth to her last child , John . It was a difficult labour , and although May recovered quickly , her newborn son suffered respiratory problems . From October 1905 the Prince and Princess of Wales undertook another eight-month tour , this time of India , and the children were once again left in the care of their grandparents . They passed through Egypt both ways and on the way back stopped in Greece . The tour was almost immediately followed by a trip to Spain for the wedding of King Alfonso XIII to Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg , at which the bride and groom narrowly avoided assassination . Only a week after returning to Britain , May and George went to Norway for the coronation of George 's brother-in-law and sister , King Haakon VII and Queen Maud . Queen consort On 6 May 1910 , Edward VII died . Mary 's husband ascended the throne as King George V , and she became queen consort . When her husband asked her to drop one of her two official names , Victoria Mary , she chose to be called Mary , preferring not to take the name of her husband 's grandmother , Queen Victoria . Queen Mary was crowned with the King on 22 June 1911 at Westminster Abbey . Later in the year , the new King and Queen travelled to India for the Delhi Durbar held on 12 December 1911 , and toured the sub-continent as Emperor and Empress of India , returning to Britain in February . The beginning of Mary 's period as consort brought her into conflict with her mother-in-law , Queen Alexandra . Although the two were on friendly terms , Alexandra could be stubborn ; she demanded precedence over Mary at the funeral of Edward VII , was slow in leaving Buckingham Palace , and kept some of the royal jewels that should have been passed to the new Queen . During the First World War , Queen Mary instituted an austerity drive at the palace , where she rationed food , and visited wounded and dying servicemen in hospital , which caused her great emotional strain . After three years of war against Germany , and with anti-German feeling in Britain running high , the Russian Imperial Family , which had been deposed by a revolutionary government , was refused asylum , possibly in part because the Tsar 's wife was German-born . News of the Tsar 's abdication provided a boost to those in Britain who wished to replace their own monarchy with a republic . After republicans used the couple 's German heritage as an argument for reform , George abandoned his German titles and renamed the royal house from the German `` Saxe-Coburg and Gotha '' to the British `` Windsor '' . Other royals anglicised their names ; the Battenbergs became the Mountbattens , for example . The Queen 's relatives also abandoned their German titles , and adopted the British surname of Cambridge ( derived from the Dukedom held by Queen Mary 's British grandfather ) . The war ended in 1918 with the defeat of Germany and the abdication and exile of the Kaiser . Two months after the end of the war , Queen Mary 's youngest son , John , died at the age of thirteen . She described her shock and sorrow in her diary and letters , extracts of which were published after her death : `` our poor darling little Johnnie had passed away suddenly ... The first break in the family circle is hard to bear but people have been so kind & sympathetic & this has helped us [ the King and me ] much . '' Her staunch support of her husband continued during the latter half of his reign . She advised him on speeches , and used her extensive knowledge of history and royalty to advise him on matters affecting his position . He appreciated her discretion , intelligence and judgement . She maintained an air of self-assured calm throughout all her public engagements in the years after the war , a period marked by civil unrest over social conditions , Irish independence and Indian nationalism . In the late 1920s , George V became increasingly ill with lung problems , exacerbated by his heavy smoking . Queen Mary paid particular attention to his care . During his illness in 1928 , one of his doctors , Sir Farquhar Buzzard , was asked who had saved the King 's life . He replied , `` The Queen '' . In 1935 , King George V and Queen Mary celebrated their silver jubilee , with celebrations taking place throughout the British Empire . In his jubilee speech , George paid public tribute to his wife , having told his speechwriter , `` Put that paragraph at the very end . I can not trust myself to speak of the Queen when I think of all I owe her . '' Queen mother George V died on 20 January 1936 , after his physician , Lord Dawson of Penn , gave him an injection of morphine and cocaine that may have hastened his death . Queen Mary 's eldest son , Edward , Prince of Wales , ascended the throne as Edward VIII . She was now a queen mother , though she did not use that style , and was instead known as Her Majesty Queen Mary . Within the year , Edward caused a constitutional crisis by announcing his desire to marry his twice-divorced American mistress , Wallis Simpson . Mary disapproved of divorce , which was against the teaching of the Anglican church , and thought Simpson wholly unsuitable to be the wife of a king . After receiving advice from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Stanley Baldwin , as well as the Dominion governments , that he could not remain King and marry Simpson , Edward abdicated . Though loyal and supportive of her son , Mary could not comprehend why Edward would neglect his royal duties in favour of his personal feelings . Simpson had been presented formally to both King George V and Queen Mary at court , but Mary later refused to meet her either in public or privately . She saw it as her duty to provide moral support for her second son , the reserved and stammering Prince Albert , Duke of York , who ascended the throne on Edward 's abdication , taking the name George VI . When Mary attended the coronation , she became the first British dowager queen to do so . Edward 's abdication did not lessen her love for him , but she never wavered in her disapproval of his actions . Mary took an interest in the upbringing of her granddaughters , Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret , and took them on various excursions in London , to art galleries and museums . ( The Princesses ' own parents thought it unnecessary for them to be taxed with any demanding educational regime . ) During the Second World War , George VI wished his mother to be evacuated from London . Although she was reluctant , she decided to live at Badminton House , Gloucestershire , with her niece , Mary Somerset , Duchess of Beaufort , the daughter of her brother Lord Cambridge . Her personal belongings were transported from London in seventy pieces of luggage . Her household , which comprised fifty-five servants , occupied most of the house , except for the Duke and Duchess 's private suites , until after the war . The only people to complain about the arrangements were the royal servants , who found the house too small , though Queen Mary annoyed her niece by having the ancient ivy torn from the walls as she considered it unattractive and a hazard . From Badminton , in support of the war effort , she visited troops and factories , and directed the gathering of scrap materials . She was known to offer lifts to soldiers she spotted on the roads . In 1942 , her youngest surviving son , Prince George , Duke of Kent , was killed in an air crash while on active service . Mary finally returned to Marlborough House in June 1945 , after the war in Europe had resulted in the defeat of Nazi Germany . Mary was an eager collector of objects and pictures with a royal connection . She paid above-market estimates when purchasing jewels from the estate of Dowager Empress Marie of Russia and paid almost three times the estimate when buying the family 's Cambridge Emeralds from Lady Kilmorey , the mistress of her late brother Prince Francis.See also [ http : //www.proni.gov.uk/introduction_kilmorey_d2638-2.pdf Kilmorey Papers ( D/2638 ) ] ( pdf ) , Public Record Office of Northern Ireland . In 1924 , the famous architect Sir Edwin Lutyens created Queen Mary 's Dolls ' House for her collection of miniature pieces . Indeed , she has sometimes been criticised for her aggressive acquisition of objets d'art for the Royal Collection . On several occasions , she would express to hosts , or others , that she admired something they had in their possession , in the expectation that the owner would be willing to donate it . Her extensive knowledge of , and research into , the Royal Collection helped in identifying artefacts and artwork that had gone astray over the years . The Royal Family had lent out many objects over previous generations . Once she had identified unreturned items through old inventories , she would write to the holders , requesting that they be returned . In 1952 , King George VI died , the third of Queen Mary 's children to predecease her ; her eldest granddaughter , Princess Elizabeth , ascended the throne as Queen Elizabeth II . Mary died the next year of lung cancer ( referred to publicly as `` gastric problems '' ) on 24 March 1953 at the age of 85 , only ten weeks before her granddaughter 's coronation . Mary let it be known that , in the event of her death , the coronation was not to be postponed . Her remains lay in state at Westminster Hall , where large numbers of mourners filed past her coffin . She is buried beside her husband in the nave of St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle . Legacy Sir Henry `` Chips '' Channon wrote that she was `` above politics ... magnificent , humorous , worldly , in fact nearly sublime , though cold and hard . But what a grand Queen . '' The ocean liners and ; the Royal Navy battlecruiser , , which was destroyed at the Battle of Jutland in 1916 ; Queen Mary University of London ; Queen Mary Reservoir in Surrey , United Kingdom ; Queen Mary College , Lahore ; Queen Mary Hospital , Hong Kong ; Queen Mary 's Peak , the highest mountain in Tristan da Cunha ; Queen Mary Land in Antarctica ; and Queen Mary 's College in Chennai , India , are named in her honour . Actresses who have portrayed Queen Mary on stage and screen include Dame Wendy Hiller ( on the London stage in Crown Matrimonial ) , Greer Garson ( in the Hallmark television production of Crown Matrimonial ) , Dame Flora Robson ( in A King 's Story ) , Dame Peggy Ashcroft ( in Edward & Mrs. Simpson ) , Phyllis Calvert ( in The Woman He Loved ) , Gaye Brown ( in All the King 's Men ) , Dame Eileen Atkins ( in Bertie and Elizabeth ) , Miranda Richardson ( in The Lost Prince ) , Margaret Tyzack ( in Wallis & Edward ) , Claire Bloom ( in The King 's Speech ) and Judy Parfitt ( in W.E . ) . Titles , styles , honours and arms Titles and styles * 26 May 1867 – 6 July 1893 : Her Serene Highness Princess Victoria Mary of Teck * 6 July 1893 – 22 January 1901 : Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York * 22 January 1901 – 9 November 1901 : Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Cornwall and York * 9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910 : Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales * 6 May 1910 – 20 January 1936 : Her Majesty The Queen * 20 January 1936 – 24 March 1953 : Her Majesty Queen Mary Honours Arms Queen Mary 's arms were the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom impaled with her family arms – the arms of her grandfather , Prince Adolphus , Duke of Cambridge , in the 1st and 4th quarters , and the arms of her father , Prince Francis , Duke of Teck , in the 2nd and 3rd quarters . The shield is surmounted by the imperial crown , and supported by the crowned lion of England and `` a stag Proper '' as in the arms of Württemberg . Issue Ancestry

sfq_20337--Mary_of_Teck.txt

Who was the first member of the British royal family to lie in state at Westminster Hall?

Norman George Painting ( 23 April 1924 – 29 October 2009 ) was a British actor , broadcaster and writer . He played Phil Archer in the BBC Radio 4 soap opera The Archers from the pilot episodes aired on the BBC Midlands Home Service in summer 1950 , after the series went national on the Light Programme on 1 January 1951 , until his death in 2009 , when he was the longest-serving member of the cast . His last episode , recorded two days before he died , was broadcast on 22 November 2009 . The character lived on until Phil was `` found dead '' in his armchair in March 2010 . According to Guinness World Records , Painting held the world record for an actor playing a continuous role , a total of 59 years . Early life Painting was born in Leamington Spa , the son of a railway signalman . He was educated at Leamington College and King Edward VI School , Nuneaton , but left school aged 15 to work in a library . He was found to be medically unfit for military service in the Second World War , and studied English at the University of Birmingham instead , graduating with a first-class degree . He did post-graduate research at Christ Church , Oxford , and then became a tutor in Anglo-Saxon at Exeter College , Oxford . Radio career He began to appear on BBC radio while at the University of Birmingham , and continued while also performing as an actor with Oxford University Dramatic Society . He left Oxford University in 1949 to work for the BBC in Birmingham . Painting had worked as a performer , interviewer , writer and producer for the BBC before he first appeared as Philip in The Archers in 1950 . He became a script writer for the series in 1966 , following in the footsteps of Edward J. Mason , Geoffrey Webb , David Turner and John Keir Cross . He wrote in his memoir of the programme , Forever Ambridge ( named after Ambridge , the fictional West Midlands village in which the programme is set ) , that he believed that Geoffrey Webb , who had died some time before , was guiding his hand as he wrote . He wrote about 1,200 episodes under the pseudonym Bruno Milna . Artistic disagreements with a then editor , plus a general disillusionment with the BBC management , led him to retire from writing scripts in 1982 and to stick to just performing them . The character of Phil Archer developed from the lusty young romantic lead of the early episodes , working on the neighbouring Fairbrother estate , into a father and grandfather , replacing Dan Archer as the patriarch of Brookfield Farm and a senior figure in the series . Perhaps his most famous moment occurred on 22 September 1955 , when his wife , Grace Archer ( née Fairbrother ) , was killed while trying to rescue a horse , Midnight , from a burning barn - the episode being transmitted on first day of ITV broadcasts . The character survived Painting by four months , dying peacefully in March 2010 . Honour He was appointed OBE in 1976 , for services to broadcasting . He published two books on the Archers entitled Forever Ambridge ( 1975 and 1980 , for the programme 's 25th and 30th anniversaries ) , and a personal memoir , Reluctant Archer ( 1982 ) . He was the subject of a programme in the TV series This Is Your Life in 1991 . Later life Painting suffered from poor health in later life , with several heart attacks in 1982 and later pancreatitis , a retinal detachment , and prostate surgery . In 2000 , he stated he was suffering from bladder cancer . He remained a bachelor , and lived alone at Warmington in Warwickshire . His body was found in his home in October 2009 , shortly after he had died from heart failure . His ashes were scattered at Painting 's Plantation in Leamington Spa , with a memorial service at St Martin-in-the-Fields in May 2010 . He left his recordings , scripts , books , papers and letters to Birmingham University Special Collections .

sfq_8996--Norman_Painting.txt

Actor Norman Painting died in November 2009, which part in a log running radio series did he make his own?

Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a cricket field , at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard-long pitch with a wicket , a set of three wooden stumps sited at each end . One team , designated the batting team , attempts to score as many runs as possible , whilst their opponents field . Each phase of play is called an innings . After either ten batsmen have been dismissed or a set number of overs have been completed , the innings ends and the two teams then swap roles . The winning team is the one that scores the most runs , including any extras gained , during their period batting . At the start of each game , two batsmen and eleven fielders enter the field of play . The play begins when a designated member of the fielding team , known as the bowler , delivers the ball from one end of the pitch to the other , towards a set of wooden stumps , in front of which stands one of the batsmen , known as the striker . The striker 's role is to prevent the ball from hitting the stumps through use of his bat , and simultaneously strike it sufficiently well to score runs . The other batsman , known as the non-striker , waits at the opposite end of the pitch by the bowler . The bowler 's intention is to both prevent the scoring of runs and to dismiss the batsman , at which point the dismissed batsman has to leave the field and another teammate replaces him at the crease . The most common forms of dismissal are bowled , when the bowler hits the stumps directly with the ball , leg before wicket , when the batsman prevents the ball from hitting the stumps with his body instead of his bat , and caught , when the batsman hits the ball into the air and it is intercepted by a fielder before touching the ground . Runs are scored through two main methods : either hitting the ball sufficiently powerfully that it crosses the boundary , or through the two batsmen swapping ends by each simultaneously running the length of the pitch in opposite directions whilst the fielders are retrieving the ball . If a fielder is able to retrieve the ball sufficiently quickly and put down the wicket with either batsman out of his ground , a run-out occurs . Adjudication is performed on-field by two umpires . The laws of cricket are maintained by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) and Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . There are various formats ranging from Twenty20 , played over a few hours with each team having a single innings of 20 overs , to Test cricket , played over five days with unlimited overs and the teams playing two innings apiece . Traditionally , cricketers play in all-white kit but in limited overs cricket they wear club or team colours . In addition to the basic kit , some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball which is a hard , solid object made of compressed leather enclosing a cork core . Although cricket 's origins are uncertain , it is first recorded in south-east England in the 16th century . It spread globally with the expansion of the British Empire , leading to the first international matches in the mid-19th century . ICC , the game 's governing body , has over 100 members , ten of which are full members who play Test cricket . Women 's cricket , which is organised and played separately , has also achieved international standard . Cricket is the world 's second most popular spectator sport , after association football , and is followed primarily in Australasia , Great Britain and Ireland , the Indian subcontinent , southern Africa and the West Indies . Etymology A number of words have been suggested as sources for the term `` cricket '' . In the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598 it is called creckett . One possible source for the name is the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff.Birley , p. 3 . In Samuel Johnson 's Dictionary , he derived cricket from `` cryce , Saxon , a stick '' . In Old French , the word criquet seems to have meant a kind of club or stick . Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy , the name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch krick ( -e ) , meaning a stick ( crook ) . Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word krickstoel , meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church and which resembled the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket . According to Heiner Gillmeister , a European language expert of Bonn University , `` cricket '' derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey , met de ( krik ket ) sen ( i.e. , `` with the stick chase '' ) . Dr Gillmeister believes that not only the name but the sport itself is of Flemish origin . History Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England though there have been a number of claims , many of them spurious and/or lacking evidence , supporting earlier dates from 1301 . The earliest definite reference to cricket being played comes from evidence given at a 1598 court case which mentions that `` creckett '' ( sic ) was played on common land in Guildford around 1550 . The court in Guildford heard on Monday , 17 January 1597 ( Julian date , equating to the year 1598 in the Gregorian calendar ) from a 59-year-old coroner , John Derrick , who gave witness that when he was a scholar at the `` Free School at Guildford '' , fifty years earlier , `` hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play [ on the common land ] at creckett and other plaies . '' Altham , p. 21 . It is believed that cricket was originally a children 's game but references around 1610 indicate that adults had started playing it and the earliest reference to inter-parish or village cricket occurs soon afterwards . In 1624 , a player called Jasper Vinall died after he was struck on the head during a match between two parish teams in Sussex.McCann , pp . xxxiii–xxxiv . During the 17th century , numerous references indicate the growth of cricket in the south-east of England . By the end of the century , it had become an organised activity being played for high stakes and it is believed that the first professionals appeared in the years following the Restoration in 1660 . A newspaper report survives of `` a great cricket match '' with eleven players a side that was played for high stakes in Sussex in 1697 , and this is the earliest known reference to a cricket match of such importance . The game underwent major development in the 18th century . Betting played a key part in that development with rich patrons forming their own `` select XIs '' . Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and , in the middle years of the century , large crowds flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury . The single wicket form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match , its popularity peaking in the 1748 season . Bowling underwent an evolution around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of rolling or skimming it towards the batsman . This caused a revolution in bat design because , to deal with the bouncing ball , it was necessary to introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old `` hockey stick '' shape . The Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s and , for the next twenty years until the formation of Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and the opening of Lord 's Old Ground in 1787 , Hambledon was both the game 's greatest club and its focal point . MCC quickly became the sport 's premier club and the custodian of the Laws of cricket . New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and leg before wicket ( lbw ) . The 19th century saw underarm bowling superseded by first roundarm and then overarm bowling . Both developments were controversial . Organisation of the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs , starting with Sussex in 1839 , which ultimately formed the official County Championship in 1890 . Meanwhile , the British Empire had been instrumental in spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had become well established in India , North America , the Caribbean , South Africa , Australia and New Zealand . In 1844 , the first-ever international match took place between the United States and Canada . In 1859 , a team of English players went to North America on the first overseas tour . The first Australian team to tour overseas was a team of Aboriginal stockmen who travelled to England in 1868 to play matches against county teams . In 1862 , an English team made the first tour of Australia . The most famous player of the 19th century was W. G. Grace , who started his long and influential career in 1865 . In 1876–77 , an England team took part in what was retrospectively recognised as the first-ever Test match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against Australia . The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 and this has remained Test cricket 's most famous contest . Test cricket began to expand in 1888–89 when South Africa played England . The last two decades before the First World War have been called the `` Golden Age of cricket '' . It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense of loss resulting from the war , but the period did produce some great players and memorable matches , especially as organised competition at county and Test level developed . The inter-war years were dominated by one player : Australia 's Don Bradman , statistically the greatest batsman of all time . Test cricket continued to expand during the 20th century with the addition of the West Indies , India and New Zealand before the Second World War and then Pakistan , Sri Lanka , and Bangladesh in the post-war period . South Africa was banned from international cricket from 1970 to 1992 because of its government 's apartheid policy . Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the limited overs variant . As it was sure to produce a result , limited overs cricket was lucrative and the number of matches increased . The first Limited Overs International was played in 1971 . The governing International Cricket Council ( ICC ) saw its potential and staged the first limited overs Cricket World Cup in 1975 . In the 21st century , a new limited overs form , Twenty20 , has made an immediate impact . Rules and game-play Cricket is a bat and ball game , played between two teams of eleven players each . One team bats , attempting to score runs , while the other bowls and fields the ball , attempting to restrict the scoring and dismiss the batsmen . The objective of the game is for a team to score more runs than its opponent . In some forms of cricket , it may also be necessary to dismiss the opposition in order to win the match , which would otherwise be drawn . Format of the game A cricket match is divided into periods called innings ( which ends with `` s '' in both singular and plural form ) . It is decided before the match whether the teams will have one innings or two innings each . During an innings one team fields and the other bats . The two teams switch between fielding and batting after each innings . All eleven members of the fielding team take the field , but only two members of the batting team ( two batsmen ) are on the field at any given time . The order of batsmen is usually announced just before the match , but it can be varied . A coin toss is held by the team captains ( who are also players ) just before the match starts : the winner decides whether to bat or field first . The cricket field is usually circular or oval in shape , with a rectangular pitch at the center . The edge of the playing field is marked with a boundary , which could be a fence , part of the stands , a rope or a painted line . At each end of the pitch is a wooden target called a wicket , placed 22 yards apart . The pitch is marked with painted lines : a bowling crease in line with the wicket , and a batting or popping crease four feet in front of it . The wicket is made of three vertical stumps supporting two small horizontal bails . A wicket is put down if at least one bail is dislodged , or one stump is knocked down ( usually by the ball , but also if the batsman does it with his body , clothing or equipment ) . This is also described as breaking , knocking down , or hitting the wicket - though if the ball hits the wicket but does not dislodge a bail or stump then it is not considered to be down . At any instant each batsman owns a particular wicket ( usually the one closer to him ) and , except when actually batting , is safe when he is in his ground . This means that at least one part of his body or bat is touching the ground behind the popping crease . If his wicket is put down while the ball is live and he is out of his ground then he is dismissed , but the other batsman is safe . The two batsmen take positions at opposite ends of the pitch . One designated member of the fielding team , called the bowler , bowls the ball from one end of the pitch to the striking batsman at the other end . The batsman at the bowling end is called the non-striker , and stands to the side of his wicket , behind his crease . The batsman are allowed to step forward of their creases , though at some risk . Another member of the fielding team , the wicket keeper , is positioned behind the striker 's wicket . The fielding team 's other nine members stand outside the pitch , spread out across the field . The fielding captain often strategically changes their position between balls . There is always an umpire at each end of the pitch . The bowler usually retreats a few yards ( metres ) behind the wicket , runs towards it ( his run-up ) , and then releases the ball over-hand as he reaches the bowling crease . ( If he crosses the crease before he releases the ball , or if he flexes his elbow too much in a throw , then it is a no ball , and the batting team gets a penalty or extra run . If the ball passes the far wicket out of reach of the batsman then it is called a wide , also with an extra run . ) The ball can be bowled so that it bounces on the pitch , lands exactly on the crease ( a yorker ) , or crosses the crease without bouncing ( a full toss ) . The batsman tries to prevent the ball from hitting the wicket by striking the ball with his bat . ( This includes the handle of the bat , and his gloves . ) If the bowler succeeds in putting down the wicket the batsman is dismissed and is said to be bowled out . If the batsman misses the ball , but any part of his body prevents it from reaching the wicket , then he is out leg before wicket , or `` LBW '' . If the batsman hits the ball but it is caught by a fielder without bouncing then he is caught out . If it is caught by the bowler then he is caught and bowled ; by the wicket keeper , caught behind . If the batsman is successful in striking the ball and it is not caught without bouncing , then the two batsmen may try to score points ( runs ) for their team . Both batsmen run the length of the pitch , exchanging positions , and grounding their bats behind the opposite crease . Each crossing and grounding by both batsmen is worth one run . The batsmen may attempt one run , multiple runs , or elect not to run at all . By attempting runs , the batsmen risk dismissal . This happens if the fielding team retrieves the ball and hits either wicket with the ball ( either by throwing it , or while holding it ) before the batsman who owns that wicket reaches his ground behind the crease . The dismissed batsman is run out . Batsmen will sometimes start to run , change their mind , and return to their original positions . If the batsman hits the ball over the field boundary without the ball touching the field , the batting team scores six runs . If the ball touches the ground and then reaches the boundary , the batting team scores four runs . The batsmen might start running before the ball reaches the boundary , but those runs do n't count . If the batsman misses the ball they can still attempt extra runs : these are called byes . If the ball bounces off his body then it is called a leg bye . If the striking batsman leaves his ground and misses the ball , then the wicket keeper can catch it and put down the wicket – stumped . In case of a no ball or a wide the batsman can choose to strike the ball , earning runs in addition to the fixed penalty . If he does so he can only be dismissed by being run out . When the batsmen have finished attempting their runs the ball is dead , and is returned to the bowler to be bowled again . The ball becomes live when he starts his run up . The bowler continues to bowl toward the same wicket , regardless of any switch of the batsmen 's positions . A batsman may retire from an innings without being dismissed , usually after reaching a milestone like a hundred runs ( a century ) . A dismissed batsman leaves the field , to be replaced by another batsman from the batting team . However , even though the wicket may have been put down , or the ball caught , the batsman is not actually dismissed until the fielding team appeal to the umpires for a decision , traditionally using the expression `` How 's that '' ( or `` Howzat '' ) . In some matches , particularly test matches , either team may request a review by a third umpire who can use a decision review system ( DRS ) , which includes TV replays and other electronic equipment such as Hawk-Eye , Hot Spot and the Snickometer . After a bowler has bowled six times ( an over ) , another member of the fielding team is designated as the new bowler , the old bowler taking up a fielding position . The batsmen stay in place , and the new bowler bowls to the opposite wicket , so the role of striker and non-striker reverse . The wicket keeper and the two umpires always change positions , as do many of the fielders , and play continues . Fielding team members may bowl multiple times during an innings , but may not bowl two overs in succession . The innings is complete when 10 of the 11 members of the batting team have been dismissed ( all out - although one always remaining `` not out '' ) , when a set number of overs has been played , or when the batting team declares that they have enough runs . The number of innings and the number of overs per innings vary depending on the format of the match . In a match which is not a limited overs format the umpires will usually specify that the last session of the last innings will have a specified number of overs . The match always ends when all innings have been completed . The umpires can also call an end to the match in case of bad light or weather . But in many cases the match ends immediately when the first team to bat has played all of its innings , and the last team to bat has more runs . In four-innings games the last team may not even need to play its second innings : this team is said to win by an innings . If this winning team has not completed its last innings , and still has , for example , five batsmen who are not out or have not even batted , then they are said to `` win by five wickets '' . If the last team to bat is losing , is all out , and has 10 fewer runs than the other team , then the winning team `` wins by 10 runs '' . If the two teams both play all their innings and they have the same number of runs , then it is a tie . In four-innings matches there is also the possibility of a draw : the team with fewer runs still has batsmen on the field when the game ends . This has a major effect on strategy : a team will often declare an innings when they have accumulated enough runs , in the hope that they will have enough time left to dismiss the other team and thus avoid a draw , but risking a loss if the other team scores enough runs . Pitch , wickets and creases Playing surface Cricket is played on a grassy field . The Laws of Cricket do not specify the size or shape of the field , but it is often oval . In the centre of the field is a rectangular strip , known as the pitch . The pitch is a flat surface 10 ft wide , with very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses . At either end of the pitch , 22 yd apart , are placed wooden targets , known as the wickets . These serve as a target for the bowling ( also known as the fielding ) side and are defended by the batting side , which seeks to accumulate runs . Stumps , bails and creases Each wicket on the pitch consists of three wooden stumps placed vertically , in line with one another . They are surmounted by two wooden crosspieces called bails ; the total height of the wicket including bails is and the combined width of the three stumps , including small gaps between them is 9 in . Four lines , known as creases , are painted onto the pitch around the wicket areas to define the batsman 's `` safe territory '' and to determine the limit of the bowler 's approach . These are called the `` popping '' ( or batting ) crease , the bowling crease and two `` return '' creases . The stumps are placed in line on the bowling creases and so these creases must be 22 yd apart . A bowling crease is 8 ft long , with the middle stump placed dead centre . The popping crease has the same length , is parallel to the bowling crease and is 4 ft in front of the wicket . The return creases are perpendicular to the other two ; they are adjoined to the ends of the popping crease and are drawn through the ends of the bowling crease to a length of at least 8 ft . When bowling the ball , the bowler 's back foot in his `` delivery stride '' must land within the two return creases while at least some part of his front foot must land on or behind the popping crease . If the bowler breaks this rule , the umpire calls `` No ball '' . The importance of the popping crease to the batsman is that it marks the limit of his safe territory . He can be dismissed stumped or run out ( see Dismissals below ) if the wicket is broken while he is `` out of his ground '' . Bat and ball The essence of the sport is that a bowler delivers the ball from his end of the pitch towards the batsman who , armed with a bat is `` on strike '' at the other end . The bat is made of wood ( usually White Willow ) and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle . The blade must not be more than wide and the total length of the bat not more than 38 in . The ball is a hard leather-seamed spheroid , with a circumference of 9 in . The hardness of the ball , which can be delivered at speeds of more than 90 mph , is a matter for concern and batsmen wear protective clothing including pads ( designed to protect the knees and shins ) , batting gloves for the hands , a helmet for the head and a box inside the trousers ( to protect the crotch area ) . Some batsmen wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads , arm pads , rib protectors and shoulder pads . The ball has a `` seam '' : six rows of stitches attaching the leather shell of the ball to the string and cork interior . The seam on a new ball is prominent , and helps the bowler propel it in a less predictable manner . During cricket matches , the quality of the ball changes to a point where it is no longer usable , and during this decline its properties alter and thus influence the match . Players will therefore attempt to changes the properties of the ball in order to influence its flight . Polishing the ball and wetting it with sweat or saliva is legal , even when the polishing is deliberately done on one side only to increase the ball 's swing , while rubbing other substances into the ball , scratching the surface or picking at the seam is illegal ball tampering . Umpires and scorers The game on the field is regulated by two umpires , one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler 's end , the other in a position called `` square leg '' , a position 15–20 metres to the side of the `` on strike '' batsman . The main role of the umpires is to adjudicate on whether a ball is correctly bowled ( not a no ball or a wide ) , when a run is scored , and whether a batsman is out ( the fielding side must appeal to the umpire , usually with the phrase How 's That ? ) . Umpires also determine when intervals start and end , decide on the suitability of the playing conditions and can interrupt or even abandon the match due to circumstances likely to endanger the players , such as a damp pitch or deterioration of the light . Off the field and in televised matches , there is often a third umpire who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence . The third umpire is mandatory under the playing conditions for Test matches and limited overs internationals played between two ICC full members . These matches also have a match referee whose job is to ensure that play is within the Laws of cricket and the spirit of the game

qw_14859--Cricket.txt

The main international cricket competitions are Test matches, ODI, and which other?

Sir Thomas Sean Connery ( ; born 25 August 1930 ) is a retired Scottish actor and producer who has won an Academy Award , two BAFTA Awards ( one of them being a BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award ) and three Golden Globes ( including the Cecil B. DeMille Award and a Henrietta Award ) . He was knighted by Elizabeth II in July 2000 after receiving a Kennedy Center Honors in the US in 1999 . Connery is best known for portraying the character James Bond , starring in seven Bond films between 1962 and 1983 . In 1988 , Connery won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in The Untouchables . His film career also includes such films as Marnie , The Name of the Rose , The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen , Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , The Hunt for Red October , Highlander , Murder on the Orient Express , Dragonheart , and The Rock . Connery has been polled as `` The Greatest Living Scot '' and `` Scotland 's Greatest Living National Treasure '' . In 1989 , he was proclaimed `` Sexiest Man Alive '' by People magazine , and in 1999 , at age 69 , he was voted `` Sexiest Man of the Century '' . Early life Thomas Sean Connery , named Thomas after his grandfather , was born in Fountainbridge , Edinburgh , Scotland on 25 August 1930 . His mother , Euphemia McBain `` Effie '' ( née McLean ) , was a cleaning woman , and his father , Joseph Connery , was a factory worker and lorry driver . His paternal grandfather 's parents emigrated to Scotland from Ireland in the mid-19th century . The remainder of his family was of Scottish descent , and his maternal great-grandparents were native Scottish Gaelic speakers from Fife ( unusually , for a speaker of the language ) and Uig on the Isle of Skye . His father was a Roman Catholic , and his mother was a Protestant . He has a younger brother , Neil ( b . 1938 ) . Connery claims he was called Sean , his middle name , long before becoming an actor , explaining that when he was young he had an Irish friend named Séamus and that those who knew them both had decided to call Connery by his middle name whenever both were present . He was generally referred to in his youth as `` Tommy '' . Although he was small in primary school , he grew rapidly around the age of 12 , reaching his full adult height of 6 ft at 18 . He was known during his teen years as `` Big Tam '' , and has claimed to have lost his virginity to an adult woman in an ATS uniform at the age of 14 . Connery 's first job was as a milkman in Edinburgh with St. Cuthbert 's Co-operative Society . He then joined the Royal Navy , during which time he acquired two tattoos , of which his official website says `` unlike many tattoos , his were not frivolous—his tattoos reflect two of his lifelong commitments : his family and Scotland . ... One tattoo is a tribute to his parents and reads 'Mum and Dad , ' and the other is self-explanatory , 'Scotland Forever . ' '' Connery was later discharged from the navy on medical grounds because of a duodenal ulcer , a condition that affected most of the males in previous generations of his family . Afterwards , he returned to the co-op , then worked as , among other things , a lorry driver , a lifeguard at Portobello swimming baths , a labourer , an artist 's model for the Edinburgh College of Art , and after a suggestion by former Mr. Scotland , Archie Brennan , a coffin polisher . The modelling earned him 15 shillings an hour . Student artist Richard Demarco who painted several notable early pictures of Connery described him as `` very straight , slightly shy , too , too beautiful for words , a virtual Adonis . '' Connery began bodybuilding at the age of 18 , and from 1951 trained heavily with Ellington , a former gym instructor in the British army . While his official website claims he was third in the 1950 Mr. Universe contest , most sources place him in the 1953 competition , either third in the Junior class or failing to place in the Tall Man classification . Connery stated that he was soon deterred from bodybuilding when he found that the Americans frequently beat him in competitions because of sheer muscle size and , unlike Connery , refused to participate in athletic activity which could make them lose muscle mass . Connery was a keen footballer , having played for Bonnyrigg Rose in his younger days . He was offered a trial with East Fife . While on tour with South Pacific , Connery played in a football match against a local team that Matt Busby , manager of Manchester United , happened to be scouting . According to reports , Busby was impressed with his physical prowess and offered Connery a contract worth £25 a week immediately after the game . Connery admits that he was tempted to accept , but he recalls , `` I realised that a top-class footballer could be over the hill by the age of 30 , and I was already 23 . I decided to become an actor and it turned out to be one of my more intelligent moves . '' Career 1950s Looking to pick up some extra money , Connery helped out backstage at the King 's Theatre in late 1951 . He became interested in the proceedings , and a career was launched . During a bodybuilding competition held in London in 1953 , one of the competitors mentioned that auditions were being held for a production of South Pacific ; and Connery landed a small part as one of the Seabees chorus boys . By the time the production reached Edinburgh , he had been given the part of Marine Cpl Hamilton Steeves and was understudying two of the juvenile leads , and his salary was raised from £12 to £14–10s a week . The production returned the following year out of popular demand , and Connery was promoted to the featuring role of Lieutenant Buzz Adams , which Larry Hagman had portrayed in the West End . While in Edinburgh , Connery was targeted by the notorious Valdor gang , one of the most ruthless gangs in the city . He was first approached by them in a billiard hall on Lothian Street where he prevented them from stealing from his jacket and was later followed by six gang members to a 15 ft high balcony at the Palais . There Connery launched an attack single-handedly against the gang members , grabbing one by the throat and another by a biceps and cracked their heads together . From then on he was treated with great respect by the gang and gained a reputation as a `` hard man '' . Connery first met Michael Caine at a party during the production of South Pacific in 1954 , and the two would later become close friends . During the production of South Pacific at the Opera House , Manchester over the Christmas period of 1954 , Connery developed a serious interest in the theatre through American actor Robert Henderson who lent him copies of the Henrik Ibsen works Hedda Gabler , The Wild Duck , and When We Dead Awaken , and later listed works by the likes of Marcel Proust , Leo Tolstoy , Ivan Turgenev , Bernard Shaw , James Joyce , and William Shakespeare for him to digest . Henderson urged him to take elocution lessons and got him parts at the Maida Vale Theatre in London , and he had already begun pursuing a film career , playing an extra in Herbert Wilcox 's 1954 musical Lilacs in the Spring alongside Anna Neagle . Although Connery had secured several roles as extras , he was struggling to make ends meet , and was forced to accept a part-time job as a babysitter for journalist Peter Noble and his actress wife Mary , which earned him 10 shillings a night . He met Hollywood actress Shelley Winters one night at Noble 's house who described Connery as `` one of the tallest and most charming and masculine Scotsmen '' she 'd ever seen , and later spent many evenings with the Connery brothers drinking beer . Around this time Connery was residing at TV presenter Llew Gardner 's house . Henderson landed Connery a role in a £6 a week Q Theatre production of Agatha Christie 's Witness for the Prosecution , during which he met and became friends with fellow-Scot Ian Bannen . This role was followed by Point of Departure and A Witch in Time at Kew , a role as Pentheus opposite Yvonne Mitchell in The Bacchae at the Oxford Playhouse , and a role opposite Jill Bennett in Eugene O'Neill 's production of Anna Christie . During his time at the Oxford Theatre , Connery won a brief part as a boxer in the TV series The Square Ring , before being spotted by Canadian director Alvin Rakoff who gave him multiple roles in The Condemned , shot on location in Dover in Kent . In 1956 , Connery appeared in the theatrical production of Epitaph , and played a minor role as a hoodlum in the `` Ladies of the Manor '' episode of the Dixon of Dock Green . This was followed by small television parts in Sailor of Fortune and The Jack Benny Program . In the spring of 1957 , Connery hired agent Richard Hatton who got him a role as Spike , a minor gangster with a speech impediment in Montgomery Tully 's No Road Back alongside Skip Homeier , Paul Carpenter , Patricia Dainton and Norman Wooland . In April 1957 , Rakoff , after being disappointed by Jack Palance , decided to give the young actor his first chance in a leading role and cast Connery as Mountain McLintock in BBC TV 's outstanding production of Requiem For a Heavyweight which also starred Warren Mitchell and Jacqueline Hill . He then played a rogue lorry driver Johnny Yates in Cy Endfield 's Hell Drivers ( 1957 ) alongside Stanley Baker , Herbert Lom , Peggy Cummins and Patrick McGoohan . Later in 1957 Connery appeared in Terence Young 's poorly received MGM action picture Action of the Tiger opposite Van Johnson , Martine Carol , Herbert Lom and Gustavo Rojo ; the film was shot on location in southern Spain . He also had a minor role in Gerald Thomas 's thriller Time Lock ( 1957 ) as a welder , appearing alongside Robert Beatty , Lee Patterson , Betty McDowall and Vincent Winter , which commenced filming on 1 December 1956 at Beaconsfield Studios . In 1958 , he had a major role in the melodrama Another Time , Another Place ( 1958 ) as a British reporter named Mark Trevor , caught in a love affair opposite Lana Turner and Barry Sullivan . During filming , star Lana Turner 's possessive gangster boyfriend , Johnny Stompanato , who was visiting from Los Angeles , believed she was having an affair with Connery . He stormed onto the set and pointed a gun at Connery , only to have Connery disarm him and knock him flat on his back . Stompanato was banned from the set . Connery later recounted that he had to lie low for a while after receiving threats from men linked to Stompanato 's boss , Mickey Cohen . In 1959 , Connery landed a leading role in Robert Stevenson 's Walt Disney Productions film Darby O'Gill and the Little People ( 1959 ) alongside Albert Sharpe , Janet Munro , and Jimmy O'Dea . The film is a tale about a wily Irishman and his battle of wits with leprechauns . Upon the film 's initial release , A. H. Weiler of the New York Times praised the cast ( save Connery whom he described as `` merely tall , dark , and handsome '' ) and thought the film an `` overpoweringly charming concoction of standard Gaelic tall stories , fantasy and romance . `` . In his book The Disney Films , film critic and historian Leonard Maltin stated that , `` Darby O'Gill and the Little People is not only one of Disney 's best films , but is certainly one of the best fantasies ever put on film . '' He also had a prominent television role in Rudolph Cartier 's 1961 productions of Adventure Story and Anna Karenina for BBC Television , in the latter of which he co-starred with Claire Bloom . James Bond : 1962–71 , 1983 Connery 's breakthrough came in the role of British secret agent James Bond . He was reluctant to commit to a film series , but understood that if the films succeeded , his career would greatly benefit . He played 007 in the first five Bond films : Dr. No ( 1962 ) , From Russia with Love ( 1963 ) , Goldfinger ( 1964 ) , Thunderball ( 1965 ) , and You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) – then appeared again as Bond in Diamonds Are Forever ( 1971 ) and Never Say Never Again ( 1983 ) . All seven films were commercially successful . James Bond , as portrayed by Connery , was selected as the third-greatest hero in cinema history by the American Film Institute . Connery 's selection for the role of James Bond owed a lot to Dana Broccoli , wife of producer `` Cubby '' Broccoli , who is reputed to have been instrumental in persuading her husband that Sean Connery was the right man . James Bond 's creator , Ian Fleming , originally doubted Connery 's casting , saying , `` He 's not what I envisioned of James Bond looks '' , and `` I 'm looking for Commander Bond and not an overgrown stunt-man , '' adding that Connery ( muscular , 6 ' 2 '' , and a Scot ) was unrefined . Fleming 's girlfriend told him that Connery had the requisite sexual charisma , and Fleming changed his mind after the successful Dr. No première . He was so impressed , he created a half-Scottish , half-Swiss heritage for Bond in the later novels . Connery 's portrayal of Bond owes much to stylistic tutelage from director Terence Young , polishing the actor while using his physical grace and presence for the action . Lois Maxwell , who played Miss Moneypenny , related that , `` Terence took Sean under his wing . He took him to dinner , showed him how to walk , how to talk , even how to eat . '' The tutoring was successful ; Connery received thousands of fan letters a week , and the actor became one of the great male sex symbols of film . During the filming of Thunderball in 1965 , Connery 's life was in danger in the sequence with the sharks in Emilio Largo 's pool . He had been concerned about this threat when he read the script . Connery insisted that Ken Adam build a special Plexiglas partition inside the pool , but , despite this , it was not a fixed structure and one of the sharks managed to pass through it . He had to abandon the pool immediately . Connery was forced to wear a toupee during each of the Bond movies because he had started balding at the age of 21 . This did not prevent Connery from being cast in roles , although it became more noticeable in his later years . In 2005 , From Russia with Love was adapted by Electronic Arts into a video game , titled James Bond 007 : From Russia with Love , which featured all-new voice work by Connery as well as his likeness , and those of several of the film 's supporting cast . Beyond Bond Although Bond had made him a star , Connery eventually tired of the role and the pressure the franchise put on him , saying `` [ I am ] fed up to here with the whole Bond bit '' and `` I have always hated that damned James Bond . I 'd like to kill him '' . Michael Caine said of the situation , `` If you were his friend in these early days you did n't raise the subject of Bond . He was , and is , a much better actor than just playing James Bond , but he became synonymous with Bond . He 'd be walking down the street and people would say , `` Look , there 's James Bond . '' That was particularly upsetting to him . '' While making the Bond films , Connery also starred in other acclaimed films such as Alfred Hitchcock 's Marnie ( 1964 ) and The Hill ( 1965 ) . Apart from The Man Who Would Be King and The Wind and the Lion , both released in 1975 , most of Connery 's successes in the next decade were as part of ensemble casts in films such as Murder on the Orient Express ( 1974 ) with Vanessa Redgrave and John Gielgud and A Bridge Too Far ( 1977 ) co-starring Dirk Bogarde and Laurence Olivier . Connery shared a Henrietta Award with Charles Bronson for `` World Film Favorite – Male '' in 1972 . In 1981 , Connery appeared in the film Time Bandits as Agamemnon . The casting choice derives from a joke Michael Palin included in the script , in which he describes the character removing his mask as being `` Sean Connery — or someone of equal but cheaper stature '' . When shown the script , Connery was happy to play the supporting role . In 1982 , Connery narrated G'olé ! , the official film of the 1982 FIFA World Cup . After his experience with Never Say Never Again in 1983 and the following court case , Connery became unhappy with the major studios and for two years did not make any films . Following the successful European production The Name of the Rose ( 1986 ) , for which he won a BAFTA award , Connery 's interest in more commercial material was revived . That same year , a supporting role in Highlander showcased his ability to play older mentors to younger leads , which would become a recurring role in many of his later films . The following year , his acclaimed performance as a hard-nosed Irish-American cop in The Untouchables ( 1987 ) earned him the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , his sole nomination throughout his career . Fellow nominees included Morgan Freeman and Denzel Washington , both of whom would go on to win the award . His subsequent box-office hits included Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade ( 1989 ) , in which he played Henry Jones , Sr. , the title character 's father , The Hunt for Red October ( 1990 ) ( where he was reportedly called in at two weeks ' notice ) , The Russia House ( 1990 ) , The Rock ( 1996 ) , and Entrapment ( 1999 ) . In 1996 , he voiced the role of Draco the dragon in the film Dragonheart . In 1998 , Connery received a BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award . Connery 's later films included several box office and critical disappointments such as First Knight ( 1995 ) , Just Cause ( 1995 ) , The Avengers ( 1998 ) , and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen ( 2003 ) , but he also received positive reviews , including his performance in Finding Forrester ( 2000 ) . He also received a Crystal Globe for outstanding artistic contribution to world cinema . Connery stated in interviews that he was offered a role in The Lord of the Rings series , declining it due to `` not understanding the script . '' CNN reported that the actor was offered up to 15 % of the worldwide box office receipts to play Gandalf , which had he accepted , could have earned him as much as $ 400 million for the trilogy . Connery 's disillusionment with the `` idiots now making films in Hollywood '' was cited as a reason for his eventual decision to retire from film-making . Retirement When Connery received the American Film Institute 's Lifetime Achievement Award on 8 June 2006 , he confirmed his retirement from acting . On 7 June 2007 , he denied rumours that he would appear in the fourth Indiana Jones film , stating that `` retirement is just too much damned fun '' . Connery returned to voice acting , playing the title character in the animated short Sir Billi the Vet , and in 2005 he recorded voiceovers for a new video game version of his Bond film From Russia with Love . In an interview on the game disc , Connery stated that he was very happy that the producers of the game ( EA Games ) had approached him to voice Bond and that he hoped to do another one in the near future . In 2010 , he reprised his role in an expanded 80-minute version of Sir Billi , serving also as executive producer . In 2010 , a bronze bust sculpture of Connery was placed in the capital city of Estonia . In the film Transformers : Dark of the Moon , the character Sentinel Prime 's features were mostly based on Connery . When Leonard Nimoy was to voice the role , however , the effects were altered to incorporate Nimoy 's acting as well . Director Sam Mendes confirmed that Connery was considered for the role of Kincaide ( played by Albert Finney ) in Skyfall , but stated the idea was shelved as being distracting to the film . Personal life During the production of South Pacific in the mid-1950s , Connery dated a `` dark-haired beauty with a ballerina 's figure '' , Carol Sopel , but was warned off by her Jewish family . He then dated Julie Hamilton , a blonde woman , daughter of documentary filmmaker and feminist Jill Craigie . Given Connery 's rugged appearance and rough charm Hamilton initially thought he was a most appalling person and was not attracted to him until she saw him in a kilt , declaring him to be the most beautiful thing she 'd ever seen in her life . He also shared a mutual attraction with black jazz singer Maxine Daniels , whom he met at the Empire Theatre . He made a pass at her , but she informed him that she was already happily married with a baby daughter . Connery was married to actress Diane Cilento from 1962 to 1973 . They had a son , actor Jason Connery . Connery has been married to Moroccan-French painter Micheline Roquebrune ( born 1929 ) since 1975 . A keen golfer , Connery owned the Domaine de Terre Blanche in the South of France for twenty years ( from 1979 ) where he planned to build his dream golf course on the 266 acre of land , but the dream was not realised until he sold it to German billionaire Dietmar Hopp in 1999 . He has been awarded the rank of Shodan ( 1st dan ) in Kyokushin karate . Connery was knighted by Elizabeth II in Edinburgh in July 2000 . He had been nominated for a knighthood in 1997 and 1998 , but these nominations were vetoed by Donald Dewar due to Connery 's political views . Sean Connery has a villa in Kranidi , Greece . His neighbour is King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands , with whom he shares a helicopter platform . Michael Caine ( who co-starred with Connery in The Man Who Would Be King ( 1975 ) which saw the double act receive critical acclaim ) is among Connery 's closest friends . Scottish National Party Connery is a member of the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) , a centre-left political party campaigning for Scottish independence from the United Kingdom , and has supported the party financially and through personal appearances . His funding of the SNP ceased in 2001 , when the UK Parliament passed legislation that prohibited overseas funding of political activities in the UK . In response to accusations that he is a tax exile , Connery released documents in 2003 showing that he had paid £3.7 million in UK taxes between 1997/98 and 2002/03 . In 2010 he made an appearance at the Edinburgh Film Festival . Filmography

sfq_5348--Sean_Connery.txt

Sean Connery's first Oscar was awarded for his role in which film?

Tutankhamun ( ; alternatively spelled with Tutenkh- , -amen , -amon ) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty ( ruled c. 1332–1323 BC in the conventional chronology ) , during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom or sometimes the New Empire Period . He has since his discovery been colloquially referred to as King Tut . His original name , Tutankhaten , means `` Living Image of Aten '' , while Tutankhamun means `` Living Image of Amun '' . In hieroglyphs , the name Tutankhamun was typically written Amen-tut-ankh , because of a scribal custom that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase to show appropriate reverence . He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters , and likely the 18th dynasty king Rathotis who , according to Manetho , an ancient historian , had reigned for nine years—a figure that conforms with Flavius Josephus 's version of Manetho 's Epitome . The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter and George Herbert of Tutankhamun 's nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage . It sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt , for which Tutankhamun 's mask , now in the Egyptian Museum , remains the popular symbol . Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world . In February 2010 , the results of DNA tests confirmed that he was the son of Akhenaten ( mummy KV55 ) . His mother was Akhenaten 's sister and wife ( mummy KV35YL ) , whose name is unknown but whose remains are positively identified as `` The Younger Lady '' mummy found in KV35 . The `` mysterious '' deaths of a few of those who excavated Tutankhamun 's tomb has been popularly attributed to the curse of the pharaohs . Life Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten ( formerly Amenhotep IV ) and one of Akhenaten 's sisters , or possibly one of his cousins . As a prince , he was known as Tutankhaten . He ascended to the throne in 1333 BC , at the age of nine or ten , taking the throne name Nebkheperure . His wet nurse was a woman called Maia , known from her tomb at Saqqara . His teacher was most likely Sennedjem . When he became king , he married his half-sister , Ankhesenpaaten , who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun . They had two daughters , both stillborn . Computed tomography studies released in 2011 revealed that one daughter died at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at 9 months of pregnancy . No evidence was found in either mummy of congenital anomalies or an apparent cause of death . Reign Given his age , the king probably had very powerful advisers , presumably including General Horemheb ( Grand Vizier Ay 's possible son in law and successor ) and Grand Vizier Ay ( who succeeded Tutankhamun ) . Horemheb records that the king appointed him `` lord of the land '' as hereditary prince to maintain law . He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared . In his third regnal year , under the influence of his advisors , Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father 's reign . He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy . The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood . The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten abandoned . This is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun , `` Living image of Amun '' , reinforcing the restoration of Amun . As part of his restoration , the king initiated building projects , in particular at Karnak in Thebes , where he dedicated a temple to Amun . Many monuments were erected , and an inscription on his tomb door declares the king had `` spent his life in fashioning the images of the gods '' . The traditional festivals were now celebrated again , including those related to the Apis Bull , Horemakhet , and Opet . His restoration stela says : The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten . Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected , and Tutankhamun sought to restore them , in particular with the Mitanni . Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb . Despite his efforts for improved relations , battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes . His tomb contained body armor and folding stools appropriate for military campaigns . However , given his youth and physical disabilities , which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk ( he died c. age 19 ) , historians speculate that he did not personally take part in these battles . Health and appearance Tutankhamun was slight of build , and was roughly 180 cm tall . He had large front incisors and an overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged . Between September 2007 and October 2009 , various mummies were subjected to detailed anthropological , radiological , and genetic studies as part of the King Tutankhamun Family Project . The research showed that Tutankhamun also had `` a slightly cleft palate '' and possibly a mild case of scoliosis , a medical condition in which the spine deviates to the side from the normal position . Examination of Tutankhamun 's body has also revealed deformations in his left foot , caused by necrosis of bone tissue . The affliction may have forced Tutankhamun to walk with the use of a cane , many of which were found in his tomb . In DNA tests of Tutankhamun 's mummy , scientists found DNA from the mosquito-borne parasites that cause malaria . This is currently the oldest known genetic proof of the disease . More than one strain of the malaria parasite was found , indicating that Tutankhamun contracted multiple malarial infections . According to National Geographic , `` The malaria would have weakened Tutankhamun 's immune system and interfered with the healing of his foot . These factors , combined with the fracture in his left thighbone , which scientists had discovered in 2005 , may have ultimately been what killed the young king . '' Genealogy In 2008 , a team began DNA research on Tutankhamun and the mummified remains of other members of his family . The results from the DNA samples finally put to rest questions about Tutankhamun 's lineage , proving that his father was Akhenaten , but that his mother was not one of Akhenaten 's known wives . His mother was one of his father 's five sisters , although it is not known which one . The team was able to establish with a probability of better than 99.99 percent that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55 , who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun . The young king 's mother was found through the DNA testing of a mummy designated as 'The Younger Lady ' ( KV35YL ) , which was found lying beside Queen Tiye in the alcove of KV35 . Her DNA proved that , like his father , she was a child of Amenhotep III and Tiye ; thus , Tutankhamun 's parents were brother and sister . Queen Tiye held much political influence at court and acted as an adviser to her son after the death of her husband . Some geneticists dispute these findings , however , and `` complain that the team used inappropriate analysis techniques . '' While the data are still incomplete , the study suggests that one of the mummified fetuses found in Tutankhamun 's tomb is the daughter of Tutankhamun himself , and the other fetus is probably his child as well . So far , only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained . One of them , KV21A , may well be the infants ' mother , and , thus , Tutankhamun 's wife , Ankhesenamun . It is known from history that she was the daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti , and thus likely to be her husband 's half-sister . One consequence of inbreeding can be children whose genetic defects do not allow them to be brought to term . A further autopsy and genetic evidence in 2014 re-confirmed the 2010 findings that Tutankhamun was the product of a brother-sister relationship . Death There are no surviving records of Tutankhamun 's final days . What caused Tutankhamun 's death has been the subject of considerable debate . Major studies have been conducted in an effort to establish the cause of death . There is some evidence , advanced by Harvard microbiologist Ralph Mitchell , that his burial may have been hurried . Mitchell reported that dark brown splotches on the decorated walls of Tutankhamun 's burial chamber suggested that he had been entombed even before the paint had a chance to dry . Although there is some speculation that Tutankhamun was assassinated , the consensus is that his death was accidental . A CT scan taken in 2005 showed that he had suffered a compound left leg fracture shortly before his death , and that the leg had become infected . DNA analysis conducted in 2010 showed the presence of malaria in his system , leading to the belief that malaria and Köhler disease II combined led to his death . On 14 September 2012 , ABC News presented a further theory about Tutankhamun 's death , developed by lecturer and surgeon Dr. Hutan Ashrafian , who believed that temporal lobe epilepsy caused a fatal fall which also broke Tutankhamun 's leg . In June 2010 , German scientists said they believed there was evidence that he had died of sickle cell disease . Other experts , however , rejected the hypothesis of homozygous sickle cell disease based on survival beyond the age of 5 and the location of the osteonecrosis , which is characteristic of Freiberg-Kohler syndrome rather than sickle-cell disease . Research conducted in 2005 by archaeologists , radiologists , and geneticists , who performed CT scans on the mummy , found that he was not killed by a blow to the head , as previously thought . New CT images discovered congenital flaws , which are more common among the children of incest . Siblings are more likely to pass on twin copies of harmful genes , which is why children of incest more commonly manifest genetic defects . It is suspected he also had a partially cleft palate , another congenital defect . Various other diseases , invoked as possible explanations to his early demise , included Marfan syndrome , Wilson-Turner X-linked mental retardation syndrome , Fröhlich syndrome ( adiposogenital dystrophy ) , Klinefelter syndrome , androgen insensitivity syndrome , aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome , Antley–Bixler syndrome or one of its variants , and temporal lobe epilepsy . A research team , consisting of Egyptian scientists Yehia Gad and Somaia Ismail from the National Research Centre in Cairo , conducted further CT scans under the direction of Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem of the Faculty of Medicine at Cairo University . Three international experts served as consultants : Carsten Pusch of the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen , Germany ; Albert Zink of the EURAC-Institute for Mummies and the Iceman in Bolzano , Italy ; and Paul Gostner of the Central Hospital Bolzano . STR analysis based DNA fingerprinting analysis combined with the other techniques have rejected the hypothesis of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses ( e.g. , Antley-Bixler syndrome ) or Marfan syndrome , but an accumulation of malformations in Tutankhamun 's family was evident . Several pathologies including Köhler disease II were diagnosed in Tutankhamun ; none alone would have caused death . Genetic testing for STEVOR , AMA1 , or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies , including Tutankhamun 's . However , their exact contribution to the causality of his death still is highly debated . As stated above , the team discovered DNA from several strains of a parasite proving he was infected with the most severe strain of malaria several times in his short life . Malaria can trigger circulatory shock or cause a fatal immune response in the body , either of which can lead to death . If Tutankhamun did suffer from a bone disease which was crippling , it may not have been fatal . `` Perhaps he struggled against other [ congenital flaws ] until a severe bout of malaria or a leg broken in an accident added one strain too many to a body that could no longer carry the load '' , wrote Zahi Hawass , archeologist and head of Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity involved in the research . A review of the medical findings to date found that he suffered from mild kyphoscoliosis , pes planus , hypophalangism of the right foot , bone necrosis of second and third metatarsal bones of the left foot , malaria , and a complex fracture of the right knee shortly before death . In late 2013 , Egyptologist Dr. Chris Naunton and scientists from the Cranfield Institute performed a `` virtual autopsy '' of Tutankhamun , revealing a pattern of injuries down one side of his body . Car-crash investigators then created computer simulations of chariot accidents . Naunton concluded that Tutankhamun was killed in a chariot crash : a chariot smashed into him while he was on his knees , shattering his ribs and pelvis . Naunton also referenced Howard Carter 's records of the body having been burnt . Working with anthropologist Dr. Robert Connolly and forensic archaeologist Dr. Matthew Ponting , Naunton produced evidence that Tutankhamun 's body was burnt while sealed inside his coffin . Embalming oils combined with oxygen and linen had caused a chemical reaction , creating temperatures of more than . Naunton said , `` The charring and possibility that a botched mummification led to the body spontaneously combusting shortly after burial was entirely unexpected . '' A further investigation , in 2014 , revealed that it was unlikely he had been killed in a chariot accident . Scans found that all but one of his bone fractures , including those to his skull , had been inflicted after his death . The scans also showed that he had a partially clubbed foot and would have been unable to stand unaided , thus making it unlikely he ever rode in a chariot ; this was supported by the presence of many walking sticks among the contents of his tomb . Instead , it is believed that genetic defects arising from his parents being siblings , complications from a broken leg and his suffering from malaria , together caused his death . Aftermath With the death of Tutankhamun and the two stillborn children buried with him , the Thutmoside family line came to an end . The Amarna letters indicate that Tutankhamun 's wife , recently widowed , wrote to the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I , asking if she could marry one of his sons . The letters do not say how Tutankhamun died . In the message , Ankhesenamun says that she was very afraid , but would not take one of her own people as husband . However , the son was killed before reaching his new wife . Shortly afterward , Ay married Tutankhamun 's widow and became Pharaoh as a war was fought between the two countries , and Egypt was left defeated . The fate of Ankhesenamun is not known , but she disappears from record and Ay 's second wife Tey became Great Royal Wife . After Ay 's death , Horemheb usurped the throne and instigated a campaign of damnatio memoriae against him . Tutankhamun 's father Akhenaten , stepmother Nefertiti , his wife Ankhesenamun , half sisters and other family members were also included . Not even Tutankhamun was spared . His images and cartouches were also erased . Horemheb himself was left childless and willed the throne to Paramessu , who founded the Ramesside family line of pharaohs . Significance Tutankhamun was nine years old when he became Pharaoh , son of god Ra , and reigned for approximately ten years . In historical terms , Tutankhamun 's significance stems from the fact that his reign was close to the apogee of Egypt as a world power and from his rejection of the radical religious innovations introduced by his predecessor and father , Akhenaten . Secondly , his tomb in the Valley of the Kings was discovered by Carter almost completely intact—the most complete ancient Egyptian royal tomb ever found . As Tutankhamun began his reign at such an early age , his vizier and eventual successor , Ay , was probably making most of the important political decisions during Tutankhamun 's reign . Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary cults and associated temples . Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his lifetime . A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin . Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia . The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king , indicative of the universality of his cult . Tomb Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was unusually small considering his status . His death may have occurred unexpectedly , before the completion of a grander royal tomb , so that his mummy was buried in a tomb intended for someone else . This would preserve the observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial . King Tutankhamun 's mummy still rests in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings . On 4 November 2007 , 85 years to the day after Carter 's discovery , the 19-year-old pharaoh went on display in his underground tomb at Luxor , when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box . The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb . His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity , but based on the items taken ( including perishable oils and perfumes ) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions , it seems clear that these robberies took place within several months at most of the initial burial . Eventually , the location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by stone chips from subsequent tombs , either dumped there or washed there by floods . In the years that followed , some huts for workers were built over the tomb entrance , clearly without anyone 's knowing what lay beneath . When at the end of the 20th Dynasty the Valley of the Kings burial sites were systematically dismantled , Tutankhamun 's tomb was overlooked , presumably because knowledge of it had been lost , and his name may have been forgotten . For many years , rumors of a `` Curse of the Pharaohs '' ( probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery ) persisted , emphasizing the early death of some of those who had entered the tomb . A study showed that of the 58 people who were present when the tomb and sarcophagus were opened , only eight died within a dozen years . All the others were still alive , including Howard Carter , who died of lymphoma in 1939 at the age of 64 . The last survivor , American archaeologist J.O . Kinnaman , died in 1961 , a full 39 years after the event . Meteorite dagger In June 2016 , a report emerged that attributed the dagger buried with Pharaoh Tutankhamun to an iron meteorite , with similar proportions of metals ( iron , nickel and cobalt ) to a meteorite discovered near and named after Kharga Oasis . The dagger 's metal was presumably from the same meteor shower . `` Early View ( Online Version of Record published before inclusion in a printed issue ) '' . Reuse of Neferneferuaten 's funerary objects for Tutankhamun 's burial According to Nicholas Reeves , almost 80 % of Tutankhamun 's burial equipment originated from the female pharaoh Neferneferuaten 's funerary goods including his famous gold mask , middle coffin , canopic coffinettes , several of the gilded shrine panels , the shabti-figures , the boxes and chests , the royal jewelry , etc . In 2015 , Reeves published evidence showing that an earlier cartouche on Tutankhamun 's famous gold mask read `` Ankheperure mery-Neferkheperure '' or ( Ankheperure beloved of Akhenaten ) ; therefore , the mask was originally made for Nefertiti , Akhenaten 's chief queen , who used the royal name Ankheperure when she most likely assumed the throne after her husband 's death . This development implies that either Neferneferuaten ( likely Nefertiti if she assumed the throne after Akhenaten 's death ) was deposed in a struggle for power , possibly deprived of a royal burial—and buried as a Queen—or that she was buried with a different set of king 's funerary equipment—possibly Akhenaten 's own funerary equipment by Tutankhamun 's officials since Tutankhamun succeeded her as king . Neferneferuaten was likely succeeded by Tutankhamun based on the presence of her funerary goods in his tomb . Legacy If Tutankhamun is the world 's best known pharaoh , it is largely because his tomb is among the best preserved , and his image and associated artifacts the most-exhibited . As Jon Manchip White writes , in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter 's The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun , `` The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt 's Pharoahs has become in death the most renowned . '' 5,398 items were found in the tomb , including a solid gold coffin , face mask , thrones , archery bows , a lotus chalice , food , wine , sandals , and fresh linen underwear . Howard Carter took 10 years to catalog the items . Recent analysis suggests a dagger recovered from the tomb had an iron blade made from a meteorite ; study of artifacts of the time including other artifacts from Tutankhamun 's tomb could provide valuable insights into metalworking technologies round the Mediterranean at the time . The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the 1920s . Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern neologism , `` King Tut '' . Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture , including Tin Pan Alley songs ; the most popular of the latter was `` Old King Tut '' by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923 , which was recorded by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare and Sophie Tucker . `` King Tut '' became the name of products , businesses , and even the pet dog of U.S. President Herbert Hoover . Relics from Tutankhamun 's tomb are among the most traveled artifacts in the world . They have been to many countries , but probably the best-known exhibition tour was The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour , which ran from 1972 to 1979 . This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972 . More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition , some queuing for up to eight hours . It was the most popular exhibition in the Museum 's history . The exhibition moved on to many other countries , including the USA , USSR , Japan , France , Canada , and West Germany . The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition , which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April 1979 . More than eight million attended . In 2004 , the tour of Tutankhamun funerary objects entitled Tutankhamen : The Golden Hereafter , consisting of fifty artifacts from Tutankhamun 's tomb and seventy funerary goods from other 18th Dynasty tombs , began in Basel , Switzerland and went on to Bonn , Germany , on the second leg of the tour . This European tour was organised by the Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany , the Supreme Council of Antiquities ( SCA ) , and the Egyptian Museum in cooperation with the Antikenmuseum Basel and Sammlung Ludwig . Deutsche Telekom sponsored the Bonn exhibition . In 2005 , Egypt 's Supreme Council of Antiquities , in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society , launched a tour of Tutankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects , this time called Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs . It featured the same exhibits as Tutankhamen : The Golden Hereafter in a slightly different format . It was expected to draw more than three million people . The exhibition started in Los Angeles , then moved to Fort Lauderdale , Florida , Chicago and Philadelphia . The exhibition then moved to London before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008 . An encore of the exhibition in the United States ran at the Dallas Museum of Art from October 2008 to May 2009 . The tour continued to other U.S. cities . After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco , followed by the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City . In 2011 , the exhibition visited Australia for the first time , opening at the Melbourne Museum in April for its only Australian stop before Egypt 's treasures returned to Cairo in December 2011 . The exhibition included 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun 's immediate predecessors in the Eighteenth dynasty , such as Hatshepsut , whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun 's burial artifacts , as well as 50 from Tutankhamun 's tomb . The exhibition does not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972–1979 tour , as the Egyptian government has determined that the mask is too fragile to withstand travel and will never again leave the country . A separate exhibition called Tutankhamun and the World of the Pharaohs began at the Ethnological Museum in Vienna from 9 March to 28 September 2008 , showing a further 140 treasures . Renamed Tutankhamun : The Golden King and the Great Pharaohs , the exhibition toured the US and Canada from November 2008 to 6 January 2013 . In popular culture Film * We Want Our Mummy ( 1939 ) , a film in which The Three Stooges explore the tomb of the midget King Rutentuten ( pronounced `` rootin'-tootin ' '' ) and his Queen , Hotsy Totsy . * Mummy 's Dummies ( 1948 ) , a film in which The Three Stooges are crooked used-chariot salesmen who ultimately assist a different King Rootentootin ( Vernon Dent ) with a toothache . * La Reine Soleil ( 2007 ) , an animated film by Philippe Leclerc which features Akhenaten , Tutankhaten ( later Tutankhamun ) , Akhesa ( Ankhesenepaten , later Ankhesenamun ) , Nefertiti , and Horemheb in a complex struggle pitting the priests of Amun against Akhenaten 's intolerant monotheism . * For Transformers ( 2007 ) , the Decepticon character Frenzy repeats the name , `` Tutankhamun . '' Games * The video game Sphinx and the Cursed Mummy ( 2003 ) features a fictional representation of Prince Tutankhamun , who is the victim of an unnamed magical ritual which results in almost instantaneous mummification and extraction of what appears to be his `` life force '' . In the instruction manual , the Mummy is described as young , inexperienced and naive . * The arcade game Tutankham ( 1981 ) revolves around King Tutankhamun . Literature * The novel Tutankhamun ( 2008 ) by novelist Nick Drake [ not the musician ] takes place during the reign of Tutankhamun and gives a possible explanation for his injury and death ( and the aftermath ) set amid a murder mystery . * The novel The Lost Queen of Egypt ( 1937 ) by novelist Lucile Morrison is about Ankhsenpaaten / Ankhesenamun , the wife of Tutankhamun . He is a major character , coming in about midway in the

qz_6127--Tutankhamun.txt

Who is credited with the discovery of the tomb of King Tutankhamen in 1922?

Penal labour is a generic term for various kinds of unfree labour which prisoners are required to perform , typically manual labour . The work may be light or hard , depending on the context . Forms of sentence involving penal labour have included involuntary servitude , penal servitude and imprisonment with hard labour . The term may refer to several related scenarios : labour as a form of punishment , the prison system used as a means to secure labour , and labour as providing occupation for convicts . These scenarios can be applied to those imprisoned for political , religious , war , or other reasons as well as to criminal convicts . Large-scale implementations of penal labour include labour camps , prison farms , penal colonies , penal military units , penal transportation , or aboard prison ships . Punitive versus productive labour Punitive labour , also known as convict labour , prison labour , or hard labour , is a form of forced labour used in both past and present as an additional form of punishment beyond imprisonment alone . Punitive labour encompasses two types : productive labour , such as industrial work ; and intrinsically pointless tasks used as primitive occupational therapy , punishment and/or physical torment . Sometimes authorities turn prison labour into an industry , as on a prison farm or in a prison workshop . In such cases , the pursuit of income from their productive labour may even overtake the preoccupation with punishment and/or reeducation as such of the prisoners , who are then at risk of being exploited as slave-like cheap labour ( profit may be minor after expenses , e.g . on security ) . On the other hand , for example in Victorian prisons , inmates commonly were made to work the treadmill : in some cases , this was productive labour to grind grain ; in others , it served no purpose . Similar punishments included turning the crank machine or carrying cannonballs . Semi-punitive labour also included oakum-picking : teasing apart old tarry rope to make caulking material for sailing vessels . British Empire Imprisonment with hard labour was first introduced into English law with the Criminal Law Act 1776 ( 6 Geo III c 43 ) , also known as the `` Hulks Act '' , which authorized prisoners being put to work on improving the navigation of the River Thames in lieu of transportation to the North American colonies , which had become impossible due to the American Revolutionary War . The Penal Servitude Act 1853 ( 16 & 17 Vict c 99 ) substituted penal servitude for transportation to a distant British colony , except in cases where a person could be sentenced to transportation for life or for a term not less than fourteen years . Section 2 of the Penal Servitude Act 1857 ( 20 & 21 Vict c 3 ) abolished the sentence of transportation in all cases and provided that in all cases a person who would otherwise have been liable to transportation would be liable to penal servitude instead . Section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 makes provision for enactments which authorise a sentence of penal servitude but do not specify a maximum duration . It must now be read subject to section 1 ( 1 ) of the Criminal Justice Act 1948 . Sentences of penal servitude were served in convict prisons and were controlled by the Home Office and the Prison Commissioners . After sentencing , convicts would be classified according to the seriousness of the offence of which they were convicted and their criminal record . First time offenders would be classified in the Star class ; persons not suitable for the Star class , but without serious convictions would be classified in the intermediate class . Habitual offenders would be classified in the Recidivist class . Care was taken to ensure that convicts in one class did not mix with convicts in another . Penal servitude included hard labour as a standard feature . Although it was prescribed for severe crimes ( e.g . rape , attempted murder , wounding with intent , by the Offences against the Person Act 1861 ) it was also widely applied in cases of minor crime , such as petty theft and vagrancy , as well as victimless behaviour deemed harmful to the fabric of society . Notable recipients of hard labour under British law include Oscar Wilde ( after his conviction for gross indecency ) and John William Gott ( a terminally ill trouser salesman convicted of blasphemy ) . Labour was sometimes useful . In Inveraray Jail from 1839 prisoners worked up to ten hours a day . Most male prisoners made herring nets or picked oakum ( Inveraray was a busy herring port ) ; those with skills were often employed where the skills could be used , such as shoemaking , tailoring or joinery . Female prisoners picked oakum , knitted stockings or sewed . Forms of labour for punishment included the treadmill , shot drill , and the crank machine . Treadmills for punishment were used in prisons in Britain from 1818 ; they often took the form of large paddle wheels some 20 feet in diameter with 24 steps around a six-foot cylinder . Prisoners had to work six or more hours a day , climbing the equivalent of 5,000 to 14,000 vertical feet . While the purpose was mainly punitive , the mills could have been used to grind grain , pump water , or operate a ventilation system . Shot drill involved stooping without bending the knees , lifting a heavy cannonball slowly to chest height , taking three steps to the right , replacing it on the ground , stepping back three paces , and repeating , moving cannonballs from one pile to another . The crank machine was a device which turned a crank by hand which in turn forced four large cups or ladles through sand inside a drum , doing nothing useful . Male prisoners had to turn the handle 14,400 times a day , as registered on a dial . The warder could make the task harder by tightening an adjusting screw , hence the slang term `` screw '' for prison warder . The British penal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868 provide a major historical example of convict labour , as described above : during that period , Australia received thousands of transported convict labourers , many of whom had received harsh sentences for minor misdemeanours in Britain or Ireland . As late as 1885 , 75 % of all prison inmates were involved in some sort of productive endeavour , mostly in private contract and leasing systems . By 1935 the portion of prisoners working had fallen to 44 % , and almost 90 % of those worked in state-run programmes rather than for private contractors . England and Wales Penal servitude was abolished for England and Wales by section 1 ( 1 ) of the Criminal Justice Act 1948 . Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act . Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 1 ( 2 ) of that Act . Northern Ireland Penal servitude was abolished for Northern Ireland by section 1 ( 1 ) of the Criminal Justice Act ( Northern Ireland ) 1953 . Every enactment which operated to empower a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case now operates so as to empower that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of that Act . Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 1 ( 2 ) of that Act . Scotland Penal Servitude was abolished for Scotland by [ http : //www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Geo6/12-13-14/94/section/16/enacted section 16 ( 1 ) ] of the Criminal Justice ( Scotland ) Act 1949 on 12 June 1950 . Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 16 ( 2 ) of that Act . Every enactment conferring power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be construed as conferring power to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before 12 June 1950 . But this does not empower any court , other than the High Court , to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding three years . See [ http : //www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1975/21/section/221 section 221 ] of the Criminal Procedure ( Scotland ) Act 1975 and [ http : //www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/46/section/307 section 307 ( 4 ) ] of the Criminal Procedure ( Scotland ) Act 1995 New Zealand The [ http : //www.nzlii.org/nz/legis/hist_act/cja19541954n50199/ Criminal Justice Act 1954 ] abolished the distinction between imprisonment with and without hard labour and replaced 'reformative detention ' with 'corrective training ' , which was later abolished on 30 June 2002 . France Prison inmates can work either for the prison ( directly , by performing tasks linked to prison operation , or for the Régie Industrielle des Établissements Pénitentiaires , which produces and sells merchandise ) or for a private company , in the framework of a prison/company agreement for leasing inmate labour . Work ceased being compulsory for sentenced inmates in France in 1987 . From the French Revolution of 1789 , the prison system has been governed by a new penal code . Some prisons became quasi-factories , in the nineteenth century , many discussions focused on the issue of competition between free labour and prison labour . Prison work was temporarily prohibited during the revolution of 1848 . Prison labour then specialised in the production of goods sold to government departments ( and directly to prisons , for example guards ' uniforms ) , or in small low-skilled manual labour ( mainly subcontracting to small local industries ) . China In pre-Maoist China , a system of labor camps for political prisoners operated by the Kuomintang forces of Chiang Kai-shek existed during the Chinese Civil War from 1938–1949 . Young activists and students accused of supporting Mao Zedong and his Communists were arrested and re-educated in the spirit of anti-communism at the Northwestern Youth Labor Camp.Mühlhahn , Klaus ( 2009 ) . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id YXC2mmpfHgEC Criminal Justice in China : A History ] . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press ISBN 978-0-674-03323-8. pp . 132-133 . After the Communists took power in 1949 and established the People 's Republic of China , laojiao ( Re-education through labor ) and laogai ( Reform through labor ) was ( and still is in some cases ) used as a way to punish political prisoners . They were intended not only for criminals , but also for those deemed to be counter-revolutionary ( political and/or religious prisoners ) . According to Al Jazeera special report on slavery , China has the largest penal labour system in the world today . Often these prisoners are used to produce products for export to the West . North Korea North Korean prison camps can be differentiated into internment camps for political prisoners ( Kwan-li-so in Korean ) and reeducation camps ( Kyo-hwa-so in Korean ) . According to human rights organizations , the prisoners face forced hard labor in all North Korean prison camps . The conditions are harsh and life-threatening and prisoners are subject to torture and inhumane treatment . Japan Most Japanese prisoners are required to engage in prison labour , often in manufacturing parts which are then sold cheaply to private Japanese companies . This practice has raised charges of unfair competition since the prisoners ' wages are far below market rate . The Netherlands ( Hard ) penal labour does not exist in the Netherlands , but a light variant ( Dutch : taakstraf ) is one of the four primary punishments that a committer of a crime can be sentenced to . The person who is sentenced to a taakstraf must perform some service to the community . The maximum punishment is 240 hours , according to article 22c , part 2 of Wetboek van Strafrecht . The labour must be done in his free time . Reclassering Nederland keeps track of those who were sentenced to taakstraffen . United States Federal Prison Industries ( UNICOR or FPI ) is a wholly owned United States government corporation created in 1934 that uses penal labor from the Federal Bureau of Prisons ( BOP ) to produce goods and services . FPI is restricted to selling its products and services to federal government agencies and has no access to the commercial market . The 13th Amendment of the American Constitution in 1865 explicitly allows penal labor as it states that `` neither slavery nor involuntary servitude , except as a punishment for a crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted , shall exist within the United States , or any place subject to their jurisdiction . '' Unconvicted detainees awaiting trial can not be forced to participate in forced rehabilitative labor programs in prison as it violates the Thirteenth Amendment . The `` convict lease '' system became popular throughout the South following the American Civil War and into the 20th century . Since the impoverished state governments could not afford penitentiaries , they leased out prisoners to work at private firms . Reformers abolished convict leasing in the 20th-century Progressive Era . At the same time , labor has been required at many prisons . In 1934 , federal prison officials concerned about growing unrest in prisons lobbied to create a work program . Private companies got involved again in 1979 , when Congress passed a law establishing the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program which allows employment opportunities for prisoners in some circumstances . Penal labor is sometimes used as a punishment in the U.S. military . Over the years , the courts have held that inmates may be required to work and are not protected by the constitutional prohibition against involuntary servitude . Correctional standards promulgated by the American Correctional Association provide that sentenced inmates , who are generally housed in maximum , medium , or minimum security prisons , be required to work and be paid for that work . Some states require , as with Arizona , all able-bodied inmates to work . Republic of Ireland Penal servitude was abolished for the Republic of Ireland by section 11 ( 1 ) of the Criminal Law Act , 1997 . Every enactment conferring a power on a court to pass a sentence of penal servitude in any case must be treated as an enactment empowering that court to pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding the maximum term of penal servitude for which a sentence could have been passed in that case immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997 . In the case of any enactment in force on 5 August 1891 ( the date on which section 1 of the Penal Servitude Act 1891 came into force ) whereby a court had , immediately before the commencement of the Criminal Law Act 1997 , power to pass a sentence of penal servitude , the maximum term of imprisonment may not exceed five years or any greater term authorised by the enactment . Imprisonment with hard labour was abolished by section 11 ( 3 ) of that Act . Soviet Union Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of political prisoners and other persecuted people in labour camps , especially in totalitarian regimes since the 20th century where millions of convicts were exploited and often killed by hard labour and bad living conditions . For much of the history of the Soviet Union and other Communist states , political opponents of these governments were often sentenced to forced labour camps . The Soviet Gulag camps were a continuation of the punitive labour system of Imperial Russia known as katorga , but on a larger scale . Between 1930 and 1960 , the Soviet regime created many Lager labour camps in Siberia and Central Asia . There were at least 476 separate camp complexes , each one comprising hundreds , even thousands of individual camps . It is estimated that there may have been 5-7 million people in these camps at any one time . In later years the camps also held victims of Joseph Stalin 's purges as well as World War II prisoners . It is possible that approximately 10 % of prisoners died each year . Out of the 91,000 Germans captured alive after the Battle of Stalingrad , only 6,000 survived the Gulag and returned home . Many of these prisoners , however , had died of illness contracted during the siege of Stalingrad and in the forced march into captivity . Probably the worst of the camp complexes were the three built north of the Arctic Circle at Kolyma , Norilsk and Vorkuta . Prisoners in Soviet labour camps were worked to death with a mix of extreme production quotas , brutality , hunger and the harsh elements . In all , more than 18 million people passed through the Gulag , with further millions being deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union . The fatality rate was as high as 80 % during the first months in many camps . Immediately after the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II , the NKVD massacred about 100,000 prisoners who awaited deportation either to NKVD prisons in Moscow or to the Gulag . Michael McFaul , in his New York Times article of 11 June 2003 , entitled 'Books of the Times ; Camps of Terror , Often Overlooked ' , has this to say about the state of contemporary dialogue on Soviet slavery : It should now be known to all serious scholars that the camps began under Lenin and not Stalin . It should be recognized by all that people were sent to the camps not because of what they did , but because of who they were . Some may be surprised to learn about the economic function that the camps were designed to perform . Under Stalin , the camps were simply a crueler but equally inefficient way to exploit labor in the cause of building socialism than the one practiced outside the camps in the Soviet Union . Yet , even this economic role of the camps has been exposed before . What is remarkable is that the facts about this monstrous system so well documented in Applebaum 's book are still so poorly known and even , by some , contested . For decades , academic historians have gravitated away from event-focused history and toward social history . Yet , the social history of the gulag somehow has escaped notice . Compared with the volumes and volumes written about the Holocaust , the literature on the gulag is thin . The article draws attention to Anne Applebaum 's Pulitzer Prize-winning text Gulag : A History ) Non-punitive prison labour In a number of penal systems , the inmates have the possibility of a job . This may serve several purposes . One goal is to give an inmate a meaningful way to occupy their prison time and a possibility of earning some money . It may also play an important role in resocialisation : inmates may acquire skills that would help them to find a job after release . It may also have an important penological function : reducing the monotony of prison life for the inmate , keeping inmates busy on productive activities , rather than , for example , potentially violent or antisocial activities , and helping to increase inmate fitness , and thus decrease health problems , rather than letting inmates succumb to a sedentary lifestyle . The classic occupation in 20th-century British prisons was sewing mailbags . This has diversified into areas such as engineering , furniture making , desktop publishing , repairing wheelchairs and producing traffic signs , but such opportunities are not widely available , and many prisoners who work perform routine prison maintenance tasks ( such as in the prison kitchen ) or obsolete unskilled assembly work ( such as in the prison laundry ) that is argued to be no preparation for work after release . Classic 20th-century American prisoner work involved making license plates ; the task is still being performed by inmates in certain areas . A significant amount of controversy has arisen with regard to the use of prison labour if the prison in question is privatized , a phenomenon present in a few areas of the United States , where goods produced through penal labour are regulated through the Ashurst-Sumners Act which criminalizes the interstate transport of such goods . The advent of automated production in the 20th and 21st century has reduced the availability of unskilled physical work for inmates . ONE3ONE Solutions , formerly the Prison Industries Unit in Britain , has proposed the development of in-house prison call centers .

jp_67--Penal_labour.txt

What writer was convicted of sodomy and sentenced to hard labor?

The West Wing is an American serial political drama television series created by Aaron Sorkin that was originally broadcast on NBC from September 22 , 1999 , to May 14 , 2006 . The series is set primarily in the West Wing of the White House , where the Oval Office and offices of presidential senior staff are located , during the fictitious Democratic administration of Josiah Bartlet ( played by Martin Sheen ) . The West Wing was produced by Warner Bros. Television . For the first four seasons , there were three executive producers : Aaron Sorkin ( lead writer of almost all of the first four seasons ) ; Thomas Schlamme ( primary director ) ; and John Wells . After Sorkin left the series , Wells assumed the role of head writer , with later executive producers being directors Alex Graves and Christopher Misiano ( seasons 6–7 ) , and writers Lawrence O'Donnell Jr. and Peter Noah ( season 7 ) . The series first aired on NBC in 1999 and has been broadcast by many networks in several other countries . The series ended its seven-year run on May 14 , 2006 . The West Wing received widespread critical acclaim from critics , political science professors , and former White House staffers . In total , The West Wing won three Golden Globe Awards and 26 Emmy Awards , including the award for Outstanding Drama Series , which it won four consecutive times from 2000 through 2003 . The show 's ratings waned in later years following the departure of series creator Sorkin after the fourth season ( Sorkin wrote or co-wrote 85 of the first 88 episodes ) , yet it remained popular among high-income viewers , a key demographic for the show and its advertisers , with around 16 million viewers . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked it # 7 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time and # 42 in its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time , while the Writers Guild of America ranked it # 10 in its 101 Best Written TV Series List . Cast and characters The West Wing employed a broad ensemble cast to portray the many positions involved in the daily work of the federal government . The President , the First Lady , and the President 's senior staff and advisers form the core cast . Numerous secondary characters , appearing intermittently , complement storylines that generally revolve around this core group . Main characters * Sam Seaborn ( Rob Lowe ) is the White House Deputy Communications Director , who later departs in order to run for Congress . He returns to the West Wing as Santos ' Deputy Chief of Staff at the series end ( regular : seasons 1–4 , guest star : season 7 ) . * Mandy Hampton ( Moira Kelly ) is Josh Lyman 's ex-girlfriend and a White House Media Consultant contracted by the Bartlet administration . She departs without explanation following the first season ( regular : season 1 ) . * Charlie Young ( Dulé Hill ) is originally the Personal Aide to the President , and later a Deputy Special Assistant to the Chief of Staff . He is in a relationship with Zoey Bartlet . At the series end he begins to study law at Georgetown ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * C. J. Cregg ( Allison Janney ) , the Press Secretary who succeeds Leo McGarry as Chief of Staff . She leaves the White House at the end of the Bartlet administration . Post-series , she marries Danny Concannon and has a child ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Toby Ziegler ( Richard Schiff ) , the Communications Director . He is fired from the Bartlet administration after leaking classified information to save the lives of astronauts , though he is later pardoned for his crimes . He has twin children with his ex-wife who is a congresswoman for Maryland ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Leo McGarry ( John Spencer ) , Bartlet 's close personal friend and the original Chief of Staff . Following a heart attack , he becomes Counselor to the President , and later the Democratic Candidate for Vice President . He dies before assuming office ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Josh Lyman ( Bradley Whitford ) , is the Deputy Chief of Staff to Leo McGarry and C.J . Cregg , who later leaves the White House to become the `` Santos for President '' campaign manager . When Santos is elected , Josh becomes White House Chief of Staff ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Josiah Bartlet ( Martin Sheen ) is the President of the United States . He suffers from multiple sclerosis , a fact he initially hides from the electorate . Jed 's presidency is plagued with issues , including an attempted assassination , and the murder of a foreign minister . He is succeeded by Santos ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Donna Moss ( Janel Moloney ) is the Senior Assistant to the Deputy Chief of Staff , who later acts as both the `` Russell for President '' campaign spokesperson , and the Santos campaign spokesperson . Upon Santos ' election , she becomes Chief of Staff to the First Lady ( regular : seasons 2–7 , recurring : season 1 ) . * Abbey Bartlet ( Stockard Channing ) is the First Lady , Jed 's wife , and a medical doctor . She is forced to rescind her license during the series , though later regains her privileges ( regular : seasons 3–7 , recurring : seasons 1–2 ) . * Will Bailey ( Joshua Malina ) is hired on a freelance basis by Toby Ziegler and later becomes Deputy Communications Director . He also holds the positions of Chief of Staff to the Vice President , Russell 's Campaign Manager , and Communications Director . After the series end he becomes a congressman for Oregon ( regular : seasons 4–7 ) . * Kate Harper ( Mary McCormack ) is a talented intelligence analyst and Nancy McNally 's newest Deputy National Security Advisor . Kate is also a veteran Commander in the United States Navy , and is stationed out of the West Wing ( regular : seasons 6–7 , recurring : season 5 ) . * Matt Santos ( Jimmy Smits ) is a Congressman from Texas who is convinced by Josh to run for President , eventually becoming the Democratic nominee and later the President of the United States . He is married with children , and selects Leo McGarry as his running mate ( regular : seasons 6–7 ) . * Arnold Vinick ( Alan Alda ) is a Senator from California who later becomes the Republican nominee for President . After losing the election to Santos , he momentarily fades into obscurity . He is later appointed Secretary of State , as President-elect Santos believes he is the only person for the job ( regular : seasons 6–7 ) . * Annabeth Schott ( Kristin Chenoweth ) is Bartlet 's Deputy Press Secretary , who later becomes a `` Santos for President '' campaigner and the assistant to the Vice Presidential Candidate . At the series end , she is appointed Press Secretary to Helen Santos , the First Lady ( regular : season 7 , recurring : season 6 ) . Background Each of the principal actors made approximately $ 75,000 an episode , with Sheen 's confirmed salary being $ 300,000 . Rob Lowe left the series in the fourth season reportedly due to not getting a salary increase . Disparities in cast salaries led to very public contract disputes , particularly by Janney , Schiff , Spencer , and Whitford . During contract negotiations in 2001 , the four were threatened with breach of contract suits by Warner Bros . However , by banding together , they were able to persuade the studio to more than double their salaries . Two years later , the four again demanded a doubling of their salaries , a few months after Warner Bros had signed new licensing deals with NBC and Bravo . John Spencer died of a heart attack on December 16 , 2005 , about a year after his character experienced a nearly fatal heart attack on the show . Martin Sheen gave a brief memorial message before `` Running Mates '' , the first new episode that aired after Spencer 's death . The loss of Spencer 's character was addressed beginning with the episode `` Election Day '' , which aired on April 2 , 2006 . In an interview on the season 1 DVD , Bradley Whitford said that he was originally cast as Sam , even though Aaron Sorkin had created the Josh character specifically for him . In the same interview , Janel Moloney stated she had originally auditioned for the role of C.J . and that Donna , the role for which she was eventually cast , was not meant to be a recurring character . Other actors were seriously considered for other roles , including Alan Alda and Sidney Poitier for the President , Judd Hirsch for Leo , Eugene Levy for Toby , and CCH Pounder for C.J . Crew The series was created by Aaron Sorkin , who served as executive producer for the pilot episode alongside director Thomas Schlamme and John Wells . Kristin Harms and Llewellyn Wells were producers for the pilot . Michael Hissrich acted as a co-producer . The first season proper saw the return of all of the pilot production team along with the addition of Ron Osborn and Jeff Reno as consulting producers and Rick Cleveland as a second co-producer with Robert W. Glass as an associate producer . Glass left the production team after only five episodes . Osborn and Reno departed after nine episodes . Paul Redford served as a story editor throughout the first season . Lawrence O'Donnell worked as executive story editor for the second half of the season . With the second season , Kevin Falls became a co-executive producer . Cleveland left the production team and Redford and O'Donnell were promoted to co-producer . Peter Parnell and Patrick Caddell became co-producers and Julie Herlocker and Mindy Kanaskie became associate producers . O'Donnell was promoted again to producer five episodes into the season and Hissrich joined him twelve episodes into the season . The third season saw the departure of Parnell , Caddell , and Herlocker and the temporary absence of O'Donnell . Director Christopher Misiano became a supervising producer , Patrick Ward joined the series as an associate producer , and Eli Attie joined the writing staff as a staff writer . Redford was promoted to producer . With the thirteenth episode of the third season director Alex Graves became an additional supervising producer and Attie became a story editor . The fourth season marked the temporary departure of Hissrich . Misiano and Graves became co-executive producers alongside Falls . Attie was promoted to executive story editor and Debora Cahn became a staff writer . The fourteenth episode of the season saw Redford promoted to supervising producer and Kanaskie , Ward and Attie promoted to co-producers . The fifth season saw the departure of both Sorkin and Schlamme as executive producers . Schlamme remained attached to the series as an executive consultant . John Wells remained the sole executive producer and showrunner . Co-executive producer Kevin Falls also left the show . O'Donnell rejoined the production team as a consulting producer . Wells also added Carol Flint , Alexa Junge , Peter Noah , and John Sacret Young as consulting producers . Andrew Stearn came aboard as a producer and Attie was promoted to producer . Cahn became story editor and Josh Singer replaced her as staff writer . With the tenth episode Flint , Junge , Noah and Sacret Young became supervising producers . With the sixth season Misiano and Graves were promoted to executive producers . Redford and Junge left the production team and Dylan K. Massin became a co-producer . Cahn was promoted to executive story editor and Singer replaced her as story editor . Lauren Schmidt filled the staff writer role . The fourth episode saw the departure of original crew member Llewellyn Wells . Debora Cahn was promoted to co-producer with the fourteenth episode . The seventh season saw Noah and O'Donnell promoted again , this time becoming additional executive producers . Attie became a supervising producer . Hissrich returned to his role as producer for the final season . Episodes The West Wing , like many serial dramas , stretches storylines over several episodes or entire seasons . In addition to these larger storylines , each episode also contains smaller arcs that usually begin and end within an episode . Most episodes follow President Bartlet and his staff through particular legislative or political issues . Plots can range from behind-closed-doors negotiating with Congress to personal problems like post-traumatic stress disorder , from which Josh suffers during the second season . The typical episode loosely follows the President and his staff through their day , generally following several plots connected by some idea or theme . A large , fully connected set of the White House allowed the producers to create shots with very few cuts and long , continuous master shots of staff members conversing as they walk through the hallways . These `` walk and talks '' became a trademark of the show . The final two seasons presented a narrative change , with the focus of the show divided between plots in the West Wing with President Bartlet and his remaining senior staffers and plots revolving around the rest of the main cast on the campaign trail for the 2006 election . * In the first season , the Bartlet administration is in the middle of its second year and is still having trouble settling in and making progress on legislative issues . * The second season covers the aftermath of a shooting at Rosslyn , the 2000 midterm elections and dealings with a new Congress , and sees scandal when the White House is rocked by allegations of criminal conduct and the President must decide whether he will run for a second term . * The third and fourth seasons take an in-depth look at the campaign trail and the specter of both foreign and domestic terrorism . * In the fifth season , the President begins to encounter more issues on the foreign front , while at home he faces off with the newly elected Speaker of the House , battles controversy over Supreme Court appointments and oversees a daring plan to save Social Security . * The sixth season chronicles the quest to replace President Bartlet in the next election , following the primary campaigns of several candidates from both parties , while the President himself attempts to build his legacy , but finds his ability to govern compromised by his illness . * In the seventh season , the President must face a leak of confidential information about a secret Department of Defense program from inside the White House , while the Democratic and Republican candidates battle to succeed him in the general election . Development The series developed following the success of 1995 theatrical film The American President , for which Aaron Sorkin wrote the screenplay , and in which Martin Sheen played the White House Chief of Staff . Unused plot elements from the film and a suggestion from Akiva Goldsman inspired Sorkin to create The West Wing . According to the DVD commentary , Sorkin intended to center the show on Sam Seaborn and the other senior staff with the President in an unseen or a secondary role . However , Bartlet 's screen time gradually increased , and his role expanded as the series progressed . Positive critical and public reaction to Sheen 's performance raised his character 's profile , decreasing Lowe 's perceived significance . In addition , according to Sorkin , the storylines began to focus less on Sam and more on Josh Lyman , the Deputy Chief of Staff . This shift was one of the reasons for Lowe 's eventual departure from the show in the fourth season . For the first four seasons , drawing on research materials , scene drafts , and occasionally entire draft scripts from his writing staff , Sorkin wrote almost every episode of the series , occasionally reusing plot elements , episode titles , character names , and actors from his previous work , Sports Night , a sitcom in which he began to develop his signature dialogue style of rhythmic , snappy , and intellectual banter . Fellow executive producer and director Thomas Schlamme championed the walk and talk , a continuous shot tracking in front of the characters as they walk from one place to another that became part of The West Wing signature visual style . Sorkin 's hectic writing schedule often led to cost overruns and schedule slips , and he opted to leave the show after the fourth season , following increasing personal problems , including an arrest for possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms . Thomas Schlamme also left the show after the fourth season . John Wells , the remaining executive producer , took the helm after their departure . The West Wing aired on Wednesdays at 9:00 pm ET from its debut until the end of its sixth season . NBC elected to move the series to Sundays at 8:00 pm for its seventh season , a move universally regarded as the beginning of the series ' end ( since NBC and the NFL had reached a deal for Sunday Night Football to return to the network in fall 2006 ) , and the series finale aired on May 14 , 2006 . The West Wing took a large ratings hit with the move , which put it up against ABC 's Top 20 hit Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , and CBS ' Top 30 hit Cold Case in its timeslot . Critical reactions The West Wing offers a glimpse into the inner workings of the fictional Bartlet White House . The show 's legitimacy , political slant , and idealist representations of Washington , as well as its notable writing and film merits , have generated considerable discussion . Realism While The West Wing is not completely accurate in its portrayal of the actual West Wing , former White House staffers described the show as capturing the feel of the real West Wing . However , President Gerald Ford 's daughter Susan made the comment `` I ca n't watch [ the show ] . They turn left and right where you are not supposed to . '' Former Senate aide Lawrence O'Donnell and former White House aide and presidential campaign speechwriter Eli Attie were both longtime writers on the show ( O'Donnell for seasons 1-2 and 5-7 , Attie for seasons 3-7 ) . Former White House Press Secretaries Dee Dee Myers and Marlin Fitzwater and pollsters Patrick Caddell and Frank Luntz also served as consultants , advising the writing staff for part of the show 's run . Other former White House staffers , such as Peggy Noonan and Gene Sperling , served as consultants for brief periods . A documentary special in the third season compared the show 's depiction of the West Wing to the real thing . Many former West Wing denizens applauded the show 's depiction of the West Wing , including advisor David Gergen , Secretary of State Henry Kissinger , Chief of Staff Leon Panetta , Deputy Chief of Staff Karl Rove , and former Presidents Gerald Ford , Jimmy Carter , and Bill Clinton . While critics often praised The West Wing for its writing , others faulted the show as unrealistically optimistic and sentimental . A large part of this criticism came from the perceived naiveté of the characters . Television critic Heather Havrilesky asked , `` What rock did these morally pure creatures crawl out from under and , more important , how do you go from innocent millipede to White House staffer without becoming soiled or disillusioned by the dirty realities of politics along the way ? '' Social impact Despite acclaim for the veracity of the series , Sorkin believed , `` our responsibility is to captivate you for however long we 've asked for your attention . '' Former White House aide Matthew Miller noted that Sorkin `` captivates viewers by making the human side of politics more real than life—or at least more real than the picture we get from the news . '' Miller also noted that by portraying politicians with empathy , the show created a `` subversive competitor '' to the cynical views of politics in media . In the essay `` The West Wing and the West Wing '' , author Myron Levine agreed , stating that the series `` presents an essentially positive view of public service and a healthy corrective to anti-Washington stereotypes and public cynicism . '' Dr. Staci L. Beavers , associate professor of political science at California State University , San Marcos , wrote a short essay , `` The West Wing as a Pedagogical Tool '' . She concluded , `` While the series ' purpose is for-profit entertainment , The West Wing presents great pedagogical potential . '' The West Wing , in her opinion , gave greater depth to the political process usually espoused only in stilted talking points on shows like Face the Nation and Meet the Press . However , the merits of a particular argument may be obscured by the viewer 's opinion of the character . Beavers also noted that characters with opposing viewpoints were often set up to be `` bad people '' in the viewer 's eyes . These characters were assigned undesirable characteristics having nothing to do with their political opinions , such as being romantically involved with a main character 's love interest . In Beavers ' opinion , a critical analysis of the show 's political views can present a worthwhile learning experience to the viewer . One of the stranger effects of the show occurred on January 31 , 2006 , when The West Wing was said to have played a hand in defeating a proposal backed by Tony Blair 's government in the British House of Commons , during the so-called `` West Wing Plot '' . The plan was allegedly hatched after a Conservative Member of Parliament watched the episode `` A Good Day '' , in which Democrats block a bill aimed at limiting stem cell research , by appearing to have left Washington D.C. but actually hiding in a congressional office until the Republican Speaker calls the vote . A number of episodes referred to a practice of the administration having one day each year on which they accepted meetings with people or groups who would not normally receive an audience with high-level White House staffers , referring to the event as `` Big Block of Cheese Day '' . The name came from the fact that President Andrew Jackson had a large wheel of cheese placed in the White House from which the public were invited to eat during a reception , while discussing issues of the day with politicians . In 2014 , the White House announced that it was to host an online Q & A with Obama administration officials and staff , called a Virtual `` Big Block of Cheese day '' , on January 29 , 2014 . The event was promoted with a video featuring stars from The West Wing . The event was repeated on January 21 , 2015 , again promoted by stars from the show . `` The Left Wing '' Jewish Journal columnist Naomi Pfefferman once referred to The West Wing as `` The Left Wing ... '' because of its portrayal of an ideal liberal administration , and the moniker has also been used by Republican critics of the show . Chris Lehmann , former deputy editor and regular reviewer for The Washington Post Book World section , characterized the show as a revisionist look at the Clinton presidency . On the other hand , some Republicans have admired the show since its inception , before even the departure of Sorkin and the show 's resulting shift toward the center . In his 2001 article `` Real Liberals versus The West Wing , '' Mackubin Thomas Owens wrote , ″Although his administration is reliably liberal , President Bartlet possesses virtues even a conservative could admire . He obeys the Constitution and the law . He is devoted to his wife and daughters . Being unfaithful to his wife would never cross his mind . He is no wimp when it comes to foreign policy—no quid pro quo for him . '' Journalist Matthew Miller wrote , `` although the show indeed has a liberal bias on issues , it presents a truer , more human picture of the people behind the headlines than most of today 's Washington journalists . '' Filming techniques and reactions In its first season , The West Wing attracted critical attention in the television community with a record nine Emmy wins . The show has been praised for its high production values and repeatedly recognized for its cinematic achievements . The series had a budget of $ 2.7 million per episode . The series has also been praised for Sorkin 's rapid-fire and witty scripts . The West Wing is noted for developing the `` walk-and-talk '' —long Steadicam tracking shots showing characters walking down hallways while involved in long conversations . In a typical `` walk-and-talk '' shot , the camera leads two characters down a hallway as they speak to each other . One of these characters generally breaks off and the remaining character is then joined by another character , who initiates another conversation as they continue walking . These `` walk-and-talks '' create a dynamic feel for what would otherwise be long expository dialogue , and have become a staple for dialogue-intensive television show scenes . Awards In its first season , The West Wing garnered nine Emmys , a record for most won by a series in its first season . In addition , the series received the Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , and 2003 , tying Hill Street Blues , L.A. Law and Mad Men for most won in this category . Each of its seven seasons earned a nomination for the award . With its 26 total awards , The West Wing ties with Hill Street Blues as the drama with the most Emmy wins . The series shares the Emmy Award record for most acting nominations by regular cast members ( excluding the guest performer category ) for a single series in one year . ( Both Hill Street Blues and L.A. Law also hold that record ) . For the 2001–2002 season , nine cast members were nominated for Emmys . Allison Janney , John Spencer and Stockard Channing each won an Emmy ( for Lead Actress , Supporting Actor and Supporting Actress respectively ) . The others nominated were Martin Sheen ( for Lead Actor ) , Richard Schiff , Dule Hill and Bradley Whitford ( for Supporting Actor ) , and Janel Moloney and Mary-Louise Parker ( for Supporting Actress ) . In addition , that same year Mark Harmon , Tim Matheson and Ron Silver were each nominated in the Guest Actor category ( although none won the award ) . This gave the series an Emmy Award record for most acting nominations overall ( including guest performer category ) in a single year , with 12 acting nominations . Twenty individual Emmys were awarded to writers , actors , and crew members . Allison Janney is the record holder for most wins by a cast member , with a total of four Emmys . The West Wing won at least one Emmy in each of its seasons except the sixth . In addition to its Emmys , the show won two Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) Awards , in 2000 and 2001 , Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series . Martin Sheen was the only cast member to win a Golden Globe Award , and he and Allison Janney were the only cast members to win SAG Awards . In both 1999 and 2000 , The West Wing was awarded the Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting . The following table summarizes award wins by cast members : Many cast members were Emmy-nominated for their work

odql_3569--The_West_Wing.txt

What was the name of the American President played by Martin Sheen in the TV series 'The West Wing'?

Oldham East and Saddleworth is a constituency in outer Greater Manchester represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since January 2011 by Debbie Abrahams of the Labour Party . Boundaries and constituency profile 1997-2010 : The Metropolitan Borough of Oldham wards of Crompton , Lees , St James ' , St Mary 's , Saddleworth East , Saddleworth West , Shaw , and Waterhead , and the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale ward of Milnrow . 2010-present : The Metropolitan Borough of Oldham wards of Alexandra , Crompton , St James ' , St Mary 's , Saddleworth North , Saddleworth South , Saddleworth West and Lees , Shaw , and Waterhead . Oldham East and Saddleworth is the largest constituency in Greater Manchester by area and one of three covering the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham . According to the Manchester Evening News it is : UK Polling Report describes it as : UK Polling Report specifically characterises East Oldham as `` an area of deprived terraces and racial tensions '' , Shaw and Crompton as a `` relatively prosperous ( and unusually named ) town '' and Saddleworth as composed of `` middle-class villages and hamlets '' . Within its bounds are the eastern fringes of Oldham ( such as Derker , Glodwick , Greenacres , and Sholver ) , Shaw and Crompton , Lees , and Saddleworth ( the latter of which includes the rural villages of Denshaw , Diggle , Dobcross , Greenfield and Uppermill ) . Between 1997 and 2010 , Oldham East and Saddleworth incorporated the suburban town of Milnrow in the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale when boundary changes placed it in the neighbouring Rochdale constituency . For the 2011 by-election The Guardian described the constituency as : History The seat was established for the 1997 general election from parts of the former Littleborough and Saddleworth and Oldham Central and Royton constituencies . Oldham Central and Royton was a safe Labour seat whereas Littleborough and Saddleworth had had a Conservative MP since its creation until a 1995 close three-party fought by-election where it was lost to a Liberal Democrat . Ahead of the 1997 general election the seat was notionally Conservative , however since 1997 the seat has been a Labour/Liberal Democrat marginal . Although Phil Woolas of the Labour Party ( defeated candidate in the mentioned 1995 by-election ) was victorious in all three general elections since , his majorities have not been substantial and the Conservative vote increased from 16 % to 24 % . The constituency `` gained notoriety '' at the 2001 general election , when the British National Party gained over 5,000 votes ( an 11.2 % share ) , retaining their deposit partly as Nick Griffin stood in the neighbouring West seat . Along with the BNP 's showing in the neighbouring Oldham West and Royton constituency , this was interpreted as a reaction to the 2001 Oldham race riots . At the 2005 election the BNP 's share of the vote dropped to 4.9 % . For the 2010 General election the seat lost the Milnrow and Newhey ward to the neighbouring Rochdale constituency and gained part of Alexandra ward from Oldham West and Royton . After losing the 2010 election by 103 votes , Liberal Democrat candidate Elwyn Watkins submitted a petition for a hearing by an election court , claiming that campaign literature issued by his Labour opponent Phil Woolas breached the Representation of the People Act 1983 by making false statements about his personal character . On 5 November 2010 , the election court upheld the petition and declared the election void after finding Phil Woolas guilty of making false election statements . Woolas sought a judicial review of the decision in the Administrative Division of the High Court , which upheld the decision of the Election Court in relation to two statements , whilst quashing the decision in relation to a third . As a result , the Oldham East and Saddleworth by-election , 2011 was needed , by which time the tuition fees backtrack from the Liberal Democrats was known however one non-mainstream media report stated the seat was `` ultra-marginal between Labour and the Liberal Democrats '' . The by-election took place on 13 January 2011 and was contested by ten candidates . The Labour Party candidate Debbie Abrahams won the largest percentage majority since the seat 's creation before 1997 . Members of Parliament Elections Elections in the 2010s Elections in the 2000s Elections in the 1990s

sfq_13585--Oldham_East_and_Saddleworth_(UK_Parliament_constituency).txt

Which former cabinet minister was debarred from Parliament because of irregularities in his 2010 election campaign for his Oldham East and Saddleworth constituency?

Africa is the world 's second-largest and second-most-populous continent . At about 30.3 million km² ( 11.7 million square miles ) including adjacent islands , it covers six percent of Earth 's total surface area and 20.4 percent of its total land area.Sayre , April Pulley ( 1999 ) , Africa , Twenty-First Century Books . ISBN 0-7613-1367-2 . With 1.1 billion people as of 2013 , it accounts for about 15 % of the world 's human population . The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the north , both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast , the Indian Ocean to the southeast , and the Atlantic Ocean to the west . The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos . It contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states ( countries ) , nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition . Africa 's population is the youngest amongst all the continents ; the median age in 2012 was 19.7 , when the worldwide median age was 30.4 . Algeria is Africa 's largest country by area , and Nigeria by population . Africa , particularly central Eastern Africa , is widely accepted as the place of origin of humans and the Hominidae clade ( great apes ) , as evidenced by the discovery of the earliest hominids and their ancestors , as well as later ones that have been dated to around seven million years ago , including Sahelanthropus tchadensis , Australopithecus africanus , A. afarensis , Homo erectus , H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens ( modern human ) found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago . Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas ; it is the only continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones . Africa hosts a large diversity of ethnicities , cultures and languages . In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa . Most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century . Etymology Afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa , which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean ( Ancient Libya ) . This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe ; see Terence # Biography for discussion . The name is usually connected with Hebrew or Phoenician 'dust ' , but a 1981 hypothesis has asserted that it stems from the Berber ifri ( plural ifran ) `` cave '' , in reference to cave dwellers . The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania , a Berber tribe originally from Yafran ( also known as Ifrane ) in northwestern Libya . Under Roman rule , Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis , which also included the coastal part of modern Libya . The Latin suffix `` -ica '' can sometimes be used to denote a land ( e.g. , in Celtica from Celtae , as used by Julius Caesar ) . The later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya , modern-day Tunisia , also preserved a form of the name . According to the Romans , Africa lay to the west of Egypt , while `` Asia '' was used to refer to Anatolia and lands to the east . A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer Ptolemy ( 85–165 AD ) , indicating Alexandria along the Prime Meridian and making the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between Asia and Africa . As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent , the idea of `` Africa '' expanded with their knowledge . Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name `` Africa '' : * The 1st-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus ( Ant . 1.15 ) asserted that it was named for Epher , grandson of Abraham according to Gen. 25:4 , whose descendants , he claimed , had invaded Libya . * Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2 . suggests `` Africa comes from the Latin aprica , meaning `` sunny '' . * Massey , in 1881 , stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka , meaning `` to turn toward the opening of the Ka . '' The Ka is the energetic double of every person and the `` opening of the Ka '' refers to a womb or birthplace . Africa would be , for the Egyptians , `` the birthplace . '' * Michèle Fruyt proposed linking the Latin word with africus `` south wind '' , which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally `` rainy wind '' . * Robert R. Stieglitz of Rutgers University proposed : `` The name Africa , derived from the Latin * Aphir-ic-a , is cognate to Hebrew Ophir . '' History Prehistory Africa is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth , with the human species originating from the continent . During the mid-20th century , anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago ( BPbefore present ) . Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man , such as Australopithecus afarensis ( radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP , Paranthropus boisei ( c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP ) and Homo ergaster ( c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP ) have been discovered . After the evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens approximately 150,000 to 100,000 years BP in Africa , the continent was mainly populated by groups of hunter-gatherers . These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of the globe during the Out of Africa II migration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP , exiting the continent either across Bab-el-Mandeb over the Red Sea , the Strait of Gibraltar in Morocco , or the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt . Other migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time , with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa , Southeast Africa , North Africa , and the Sahara . The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable , with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climactic conditions . At the end of the Ice ages , estimated to have been around 10,500 BC , the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley , and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in Sub-Saharan Africa , with rock art paintings depicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered in Tassili n'Ajjer dating back perhaps 10 millennia . However , the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC , the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile . Around 3500 BC , due to a tilt in the earth 's orbit , the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification . The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements . A major climatic recession occurred , lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa . Since this time , dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and , increasingly during the last 200 years , in Ethiopia . The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures . It is speculated that by 6000 BC , cattle were domesticated in North Africa . In the Sahara-Nile complex , people domesticated many animals , including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat which was common from Algeria to Nubia . Around 4000 BC , the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace . This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing desertification . This , in turn , decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa . By the first millennium BC , ironworking had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa , and by 500 BC , metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa . Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa , although other regions did n't begin ironworking until the early centuries AD . Copper objects from Egypt , North Africa , Nubia , and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa , suggesting that Trans-Saharan trade networks had been established by this date . Early civilizations At about 3300 BC , the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the Pharaonic civilization of Ancient Egypt . One of the world 's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations , the Egyptian state continued , with varying levels of influence over other areas , until 343 BC . Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya and Nubia , and , according to Martin Bernal , as far north as Crete . An independent center of civilization with trading links to Phoenicia was established by Phoenicians from Tyre on the north-west African coast at Carthage . European exploration of Africa began with Ancient Greeks and Romans . In 332 BC , Alexander the Great was welcomed as a liberator in Persian-occupied Egypt . He founded Alexandria in Egypt , which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic dynasty after his death . Following the conquest of North Africa 's Mediterranean coastline by the Roman Empire , the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system . Roman settlement occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast . The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus , born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya—his mother was Italian Roman and his father was Punic . Christianity spread across these areas at an early date , from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia ; by AD 340 at the latest , it had become the state religion of the Aksumite Empire . Syro-Greek missionaries , who arrived by way of the Red Sea , were responsible for this theological development . In the early 7th century , the newly formed Arabian Islamic Caliphate expanded into Egypt , and then into North Africa . In a short while , the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes . When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century , the Islamic center of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to Qayrawan in North Africa . Islamic North Africa had become diverse , and a hub for mystics , scholars , jurists , and philosophers . During the above-mentioned period , Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa , mainly through trade routes and migration . Ninth to eighteenth centuries Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule . These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the San people of southern Africa ; larger , more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the Bantu-speaking peoples of central , southern , and eastern Africa ; heavily structured clan groups in the Horn of Africa ; the large Sahelian kingdoms ; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the Akan ; Edo , Yoruba , and Igbo people in West Africa ; and the Swahili coastal trading towns of Southeast Africa . By the ninth century AD , a string of dynastic states , including the earliest Hausa states , stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan . The most powerful of these states were Ghana , Gao , and the Kanem-Bornu Empire . Ghana declined in the eleventh century , but was succeeded by the Mali Empire which consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century . Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century . In the forested regions of the West African coast , independent kingdoms grew with little influence from the Muslim north . The Kingdom of Nri was established around the ninth century and was one of the first . It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeria and was ruled by the Eze Nri . The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate bronzes , found at the town of Igbo-Ukwu . The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the ninth century . The Kingdom of Ife , historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms , established government under a priestly oba ( 'king ' or 'ruler ' in the Yoruba language ) , called the Ooni of Ife . Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural center in West Africa , and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture . The Ife model of government was adapted at the Oyo Empire , where its obas or kings , called the Alaafins of Oyo , once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms ; the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control . The Almoravids were a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century . The Banu Hilal and Banu Ma'qil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula who migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries . Their migration resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers , where the locals were Arabized , and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture , under the unifying framework of Islam . Following the breakup of Mali , a local leader named Sonni Ali ( 1464–1492 ) founded the Songhai Empire in the region of middle Niger and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade . Sonni Ali seized Timbuktu in 1468 and Jenne in 1473 , building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants . His successor Askia Mohammad I ( 1493–1528 ) made Islam the official religion , built mosques , and brought to Gao Muslim scholars , including al-Maghili ( d.1504 ) , the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship . By the eleventh century , some Hausa states – such as Kano , jigawa , Katsina , and Gobir – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade , servicing caravans , and the manufacture of goods . Until the fifteenth century , these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era , paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east . Height of slave trade Slavery had long been practiced in Africa . Between the 7th and 20th centuries , Arab slave trade ( also known as slavery in the East ) took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes . Between the 15th and the 19th centuries ( 500 years ) , the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World . More than 1 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries . In West Africa , the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities . The gradual decline of slave-trading , prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World , increasing anti-slavery legislation in Europe and America , and the British Royal Navy 's increasing presence off the West African coast , obliged African states to adopt new economies . Between 1808 and 1860 , the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard . Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade , for example against `` the usurping King of Lagos '' , deposed in 1851 . Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers . The largest powers of West Africa ( the Asante Confederacy , the Kingdom of Dahomey , and the Oyo Empire ) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift . Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of `` legitimate commerce '' in the form of palm oil , cocoa , timber and gold , forming the bedrock of West Africa 's modern export trade . The Oyo Empire , unable to adapt , collapsed into civil wars . Colonialism and the `` Scramble for Africa '' In the late 19th century , the European imperial powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent , creating many colonial territories , and leaving only two fully independent states : Ethiopia ( known to Europeans as `` Abyssinia '' ) , and Liberia . Egypt and Sudan were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire ; however , after the British occupation of 1882 , Egypt was effectively under British administration until 1922 . Berlin Conference The Berlin Conference held in 1884–85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups . It was convened by King Leopold II of Belgium , and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories . It sought to end the European powers ' Scramble for Africa , by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence . They set up the political divisions of the continent , by spheres of interest , that exist in Africa today . Independence struggles Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II , when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence . Independence movements in Africa gained momentum following World War II , which left the major European powers weakened . In 1951 , Libya , a former Italian colony , gained independence . In 1956 , Tunisia and Morocco won their independence from France . Ghana followed suit the next year ( March 1957 ) , becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence . Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade . Portugal 's overseas presence in Sub-Saharan Africa ( most notably in Angola , Cape Verde , Mozambique , Guinea-Bissau and São Tomé and Príncipe ) lasted from the 16th century to 1975 , after the Estado Novo regime was overthrown in a military coup in Lisbon . Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965 , under the white minority government of Ian Smith , but was not internationally recognized as an independent state ( as Zimbabwe ) until 1980 , when black nationalists gained power after a bitter guerrilla war . Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence , the state remained under the control of the country 's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as apartheid until 1994 . Post-colonial Africa Today , Africa contains 54 sovereign countries , most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism . Since colonialism , African states have frequently been hampered by instability , corruption , violence , and authoritarianism . The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of the presidential system of rule . However , few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis , and many have instead cycled through a series of coups , producing military dictatorships . Great instability was mainly the result of marginalization of ethnic groups , and graft under these leaders . For political gain , many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts , some of which had been exacerbated , or even created , by colonial rule . In many countries , the military was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order , and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s . During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s , Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential assassinations . Border and territorial disputes were also common , with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts . Cold War conflicts between the United States and the Soviet Union , as well as the policies of the International Monetary Fund , also played a role in instability . When a country became independent for the first time , it was often expected to align with one of the two superpowers . Many countries in Northern Africa received Soviet military aid , while others in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States , France or both . The 1970s saw an escalation of Cold War intrigues , as newly independent Angola and Mozambique aligned themselves with the Soviet Union , and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by supporting friendly regimes or insurgency movements . In Rhodesia , Soviet and Chinese-backed leftist guerrillas of the Zimbabwe Patriotic Front waged a brutal guerrilla war against the country 's white government . There was a major famine in Ethiopia , when hundreds of thousands of people starved . Some claimed that Marxist economic policies made the situation worse . The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the Second Congo War ; this conflict and its aftermath has killed an estimated 5.5 million people . Since 2003 there has been an ongoing conflict in Darfur which has become a humanitarian disaster . Another notable tragic event is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were murdered . AIDS in post-colonial Africa has also been a prevalent issue . In the 21st century , however , the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined . For instance , the civil war in Angola came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years . This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms . The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations , mainly from China , which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries , seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline . Several African economies are among the world 's fastest growing as of 2016 . A significant part of this growth , which is sometimes referred to as Africa Rising , can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone . Geography Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth . Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea , it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez ( transected by the Suez Canal ) , 163 km wide . ( Geopolitically , Egypt 's Sinai Peninsula east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa , as well . ) From the most northerly point , Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia ( 37°21 ' N ) , to the most southerly point , Cape Agulhas in South Africa ( 34°51'15 '' S ) , is a distance of approximately ; from Cape Verde , 17°33'22 '' W , the westernmost point , to Ras Hafun in Somalia , 51°27'52 '' E , the most easterly projection , is a distance of approximately . ( 1998 ) Merriam-Webster 's Geographical Dictionary ( Index ) , Merriam-Webster , pp . 10–11 . ISBN 0-87779-546-0 The coastline is long , and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe , which covers only – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of . Africa 's largest country is Algeria , and its smallest country is the Seychelles , an archipelago off the east coast.Hoare , Ben . ( 2002 ) The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia , Kingfisher Publications . p. 11 . ISBN 0-7534-5569-2 The smallest nation on the continental mainland is The Gambia . Geologically , Africa includes the Arabian Peninsula ; the Zagros Mountains of Iran and the Anatolian Plateau of Turkey mark where the African Plate collided with Eurasia . The Afrotropic ecozone and the Saharo-Arabian desert to its north unite the region biogeographically , and the Afro-Asiatic language family unites the north linguistically . Climate The climate of Africa ranges from tropical to subarctic on its highest peaks . Its northern half is primarily desert , or arid , while its central and southern areas contain both savanna plains and dense jungle ( rainforest ) regions . In between , there is a convergence , where vegetation patterns such as sahel and steppe dominate . Africa is the hottest continent on earth and 60 % of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts . The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature , in Libya in 1922 ( 58 C ) , was discredited in 2013 . ( The 136 °F ( 57.8 °C ) , claimed by 'Aziziya , Libya , on 13 September 1922 , has been officially deemed invalid by the World Meteorological Organization . ) Fauna Africa boasts perhaps the world 's largest combination of density and `` range of freedom '' of wild animal populations and diversity , with wild populations of large carnivores ( such as lions , hyenas , and cheetahs ) and herbivores ( such as buffalo , elephants , camels , and giraffes ) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains . It is also home to a variety of `` jungle '' animals including snakes and primates and aquatic life such as crocodiles and amphibians . In addition , Africa has the largest number of megafauna species , as it was least affected by the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna . Ecology and biodiversity Deforestation is affecting Africa at twice the world rate , according to the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) . According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center , 31 % of Africa 's pasture lands and 19 % of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded , and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year , which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world . Some sources claim that approximately 90 % of the original , virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed . Over 90 % of Madagascar 's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago . About 65 % of Africa 's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation . Africa has over 3,000 protected areas , with 198 marine protected areas , 50 biosphere reserves , and 80 wetlands reserves . Significant habitat destruction , increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa 's biological diversity . Human encroachment , civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa . This has been exacerbated by administrative problems , inadequate personnel and funding problems . Politics There are clear signs of increased networking among African organizations and states . For example , in the civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( former Zaire ) , rather than rich , non-African countries intervening , neighboring African countries became involved ( see also Second Congo War ) . Since the conflict began in 1998 , the estimated death toll has reached 5 million . The African Union The African Union ( AU ) is a 54-member federation consisting of all of Africa 's states except Morocco . The union was formed , with Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , as its headquarters , on 26 June 2001 . The union was officially established on 9 July 2002 as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) . In July 2004 , the African Union 's Pan-African Parliament ( PAP ) was relocated to Midrand , in South Africa , but the African Commission on Human and Peoples ' Rights remained in Addis Ababa . There is a policy in effect to decentralize the African Federation 's institutions so that they are shared by all the states . The African Union , not to be confused with the AU Commission , is formed by the Constitutive Act of the African Union , which aims to transform the African Economic Community ,

sfq_8735--Africa.txt

Which is the only country outside Africa where lions can be found in the wild?

The Cincinnati Bengals are a professional American football franchise based in Cincinnati , Ohio . The Bengals currently compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference ( AFC ) North division . Their home stadium is Paul Brown Stadium in downtown Cincinnati . Their current head coach is Marvin Lewis , who has held the position since 2003 and is currently the second-longest tenured head coach in the NFL , behind the New England Patriots ' Bill Belichick . Their chief rivals are the Pittsburgh Steelers , Cleveland Browns , and Baltimore Ravens . The Bengals were founded in as a member of the American Football League ( AFL ) by former Cleveland Browns head coach Paul Brown . Brown was the Bengals ' head coach from their inception to . After being dismissed as the Browns ' head coach by Art Modell ( who had purchased majority interest in the team in ) in January , Brown had shown interest in establishing another NFL franchise in Ohio and looked at both Cincinnati and Columbus . He ultimately chose the former when a deal between the city , Hamilton County , and Major League Baseball 's Cincinnati Reds ( who were seeking a replacement for the obsolete Crosley Field ) was struck that resulted in an agreement to build a multipurpose stadium which could host both baseball and football games . Due to the impending merger of the AFL and the NFL , which was scheduled to take full effect in the season , Brown agreed to join the AFL as its tenth and final franchise . The Bengals , like the other former AFL teams , were assigned to the AFC following the merger . Cincinnati was also selected because , like their neighbors the Reds , they could draw from several large neighboring cities ( Louisville and Lexington , Kentucky ; Columbus , Dayton , and Springfield , Ohio ; and Indianapolis , Indiana ) that are all no more than 110 mi away from downtown Cincinnati . The Bengals won the AFC championship in and , but lost Super Bowls XVI and XXIII to the San Francisco 49ers . After Paul Brown 's death in 1991 , controlling interest in the team was inherited by his son , Mike Brown . In 2011 , Brown purchased shares of the team owned by the estate of co-founder Austin Knowlton and is now the majority owner of the Bengals franchise . The 1990s and the 2000s were a period of great struggle . Following the 1990 season , the team went fifteen years without posting a winning record nor making the playoffs . The Bengals had several head coaches and several of their top draft picks did not pan out . Mike Brown , the team 's de facto general manager , was rated as among the worst team owners in American professional sports . Compounding matters were off-field problems of several players , notably receiver Chris Henry , who was suspended several times during his short professional career and was briefly released by the Bengals , but was re-signed and remained with the team until his death in 2009 . Since the mid-2000s , the team 's fortunes have improved . Two years after becoming head coach , Lewis guided the Bengals to their first winning season and first division title in over a decade . After the acquisition of Andy Dalton as quarterback in 2011 , the Bengals have made the playoffs each season , ranking highly among NFL teams in win totals . The Bengals drafts are also highly touted , leading to a consistency that had long escaped the franchise . However , the team has remained unable to win in the postseason and have not won a playoff game since 1990 . The Bengals are one of the 13 NFL teams to not have won a Super Bowl . History of the Cincinnati Bengals The franchise takes its name from an earlier Cincinnati Bengals team , which played from 1937–1941 . It also was a nod to Paul Brown 's Massillon , Ohio , roots where he coached the high school team known as the Tigers . In 1967 an ownership group led by Paul Brown was granted a franchise in the American Football League . Brown named the team the Bengals in order `` to give it a link with past professional football in Cincinnati . '' Another Bengals team had existed in the city and played in three previous American Football Leagues from 1937 to 1942 . The city 's world-renowned zoo was also home to a rare white Bengal tiger . However , possibly as an insult to Art Modell , or possibly as a homage to his own start as a head coach to the Massillon Tigers , Brown chose the exact shade of orange used by his former team . He added black as the secondary color . Brown chose a very simple logo : the word `` BENGALS '' in black lettering . One of the potential helmet designs Brown rejected was a striped motif that was similar to the helmets adopted by the team in 1981 and which is still in use to this day ; however , that design featured yellow stripes on a turquoise helmet which were more uniform in width . In 1966 , the American Football League agreed to a merger with its older and more established rival , the National Football League . Among the terms of the merger was that the AFL was permitted to add one additional franchise . One of the reasons the NFL agreed to this was that they wanted an even number of clubs in the merged league , so a team needed to be added that brought the combined total number clubs in the merged league to twenty-six teams . The NFL was content for that team to be in the American Football League because it meant that the existing nine AFL clubs were the ones that had to provide players in the ensuing expansion draft and the NFL owners preferred for the ensuing dilution of talent to occur in what they had always considered to be an inferior league . For the AFL , a key motive behind their agreement to accept a new team was that the guarantee of an eventual place in the NFL meant the league could charge a steep expansion fee of $ 10 million—400 times the $ 25,000 the original eight owners paid when they founded the league in 1960 . The cash from the new team provided the American Football League with the funds needed to pay the indemnities required to be paid by the AFL to the NFL , as stipulated by the merger agreement . Prior to the merger being announced , Brown had not seriously considered joining the American Football League , and was not a supporter of what he openly regarded to be an inferior competition , once famously stating that `` I did n't pay ten million dollars to be in the AFL . '' However , with the announcement of the merger , Brown realized that the AFL expansion franchise would likely be his only realistic path back into the NFL in the short to medium term . He ultimately acquiesced to joining the AFL when after learning that the team was guaranteed to become an NFL franchise after the merger was completed in 1970 . There was also a complication : Major League Baseball 's Cincinnati Reds were in need of a facility to replace the antiquated , obsolete Crosley Field , which they had used since 1912 . Parking nightmares had plagued the city as far back as the 1950s , the little park lacked modern amenities , and New York City , which in 1957 had lost both its National League teams ( the Dodgers and the Giants ) to Los Angeles and San Francisco , respectively , was actively courting Reds owner Powel Crosley . However , Crosley was adamant that the Reds remain in Cincinnati and tolerated worsening problems with the Crosley Field location , which were exacerbated by the Millcreek Expressway ( I-75 ) project that ran alongside the park . With assistance from Ohio governor James A. Rhodes , Hamilton County and the Cincinnati city council agreed to build a single multi-purpose facility on the dilapidated riverfront section of the city . The new facility had to be ready by the opening of the 1970 NFL season and was officially named Riverfront Stadium . With the completion of the merger in 1970 , the Cleveland Browns were moved to the AFL-based American Football Conference and placed in the AFC Central , the same division as the Bengals . An instant rivalry was born , fueled initially by Paul Brown 's rivalry with Art Modell . The teams have since met on Monday Night Football twice , the Bengals winning each time . For their first two seasons , the Bengals played at Nippert Stadium which is the current home of the University of Cincinnati Bearcats . The team held training camp at Wilmington College in Wilmington , Ohio , through the 1996 preseason . The team finished its first season with a 3–11 record . One bright spot was running back Paul Robinson , who rushed for 1,023 yards and was named the AFL Rookie of the Year . Founder Paul Brown coached the team for its first eight seasons . One of Brown 's college draft strategies was to draft players with above-average intelligence . Punter/wide receiver Pat McInally attended Harvard University and linebacker Reggie Williams attended Dartmouth College and served on Cincinnati city council while on the Bengals ' roster . Because of this policy , many former players were highly articulate and went on to have successful careers in commentary and broadcasting as well as the arts . In addition , Brown had a knack for locating and recognizing pro football talent in unusual places . In 1970 the Bengals moved to play at Riverfront Stadium , a home they shared with the Cincinnati Reds until the team moved to Paul Brown Stadium in 2000 . The team reached the playoffs three times during that decade , but could not win any of those postseason games . In 1975 , the team posted an 11–3 record , giving them what is to this day the highest winning percentage ( .786 ) in franchise history . But it only earned them a wild card spot in the playoffs , behind the 12–2 Pittsburgh Steelers , who went on to win the Super Bowl . The Bengals lost to the Oakland Raiders 31–28 in the divisional playoffs . The Bengals reached the Super Bowl twice during the 1980s , but lost both times to the San Francisco 49ers . The team appeared in the playoffs in 1990 , making it to the second round before losing to the Los Angeles Raiders . Before the following season got underway , Paul Brown died at age 82 . He had already transferred control to his son , Mike Brown , but was reported to still influence the daily operations of the team . The Bengals ' fortunes changed for the worse as the team posted 14 consecutive non-winning seasons and were saddled with numerous draft busts . They began to emerge from that dismal period into a new era of increased consistency , however , after the hiring of Marvin Lewis as head coach in 2003 . Carson Palmer , the future star quarterback , was drafted in 2003 , but did not play a snap that whole season , as Jon Kitna had a comeback year ( voted NFL Comeback Player of the Year ) . Despite Kitna 's success , Palmer was promoted to starting quarterback the following season . Under Palmer , the team advanced to the playoffs for the first time since 1990 in the 2005 season , which also was the first time the team had a winning percentage above .500 since 1990 . The Bengals returned to the playoffs again in 2009 in a season that included the franchise 's first ever division sweep . This was especially impressive since two of the teams swept by the Bengals ( the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Baltimore Ravens ) had both made it to the AFC Championship Game the previous season . Marvin Lewis was rewarded for the accomplishment with the NFL Coach of the Year Award . In the 2010 season , the Bengals posted a 4–12 record . Following the disappointing 2010 season , quarterback Carson Palmer demanded to be traded . When the Bengals refused to do so , Palmer announced his retirement from the NFL . He later signed with the Oakland Raiders . In the 2011 NFL draft , the Bengals selected wide receiver AJ Green in the first round , and quarterback Andy Dalton in the second round . The Bengals improved to 9–7 in the 2011 season , and clinched a playoff spot . Dalton and Green became the most prolific rookie WR-QB duo in history , connecting 65 times for 1,057 yards . However , they lost to the Houston Texans 31–10 in the Wild Card Round . In the 2012 season , the Bengals clinched a playoff spot once more with a win over the Pittsburgh Steelers , going to the playoffs in back-to-back years for the first time since 1982 . However , the Bengals faced the Texans in the first round yet again and took another early exit , losing 19–13 . In the 2013 season , for the third straight year , the Bengals clinched a playoff berth and also won the AFC North , finishing with an 11-5 record . But once again , the Bengals were defeated in the wild card round , this time by the San Diego Chargers , 27-10 . Most of the blame was put on Andy Dalton , who threw 2 interceptions and fumbled on a forward dive . This made the Bengals 0-5 in playoff games since Mike Brown took over as owner . The 2014 season started well with the Bengals winning their first three contests against the Baltimore Ravens , the Atlanta Falcons , and the Tennessee Titans . However , they lost their week 5 matchup at the New England Patriots , 43-17 . An overtime tie to the Carolina Panthers and shutout loss to the Indianapolis Colts followed the primetime loss to the Patriots . Finishing the season 10-5-1 as the 5th seed , they lost to the Colts 26-10 in the first round of the playoffs . This was the first time the franchise made the playoffs 4 straight seasons . In 2015 , the Bengals got out to a franchise-best 8-0 start with a 31-10 win over the Cleveland Browns , But then they the lost multiple games in a row losing their undefeated title but still winning their division and clinching a playoff berth . However , they lost to the division rival Pittsburgh Steelers 18-16 in the Wild Card round , making them the first franchise in NFL history to lose five straight opening round playoff games . Logos and uniforms When the team debuted in 1968 , the Bengals ' uniforms were modeled after the Cleveland Browns . When Paul Brown was fired by Art Modell , Brown still owned the equipment used by Cleveland . So after the firing , Paul Brown packed up all his equipment , which he then used for his new team in Cincinnati . The Cleveland Browns ' team colors were brown , orange , and white , then they changed to white , black , and orange , and their helmets were solid orange with a white dorsal stripe over the crest . The Bengals ' team colors were orange , black , and white , and their helmets were a similar shade of orange , with the only variations being the word `` Bengals '' in block letters on either side of the helmet and no stripe on the helmet . The Cincinnati Bengals were unique in the NFL as they did not have uniform numbers on the players sleeves until the 1980 season . The team did not discard their Cleveland-like uniforms until 1981 . During that year , a then-unique uniform design was introduced . Although the team kept black jerseys , white jerseys , and white pants , they were now trimmed with orange and black tiger stripes . The team also introduced the orange helmets with black tiger stripes that are still in use today . In 1997 , the Bengals designed a logo consisting of a leaping tiger , and it was added to the uniform sleeves . Another alternate logo consisted of a Bengal 's head facing to the left . However , the orange helmet with black tiger stripes continued to be the team 's primary trademark . In 2004 , a new tiger stripe pattern and more accents were added to the uniforms . The black jerseys now featured orange tiger-striped sleeves and white side panels , while the white jerseys began to use black tiger-striped sleeves and orange shoulders . A new logo consisting of an orange `` B '' covered with black tiger stripes was introduced . The team also started rotating black pants and debuted an alternate orange jersey , with white side panels and black tiger-striped sleeves . The Bengals have worn their black uniforms at home throughout their history , with some exceptions such as the 1970 season when the Bengals wore white at home for the entire season , and most of the 1971 season . Since 2005 , the Bengals wear white for September home games where the heat could become a factor . Mascots The team 's official mascot is a Bengal tiger named Who Dey who walks around on the field often behind the goal post . Aside from Who Dey , the team also has the Cincinnati Ben–Gals , the team 's cheerleading squad , which is known for having Laura Vikmanis , the oldest cheerleader in league history . Contributions to NFL culture No-huddle offense A no-huddle offense was commonly used by all teams when time in the game was running low . However , Sam Wyche , the head coach of the Bengals in 1988 , along with offensive coordinator Bruce Coslet , made the high-paced offense the standard modality for the ball club regardless of time remaining . By quickly setting up for the next play ( often within 5–10 seconds after the last play despite being afforded 45 seconds ) this hindered the other team 's defense from substituting situational players , regrouping for tactics , and , some suggest , increased the defense 's rate of fatigue ( This is attributed to the belief that the offense dictates when a play starts so they tend to be more mentally relaxed and prepared for the start of a play where the defense must remain on a higher level of alert before the play starts ) . In response the NFL instituted several rules related to this tactic : * Allowing the defense ample time for substitutions ( if offensive substitutions are made ) ; * If a player 's injury causes the play-clock to stop , the player must sit out at least one play ; and * Charging a time-out to a team when a player is injured within a certain time period of the game . The hurry-up tactic was used by the franchise during the late 1980s while Sam Wyche was the coach . A rival for AFC supremacy during this time was the Buffalo Bills , coached by Marv Levy , who also used a version of the no-huddle offense starting with the 1989 season . The Bengals had beaten the Bills three times in 1988 ( pre-season , regular season , and the AFC Championship Game ) . Marv Levy threatened to fake injuries if the Bengals used the `` no-huddle '' in the AFC Championship . Wyche was notified that the commissioner had ordered the `` no-huddle '' illegal for the game . The official notified Wyche and the Bengals ' team just two hours before the game kickoff . Wyche asked to talk directly to the commissioner and word immediately came back that the `` no-huddle '' would not be penalized . Levy did not have his players fake injuries in the game , but installed his version the next year , 1989 . The Bengals first used the `` no-huddle '' in 1984 . Most of the high-profile games ( the various games for AFC titles and regular season games ) between the two led to these changes in NFL rules . Wyche also first used the timeout periods as an opportunity to bring his entire team to the sideline to talk to all eleven players , plus substitutes , at one time . This also allowed trainers time to treat a cut or bruise and equipment managers time to repair an equipment defect . West Coast offense The West Coast offense is the popular name for the high-percentage passing scheme designed by former Bengals assistant Bill Walsh . Walsh formulated what has become popularly known as the West Coast offense during his tenure as assistant coach for the Cincinnati Bengals from 1968 to 1975 , while working under the tutelage of Brown . Bengals quarterback Virgil Carter was the first player to successfully implement Walsh 's system , leading the NFL in pass completion percentage in 1971 . Ken Anderson later replaced Carter as Cincinnati 's starting quarterback , and was even more successful . In his 16-year career in the NFL , Anderson made four trips to the Pro Bowl , won four passing titles , was named NFL MVP in 1981 , and set the record for completion percentage in a single season in 1982 ( 70.66 % ) . Zone blitz The defense created to combat the West Coast offense also came from Cincinnati . Then-Bengals defensive coordinator Dick LeBeau ( who would later become the team 's head coach from 2000–2002 ) created the zone blitz in the 1980s in response to the West Coast offense . Season-by-season records Players of note Current roster Cole Marion Water boy # 00 Retired numbers Pro Football Hall of Fame members Cincinnati Bengals individual awards Head coaches 40th anniversary team In 2007 , in celebration of their 40th anniversary the Bengals named an all-time team voted on by the fans . Current staff Radio and television The Bengals flagship radio stations are WCKY , `` ESPN 1530 '' and WEBN-FM , with WLW AM 700 joining in following the end of the Reds ' season through 2013 . It was announced on May 4 by the Bengals , that beginning with the 2011 season that Dan Hoard was hired to replace Brad Johansen as the main play-by-play man . Most preseason and regular season games , are telecast on WKRC-TV , Local 12 , the CBS affiliate . The current TV announcers for preseason games are Brad Johansen play-by play , Anthony Munoz color commentary and Mike Valpredo sideline reporter . With the addition of Dan Hoard to the radio broadcast crew , Brad Johansen replaced Dan Hoard as the new TV play-by-play for preseason games . Games that feature an NFC opponent played at Paul Brown Stadium are televised on WXIX , Fox 19 . Phil Samp was the Bengals original play-by-play announcer from 1968–1990 . Ken Broo ( 1991–1995 ) , Paul Keels ( 1996 ) , USC Football announcer Pete Arbogast ( 1997–2000 ) and Brad Johansen ( 2001–2010 ) have also done radio play-by-play for the Bengals . Chant `` Who Dey ? ! '' is the name of a chant of support by fans of the Cincinnati Bengals , in use for over 30 years . The entire chant is : `` Who dey , who dey , who dey think gon na beat dem Bengals ? '' The answer screamed in unison , `` Nobody . '' Sometimes fans will instead shout `` Who Dey ? '' to represent the entire cheer . `` Who Dey '' is also the name of the team 's mascot , a Bengal tiger . The Who Dey chant 's first known use was by fans of the 1980 Cincinnati Bengals . While the origin of the chant is unsettled , one possible source for the chant is a 1980 commercial for ( the now-defunct ) Red Frazier Ford of Cincinnati , which used this tagline : `` Who 's going to give you a better deal than Red Frazier ? ... Nobody ! '' Cincinnati fans who had seen the commercial many times may have just copied it when cheering . The Who Dey chant is also steeped in local beer lore . Hudy , a leading product of Hudepohl Brewing Company through the late 1980s , bears a phonetic similarity to the `` Who Dey '' chant . Beer vendors who carried full cases of bottled local beer up and down the steep upper stairs of what was then Riverfront Stadium would call out `` Hudy '' , `` Berger '' and other local beer names . Raucous fans would often chant back and forth with them as the vendors called out . During the 1980 season the banter with the Hudepohl vendors grew organically into the now famous ( Hu-Dey ) -Who They ? - chant . The chant bears some similarities to the phrase `` Who Dat ? , '' which was officially adopted by the New Orleans Saints in 1983 but had been used by Louisiana 's high school team fans for some time . The saying `` Who Dat ? '' originated in minstrel shows and vaudeville acts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , then it was taken up by New Orleans Jazz and various Big band folks in the 1920s and 1930s . In the late 1960s , local Louisiana High Schools , St. Augustine High School and Patterson High School reportedly have been using the cheer and Gulf Coast fans of Alcorn State University and Louisiana State University picked up the cheer in the 1970s . Southern University in Baton Rouge , Louisiana claims to have originated the cheer in the late 1960s in their version : `` Who dat talking 'bout beating dem Jags ? ''

bt_2079--Cincinnati_Bengals.txt

What sport is played by the Cincinnati Bengals

Persian literature ( ) is one of the world 's oldest literatures . It spans two-and-a-half millennia , though much of the pre-Islamic material has been lost . Its sources have been within Greater Iran including present-day Iran , Iraq , the Caucasus , and Turkey , as well as regions of Central Asia where the Persian language has historically been the national language . For instance , Rumi , one of Iran 's best-loved poets , born in Balkh or Vakhsh ( in what is now Afghanistan ) , wrote in Persian , and lived in Konya , then the capital of the Seljuks . The Ghaznavids conquered large territories in Central and South Asia and adopted Persian as their court language . There is thus Persian literature from Iran , Mesopotamia , Azerbaijan , the wider Caucasus , Turkey , western parts of Pakistan , Tajikistan and other parts of Central Asia . Not all this literature is written in Persian , as some consider works written by ethnic Persians in other languages , such as Greek and Arabic , to be included . At the same time , not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians . Particularly , Turkic , Caucasian , and Indic poets and writers have also used the Persian language in the environment of Persianate cultures . Described as one of the great literatures of mankind , Persian literature has its roots in surviving works of Middle Persian and Old Persian , the latter of which date back as far as 522 BCE ( the date of the earliest surviving Achaemenid inscription , the Behistun Inscription ) . ( Persian literature was considered by Goethe one of the four main bodies of world literature . ) The bulk of surviving Persian literature , however , comes from the times following the Islamic conquest of Iran c. 650 CE . After the Abbasids came to power ( 750 CE ) , the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Islamic empire and , increasingly , also its writers and poets . The New Persian literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana because of political reasons – the early Iranian dynasties such as Tahirids and Samanids were based in Khorasan . Iranians wrote in both Persian and Arabic ; Persian predominated in later literary circles . Persian poets such as Ferdowsi , Sa'di , Hafiz , Attar , Nezami , Rumi and Omar Khayyam are also known in the West and have influenced the literature of many countries . Classical Persian literature Pre-Islamic Persian literature Very few literary works of Achaemenid Iran have survived , due partly to the destruction of the library at Persepolis . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idVW-rtv9te8cC & pg PA23 & dqpersepolis+library & sig ACfU3U2SEJceoGGAKOtfYReZJJwnPr2X4w Encyclopedia of Library and ... - Google Books ] Most of what remains consists of the royal inscriptions of Achaemenid kings , particularly Darius I ( 522–486 BC ) and his son Xerxes . Many Zoroastrian writings were destroyed in the Islamic conquest of Iran in the 7th century . The Parsis who fled to India , however , took with them some of the books of the Zoroastrian canon , including some of the Avesta and ancient commentaries ( Zend ) thereof . Some works of Sassanid geography and travel also survived , albeit in Arabic translations . No single text devoted to literary criticism has survived from Pre-Islamic Iran . However , some essays in Pahlavi , such as `` Ayin-e name nebeshtan '' ( Principles of Writing Book ) and `` Bab-e edteda ’ I-ye '' ( Kalileh o Demneh ) , have been considered as literary criticism ( Zarrinkoub , 1959 ) . Some researchers have quoted the Sho'ubiyye as asserting that the Pre-Islamic Iranians had books on eloquence , such as 'Karvand ' . No trace remains of such books . There are some indications that some among the Persian elite were familiar with Greek rhetoric and literary criticism ( Zarrinkoub , 1947 ) . Persian literature of the medieval and pre-modern periods While initially overshadowed by Arabic during the Umayyad and early Abbasid caliphates , New Persian soon became a literary language again of the Central Asian and West Asian lands . The rebirth of the language in its new form is often accredited to Ferdowsi , Unsuri , Daqiqi , Rudaki , and their generation , as they used Pre-Islamic nationalism as a conduit to revive the language and customs of ancient Iran . In particular , says Ferdowsi himself in his Shahnama : `` For thirty years , I endured much pain and strife , I awaken the Ajam by this Persian [ language ] . `` Poetry So strong is the Persian aptitude for versifying everyday expressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work , whether from Persian literature , science , or metaphysics . In short , the ability to write in verse form was a pre-requisite for any scholar . For example , almost half of Avicenna 's medical writings are in verse . Works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court patronage , an extravagance of panegyrics , and what is known as سبک فاخر `` exalted in style '' . The tradition of royal patronage began perhaps under the Sassanid era and carried over through the Abbasid and Samanid courts into every major Iranian dynasty . The Qasida was perhaps the most famous form of panegyric used , though quatrains such as those in Omar Khayyam 's Ruba'iyyat are also widely popular . Khorasani style , whose followers mostly were associated with Greater Khorasan , is characterized by its supercilious diction , dignified tone , and relatively literate language . The chief representatives of this lyricism are Asjadi , Farrukhi Sistani , Unsuri , and Manuchehri . Panegyric masters such as Rudaki were known for their love of nature , their verse abounding with evocative descriptions . Through these courts and system of patronage emerged the epic style of poetry , with Ferdowsi 's Shahnama at the apex . By glorifying the Iranian historical past in heroic and elevated verses , he and other notables such as Daqiqi and Asadi Tusi presented the `` Ajam '' with a source of pride and inspiration that has helped preserve a sense of identity for the Iranian People over the ages . Ferdowsi set a model to be followed by a host of other poets later on . The 13th century marks the ascendancy of lyric poetry with the consequent development of the ghazal into a major verse form , as well as the rise of mystical and Sufi poetry . This style is often called Araqi ( Iraqi ) style , ( western provinces of Iran were known as The Persian Iraq ( Araq-e-Ajam ) and is known by its emotional lyric qualities , rich meters , and the relative simplicity of its language . Emotional romantic poetry was not something new however , as works such as Vis o Ramin by As'ad Gorgani , and Yusof o Zoleikha by Am'aq Bokharai exemplify . Poets such as Sana ' i and Attar ( who ostensibly have inspired Rumi ) , Khaqani Shirvani , Anvari , and Nizami , were highly respected ghazal writers . However , the elite of this school are Rumi , Sadi , and Hafiz Shirazi . Regarding the tradition of Persian love poetry during the Safavid era , Persian historian Ehsan Yarshater notes , `` As a rule , the beloved is not a woman , but a young man . In the early centuries of Islam , the raids into Central Asia produced many young slaves . Slaves were also bought or received as gifts . They were made to serve as pages at court or in the households of the affluent , or as soldiers and bodyguards . Young men , slaves or not , also , served wine at banquets and receptions , and the more gifted among them could play music and maintain a cultivated conversation . It was love toward young pages , soldiers , or novices in trades and professions which was the subject of lyrical introductions to panegyrics from the beginning of Persian poetry , and of the ghazal. `` During the same Safavid era , many subjects of the Iranian Safavids were patrons of Persian poetry , such as Teimuraz I of Kakheti . In the didactic genre one can mention Sanai 's Hadiqat-ul-Haqiqah ( Garden of Truth ) as well as Nizami 's Makhzan-ul-Asrār ( Treasury of Secrets ) . Some of Attar 's works also belong to this genre as do the major works of Rumi , although some tend to classify these in the lyrical type due to their mystical and emotional qualities . In addition , some tend to group Naser Khosrow 's works in this style as well ; however true gems of this genre are two books by Sadi , a heavyweight of Persian literature , the Bustan and the Gulistan . After the 15th century , the Indian style of Persian poetry ( sometimes also called Isfahani or Safavi styles ) took over . This style has its roots in the Timurid era and produced the likes of Amir Khosrow Dehlavi , and Bhai Nand Lal Goya . Essays The most significant essays of this era are Nizami Arudhi Samarqandi 's `` Chahār Maqāleh '' as well as Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi 's anecdote compendium Jawami ul-Hikayat . Shams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir 's famous work , the Qabus nama ( A Mirror for Princes ) , is a highly esteemed Belles-lettres work of Persian literature . Also highly regarded is Siyasatnama , by Nizam al-Mulk , a famous Persian vizier . Kelileh va Demneh , translated from Indian folk tales , can also be mentioned in this category . It is seen as a collection of adages in Persian literary studies and thus does not convey folkloric notions . Biographies , hagiographies , and historical works Among the major historical and biographical works in classical Persian , one can mention Abolfazl Beyhaghi 's famous Tarikh-i Beyhaqi , Lubab ul-Albab of Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi ( which has been regarded as a reliable chronological source by many experts ) , as well as Ata-Malik Juvayni 's famous Tarikh-i Jahangushay-i Juvaini ( which spans the Mongolid and Ilkhanid era of Iran ) . Attar 's Tazkerat-ol-Owliya ( `` Biographies of the Saints '' ) is also a detailed account of Sufi mystics , which is referenced by many subsequent authors and considered a significant work in mystical hagiography . Literary criticism The oldest surviving work of Persian literary criticism after the Islamic conquest of Persia is Muqaddame-ye Shahname-ye Abu Mansuri , which was written during the Samanid period . The work deals with the myths and legends of Shahname and is considered the oldest surviving example of Persian prose . It also shows an attempt by the authors to evaluate literary works critically . Persian storytelling One Thousand and One Nights ( ) is a medieval folk tale collection which tells the story of Scheherazade ( Šahrzād ) , a Sassanid queen who must relate a series of stories to her malevolent husband , King Shahryar ( Šahryār ) , to delay her execution . The stories are told over a period of one thousand and one nights , and every night she ends the story with a suspenseful situation , forcing the King to keep her alive for another day . The individual stories were created over several centuries , by many people from a number of different lands . The nucleus of the collection is formed by a Pahlavi Sassanid Persian book called Hazār Afsānah ( , Thousand Myths ) , a collection of ancient Indian and Persian folk tales . During the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the 8th century , Baghdad had become an important cosmopolitan city . Merchants from Persia , China , India , Africa , and Europe were all found in Baghdad . During this time , many of the stories that were originally folk stories are thought to have been collected orally over many years and later compiled into a single book . The compiler and 9th-century translator into Arabic is reputedly the storyteller Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad el-Gahshigar . The frame story of Shahrzad seems to have been added in the 14th century . Dictionaries The biggest Persian dictionary is Dehkhoda Dictionary ( 16 volumes ) by Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda . He names 200 Persian lexicographical works in his dictionary , the earliest , Farhang-i Oim ( ) and Farhang-i Menakhtay ( ) , from the late Sassanid era . The most widely used Persian lexicons in the Middle Ages were those of Abu Hafs Soghdi ( ) and Asadi Tusi ( ) , written in 1092 . Also highly regarded in the contemporary Persian literature lexical corpus are the works of Dr. Mohammad Moin . The first volume of Moin Dictionary was published in 1963 . In 1645 , Christian Ravius completed a Persian-Latin dictionary , printed at Leiden . This was followed by J. Richardson 's two-volume Oxford edition ( 1777 ) and Gladwin-Malda 's ( 1770 ) Persian-English Dictionaries , Scharif and S. Peters ' Persian-Russian Dictionary ( 1869 ) , and 30 other Persian lexicographical translations through the 1950s . In 2002 , Professor Hassan Anvari published his Persian-to-Persian dictionary , Farhang-e Bozorg-e Sokhan , in eight volumes by Sokhan Publications . Currently English-Persian dictionaries of Manouchehr Aryanpour and Soleiman Haim are widely used in Iran . Persian phrases The influence of Persian literature on World literature Sufi literature William Shakespeare referred to Iran as the `` land of the Sophy '' . Some of Persia 's best-beloved medieval poets were Sufis , and their poetry was , and is , widely read by Sufis from Morocco to Indonesia . Rumi ( Maulānā ) , in particular is renowned both as a poet and as the founder of a widespread Sufi order . The themes and styles of this devotional poetry have been widely imitated by many Sufi poets . See also the article on Sufi poetry . Many notable texts in Persian mystic literature are not poems , yet highly read and regarded . Among those are Kimiya-yi sa'ādat , Asrar al-Tawhid and Kashf ul Mahjoob . Georgian literature Starting from the early 16th century , although certain aspects of more recent times were already incorporated since the 12th century , until the course of the 19th century , Georgian culture became significantly influenced by Persian culture . Though notably more visibly amongst the higher classes , Persian cultural aspects were incorporated amongst the already existing Georgian columns , which especially included literature , amongst others . Jamshid Sh . Giunashvili remarks on the connection of Georgian culture with that of the Persian literary work Shahnameh : Asia Minor Despite that Asia Minor ( or Anatolia ) had been ruled various times prior to the Middle Ages by various Persian-speaking dynasties originating in Iran , the language lost its traditional foothold there with the demise of the Sassanian Empire . Centuries later however , the practise and usage in the region would be strongly revived . A branch of the Seljuks , the Sultanate of Rum , took Persian language , art and letters to Anatolia . They adopted Persian language as the official language of the empire . The Ottomans , which can `` roughly '' be seen as their eventual successors , took this tradition over . Persian was the official court language of the empire , and for some time , the official language of the empire . The educated and noble class of the Ottoman Empire all spoke Persian , such as sultan Selim I , despite being Safavid Iran 's archrival and a staunch opposer of Shia Islam . It was a major literary language in the empire . Some of the noted earlier Persian literature works during the Ottoman rule are Idris Bidlisi 's Hasht Bihisht , which begun in 1502 and covered the reign of the first eight Ottoman rulers , and the Salim-Namah , a glorification of Selim I . After a period of several centuries , Ottoman Turkish ( which was highly Persianised itself ) had developed towards a fully accepted language of literature , which was even able to satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation . However , the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88 % . The Ottomans produced thousands of Persian literary works throughout their century long lifespan . Areas once under Ghaznavid or Mughal rule South Asia With the emergence of the Ghaznavids and their successors such as the Ghurids , Timurids and Mughal Empire , Persian culture and its literature gradually moved into South Asia too . In general , from its earliest days , Persian literature and language was imported into the subcontinent by culturally Persianised Turkic and Afghan dynasties . Persian became the language of the nobility , literary circles , and the royal Mughal courts for hundreds of years . In the early 19th century , Hindustani replaced it . Under the Moghul Empire of India during the 16th century , the official language of India became Persian . Only in 1832 did the British army force the South Asia to begin conducting business in English . ( Clawson , p. 6 ) Persian poetry in fact flourished in these regions while post-Safavid Iranian literature stagnated . Dehkhoda and other scholars of the 20th century , for example , largely based their works on the detailed lexicography produced in India , using compilations such as Ghazi khan Badr Muhammad Dehlavi 's Adat al-Fudhala ( ) , Ibrahim Ghavamuddin Farughi 's Farhang-i Ibrahimi ( ) , and particularly Muhammad Padshah 's Farhang-i Anandraj ( ) . Western literature Persian literature was little known in the West before the 18-19th century . It became much better known following the publication of several translations from the works of late medieval Persian poets , and it inspired works by various Western poets and writers . German literature * In 1819 , Goethe published his West-östlicher Divan , a collection of lyric poems inspired by a German translation of Hafiz ( 1326–1390 ) . * The German essayist and philosopher Nietzsche was the author of the book Thus Spoke Zarathustra ( 1883–1885 ) , referring to the ancient Persian prophet Zoroaster ( c. 1700 BCE ) . English literature * A selection from Ferdowsi 's Shahnameh ( 935–1020 ) was published in 1832 by James Atkinson , a physician employed by the British East India Company . * A portion of this abridgment was later versified by the British poet Matthew Arnold in his 1853 Rustam and Sohrab . * The American poet Ralph Waldo Emerson was another admirer of Persian poetry . He published several essays in 1876 that discuss Persian poetry : Letters and Social Aims , From the Persian of Hafiz , and Ghaselle . Perhaps the most popular Persian poet of the 19th and early 20th centuries was Omar Khayyam ( 1048–1123 ) , whose Rubaiyat was freely translated by Edward Fitzgerald in 1859 . Khayyam is esteemed more as a scientist than a poet in his native Persia , but in Fitzgerald 's rendering , he became one of the most quoted poets in English . Khayyam 's line , `` A loaf of bread , a jug of wine , and thou '' , is known to many who could not say who wrote it , or where : `` Ah , would there were a loaf of bread as fare , A joint of lamb , a jug of vintage rare , And you and I in wilderness encamped -- No Sultan 's pleasure could with ours compare. `` The Persian poet and mystic Rumi ( 1207–1273 ) ( known as Molana in Iran , Afghanistan and Tajikistan ; and as Mevlana in Turkey ) , has attracted a large following in the late 20th and early 21st centuries . Popularizing translations by Coleman Barks have presented Rumi as a New Age sage . There are also a number of more literary translations by scholars such as A. J. Arberry . The classical poets ( Hafiz , Sa'di , Khayyam , Rumi , Nizami and Ferdowsi ) are now widely known in English and can be read in various translations . Other works of Persian literature are untranslated and little known . Swedish literature During the last century , numerous works of classical Persian literature have been translated into Swedish by baron Eric Hermelin . He translated works by , among others , Farid al-Din Attar , Rumi , Ferdowsi , Omar Khayyam , Sa'adi and Sana ' i . Influenced by the writings of the Swedish mystic Emanuel Swedenborg , he was especially attracted to the religious or Sufi aspects of classical Persian poetry . His translations have had a great impact on numerous modern Swedish writers , among them Karl Wennberg , Willy Kyrklund and Gunnar Ekelöf . More recently classical authors such as Hafez , Rumi , Araqi and Nizami Aruzi has been rendered into Swedish by the iranist Ashk Dahlén , who has published several essays on the development of Persian literature . Excerpts from Ferdousi 's Shahnama has also been translated into Swedish prose by Namdar Nasser and Anja Malmberg . Italian literature During the last century , numerous works of classical Persian literature have been translated into Italian by Alessandro Bausani ( Nizami , Rumi , Iqbal , Khayyam ) , Carlo Saccone ( 'Attar , Sana ' i , Hafiz , Nasir-i Khusraw , Nizami , Ahmad Ghazali , Ansari of Herat ) , Angelo Piemontese ( Amir Khusraw Dihlavi ) , Pio Filippani-Ronconi ( Nasir-i Khusraw , Sa'di ) , Riccardo Zipoli ( Kay Ka'us , Bidil ) , Maurizio Pistoso ( Nizam al-Mulk ) , Giorgio Vercellin ( Nizami 'Aruzi ) , Giovanni Maria D'Erme ( 'Ubayd Zakani , Hafiz ) , Sergio Foti ( Suhrawardi , Rumi , Jami ) , Rita Bargigli ( Sa'di , Farrukhi , Manuchehri , 'Unsuri ) . A complete translation of Firdawsi 's Shah-nama was made by Italo Pizzi in the 19th century . Contemporary Persian literature History In the 19th century , Persian literature experienced dramatic change and entered a new era . The beginning of this change was exemplified by an incident in the mid-19th century at the court of Nasereddin Shah , when the reform-minded prime minister , Amir Kabir , chastised the poet Habibollah Qa'ani for `` lying '' in a panegyric qasida written in Kabir 's honor . Kabir saw poetry in general and the type of poetry that had developed during the Qajar period as detrimental to `` progress '' and `` modernization '' in Iranian society , which he believed was in dire need of change . Such concerns were also expressed by others such as Fath-'Ali Akhundzadeh , Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani , and Mirza Malkom Khan . Khan also addressed a need for a change in Persian poetry in literary terms as well , always linking it to social concerns . The new Persian literary movement can not be understood without an understanding of the intellectual movements among Iranian philosophical circles . Given the social and political climate of Persia ( Iran ) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , which led to the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906–1911 , the idea that change in poetry was necessary became widespread . Many argued that Persian poetry should reflect the realities of a country in transition . This idea was propagated by notable literary figures such as Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda and Abolqasem Aref , who challenged the traditional system of Persian poetry in terms of introducing new content and experimentation with rhetoric , lexico-semantics , and structure . Dehkhoda , for instance , used a lesser-known traditional form , the mosammat , to elegize the execution of a revolutionary journalist . 'Aref employed the ghazal , `` the most central genre within the lyrical tradition '' ( p. 88 ) , to write his `` Payam-e Azadi '' ( Message of Freedom ) . Some researchers argue that the notion of `` sociopolitical ramifications of esthetic changes '' led to the idea of poets `` as social leaders trying the limits and possibilities of social change. `` An important movement in modern Persian literature centered on the question of modernization and Westernization and whether these terms are synonymous when describing the evolution of Iranian society . It can be argued that almost all advocates of modernism in Persian literature , from Akhundzadeh , Kermani , and Malkom Khan to Dehkhoda , Aref , Bahar , and Taqi Rafat , were inspired by developments and changes that had occurred in Western , particularly European , literatures . Such inspirations did not mean blindly copying Western models but , rather , adapting aspects of Western literature and changing them to fit the needs of Iranian culture . Following the pioneering works of Ahmad Kasravi , Sadeq Hedayat and many others , the Iranian wave of comparative literature and literary criticism reached a symbolic crest with the emergence of Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub , Shahrokh Meskoob , Houshang Golshiri and Ebrahim Golestan . Persian literature in Afghanistan Persian literature in Afghanistan has also experienced a dramatic change during the last century . At the beginning of the 20th century , Afghanistan was confronted with economic and social change , which sparked a new approach to literature . In 1911 , Mahmud Tarzi , who came back to Afghanistan after years of exile in Turkey and was influential in government circles , started a fortnightly publication named Saraj ’ ul Akhbar . Saraj was not the first such publication in the country , but in the field of journalism and literature it launched a new period of change and modernization . Saraj not only played an important role in journalism , it also gave new life to literature as a whole and opened the way for poetry to explore new avenues of expression through which personal thoughts took on a more social colour . In 1930 ( 1309 AH ) , after months of cultural stagnation , a group of writers founded the Herat Literary Circle . A year later , another group calling itself the Kabul Literary Circle was founded in the capital . Both groups published regular magazines dedicated to culture and Persian literature . Both , especially the Kabul publication , had little success in becoming venues for modern Persian poetry and writing . In time , the Kabul publication turned into a stronghold for traditional writers and poets , and modernism in Dari literature was pushed to the fringes of social and cultural life . Three of the most prominent classical poets in Afghanistan at the time were Qari Abdullah , Abdul Haq Betab and Khalil Ullah Khalili . The first two received the honorary title Malek ul Shoara ( King of Poets ) . Khalili , the third and youngest , was drawn toward the Khorasan style of poetry instead of the usual Hendi style . He was also interested in modern poetry and wrote a few poems in a more modern style with new aspects of thought and meaning . In 1318 ( AH ) , after two poems by Nima Youshij titled `` Gharab '' and `` Ghoghnus '' were published , Khalili wrote a poem under the name `` Sorude Kuhestan '' or `` The Song of the Mountain '' in the same rhyming pattern as Nima and sent it to the Kabul Literary Circle . The traditionalists in Kabul refused to publish it because it was not written in the traditional rhyme . They criticized Khalili for modernizing his style . Very gradually new styles found their way into literature and literary circles despite the efforts of traditionalists . The first book of new poems was published in the year 1957 ( 1336 AH ) , and in 1962 ( 1341 AH ) , a collection of modern Persian ( Dari ) poetry was published in Kabul . The first group to write poems in the new style consisted of Mahmud Farani , Baregh Shafi ’ i , Solayman Layeq , Sohail , Ayeneh and a few others . Later , Vasef Bakhtari , Asadullah Habib and Latif Nazemi , and others joined the group . Each had his own share in modernizing Persian poetry in Afghanistan . Other notable figures

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The translation of Persian poems called The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam was the work of which 19th century English writer and poet?

John Higgins , ( born 18 May 1975 ) is a Scottish professional snooker player . Since turning professional in 1992 , he has won 28 ranking titles , including four World Championships and three UK Championships , as well as two Masters titles , making him one of the most successful players in the modern history of the sport . In terms of world titles in the modern era , Higgins is fifth behind Stephen Hendry ( 7 ) , Steve Davis ( 6 ) , Ray Reardon ( 6 ) and Ronnie O'Sullivan ( 5 ) . He has 28 career ranking titles , putting him in joint second place with Davis and O'Sullivan , behind Hendry ( 36 ) . Known as a prolific break-builder , he has compiled 604 century breaks in professional tournament play , placing him third behind O'Sullivan and Hendry . He has also compiled 7 competitive maximum breaks , placing him third behind O'Sullivan ( 13 ) and Hendry ( 11 ) . For 16 consecutive full seasons from 1996/1997 to 2011/2012 , Higgins never fell below 6th in the world rankings , and was world number 1 on four occasions . In 2010 , the News of the World tabloid newspaper carried out a sting operation in a hotel room in Ukraine , which claimed to show Higgins and his then-manager arranging to lose specific frames in future matches for money . Although an investigation cleared Higgins of match-fixing allegations , it found that he had brought the sport into disrepute by failing to report , and giving the impression of agreeing with , an invitation to breach the sport 's betting rules . The WPBSA banned Higgins from professional competition for six months and fined him £75,000 . He returned to the tour midway through the 2010/2011 season . After his return to snooker , Higgins added a third UK Championship title and claimed his fourth world title in 2011 . He subsequently experienced a noted slump in form , and between 2012 and 2014 only won the 2012 Shanghai Masters . He has spoken frequently in this period about his struggles with confidence and consistency . However , in 2015 , Higgins returned to winning ways , capturing three ranking titles . Career Early years Higgins turned professional in 1992 and reached the quarter-finals of the British Open during his first season on the professional tour . He rose to prominence in the 1994/1995 season when , at the age of 19 , he won his first ranking tournament at the Grand Prix , defeating Dave Harold 9–6 in the final . He went on to win two more ranking titles at the British Open and International Open , making him the first teenager to win three ranking events in one season , and he also reached the finals of the Welsh Open and the Masters . By the end of the season , he had moved from 51st to 11th in the world rankings . By the end of the following season , assisted by two more ranking titles and another ranking final , he had moved up to 2nd in the world . In the UK Championship final in 1996 , he recovered from 4–8 down against Stephen Hendry to lead 9–8 , only to lose 9–10 . In 1998 , Higgins won his first World Championship , beating Jason Ferguson , Anthony Hamilton , John Parrott and Ronnie O'Sullivan , before overcoming defending champion Ken Doherty 18–12 in the final . He made a then-record 14 centuries in the tournament ( an achievement that was later eclipsed by Hendry , who made 16 centuries in the 2002 World Championship ) . After winning the world title , Higgins became world number 1 for the first time in his career , ending Stephen Hendry 's eight-year tenure in the top spot . After the first world title During the 1998/99 season , Higgins won the UK Championship and Masters with 10–6 and 10–8 defeats of Matthew Stevens and Ken Doherty , respectively , to become only the third player after Davis and Hendry to hold the World , UK and Masters titles simultaneously ( Mark Williams later joined this elite group ) . In addition , he is one of just five players to have claimed both the World and UK Championship in the same calendar year ( 1998 ) ; the others are Steve Davis , Stephen Hendry , John Parrott and Ronnie O'Sullivan . Higgins remained as World no . 1 for two years , when Mark Williams replaced him at the top of the rankings at the close of the 1999/00 season . Higgins and Williams met in the Grand Prix final in 1999 , where Higgins came from 2–6 down to claim a 9–8 victory ; the World Championship semi-final in 2000 , where Higgins was defeated 15–17 after surrendering a 14–10 advantage in the final session ; and the UK Championship final in 2000 – Higgins winning by a margin of 10–4 to earn his second UK title . He reached the World Championship final in 2001 , but lost 14–18 to Ronnie O'Sullivan . At the beginning of the 2001/02 season , Higgins became the first player to win the opening three tournaments of a season : the Champions Cup , Scottish Masters ( both invitational events ) , and the British Open . Higgins then failed to win a major title until his fourth British Open triumph in 2004 . In the Grand Prix final in 2005 , Higgins beat Ronnie O'Sullivan 9–2 . In doing so , he became the first player to record four consecutive centuries in a ranking tournament , with breaks of 103 , 104 , 138 and 128 in frames 7 to 10 . Higgins scored 494 points without reply , which was then a record ( Ding Junhui managed 495 points against Stephen Hendry in the Premier League in 2007 ) . Higgins and O'Sullivan also contested the Masters finals in 2005 and 2006 . Higgins was beaten 3–10 in 2005 . In 2006 , he lost the first three frames , but won the next five to establish a lead after the first session . O'Sullivan levelled in the evening , and the match went to a deciding frame . On a 60 break , O'Sullivan missed a red to a baulk pocket , and Higgins made a clearance of 64 to win 10–9 to claim the title for the second time . Second and third world titles Higgins beat Michael Holt , Fergal O'Brien , Ronnie O'Sullivan , and Stephen Maguire en route to the final . His break of 122 in the 29th frame of his semi-final against Maguire , on recovering from a deficit of 10–14 in the final session to prevail 17–15 , was the 1,000th century to be made at the Crucible Theatre , Sheffield since the World Championship was first staged there in 1977 . In the final , Higgins held a 12–4 advantage over Mark Selby overnight , but Selby reduced his arrears to a single frame on day two . However , at 14–13 , Higgins rediscovered his form to win four consecutive frames to clinch the match 18–13 to secure his second World title at 12:54 a.m. , the latest finish to a World final ( equalled when Neil Robertson beat Graeme Dott in 2010 ) ; and nine years after his first title – the longest time span between successes since Alex Higgins ( 1972 , 1982 ) , and the longest at The Crucible . He regained World no . 1 status . As World Champion , Higgins reached the quarter-final stages in only the Welsh and China Open tournaments . He helped to establish , and actively promoted , the World Series of Snooker – a tour intended to bring snooker to new venues outside the traditional United Kingdom and recently developed Far East markets . He won the inaugural event in St. Helier in June 2008 , beating Mark Selby 6–3 in the final . Higgins also devised a new players ’ union with his manager Pat Mooney , called The Snooker Players Association . He won the Grand Prix for the fourth time in 2008 , beating Ryan Day 9–7 in the final in Glasgow – his first ranking tournament win on home soil . In the World Championship in 2009 , Higgins beat Michael Holt 10–5 in round one . His second-round and quarter-final matches both went the full distance of 25 frames , with Higgins overcoming 10–12 and 11–12 deficits against Jamie Cope and Mark Selby , respectively , to win 13–12 . He established a 13–3 lead in the semi-final against Mark Allen and progressed 17–13 – withstanding a comeback by the Northern Irishman . Higgins recorded an 18–9 victory over Shaun Murphy in the final to become the ninth player to win the World title three or more times after Joe Davis , Fred Davis , John Pulman , John Spencer , Ray Reardon , Steve Davis , Stephen Hendry and Ronnie O'Sullivan . He joined Steve Davis , Hendry and O'Sullivan as the only players to have lifted the trophy three or more times at The Crucible . At two weeks before his 34th birthday , Higgins became the oldest player to triumph since Dennis Taylor in 1985 , who was 36 years of age . In the 2009/10 season , as reigning World Champion , he lost 5–6 on the black ball to Neil Robertson in the semi-final of the Grand Prix ; and 8–10 to Ding Junhui in the final of the UK Championship , after surviving a comeback by Ronnie O'Sullivan in the semi-final when leading 8–2 , to advance 9–8 the previous evening . He also defeated Neil Robertson 9–8 during the tournament He captured the Welsh Open title by defeating Allister Carter 9–4 in the final , and ended the season as World no . 1 despite an 11–13 loss to Steve Davis in round two of the World Championship . Match-fixing allegations and fourth world title Suspension On 2 May 2010 , Higgins and his manager , Pat Mooney , a World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association ( WPBSA ) board member , were the subject of match-fixing allegations after being filmed in a sting operation conducted by the now defunct News of the World newspaper . An undercover News of the World team , led by Mazher Mahmood , posing as promoters , met Higgins and his manager on 30 April , in a hotel room in Kiev under the pretence of organising a series of events linked to the World Series of Snooker . The newspaper alleged that Higgins and Mooney had agreed to lose four frames in four separate tournaments in exchange for a €300,000 total payment , and further discussed the mechanics of how to fix a frame , which tournaments and opponents to choose , and how to transfer the money to Higgins . Higgins was immediately suspended from the game and Mooney resigned from his position on the WPBSA board . Higgins issued a statement on the same day denying he had ever been involved in match-fixing , and explained that he decided to `` play along '' out of fear for his safety , suspecting the involvement of the Russian Mafia . A full investigation was conducted into the allegations by David Douglas – a former Metropolitan Police detective chief superintendent , and head of the WPBSA 's disciplinary committee . The independent tribunal that followed on 7–8 September , hosted by Sports Resolutions ( UK ) and chaired by Ian Mill QC , concurred that the WPBSA was right to conclude that Higgins had truthfully accounted for his words and actions and to withdraw the more serious charges of match-fixing , but found him guilty of 'giving the impression ' he would breach betting rules , and of failing to report the approach made by the News of the World . Higgins received a six-month ban , backdated to the start of his suspension period , and was fined £75,000 . Return to snooker Higgins returned to professional competition on 12 November 2010 in the Ruhr Championship – European Players Tour Championship ( EPTC ) event five in Hamm and went on to win the tournament beating Shaun Murphy 4–2 in the final . His winning streak continued in the Prague Classic ( EPTC6 ) in Prague where he reached the final again , but lost 3–4 to Michael Holt . In the UK Championship , his first tournament on British soil since his return , he reached his third final in succession . He fought back from 2–7 and 5–9 down against Mark Williams , and from 7–9 after trailing 0–61 , and needing a snooker to level the match . He made a 68 break in the decider , and sealed a 10–9 victory with a sensational double on the brown . In securing his third UK title , Higgins became only the fourth player after Steve Davis , Stephen Hendry and Ronnie O'Sullivan , to win the second biggest ranking tournament in snooker three or more times . As a result of his progress in those three events , where he won 18 out of 19 matches , Higgins earned sufficient points to regain his position as World No . 1 under the new two-year rolling ranking system after having slipped to third by missing the start of the 2010/2011 season . Higgins lost in the first round of the Masters 4–6 against Graeme Dott and withdrew from the German Masters after defeating Robert Milkins 5–3 in round one , to return home due to the deteriorating health of his father , who subsequently died after a long battle against cancer . A little over two weeks later , Higgins successfully defended his Welsh Open title by beating Stephen Maguire 9–6 in the final – dedicating victory to his late father . Higgins won the Hainan Classic , defeating Jamie Cope in the final . Higgins reached the quarter-final of the China Open , where he lost 2–5 against Shaun Murphy . Higgins ' next tournament was the Scottish Professional Championship , where he defeated Anthony McGill 6–1 in the final . In the World Championship , Higgins defeated Stephen Lee 10–5 in the first round , Rory McLeod 13–7 in the second round and Ronnie O'Sullivan 13–10 in the quarter-finals . On the way to a 17–14 victory over Mark Williams in the semi-finals , Higgins was heckled by an audience member who shouted out , `` How do you swallow that three hundred thousand , John ? ... You 're a disgrace to snooker . '' Higgins went on to defeat Judd Trump 18–15 in the final to win his fourth world title , which prompted Steve Davis to comment `` I think John Higgins is the best snooker player I 've ever seen in my life '' . Despite the victory , Higgins lost the world number one ranking to Mark Williams . Struggles with form Higgins had a poor 2011/2012 season , reaching only two quarter finals of major ranking events . His season-best performance was reaching the semi-finals of the Masters , where he lost 4–6 to Shaun Murphy . Before the start of his World Championship title defence , he admitted that his performance levels had not been good enough and that he had not been trying hard enough , managing just one or two days of practice a week . In the first round of the tournament , he came from 6–8 down to defeat Liang Wenbo 10–9 . He then played Stephen Hendry in the second round , the first time the two players had ever met in a World Championship , but Hendry thrashed the defending champion 13–4 , with Higgins calling it the worst he had ever played at the Crucible . He finished the season ranked world number five . Higgins started the 2012/2013 season well , winning his 25th ranking title at the Shanghai Masters after coming back from 2–7 down to defeat Judd Trump 10–9 in the final . He made a maximum break during the final , and compiled another 147 break in his second-round match against Mark Davis at the UK Championship . He also won the minor-ranking Kay Suzanne Memorial Trophy , defeating Trump 4–2 in the final , and reached the final of the minor-ranking Bulgarian Open , where he lost 0–4 to Trump . However , the season thereafter was another disappointing one for Higgins , who lost 3–4 to unranked amateur Jordan Brown at the minor-ranking Scottish Open and reached only one other semi-final of a major ranking event , the World Open , which he lost 2–6 to Mark Allen . He exited the World Championship in the first round , losing 6–10 to Mark Davis . Afterward , he admitted that doubts about whether he could remain at the pinnacle of the sport after 20 years as a professional had affected his form . He finished the season ranked 11th , slipping out of the top 10 for the first time in 17 seasons . Playing with a new cue , Higgins began the 2013/2014 season strongly , winning the minor-ranking Bulgarian Open with a 4–1 victory over Neil Robertson in the final , having beaten Shaun Murphy and Ronnie O'Sullivan earlier in the event . This win allowed him briefly to regain his top-10 ranking . He reached the final of the season 's first major ranking event , the Wuxi Classic , which he lost 7–10 to Robertson . His form then deteriorated again and he suffered early defeats at a number of minor-ranking events , including a 0–4 loss to Mark King in the last 128 of the Paul Hunter Classic . He changed his cue again before defending his Shanghai Masters title , but lost 1–5 to Mark Davis in the last 16 . His Kay Suzanne Memorial Cup title defence ended when he was whitewashed 0–4 by Andrew Higginson in the last 128 . He lost 2–4 to Ding Junhui in the last 16 of the 2013 Indian Open , and lost 2–6 to Matthew Stevens in the last 32 of the 2013 International Championship . In the invitational Champion of Champions tournament , he lost 3–4 in the first round to Stephen Maguire . Higgins switched cues yet again before the UK Championship , but continued to struggle in his matches , calling his poor form `` soul-destroying . '' He lost 3–6 to Maguire in the last 16 . Referring to Higgins 's frequent changes of cue , 1986 World Champion and television commentator Joe Johnson alleged that Higgins was `` searching for something that is not there '' and `` looking for someone or something to blame '' for his poor form . Higgins retaliated by claiming that players in Johnson 's era had struggled to make breaks of 30 or 40 on tables with much larger pockets , and by calling Johnson one of the sport 's worst commentators . After the UK Championship , he slipped to number 12 in the world rankings , having failed to progress beyond the last 16 of any tournament since the Wuxi Classic in June . Before the Masters , Higgins revealed that he had reached the `` depths of despair '' after the UK Championship , after spending months `` in turmoil . '' He also revealed that he had switched to yet another cue , had regained his tempo , and felt that he was playing better than he had in some time . He defeated Stuart Bingham 6–2 in the first round , but lost 5–6 in the quarter-finals to defending champion Mark Selby , despite having led the match 5–3 . At the German Masters , Higgins lost 3–5 to Dominic Dale in the last 32 . At the Welsh Open , he defeated Judd Trump 4–3 in the last 16 , but lost 1–5 to Ronnie O'Sullivan in the quarter-finals . At the World Open , he came from 0–4 behind to defeat Trump 5–4 in the last 16 , but lost 3–5 to defending champion Mark Allen in the quarter-finals . He reached a third consecutive ranking tournament quarter-final at the Players Tour Championship Finals , but lost 1–4 to Marco Fu . At the China Open , he lost 2–5 to Ding Junhui in the last 16 . He suffered a second consecutive first-round exit from the World Championship when he lost 7–10 to fellow Scot Alan McManus at the Crucible . After the match , Higgins described himself as a `` journeyman top-16 player now , '' suggesting that he no longer regarded himself among the top contenders at tournaments . He ended the campaign as the world number 11 , the lowest he has been at the end of the season in 19 years . Higgins failed to impress in the opening ranking events of the 2014/2015 season , losing 4–5 to Alan McManus in the last 32 of the Wuxi Classic , 2–5 to Robert Milkins in the last 16 of the Australian Goldfields Open , and 4–5 to Ryan Day in the last 32 of the Shanghai Masters . He defended his minor-ranking Bulgarian Open title , but lost 1–4 against Judd Trump in the last 64 . At the ranking International Championship , he lost 1–6 to Li Hang in the last 64 . He lost 1–4 to Barry Hawkins in the first round of the Champion of Champions invitational tournament , and in the last 64 of the minor-ranking Ruhr Open , he failed to score a single point on his way to a 0–4 defeat by Marco Fu , who outscored Higgins by a cumulative total of 412 points to 0 . Higgins arrived at the UK Championship stating that he was struggling for confidence and concerned that a poor result in the championship could cost him his top-16 ranking and his place at the Masters . However , he defeated Lee Walker 6–2 , Jamie Cope 6–4 , and Matthew Stevens 6–2 to reach the last 16 , where he lost 5–6 to fellow Scot Anthony McGill . This was enough to keep him inside the top 16 , at number 14 . At the Masters , he faced Mark Allen in the first round . Even though he made three century breaks , including missing the yellow when on for a maximum break , Higgins lost the match 4–6 . After the match , he said that `` I feel my form is steadily coming back -- even when I 've been losing matches I have still been gaining nuggets of confidence and I thought I played pretty well again . '' Return to form In the German Masters , Higgins lost 2–5 to Peter Ebdon in the first round , but he showed improved form and confidence at the Welsh Open , where he defeated Stephen Maguire 5–1 in the quarter-finals , Luca Brecel 6–4 in the semi-finals , and Ben Woollaston 9–3 in the final to claim a record fourth Welsh Open title and his first ranking title in two and a half years . Afterwards , he said that `` It 's great to win and get a bit of confidence back . '' In the last 16 of the Indian Open , he suffered a sixth consecutive defeat by Mark Davis when he lost 0–4 , scoring only 38 points in the match . He lost 3–4 to Graeme Dott in the last 32 of the World Grand Prix , and lost by the same scoreline to Stephen Maguire in the last 32 of the Players Championship Grand Final . In the China Open , he reached the quarter-finals , defeating Dott and Trump along the way , but lost 4–5 to Ding Junhui . At the World Championship , Higgins won his first match at the Crucible since 2012 with a 10–5 first round victory over Robert Milkins , but he lost 9–13 to Ding Junhui in the second round , despite winning 5 of the first 6 frames . Personal life Higgins married Denise in 2000 ; they have three children together : sons Pierce and Oliver , and daughter Claudia . He is a dedicated supporter of Celtic FC and frequently attends the team 's matches . He enjoys playing poker . He also follows English club Everton . He was escorted off a plane for being drunk in 2006 after losing the Malta Cup final to Ken Doherty , but became teetotal in preparation for the 2007 World Snooker Championship , which he went on to win . Higgins was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 2008 New Year Honours . In January 2010 , Higgins appeared on the BBC 's Celebrity Mastermind , answering questions on his specialist subject Dallas . He finished third equal . In February 2010 , Higgins and his wife Denise appeared on ITV 's Mr. and Mrs. and reached the final after answering 9 questions correctly out of 9 to win £30,000 . They donated the money to The Dalziel Centre – a day hospice for cancer patients , based at Strathclyde Hospital in Motherwell , of which Higgins became a patron after they cared for his terminally ill father . Performance and rankings timeline Career finals Ranking event finals : 43 ( 28 titles , 15 runners-up ) Minor ranking wins : ( 3 ) * Ruhr Championship – 2010 * Kay Suzanne Memorial Trophy – 2012 * Bulgarian Open – 2013 Non-ranking wins : ( 15 ) * Australian Open – 1994 * Charity Challenge – 1998 , 1999 * The Masters – 1999 , 2006 * Premier League Snooker – 1999 * Irish Masters – 2000 , 2002 * Champions Cup – 2001 * Scottish Masters – 2001 * Euro-Asia Masters Challenge – 2007 * World Series of Snooker – Tournament in Jersey – 2008 * World Series of Snooker – Tournament in Moscow – 2008 * Hainan Classic – 2011 * Scottish Professional Championship – 2011 Team events * World Cup ( with Team Scotland ) – 1996 * Nations Cup ( with Team Scotland ) – 2001 Amateur tournaments * Mita/Sky World Masters – Junior ( Under 16 ) – 1991

bb_969--John_Higgins_(snooker_player).txt

In what European city was snooker player John Higgins stung by the News of the World newspaper relating to an alleged betting fix?

New Jersey is a state in the northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States . It is bordered on the north and east by New York , on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean , on the west by Pennsylvania , and on the southwest by Delaware . New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States . New Jersey lies entirely within the combined statistical areas of New York City and Philadelphia and is the third-wealthiest U.S. state by per capita income as of 2014 . New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years , with historical tribes such as the Lenape along the coast . In the early 17th century , the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements . The English later seized control of the region , naming it the Province of New Jersey after the largest of the Channel Islands , Jersey , and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley , 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton . New Jersey was the site of several decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century . In the 19th century , factories in cities such as Camden , Paterson , Newark , Trenton , and Elizabeth helped to drive the Industrial Revolution . New Jersey 's geographic location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis , between Boston and New York City to the northeast , and Philadelphia , Baltimore , and Washington , D.C. , to the southwest , fueled its rapid growth through the process of suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century . In the first decades of the 21st century , this suburbanization began reverting to consolidation of New Jersey 's culturally diverse populace toward more urban settings within the state , with towns home to commuter rail stations outpacing the population growth of more automobile-oriented suburbs since 2008 . History Around 180 million years ago , during the Jurassic Period , New Jersey bordered North Africa . The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains . Around 18,000 years ago , the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey . As the glaciers retreated , they left behind Lake Passaic , as well as many rivers , swamps , and gorges . New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans , with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact . Scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey . The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River , the lower Hudson River , and western Long Island Sound . The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors . These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign : Turtle , Turkey , and Wolf . They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century , and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade . Colonial era The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey . The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states . Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape , Dutch West India Company policy required their colonists to purchase land which they settled . The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen . Peter Minuit 's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden . The entire region became a territory of England on June 24 , 1664 , after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is today New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam , annexing the entire province . During the English Civil War , the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King . It was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649 , following the execution of his father , Charles I . The North American lands were divided by Charles II , who gave his brother , the Duke of York ( later King James II ) , the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony ( as opposed to a royal colony ) . James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River ( the land that would become New Jersey ) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War : Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton . The area was named the Province of New Jersey . Since the state 's inception , New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity . New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants . While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of 100 acre , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates . English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings . Unlike Plymouth Colony , Jamestown and other colonies , New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe . New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era , and commercial farming developed sporadically . Some townships , such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy , emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia . The colony 's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers , and New Jersey 's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775 . Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill – settlers came primarily from New York and New England . On March 18 , 1673 , Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England , who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony . ( William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time . ) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces , East and West Jersey , for 28 years between 1674 and 1702 , at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England . In 1702 , the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor , rather than a proprietary one . Edward Hyde , Lord Cornbury , became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony . Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler , taking bribes and speculating on land . In 1708 he was recalled to England . New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York , but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey , who accused those governors of favoritism to New York . Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor , and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738 . Revolutionary War era New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution . The New Jersey Constitution of 1776 was passed July 2 , 1776 , just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain . It was an act of the Provincial Congress , which made itself into the state Legislature . To reassure neutrals , it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain . New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton , John Witherspoon , Francis Hopkinson , John Hart , and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence . During the American Revolutionary War , British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times , and several pivotal battles took place in the state . Because of this , New Jersey today is often referred to as `` The Crossroads of the Revolution . '' The winter quarters of the revolutionary army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown , which was called the military capital of the revolution . On the night of December 25–26 , 1776 , the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River . After the crossing , he surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton . Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton , American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis 's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton . By evading Cornwallis 's army , Washington made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3 , 1777 . Emanuel Leutze 's painting of Washington Crossing the Delaware became an icon of the Revolution . American forces under Washington met the forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778 . Washington attempted to take the British column by surprise ; when the British army attempted to flank the Americans , the Americans retreated in disorder . The ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges . In the summer of 1783 , the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University , making Princeton the nation 's capital for four months . It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris ( 1783 ) , which ended the war . On December 18 , 1787 , New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution , which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey , as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe . On November 20 , 1789 , the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights . The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to `` all inhabitants '' who had a certain level of wealth . This included women and blacks , but not married women , because they could not own property separately from their husbands . Both sides , in several elections , claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of `` petticoat electors '' , whether entitled to vote or not ; on the other hand , both parties passed Voting Rights Acts . In 1807 , the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal white male suffrage , excluding paupers ; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution . 19th century On February 15 , 1804 , New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery . This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population . By the close of the Civil War , about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage . New Jersey voters initially refused to ratify the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States ' black population . Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831 . The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania 's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey 's growing industries in Paterson , Newark , and Jersey City . In 1844 , the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect . Counties thereby became districts for the State Senate , and some realignment of boundaries ( including the creation of Mercer County ) immediately followed . This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution , but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision Baker v. Carr . While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution , the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him , or to the people , and it gave him a three-year term , but he could not succeed himself . New Jersey was one of the few Union states ( the others being Delaware and Kentucky ) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections , and sided with Stephen Douglas ( 1860 ) and George B. McClellan ( 1864 ) during their campaigns . McClellan , a native Philadelphian , had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time ; he later became Governor of New Jersey ( 1878–81 ) . ( In New Jersey , the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860 . ) During the American Civil War , the state was led first by Republican Governor Charles Smith Olden , then by Democrat Joel Parker . During the course of the war , over 80,000 from the state enlisted in the Northern army ; unlike many states , including some Northern ones , no battle was fought there . In the Industrial Revolution , cities like Paterson grew and prospered . Previously , the economy had been largely agrarian , which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil . This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy , one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk . Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution , having been granted 1,093 patents , many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey . Edison 's facilities , first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange , are considered perhaps the first research centers in the U.S. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting . Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey . Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century . Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation . Mines such as Mt . Hope , Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry . Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal . Zinc mines were also a major industry , especially the Sterling Hill Mine . 20th century Through both World Wars , New Jersey was a center for war production , especially in naval construction . Battleships , cruisers , and destroyers were made in this state . New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II , ranking fifth among the 48 states . In addition , Fort Dix ( 1917 ) ( originally called `` Camp Dix '' ) , Camp Merritt ( 1917 ) and Camp Kilmer ( 1941 ) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars . New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War . Fourteen Nike Missile stations were constructed , especially for the defense of New York City and Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . PT-109 , a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt . ( j.g . ) John F. Kennedy in World War II , was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne . The aircraft carrier USS Enterprise ( CV-6 ) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped . In 1962 , the world 's first nuclear-powered cargo ship , the NS Savannah , was launched at Camden . New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties . The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City , the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927 , and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden . During the Great Depression of the 1930s , the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents , the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst , and the SS Morro Castle beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea . In 1951 , the New Jersey Turnpike opened , permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey ( and metropolitan New York ) and South Jersey ( and metropolitan Philadelphia ) . In the 1960s , race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey . The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2 , 1964 . Several others ensued in 1967 , in Newark and Plainfield . Other riots followed the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. in April 1968 , just as in the rest of the country . A riot occurred in Camden in 1971 . As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably , the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976 . Prior to this bill , the state had no income tax . 21st century In the early part of the 2000s , two light rail systems were opened : the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton . The intent of these projects were to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey , respectively . The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular . Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century . As of 2014 , Jersey City 's Census-estimated population was 262,146 , [ http : //factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/PEP/2014/PEPANNRES/0400000US34.06100 PEPANNRES - Annual Estimates of the Resident Population : April 1 , 2010 to July 1 , 2014 - 2014 Population Estimates for New Jersey municipalities ] , United States Census Bureau . Accessed May 21 , 2015. with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010 , Stirling , Stephen . [ http : //www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2015/05/what_are_njs_fastest_growing_and_declining_towns_m.html # incart_most-read_morris_article `` What are N.J. 's fastest growing and shrinking towns ? `` ] , NJ Advance Media for NJ.com , May 21 , 2015 . Accessed June 1 , 2015 . `` Jersey City has gained nearly 15,000 residents since 2010 , making it the fastest growing municipality in the state and a symbol of the Garden State 's reinvigorated urban core . '' representing an increase of 5.9 % from the 2010 United States Census , when the city 's population was enumerated at 247,597 . [ http : //factfinder.census.gov/bkmk/table/1.0/en/DEC/10_DP/DPDP1/0600000US3401736000 DP-1 – Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics : 2010 for Jersey City city , Hudson County , New Jersey ] , United States Census Bureau . Accessed February 1 , 2016 . [ http : //lwd.dol.state.nj.us/labor/lpa/census/2010/dp/dp1_hud/jerseycity1.pdf Table DP-1 . Profile of General Demographic Characteristics : 2010 for Jersey City ] , New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development . Accessed February 1 , 2016 . In 2010 , Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s . Geography New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York ( parts of which are across the Hudson River , Upper New York Bay , the Kill Van Kull , Newark Bay , and the Arthur Kill ) ; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay ; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River . New Jersey can be thought of as five regions , based on natural geography and population . Northeastern New Jersey , the Gateway Region , lies closest to Manhattan in New York City , and up to a million residents commute daily into the city to work via automobile or mass transit . Northwestern New Jersey , or the `` Skylands '' , is , compared to the northeast , more wooded , rural , and mountainous . The `` Shore '' , along the Atlantic Coast in the central-east and southeast , has its own natural , residential , and lifestyle characteristics owing to its location by the ocean . The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state , which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area . The fifth region is the Pine Barrens in the interior of the southern part . Covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest , it has a much lower population density than much of the rest of the state . New Jersey also can be broadly divided into three geographic regions : North Jersey , Central Jersey , and South Jersey . Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right , but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South . The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey 's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas , including sixteen counties in the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas . Four counties have independent metro areas , and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area . ( See Metropolitan Statistical Areas of New Jersey for details . ) It is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis . Additionally , the New Jersey Commerce , Economic Growth , & Tourism Commission divides the state into six distinct regions to facilitate the state 's tourism industry . The regions are : * Gateway Region , encompassing Middlesex County , Union County , Essex County , Hudson County , Bergen County , and Passaic County . * Skylands Region , encompassing Sussex County , Morris County , Warren County , Hunterdon County , and Somerset County . * Shore Region , encompassing Monmouth County and Ocean County . * Delaware River Region , encompassing Mercer County , Burlington County , Camden County , Gloucester County , and Salem County . * Greater Atlantic City Region , encompassing Atlantic County . * Southern Shore Region , encompassing Cumberland County and Cape May County . High Point , in Montague Township , Sussex County , is the highest elevation , at 1803 ft . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the lower west side of the Hudson River , in Bergen County and Hudson County . Major rivers include the Hudson , Delaware , Raritan , Passaic , Hackensack , Rahway , Musconetcong , Mullica , Rancocas , Manasquan , Maurice , and Toms rivers . Sandy Hook , along the eastern coast , is a popular recreational beach . It is a barrier spit and an extension of the Barnegat Peninsula along the state 's Atlantic Ocean coast . Long Beach Island ( `` LBI '' ) , a barrier island along the eastern coast , has popular recreational beaches . The primary access point to the island is by a single bridge connection to the mainland . Barnegat Lighthouse is on the northern tip . Areas managed by the National Park Service include : * Appalachian National Scenic Trail * Delaware National Scenic River * Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area * Ellis Island National Monument * Gateway National Recreation Area in Monmouth County * Great Egg Harbor River * Morristown National Historical Park in Morristown * New Jersey Coastal Heritage Trail Route * New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve * Paterson Great Falls National Historical Park * Thomas Edison National Historical Park in West Orange Prominent geographic features include : * Delaware Water Gap * Great Bay * Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge * Highlands * Hudson Palisades * Meadowlands * Pine Barrens * South Mountain Climate There are two climatic conditions in the state . The south , central , and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate , while the northwest has a humid continental climate ( microthermal ) , with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation . New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually . Summers are typically hot and humid , with statewide average high temperatures of 82 - and lows of 60 - ; however , temperatures exceed 90 °F on average 25 days each summer , exceeding 100 °F in some years . Winters are usually cold , with average high temperatures of 34 - and lows of 16 to 28 °F ( −9 to −2 °C ) for most of the state , but temperatures could , for brief interludes , fall below 10 °F and occasionally rise above 50 °F . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub-0 °F being an almost annual occurrence . Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations , with lower humidity than summer . The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from 6 in the northwest of the state , to between 7B and 8A near Cape May . All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10 , 1936 in Runyon , Middlesex County and on January 5 , 1904 in River Vale , Bergen County . Average annual precipitation ranges from 43 to , uniformly spread through the year . Average snowfall per winter season ranges from 10 - in the south and near the seacoast , 15 - in the northeast and central part of the state , to about 40 - in the northwestern highlands , but this often varies considerably from year to year . Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year , with 25 to 30 thunderstorms , most of which occur during the summer . During winter and early spring , New Jersey can experience `` nor'easters '' , which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States . Hurricanes and tropical storms ( such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999 ) , tornadoes , and earthquakes are rare , although New Jersey was severely impacted by Hurricane Sandy on October 29 , 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state at 90 mph . Demographics State population The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of New Jersey was 8,958,013 on July 1 , 2015 , a 1.89 % increase since the 2010 United States Census . Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as `` New Jerseyans '' or , less commonly , as `` New Jerseyites '' . As of the 2010 census , there were 8,791,894 people residing in the state . The racial makeup of the state was : * 68.6 % White American * 13.7 % African American * 0.3 % Native American * 8.3 % Asian American * 6.4 % other races * 2.7 % Multiracial American 17.7 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) . Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9 % of the population in 2011 , down from 85 % in 1970 . In 2010 , undocumented immigrants constituted an estimated 6.4 % of the population . This was the fourth highest percentage of any state in the country . There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010 . The United States Census Bureau , , estimated New Jersey 's population at 8,958,013 , which represents an increase of 166,119 , or 1.89 % , since the last census in 2010 . This includes a natural increase since the last census of 343,965 people ( that is , 933,185 births minus 589,220 deaths ) and a decrease due to net migration of 53,930 people out of the state . Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 384,687 people , and migration within the country produced a net loss of 438,617 people . , there were 1.6 million foreign-born living in the state ( accounting for 19.2 % of the population ) . As of 2010 , New Jersey is the eleventh-most populous state in the United States , and the most densely populated , at 1,185 residents per square mile ( 458 per km2 ) , with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City , Philadelphia , and along the eastern Jersey Shore , while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall . It is also the second wealthiest state according to the U.S. Census Bureau . The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County , in the town of Milltown , just east of the New Jersey

odql_8510--New_Jersey.txt

Nicknamed the 'Diamond State', which US state shares borders with Pennslyvania, New Jersey and Maryland?

Philosophy ( from Greek , philosophia , literally `` love of wisdom '' ) is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence , knowledge , values , reason , mind , and language . The term was probably coined by Pythagoras ( c. 570 – c. 495 BC ) . Philosophical methods include questioning , critical discussion , rational argument and systematic presentation . Classic philosophical questions include : Is it possible to know anything and to prove it ? What is most real ? However , philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as : Is there a best way to live ? Is it better to be just or unjust ( if one can get away with it ) ? Do humans have free will ? Historically , `` philosophy '' encompassed any body of knowledge . From the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century , `` natural philosophy '' encompassed astronomy , medicine and physics . For example , Newton 's 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics . In the 19th century , the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize . In the modern era , some investigations that were traditionally part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines , including psychology , sociology , linguistics and economics . Other investigations closely related to art , science , politics , or other pursuits remained part of philosophy . For example , is beauty objective or subjective ? Are there many scientific methods or just one ? Is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy ? Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics ( `` concerned with the fundamental nature of reality and being '' ) , epistemology ( about the `` nature and grounds of knowledge [ and ] ... its limits and validity '' ) , ethics , aesthetics , political philosophy , logic , philosophy of science and the history of Western philosophy . Since the 20th century professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors , researchers and writers . However , many of those who study philosophy in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute in the fields of law , journalism , politics , religion , science , business and various art and entertainment activities . Introduction Culture In one sense , philosophy is synonymous with wisdom or learning . In that sense , all cultures have a philosophical tradition . ; Western philosophy Western philosophy dates to the Greek philosophers , who were active in Ancient Greece beginning in the 6th century BC . Pythagoras distinguished himself from other `` wise ones '' by calling himself a mere lover of wisdom , suggesting that he was not wise . Socrates used this title and insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom . Socrates ' student Plato is often credited as the founder of Western philosophy . The philosopher Alfred North Whitehead said of Plato : `` The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato . I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings . I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them . '' ; Eastern philosophy Eastern philosophy is a term that encompasses the many philosophical currents originating outside Europe , including China , India , Japan , Persia and other regions . They have their own timelines , regions and philosophers . Major traditions include : * African philosophy and Ethiopian philosophy * Ancient Egyptian philosophy and Babylonian literature * Indian philosophy , Jain philosophy and Hindu philosophy * Iranian philosophy * East Asian Neo-Confucianism and Buddhist philosophy # Chinese Buddhism , Japanese philosophy and Korean philosophy * Persian Zoroastrianism * Middle Eastern Islamic philosophy * European Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy * Mesoamerican Aztec philosophy Knowledge Traditionally , the term `` philosophy '' referred to any body of knowledge . In this sense , philosophy is closely related to religion , mathematics , natural science , education and politics . Newton 's 1687 `` Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy '' is classified in the 2000s as a book of physics ; he used the term `` natural philosophy '' because it used to encompass disciplines that later became associated with sciences such as astronomy , medicine and physics . Philosophy was traditionally divided into three major branches : * Natural philosophy ( `` physics '' ) was the study of the physical world ( physis , lit : nature ) ; * Moral philosophy ( `` ethics '' ) was the study of goodness , right and wrong , beauty , justice and virtue ( ethos , lit : custom ) ; * Metaphysical philosophy ( `` logos '' ) was the study of existence , causation , God , logic , forms and other abstract objects ( `` meta-physika '' lit : `` what comes after physics '' ) . This division is not obsolete but has changed . Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences , especially astronomy , physics , chemistry , biology and cosmology . Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences , but still includes value theory ( including aesthetics , ethics , political philosophy , etc . ) . Metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic , mathematics and philosophy of science , but still includes epistemology , cosmology and others . Philosophical progress Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today . Colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval . Chalmers and others , by contrast , see progress in philosophy similar to that in science , while Talbot Brewer argued that `` progress '' is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical activity . Categories Philosopher questions can be grouped into categories . These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions . The groupings also make philosophy easier for students to approach . Students can learn the basic principles involved in one aspect of the field without being overwhelmed with the entire set of philosophical theories . Various sources present different categorical schemes . The categories adopted in this article aim for breadth and simplicity . These five major branches can be separated into sub-branches and each sub-branch contains many specific fields of study . * Metaphysics and epistemology * Value theory * Science , logic and mathematics * History of Western philosophy * Philosophical traditions These divisions are neither exhaustive , nor mutually exclusive . ( A philosopher might specialize in Kantian epistemology , or Platonic aesthetics , or modern political philosophy . ) Furthermore , these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with each other and with other inquiries such as science , religion or mathematics . Metaphysics Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality , such as existence , time , objects and their properties , wholes and their parts , events , processes and causation and the relationship between mind and body . Metaphysics includes cosmology , the study of the world in its entirety and ontology , the study of being . A major point of debate revolves between idealism , which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial , and realism , which holds that there are entities that exist independently of their mental perception . Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity . Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while accident is a property that the object has , without which the object can still retain its identity . Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time , as opposed to abstract objects , such as numbers , and universals , which are properties held by multiple particulars , such as redness or a gender . The type of existence , if any , of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate . Epistemology Epistemology is the study of knowledge ( Greek episteme ) . Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge , including intuition , a priori reason , memory , perceptual knowledge , self-knowledge and testimony . They also ask : What is truth ? Is knowledge justified true belief ? Are any beliefs justified ? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge ( knowledge that something is the case ) , know-how ( knowledge of how to do something ) and acquaintance ( familiarity with someone or something ) . Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible . Skepticism is the position which doubts claims to knowledge . The regress argument , a fundamental problem in epistemology , occurs when , in order to completely prove any statement , its justification itself needs to be supported by another justification . This chain can go on forever , called infinitism , it can eventually rely on basic beliefs that are left unproven , called foundationalism , or it can go in a circle so that a statement is included in its own chain of justification , called coherentism . Rationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as a source of knowledge . It is associated with a priori knowledge , which is independent of experience , such as math and logical deduction . Empiricism is the emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge . Among the numerous topics within metaphysics and epistemology , broadly construed are : * Philosophy of language explores the nature , the origins and the use of language . * Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body . It is typified by disputes between dualism and materialism . In recent years this branch has become related to cognitive science . * Philosophy of religion explores questions that arise in connection with religions , including the soul , the afterlife , God , religious experience , analysis of religious vocabulary and texts and the relationship of religion and science . * Philosophy of human nature analyzes the unique characteristics of human beings , such as rationality , politics and culture . * Metaphilosophy explores the aims of philosophy , its boundaries and its methods . Value theory Value theory ( or axiology ) is the major branch of philosophy that addresses topics such as goodness , beauty and justice . Value theory includes ethics , aesthetics , political philosophy , feminist philosophy , philosophy of law and more . Ethics ; Ethics , or `` moral philosophy '' , studies and considers what is good and bad conduct , right and wrong values , and good and evil . Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality . It also includes meta-investigations about whether a best way to live or related standards exists . The main branches of ethics are normative ethics , meta-ethics and applied ethics . Aesthetics Aesthetics is the `` critical reflection on art , culture and nature . '' It addresses the nature of art , beauty and taste , enjoyment , emotional values , perception and with the creation and appreciation of beauty . It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values , sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste . It divides into art theory , literary theory , film theory and music theory . An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic . The philosophy of film analyzes films and filmmakers for their philosophical content and explores film ( images , cinema , etc . ) as a medium for philosophical reflection and expression . Political philosophy Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals ( or families and clans ) to communities including the state . It includes questions about justice , law , property and the rights and obligations of the citizen . Politics and ethics are traditionally linked subjects , as both discuss the question of what how people should live together . Other branches of value theory : There are a variety of branches of value theory . * Philosophy of law ( often called jurisprudence ) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and interpretation of laws . * Philosophy of education analyzes the definition and content of education , as well as the goals and challenges of educators . * Feminist philosophy explores questions surrounding gender , sexuality and the body including the nature of feminism itself as a social and philosophical movement . * Philosophy of sport analyzes sports , games and other forms of play as sociological and uniquely human activities . Logic , science and mathematics Many academic disciplines generated philosophical inquiry . The relationship between `` X '' and the `` philosophy of X '' is debated . Richard Feynman argued that the philosophy of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study , saying that `` philosophy of science is as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds . '' Curtis White , by contrast , argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities , sciences and social sciences . Its topics are numbers , symbols and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the social and natural sciences . Logic Logic is the study of reasoning and argument . An argument is `` a connected series of statements intended to establish a proposition . '' The connected series of statements are `` premises '' and the proposition is the conclusion . For example : # All humans are mortal . ( premise ) # Socrates is a human . ( premise ) # Therefore , Socrates is mortal . ( conclusion ) Deductive reasoning is when , given certain premises , conclusions are unavoidably implied . Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions such as , modus ponens , where given “ A ” and “ If A then B ” , then “ B ” must be concluded . Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences , social sciences and humanities disciplines , logic became a formal science . Sub-fields include mathematical logic , philosophical logic , Modal logic , computational logic and non-classical logics . Philosophy of science This branch explores the foundations , methods , history , implications and purpose of science . Many of its sub-divisions correspond to a specific branch of science . For example , philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical , epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences . The philosophy of mathematics studies the philosophical assumptions , foundations and implications of mathematics . History of philosophy Some philosophers specialize in one or more historical periods . The history of philosophy ( study of a specific period , individual or school ) is related to but not the same as the philosophy of history ( the theoretical aspect of history , which deals with questions such as the nature of historical evidence and the possibility of objectivity ) . Hegel 's Lectures on the Philosophy of History influenced many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history , a view called historicism . Philosophical schools Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the major philosophical schools , such as Continental philosophy , Analytical philosophy , Thomism , Asian philosophy or African philosophy . History Western philosophy has a long history dating back to the time of Socrates . It is conventionally divided into three large eras : ancient , medieval , and modern . Philosophy in the 20th century to present is considered `` Contemporary philosophy '' . The history of philosophy is a rich field of study . This article does not aim for comprehensive detail but for a brief introduction to each period , with relevant links to other articles . The three historical periods are divided roughly as follows : * Ancient ( from 585 BC-400 AD ) * Medieval ( 400 - 1500 ) * Modern ( 1500 - 1900 ) Ancient ; The pre-Socratic period Ancient philosophers first articulated questions about the `` arche '' ( the cause or first principle ) of the universe . Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor ( Ionia ) with Thales of Miletus , who was active around 585 B.C . and was responsible for the opaque dictum , `` all is water . '' His most noted students were respectively Anaximander ( all is apeiron ( roughly , the unlimited ) ) and Anaximenes of Miletus ( `` all is air '' ) . Pythagoras , from the island of Samos off the coast of Ionia , later lived at Croton in southern Italy ( Magna Graecia ) . Pythagoreans hold that `` all is number , '' giving formal accounts in contrast to the previous material of the Ionians . They also believe in metempsychosis , the transmigration of souls , or reincarnation . ; Socrates The key figure in Greek philosophy is Socrates . Socrates studied under several Sophists but transformed Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project that is still pursued today is . It is said that following a visit to the Oracle of Delphi he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him , in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates . Socrates used a critical approach called the `` elenchus '' or Socratic method to examine people 's views . He aimed to study human things : the good life , justice , beauty , and virtue . Although Socrates wrote nothing himself , some of his many disciples wrote down his conversations . He was tried for corrupting the youth and impiety by the Greek democracy . He was found guilty and sentenced to death . Although his friends offered to help him escape from prison , he chose to remain in Athens and abide by his principles . His execution consisting in drinking the poison hemlock and he died in 399 B.C . Plato Socrates ' most important student was Plato . Plato founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues , which applied the Socratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical problems . Some central ideas of Plato 's dialogues are the immortality of the soul , the benefits of being just , that evil is ignorance , and the Theory of Forms . Forms are universal properties constitute true reality and contrast with the changeable material things he called `` becoming '' . ; Aristotle Plato 's most outstanding student was Aristotle . Aristotle was perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher and scientist . He wrote books on physics , biology , zoology , metaphysics , aesthetics , poetry , theater , music , rhetoric , politics and logic . Aristotelian logic was the first type of logic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism . Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great . Aristotelian philosophy exercised considerable influence on almost all western philosophers , including Greek , Roman , Christian , Jewish , and Islamic thinkers . ; The Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity . Medieval ; Early and Late Medieval Philosophy Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Western Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages , roughly extending from the Christianization of the Roman Empire until the Renaissance . Medieval philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical Greek and Hellenistic philosophy , and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then widespread sacred doctrines of Abrahamic religion ( Islam , Judaism , and Christianity ) with secular learning . Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism , neo-Platonism , but , above all , the philosophy of Plato himself . Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason , the existence and unity of God , the object of theology and metaphysics , the problems of knowledge , of universals , and of individuation . The prominent figure of this period was St. Augustine who adopted Plato 's thought and Christianized it in the 4th century and whose influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to end of the era but was checked with the arrival of Aristotle 's texts . Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers ( including the great St. Anselm of Canterbury ) up until the 13th century . Thomas Aquinas , the father of Thomism , was immensely influential in Catholic Europe ; he placed a great emphasis on reason and argumentation , and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle 's metaphysical and epistemological writing . Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo , Boethius , Anselm , Gilbert of Poitiers , Peter Abelard , Roger Bacon , Bonaventure , Thomas Aquinas , Duns Scotus , William of Ockham and Jean Buridan ; the Jewish philosophers Maimonides and Gersonides ; and the Muslim philosophers Alkindus , Alfarabi , Alhazen , Avicenna , Algazel , Avempace , Abubacer , Ibn Khaldūn , and Averroes . The medieval tradition of Scholasticism continued to flourish as late as the 17th century , in figures such as Francisco Suarez and John of St. Thomas . ; Late Medieval and Renaissance The Renaissance ( `` rebirth '' ) was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought , in which the recovery of classical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic , metaphysics , and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality , philology , and mysticism . The study of the classics and the humane arts generally , such as history and literature , enjoyed a scholarly interest hitherto unknown in Christendom , a tendency referred to as humanism . Displacing the medieval interest in metaphysics and logic , the humanists followed Petrarch in making man and his virtues the focus of philosophy . Modern The term `` Modern Philosophy '' has multiple usages . For example , Thomas Hobbes is sometimes considered the first modern philosopher because he applied a systematic method to political philosophy . By contrast , René Descartes is often considered the first modern philosopher because he grounded his philosophy in problems of knowledge , rather than problems of metaphysics . Modern philosophy and especially Enlightenment philosophy is distinguished by its increasing independence from traditional authorities such as the Church , academia , and Aristotelianism ; a new focus on the foundations of knowledge and metaphysical system-building ; and the emergence of modern physics out of natural philosophy . ; Early Modern Some central topics of philosophy in this period include the nature of the mind and its relation to the body , the implications of the new natural sciences for traditional theological topics such as free will and God , and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy . These trends first distinctively coalesce in Francis Bacon 's call for a new , empirical program for expanding knowledge , and soon found massively influential form in the mechanical physics and rationalist metaphysics of René Descartes . Other notable modern philosophers include Spinoza , Leibniz , Locke , Berkeley , Hume , and Kant . Many other contributors were philosophers , scientists , medical doctors , and politicians . A short list includes Galileo Galilei , Pierre Gassendi , Blaise Pascal , Nicolas Malebranche , Isaac Newton , Christian Wolff , Montesquieu , Pierre Bayle , Thomas Reid , Jean d'Alembert , Adam Smith , and Jean-Jacques Rousseau . The approximate end of the early modern period is most often identified with Immanuel Kant 's systematic attempt to limit metaphysics , justify scientific knowledge , and reconcile both of these with morality and freedom . ; 19th-century Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of Immanuel Kant at the beginning of the 19th century . German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century , owing in part to the dominance of the German university system . German idealists , such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling , transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process , and as such is entirely knowable . Arthur Schopenhauer 's identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational will to live influenced later 19th- and early 20th-century thinking , such as the work of Friedrich Nietzsche . The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics , and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development . Foremost was the work of Hegel , whose Logic and Phenomenology of Spirit produced a `` dialectical '' framework for ordering of knowledge . As with the 18th century , developments in science arose from philosophy and also challenged philosophy : most importantly the work of Charles Darwin , which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as Smith , but fundamentally challenged established conceptions . After Hegel 's death in 1831 , 19th-century philosophy largely turned against idealism in favor of varieties of philosophical naturalism , such as the positivism of Auguste Comte , the empiricism of John Stuart Mill , and the materialism of Karl Marx . Logic began a period of its most significant advances since the inception of the discipline , as increasing mathematical precision opened entire fields of inference to formalization in the work of George Boole and Gottlob Frege . Other philosophers who initiated lines of thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include : * Gottlob Frege and Henry Sidgwick , whose work in logic and ethics , respectively , provided the tools for early analytic philosophy . * Charles Sanders Peirce and William James , who founded pragmatism . * Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche , who laid the groundwork for existentialism and post-structuralism . Contemporary approaches The three major contemporary approaches to academic philosophy are Analytic philosophy , continental philosophy and pragmatism . They are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive . The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge , with classical certainties overthrown , and new social , economic , scientific and logical problems . 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve , and to alter or abolish , older knowledge systems . Seminal figures include Gottlob Frege , Bertrand Russell , Ludwig Wittgenstein , Martin Heidegger , Jean-Paul Sartre , and Edmund Husserl . Since the Second World War , contemporary philosophy has been divided mostly into analytic and continental traditions ; the former carried in the English speaking world and the latter on the continent of Europe . The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy remains prominent , despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction 's usefulness . Analytic In the English-speaking world , analytic philosophy became the dominant school for much of the 20th century . The term analytic philosophy roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation , attention to semantics , use of classical logic and non-classical logics and clarity of meaning above all other criteria . Though the movement has broadened , it was a cohesive school in the first half of the century . Analytic philosophers were shaped strongly by logical positivism , united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to logic and language . Bertrand Russell and G.E . Moore are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy , beginning with their rejection of British idealism , their defense of realism and the emphasis they laid

odql_7465--Philosophy.txt

Which 20th century philosopher wrote 'Being And Nothingness' and 'Critique Of Dialectic Reason'?

Greece ( , ' ) , officially the Hellenic Republic ( Greek : ' ) , also known since ancient times as Hellas ( ' ) , is a country located in southeastern Europe . According to the 2015 census , Greece 's population is approximately 10.9 million . Athens is the nation 's capital and largest city , followed by Thessaloniki . Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe , Asia , and Africa . Situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula , it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest , the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north and Turkey to the northeast . Greece consists of nine geographic regions : Macedonia , Central Greece , the Peloponnese , Thessaly , Epirus , the Aegean Islands ( including the Dodecanese and Cyclades ) , Thrace , Crete , and the Ionian Islands . The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland , the Ionian Sea to the west , and the Mediterranean Sea to the south . Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13676 km in length , featuring a vast number of islands , of which 227 are inhabited . Eighty percent of Greece is mountainous , with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2918 m . Greek history is one of the longest of any country . The country is considered the cradle of Western civilization , having been the birthplace of democracy , Western philosophy , the Olympic Games , Western literature , historiography , political science , major scientific and mathematical principles , and Western drama , including both tragedy and comedy . The Greeks were first unified under Philip of Macedon in the fourth century BC . His son Alexander the Great rapidly conquered much of the ancient world , spreading Greek culture and science from the eastern Mediterranean to the Indus River . Annexed by Rome in the second century BC , Greece became an integral part of the Roman Empire and its successor , the Byzantine Empire . The first century AD saw the establishment of the Greek Orthodox Church , which shaped the modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World . Falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century , the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence . Greece 's rich historical legacy is reflected in large part by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , among the most in Europe and the world . Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy , a high quality of life and a very high standard of living . A founding member of the United Nations , Greece was the tenth member to join the European Communities ( precursor to the European Union ) and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001 . It is also a member of numerous other international institutions , including the Council of Europe , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , WTO , OSCE , and the OIF . Greece 's unique cultural heritage , subsequently large tourism industry , and prominent shipping sector classify it as a middle power . It is the largest economy in the Balkans , where it is an important regional investor . Etymology The names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages , locations and cultures . Although the Greeks call the country ' or ' ( ) and its official name is the Hellenic Republic , in English it is referred to as Greece , which comes from the Latin term ' as used by the Romans , which literally means 'the land of the Greeks ' , and derives from the Greek name : wikt : Γραικός| . History Ancient and Classical periods The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans , dated to 270,000 BC , is to be found in the Petralona cave , in the Greek province of Macedonia . All three stages of the stone age ( Paleolithic , Mesolithic , and Neolithic ) are represented in Greece , for example in the Franchthi Cave . Neolithic settlements in Greece , dating from the 7th millennium BC , are the oldest in Europe by several centuries , as Greece lies on the route via which farming spread from the Near East to Europe . Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilization , beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea at around 3200 BC , the Minoan civilization in Crete ( 2700–1500 BC ) , and then the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland ( 1900–1100 BC ) . These civilizations possessed writing , the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A , and the Mycenaeans in Linear B , an early form of Greek . The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans , but collapsed violently around 1200 BC , during a time of regional upheaval known as the Bronze Age collapse . This ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages , from which written records are absent . The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC , the year of the first Olympic Games . The Iliad and the Odyssey , the foundational texts of Western literature , are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 8th or 7th centuries BC With the end of the Dark Ages , there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula , which spread to the shores of the Black Sea , Southern Italy ( `` Magna Graecia '' ) and Asia Minor . These states and their colonies reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom , that of classical Greece , expressed in architecture , drama , science , mathematics and philosophy . In 508 BC , Cleisthenes instituted the world 's first democratic system of government in Athens . By 500 BC , the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city states in Asia Minor and Macedonia . Attempts by some of the Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed , and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC , but was forced to withdraw after a defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC . A second invasion by the Persians followed in 480 BC . Following decisive Greek victories in 480 and 479 BC at Salamis , Plataea , and Mycale , the Persians were forced to withdraw for a second time , marking their eventual withdrawal from all of their European territories . Led by Athens and Sparta , the Greek victories in the Greco-Persian Wars are considered a pivotal moment in world history , as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as the Golden Age of Athens , the seminal period of ancient Greek development that laid many of the foundations of Western civilization . Lack of political unity within Greece resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states . The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War ( 431–404 BC ) , won by Sparta and marking the demise of the Athenian Empire as the leading power in ancient Greece . Both Athens and Sparta were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon , with the latter uniting the Greek world in the League of Corinth ( also known as the Hellenic League or Greek League ) under the guidance of Phillip II , who was elected leader of the first unified Greek state in history . Following the assassination of Phillip II , his son Alexander III ( `` The Great '' ) assumed the leadership of the League of Corinth and launched an invasion of the Persian Empire with the combined forces of all Greek states in 334 BC . Undefeated in battle , Alexander had conquered the Persian Empire in its entirety by 330 BC . By the time of his death in 323 BC , he had created one of the largest empires in history , stretching from Greece to India . His empire split into several kingdoms upon his death , the most famous of which were the Seleucid Empire , Ptolemaic Egypt , the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the Indo-Greek Kingdom . Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria , Antioch , Seleucia and the many other new Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa . Although the political unity of Alexander 's empire could not be maintained , it resulted in the Hellenistic civilization and spread the Greek language and Greek culture in the territories conquered by Alexander . Greek science , technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period . Hellenistic and Roman periods ( 323 BC – 4th century AD ) After a period of confusion following Alexander 's death , the Antigonid dynasty , descended from one of Alexander 's generals , established its control over Macedon and most of the Greek city-states by 276 BC . From about 200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek affairs and engaged in a series of wars with Macedon . Macedon 's defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signalled the end of Antigonid power in Greece . In 146 BC Macedonia was annexed as a province by Rome , and the rest of Greece became a Roman protectorate . The process was completed in 27 BC when the Roman Emperor Augustus annexed the rest of Greece and constituted it as the senatorial province of Achaea . Despite their military superiority , the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture , hence Horace 's famous statement : Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ( `` Greece , although captured , took its wild conqueror captive '' ) . The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid of Virgil , and authors such as Seneca the younger wrote using Greek styles . Roman heroes such as Scipio Africanus , tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed . Similarly , most Roman emperors maintained an admiration for things Greek in nature . The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66 , and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games , despite the rules against non-Greek participation . Hadrian was also particularly fond of the Greeks ; before he became emperor he served as an eponymous archon of Athens . Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries , and Christianity 's early leaders and writers ( notably St Paul ) were mostly Greek-speaking , though generally not from Greece itself . The New Testament was written in Greek , and some of its sections ( Corinthians , Thessalonians , Philippians , Revelation of St. John of Patmos ) attest to the importance of churches in Greece in early Christianity . Nevertheless , much of Greece clung tenaciously to paganism , and ancient Greek religious practices were still in vogue in the late 4th century AD , when they were outlawed by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in 391-392 . The last recorded Olympic games were held in 393 , and many temples were destroyed or damaged in the century that followed . In Athens and rural areas , paganism is attested well into the sixth century AD and even later . The closure of the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens by the emperor Justinian in 529 is considered by many to mark the end of antiquity , although there is evidence that the Academy continued its activities for some time after that . Some remote areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remained pagan until well into the 10th century AD . Medieval period ( 4th century – 1453 ) The Roman Empire in the east , following the fall of the Empire in the west in the 5th century , is conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire ( but was simply called `` Roman Empire '' in its own time ) and lasted until 1453 . With its capital in Constantinople , its language and literary culture was Greek and its religion was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian . From the 4th century , the Empire 's Balkan territories , including Greece , suffered from the dislocation of the Barbarian Invasions . The raids and devastation of the Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion of Greece in the 7th century resulted in a dramatic collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula . Following the Slavic invasion , the imperial government retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas , particularly the densely populated walled cities such as Athens , Corinth and Thessalonica , while some mountainous areas in the interior held out on their own and continued to recognize imperial authority . Outside of these areas , a limited amount of Slavic settlement is generally thought to have occurred , although on a much smaller scale than previously thought . The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces began toward the end of the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again , in stages , during the 9th century . This process was facilitated by a large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula , while at the same time many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor and those that remained were assimilated . During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from strong economic growth – much stronger than that of the Anatolian territories of the Empire . Following the Fourth Crusade and the fall of Constantinople to the `` Latins '' in 1204 mainland Greece was split between the Greek Despotate of Epirus ( a Byzantine successor state ) and Frankish rule ( known as the Frankokratia ) , while some islands came under Venetian rule . The re-establishment of the Byzantine imperial capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by the empire 's recovery of much of the Greek peninsula , although the Frankish Principality of Achaea in the Peloponnese and the rival Greek Despotate of Epirus in the north both remained important regional powers into the 14th century , while the islands remained largely under Genoese and Venetian control . In the 14th century , much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and then to the Ottomans . By the beginning of the 15th century , the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its then-largest city , Thessaloniki , and the Peloponnese ( Despotate of the Morea ) . After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 , the Morea was the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans . However , this , too , fell to the Ottomans in 1460 , completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece . With the Turkish conquest , many Byzantine Greek scholars , who up until then were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge , fled to the West , taking with them a large body of literature and thereby significantly contributing to the Renaissance . Early modern period : Venetian possessions and Ottoman rule ( 15th century – 1821 ) While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century , Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian territory and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively . The only part of the Greek-speaking world that escaped long-term Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands , which remained Venetian until their capture by the First French Republic in 1797 , then passed to the United Kingdom in 1809 until their unification with Greece in 1864 . While Greeks in the Ionian Islands and Constantinople lived in prosperity , and Greeks living in Constantinople achieved positions of power within the Ottoman administration , much of the population of mainland Greece suffered the economic consequences of the Ottoman conquest . Heavy taxes were enforced , and in later years the Ottoman Empire enacted a policy of creation of hereditary estates , effectively turning the rural Greek populations into serfs . The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire , whether ethnically Greek or not . Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam , Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman Empire . Discrimination against Christians , particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities , led to conversions to Islam , if only superficially . In the 19th century , many `` crypto-Christians '' returned to their old religious allegiance . The nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied , though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh . Some cities had governors appointed by the Sultan , while others ( like Athens ) were self-governed municipalities . Mountains regions in the interior and many islands remained effectively autonomous from the central Ottoman state for many centuries . When military conflicts broke out between the Ottoman Empire and other states , Greeks usually took arms against the Empire , with few exceptions . Prior to the Greek revolution , there had been a number of wars which saw Greeks fight against the Ottomans , such as the Greek participation in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 , the Epirus peasants ' revolts of 1600–1601 , the Morean War of 1684–1699 , and the Russian-instigated Orlov Revolt in 1770 , which aimed at breaking up the Ottoman Empire in favor of Russian interests . These uprisings were put down by the Ottomans with great bloodshed . The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as something of a `` dark age '' in Greek history , with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote with only the Ionian islands remaining free of Turkish domination . Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537 , 1571 and 1716 all of which resulted in the repulsion of the Ottomans . However , in the 18th century , there arose through shipping a wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class . These merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire , establishing communities throughout the Mediterranean , the Balkans , and Western Europe . Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from significant European intellectual movements such as the Reformation and the Enlightenment , these ideas together with the ideals of the French Revolution and romantic nationalism began to penetrate the Greek world via the mercantile diaspora . In the late 18th century , Rigas Feraios , the first revolutionary to envision an independent Greek state , published a series of documents relating to Greek independence , including but not limited to a national anthem and the first detailed map of Greece , in Vienna , and was murdered by Ottoman agents in 1798 . Modern period Greek War of Independence ( 1821–1832 ) In the late eighteenth century , an increase in secular learning during the Modern Greek Enlightenment led to the revival among Greeks of the diaspora of the notion of a Greek nation tracing its existence to ancient Greece , distinct from the other Orthodox peoples , and having a right to political autonomy . One of the organizations formed in this intellectual milieu was the Filiki Eteria , a secret organization formed by merchants in Odessa in 1814 . Appropriating a long-standing tradition of Orthodox messianic prophecy aspiring to the resurrection of the eastern Roman empire and creating the impression they had the backing of Tsarist Russia , they managed amidst a crisis of Ottoman trade , from 1815 onwards , to engage traditional strata of the Greek Orthodox world in their liberal nationalist cause . The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolution in the Peloponnese , the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople . The first of these revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities under the leadership of Alexandros Ypsilantis , but it was soon put down by the Ottomans . The events in the north spurred the Greeks of the Peloponnese into action and on 17 March 1821 the Maniots declared war on the Ottomans . By the end of the month , the Peloponnese was in open revolt against the Ottomans and by October 1821 the Greeks under Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured Tripolitsa . The Peloponnesian revolt was quickly followed by revolts in Crete , Macedonia and Central Greece , which would soon be suppressed . Meanwhile , the makeshift Greek navy was achieving success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea . In 1822 and 1824 the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands , including Chios and Psara , committing wholesale massacres of the population . This had the effect of galvanizing public opinion in western Europe in favor of the Greek rebels . Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions , leading to two consecutive civil wars . Meanwhile , the Ottoman Sultan negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt , who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain . Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and had immediate success : by the end of 1825 , most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control , and the city of Missolonghi—put under siege by the Turks since April 1825—fell in April 1826 . Although Ibrahim was defeated in Mani , he had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and Athens had been retaken . After years of negotiation , three Great Powers , Russia , the United Kingdom and France , decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece . Following news that combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra , the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet at Navarino . After a week-long standoff , a battle began which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet . A French expeditionary force was dispatched to supervise the evacuation of the Egyptian army from the Peloponnese , while the Greeks proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828 . As a result of years of negotiation , the nascent Greek state was finally recognized under the London Protocol in 1830 . Kingdom of Greece In 1827 , Ioannis Kapodistrias , from Corfu , was chosen as the first governor of the First Hellenic Republic . Following his assassination in 1831 and the subsequent conference a year later , the Great Powers of Britain , France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von Wittelsbach as monarch . In 1843 an uprising forced the king to grant a constitution and a representative assembly . Due to his authoritarian rule , he was eventually dethroned in 1862 and a year later replaced by Prince Wilhelm ( William ) of Denmark , who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as a coronation gift from Britain . In 1877 Charilaos Trikoupis , who is credited with significant improvement of the country 's infrastructure , curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere in the assembly by issuing the rule of vote of confidence to any potential prime minister . Corruption and Trikoupis ' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like the Corinth Canal overtaxed the weak Greek economy , forcing the declaration of public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Control authority to pay off the country 's debtors . Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek : the language question . The Greek people spoke a form of Greek called Demotic . Many of the educated elite saw this as a peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek . Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa ( purified ) Greek , a form which few ordinary Greeks could read . Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language , but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts , to the extent that , when the New Testament was translated into Demotic in 1901 , riots erupted in Athens and the government fell ( the Evangeliaka ) . This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s . All Greeks were united , however , in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire , regardless of the dialect they spoke . Especially in Crete , a prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour . When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877 , Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russia 's side , but Greece was too poor , and too concerned of British intervention , to officially enter the war . Nevertheless , in 1881 , Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the Treaty of Berlin , while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete . Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts , and in 1897 , the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis , bowing to popular pressure , declared war on the Ottomans . In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897 the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans . Through the intervention of the Great Powers , however , Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey , while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece . With state coffers empty , fiscal policy came under International Financial Control . In the next decade , Greek efforts were focused on the Macedonian Struggle , a state-sponsored guerilla campaign against pro-Bulgarian rebel gangs in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia , which ended inconclusively with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 . Expansion , disaster , and reconstruction Amidst general dissatisfaction with the state of the nation , a group of military officers organized a coup in August 1909 and shortly thereafter called to power Cretan politician Eleftherios Venizelos . After winning two elections and becoming Prime Minister , Venizelos initiated wide-ranging fiscal , social and constitutional reforms , reorganized the military , made Greece a member of the Balkan League , and led the country through the Balkan Wars . By 1913 Greece 's territory and population had almost doubled , annexing Crete , Epirus and Macedonia . In the following years , the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Venizelos over the country 's foreign policy on the eve of World War I dominated the country 's political scene , and divided the country into two opposing groups . During parts of the First World War , Greece had two governments ; a royalist pro-German government in Athens and a Venizelist pro-Entente one in Thessaloniki . The two governments were united in 1917 , when Greece officially entered the war on the side of the Entente . In the aftermath of the First World War , Greece attempted further expansion into Asia Minor , a region with a large native Greek population at the time , but was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 , contributing to a massive flight of Asia Minor Greeks . These events overlapped , with both happening during the Greek genocide ( 1914-1922 ) , a period during which , according to various sources , Ottoman and Turkish officials contributed to the death of several hundred thousand Asia Minor Greeks . The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent , and expanded , in an official Population exchange between Greece and Turkey . The exchange was part of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the war . The following era was marked by instability , as over 1.5 million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey had to be integrated into Greek society . Because the term `` Greeks '' in the exchange was based on religion Cappadocian Greeks , Pontian Greeks , and non Greek followers of Greek Orthodoxy were all subject to the exchange as well . Some of the refugees could not speak the language , and were from what had been unfamiliar environments to mainland Greeks , such as in the case of the Cappadocians and non Greeks . The refugees also made a dramatic post war population boost , as the amount of refugees was more than a quarter of Greece 's prior population . The task was undertaken by settling the Pontians

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Since 1951, what is the maximum number of full consecutive terms to be filled by one US president?

Reptiles are a group ( Reptilia ) of tetrapod animals comprising today 's turtles , crocodilians , snakes , amphisbaenians , lizards , tuatara , and their extinct relatives . The study of these traditional reptile groups , historically combined with that of modern amphibians , is called herpetology . The earliest known proto-reptiles originated around 312 million years ago during the Carboniferous period , having evolved from advanced reptiliomorph tetrapods that became increasingly adapted to life on dry land . Some early examples include the lizard-like Hylonomus and Casineria . In addition to the living reptiles , there are many diverse groups that are now extinct , in some cases due to mass extinction events . In particular , the K–Pg extinction wiped out the pterosaurs , plesiosaurs , ornithischians , and sauropods , as well as many species of theropods ( e.g . tyrannosaurids and dromaeosaurids ) , crocodyliforms , and squamates ( e.g . mosasaurids ) . Modern non-avian reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica ( If birds are classed as reptiles , then all continents are inhabited . ) Several living subgroups are recognized : Testudines ( turtles , terrapins and tortoises ) , approximately 400 species ; Sphenodontia ( tuatara from New Zealand ) , 1 species ; Squamata ( lizards , snakes , and worm lizards ) , over 9,600 species ; Crocodilia ( crocodiles , gavials , caimans , and alligators ) , 25 species ; and Aves ( birds ) , 10,000 species . Because some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles ( crocodiles are more closely related to birds than they are to lizards ) , many modern scientists prefer to make Reptilia a monophyletic grouping and so also include the birds , which today contain over 10,000 species . Reptiles are tetrapod vertebrates , creatures that either have four limbs or , like snakes , are descended from four-limbed ancestors . Unlike amphibians , reptiles do not have an aquatic larval stage . Most reptiles are oviparous , although several species of squamates are viviparous , as were some extinct aquatic clades — the fetus develops within the mother , contained in a placenta rather than an eggshell . As amniotes , reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport , which adapt them to reproduction on dry land . Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of mammals , with some providing initial care for their hatchlings . Extant reptiles range in size from a tiny gecko , Sphaerodactylus ariasae , which can grow up to 17 mm to the saltwater crocodile , Crocodylus porosus , which may reach 6 m in length and weigh over 1000 kg . Classification Research history In the 18th century , the reptiles were , from the outset of classification , grouped with the amphibians . Linnaeus , working from species-poor Sweden , where the common adder and grass snake are often found hunting in water , included all reptiles and amphibians in class `` III – Amphibia '' in his Systema Naturæ . The terms `` reptile '' and `` amphibian '' were largely interchangeable , `` reptile '' ( from Latin repere , `` to creep '' ) being preferred by the French . Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti was the first to formally use the term `` Reptilia '' for an expanded selection of reptiles and amphibians basically similar to that of Linnaeus . Today , the two groups are still commonly treated under the same heading as herptiles . It was not until the beginning of the 19th century that it became clear that reptiles and amphibians are , in fact , quite different animals , and Pierre André Latreille erected the class Batracia ( 1825 ) for the latter , dividing the tetrapods into the four familiar classes of reptiles , amphibians , birds , and mammals . The British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley made Latreille 's definition popular and , together with Richard Owen , expanded Reptilia to include the various fossil `` antediluvian monsters '' , including dinosaurs and the mammal-like ( synapsid ) Dicynodon he helped describe . This was not the only possible classification scheme : In the Hunterian lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1863 , Huxley grouped the vertebrates into mammals , sauroids , and ichthyoids ( the latter containing the fishes and amphibians ) . He subsequently proposed the names of Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida for the latter two groups . In 1866 , Haeckel demonstrated that vertebrates could be divided based on their reproductive strategies , and that reptiles , birds , and mammals were united by the amniotic egg . The terms `` Sauropsida '' ( `` lizard faces '' ) and `` Theropsida '' ( `` beast faces '' ) were used again in 1916 by E.S . Goodrich to distinguish between lizards , birds , and their relatives on the one hand ( Sauropsida ) and mammals and their extinct relatives ( Theropsida ) on the other . Goodrich supported this division by the nature of the hearts and blood vessels in each group , and other features , such as the structure of the forebrain . According to Goodrich , both lineages evolved from an earlier stem group , Protosauria ( `` first lizards '' ) in which he included some animals today considered reptile-like amphibians , as well as early reptiles . In 1956 , D.M.S . Watson observed that the first two groups diverged very early in reptilian history , so he divided Goodrich 's Protosauria between them . He also reinterpreted Sauropsida and Theropsida to exclude birds and mammals , respectively . Thus his Sauropsida included Procolophonia , Eosuchia , Millerosauria , Chelonia ( turtles ) , Squamata ( lizards and snakes ) , Rhynchocephalia , Crocodilia , `` thecodonts '' ( paraphyletic basal Archosauria ) , non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs , ichthyosaurs , and sauropterygians . In the late 19th century , a number of definitions of Reptilia were offered . The traits listed by Lydekker in 1896 , for example , include a single occipital condyle , a jaw joint formed by the quadrate and articular bones , and certain characteristics of the vertebrae . The animals singled out by these formulations , the amniotes other than the mammals and the birds , are still those considered reptiles today . The synapsid/sauropsid division supplemented another approach , one that split the reptiles into four subclasses based on the number and position of temporal fenestrae , openings in the sides of the skull behind the eyes . This classification was initiated by Henry Fairfield Osborn and elaborated and made popular by Romer 's classic Vertebrate Paleontology . Those four subclasses were : * Anapsida – no fenestrae – cotylosaurs and Chelonia ( turtles and relatives ) This taxonomy does not reflect modern molecular evidence , which places turtles within Diapsida . * Synapsida – one low fenestra – pelycosaurs and therapsids ( the 'mammal-like reptiles ' ) * Euryapsida – one high fenestra ( above the postorbital and squamosal ) – protorosaurs ( small , early lizard-like reptiles ) and the marine sauropterygians and ichthyosaurs , the latter called Parapsida in Osborn 's work . * Diapsida – two fenestrae – most reptiles , including lizards , snakes , crocodilians , dinosaurs and pterosaurs The composition of Euryapsida was uncertain . Ichthyosaurs were , at times , considered to have arisen independently of the other euryapsids , and given the older name Parapsida . Parapsida was later discarded as a group for the most part ( ichthyosaurs being classified as incertae sedis or with Euryapsida ) . However , four ( or three if Euryapsida is sunk into Diapsida ) subclasses remained more or less universal for non-specialist work throughout the 20th century . It has largely been abandoned by recent researchers : in particular , the anapsid condition has been found to occur so variably among unrelated groups that it is not now considered a useful distinction . Phylogenetics and modern definition By the early 21st century , vertebrate paleontologists were beginning to adopt phylogenetic taxonomy , in which all groups are defined in such a way as to be monophyletic ; that is , groups include all descendants of a particular ancestor . The reptiles as historically defined are paraphyletic , since they exclude both birds and mammals . These respectively evolved from dinosaurs and from early therapsids , which were both traditionally called reptiles . Birds are more closely related to crocodilians than the latter are to the rest of extant reptiles . Colin Tudge wrote : Mammals are a clade , and therefore the cladists are happy to acknowledge the traditional taxon Mammalia ; and birds , too , are a clade , universally ascribed to the formal taxon Aves . Mammalia and Aves are , in fact , subclades within the grand clade of the Amniota . But the traditional class Reptilia is not a clade . It is just a section of the clade Amniota : the section that is left after the Mammalia and Aves have been hived off . It can not be defined by synapomorphies , as is the proper way . Instead , it is defined by a combination of the features it has and the features it lacks : reptiles are the amniotes that lack fur or feathers . At best , the cladists suggest , we could say that the traditional Reptilia are 'non-avian , non-mammalian amniotes ' . Despite the early proposals for replacing the paraphyletic Reptilia with a monophyletic Sauropsida , which includes birds , that term was never adopted widely or , when it was , was not applied consistently . When Sauropsida was used , it often had the same content or even the same definition as Reptilia . In 1988 , Jacques Gauthier proposed a cladistic definition of Reptilia as a monophyletic node-based crown group containing turtles , lizards and snakes , crocodilians , and birds , their common ancestor and all its descendants . Because the actual relationship of turtles to other reptiles was not yet well understood at this time , Gauthier 's definition came to be considered inadequate . A variety of other definitions were proposed by other scientists in the years following Gauthier 's paper . The first such new definition , which attempted to adhere to the standards of the PhyloCode , was published by Modesto and Anderson in 2004 . Modesto and Anderson reviewed the many previous definitions and proposed a modified definition , which they intended to retain most traditional content of the group while keeping it stable and monophyletic . They defined Reptilia as all amniotes closer to Lacerta agilis and Crocodylus niloticus than to Homo sapiens . This stem-based definition is equivalent to the more common definition of Sauropsida , which Modesto and Anderson synonymized with Reptilia , since the latter is better known and more frequently used . Unlike most previous definitions of Reptilia , however , Modesto and Anderson 's definition includes birds , as they are within the clade that includes both lizards and crocodiles . Taxonomy Classification to order level of the reptiles , after Benton , 2014 . * Class Reptilia * * Subclass Parareptilia * * * Order Pareiasauromorpha * * Subclass Eureptilia * * * Infraclass Diapsida * * * * Order Younginiformes * * * * Infraclass Neodiapsida * * * * * Order Testudinata ( turtles ) * * * * * Infraclass Lepidosauromorpha * * * * * * Infrasubclass Unnamed * * * * * * * Infraclass Ichthyosauria * * * * * * * Order Thalattosauria * * * * * * * Superorder Lepidosauriformes * * * * * * * * Order Rhynchocephalia ( tuatara ) * * * * * * * * Order Squamata ( lizards & snakes ) * * * * * * Infrasubclass Sauropterygia * * * * * * * Order Placodontia * * * * * * * Order Eosauropterygia * * * * * * * Order Plesiosauria * * * * * Infraclass Archosauromorpha * * * * * * Order Rhynchosauria * * * * * * Order Protorosauria * * * * * * Division Archosauriformes * * * * * * * Subdivision Archosauria * * * * * * * * Infradivision Crurotarsi * * * * * * * * * Order Phytosauria * * * * * * * * * Superorder Crocodylomorpha * * * * * * * * * * Order Crocodilia * * * * * * * * Infradivision Avemetatarsalia * * * * * * * * * Infrasubdivision Ornithodira * * * * * * * * * * Order Pterosauria * * * * * * * * * * Superorder Dinosauria * * * * * * * * * * * Order Saurischia ( incl . Clade Aves ) * * * * * * * * * * * Order Ornithischia Phylogeny The cladogram presented here illustrates the `` family tree '' of reptiles , and follows a simplified version of the relationships found by M.S . Lee , in 2013 . All genetic studies have supported the hypothesis that turtles are diapsids ; some have placed turtles within archosauriformes , though a few have recovered turtles as lepidosauriformes instead . The cladogram below used a combination of genetic ( molecular ) and fossil ( morphological ) data to obtain its results . The position of turtles The placement of turtles has historically been highly variable . Classically , turtles were considered to be related to the primitive anapsid reptiles . Molecular work has usually placed turtles within the diapsids . So far three turtle genomes have been sequenced . The results place turtles as a sister clade to the archosaurs , the group that includes crocodiles , dinosaurs , and birds . Evolutionary history Origin of the reptiles The origin of the reptiles lies about 310–320 million years ago , in the steaming swamps of the late Carboniferous period , when the first reptiles evolved from advanced reptiliomorphs . The oldest known animal that may have been an amniote is Casineria ( though it may have been a temnospondyl ) . A series of footprints from the fossil strata of Nova Scotia dated to show typical reptilian toes and imprints of scales . These tracks are attributed to Hylonomus , the oldest unquestionable reptile known . It was a small , lizard-like animal , about 20 to long , with numerous sharp teeth indicating an insectivorous diet . Other examples include Westlothiana ( for the moment considered a reptiliomorph rather than a true amniote ) and Paleothyris , both of similar build and presumably similar habit . Rise of the reptiles The earliest amniotes , including stem-reptiles ( those amniotes closer to modern reptiles than to mammals ) , were largely overshadowed by larger stem-tetrapods , such as Cochleosaurus , and remained a small , inconspicuous part of the fauna until the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse . This sudden collapse affected several large groups . Primitive tetrapods were particularly devastated , while stem-reptiles fared better , being ecologically adapted to the drier conditions that followed . Primitive tetrapods , like modern amphibians , need to return to water to lay eggs ; in contrast , amniotes , like modern reptiles – whose eggs possess a shell that allows them to be laid on land – were better adapted to the new conditions . Amniotes acquired new niches at a faster rate than before the collapse and at a much faster rate than primitive tetrapods . They acquired new feeding strategies including herbivory and carnivory , previously only having been insectivores and piscivores . From this point forward , reptiles dominated communities and had a greater diversity than primitive tetrapods , setting the stage for the Mesozoic ( known as the Age of Reptiles ) . One of the best known early stem-reptiles is Mesosaurus , a genus from the early Permian that had returned to water , feeding on fish . Anapsids , synapsids , diapsids and sauropsids It was traditionally assumed that the first reptiles retained an anapsid skull inherited from their ancestors.Coven , R ( 2000 ) : History of Life . Blackwell Science , Oxford , UK . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id qvyBS4gwPF4C & lpgPA154 & ots CbCxyrJdo0 & dqdiapsids % 20ancestors % 20synapsids & pg PA154 # vonepage & q diapsids % 20ancestors % 20synapsids & ffalse p 154 ] from Google Books This type of skull has a skull roof with only holes for the nostrils , eyes and a pineal eye . The discoveries of synapsid-like openings ( see below ) in the skull roof of the skulls of several members of Parareptilia ( the clade containing most of the amniotes traditionally referred to as `` anapsids '' ) , including lanthanosuchoids , millerettids , bolosaurids , some nycteroleterids , some procolophonoids and at least some mesosaurs made it more ambiguous and it 's currently uncertain whether the ancestral amniote had an anapsid-like or synapsid-like skull . These animals are traditionally referred to as `` anapsids '' , and form a paraphyletic basic stock from which other groups evolved . Very shortly after the first amniotes appeared , a lineage called Synapsida split off ; this group was characterized by a temporal opening in the skull behind each eye to give room for the jaw muscle to move . These are the `` mammal-like amniotes '' , or stem-mammals , that later gave rise to the true mammals . Soon after , another group evolved a similar trait , this time with a double opening behind each eye , earning them the name Diapsida ( `` two arches '' ) . The function of the holes in these groups was to lighten the skull and give room for the jaw muscles to move , allowing for a more powerful bite . Turtles have been traditionally believed to be surviving parareptiles , on the basis of their anapsid skull structure , which was assumed to be primitive trait . The rationale for this classification has been disputed , with some arguing that turtles are diapsids that evolved anapsid skulls in order to improve their armor . Later morphological phylogenetic studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within Diapsida . All molecular studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within diapsids , most commonly as a sister group to extant archosaurs . Permian reptiles With the close of the Carboniferous , the amniotes became the dominant tetrapod fauna . While primitive , terrestrial reptiliomorphs still existed , the synapsid amniotes evolved the first truly terrestrial megafauna ( giant animals ) in the form of pelycosaurs , such as Edaphosaurus and the carnivorous Dimetrodon . In the mid-Permian period , the climate became drier , resulting in a change of fauna : The pelycosaurs were replaced by the therapsids . The parareptiles , whose massive skull roofs had no postorbital holes , continued and flourished throughout the Permian . The pareiasaurian parareptiles reached giant proportions in the late Permian , eventually disappearing at the close of the period ( the turtles being possible survivors ) . Early in the period , the modern reptiles , or crown-group reptiles , evolved and split into two main lineages : the Archosauromorpha ( forebears of turtles , crocodiles , and dinosaurs ) and the Lepidosauromorpha ( predecessors of modern lizards and tuataras ) . Both groups remained lizard-like and relatively small and inconspicuous during the Permian . Mesozoic reptiles The close of the Permian saw the greatest mass extinction known ( see the Permian–Triassic extinction event ) , a prolonged event due to the accumulation of at least two distinct extinction pulses . Most of the earlier parareptile and synapsid megafauna disappeared , being replaced by the true reptiles , particularly archosauromorphs . These were characterized by elongated hind legs and an erect pose , the early forms looking somewhat like long-legged crocodiles . The archosaurs became the dominant group during the Triassic period , though it took 30 million years before their diversity was as great as the animals that lived in the Permian . Archosaurs developed into the well-known dinosaurs and pterosaurs , as well as the ancestors of crocodiles . Since reptiles , first rauisuchians and then dinosaurs , dominated the Mesozoic era , the interval is popularly known as the `` Age of Reptiles '' . The dinosaurs also developed smaller forms , including the feather-bearing smaller theropods . In the Cretaceous period , these gave rise to the first true birds . The sister group to Archosauromorpha is Lepidosauromorpha , containing lizards and tuataras , as well as their fossil relatives . Lepidosauromorpha contained at least one major group of the Mesozoic sea reptiles : the mosasaurs , which lived during the Cretaceous period . The phylogenetic placement of other main groups of fossil sea reptiles – the ichthyopterygians ( including ichthyosaurs ) and the sauropterygians , which evolved in the early Triassic – is more controversial . Different authors linked these groups either to lepidosauromorphs or to archosauromorphs , [ http : //www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G331/lectures/331vertsII.html GEOL 331 Vertebrate Paleontology II : Fossil Tetrapods ] and ichthyopterygians were also argued to be diapsids that did not belong to the least inclusive clade containing lepidosauromorphs and archosauromorphs . Cenozoic reptiles The close of the Cretaceous period saw the demise of the Mesozoic era reptilian megafauna ( see the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event ) . Of the large marine reptiles , only sea turtles were left ; and of the non-marine large reptiles , only the semi-aquatic crocodiles and broadly similar choristoderes survived the extinction , with the latter becoming extinct in the Miocene . Of the great host of dinosaurs dominating the Mesozoic , only the small beaked birds survived . This dramatic extinction pattern at the end of the Mesozoic led into the Cenozoic . Mammals and birds filled the empty niches left behind by the reptilian megafauna and , while reptile diversification slowed , bird and mammal diversification took an exponential turn . However , reptiles were still important components of the megafauna , particularly in the form of giant tortoises . After the extinction of most archosaur and marine reptile lines by the end of the Cretaceous , reptile diversification continued throughout the Cenozoic . Squamates took a massive hit during the KT-event , only recovering ten million years after it , but they underwent a great radiation event once they recovered , and today squamates make up the majority of living reptiles ( > 95 % ) . Approximately 10,000 extant species of traditional reptiles are known , with birds adding about 10,000 more , almost twice the number of mammals , represented by about 5,700 living species ( excluding domesticated species ) . Morphology and physiology Circulation All squamates and turtles have a three-chambered heart consisting of two atria , one variably partitioned ventricle , and two aortas that lead to the systemic circulation . The degree of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the three-chambered heart varies depending on the species and physiological state . Under different conditions , deoxygenated blood can be shunted back to the body or oxygenated blood can be shunted back to the lungs . This variation in blood flow has been hypothesized to allow more effective thermoregulation and longer diving times for aquatic species , but has not been shown to be a fitness advantage . Crocodilians have an anatomically four-chambered heart , similar to birds , but also have two systemic aortas and are therefore capable of bypassing their pulmonary circulation . Also , some snake and lizard species ( e.g. , pythons and monitor lizards ) have three-chambered hearts that become functionally four-chambered hearts during contraction . This is made possible by a muscular ridge that subdivides the ventricle during ventricular diastole and completely divides it during ventricular systole . Because of this ridge , some of these squamates are capable of producing ventricular pressure differentials that are equivalent to those seen in mammalian and avian hearts . Metabolism Modern reptiles exhibit some form of cold-bloodedness ( i.e . some mix of poikilothermy , ectothermy , and bradymetabolism ) so that they have limited physiological means of keeping the body temperature constant and often rely on external sources of heat . Due to a less stable core temperature than birds and mammals , reptilian biochemistry requires enzymes capable of maintaining efficiency over a greater range of temperatures than in the case for warm-blooded animals . The optimum body temperature range varies with species , but is typically below that of warm-blooded animals ; for many lizards , it falls in the 24°–35 °C ( 75°–95 °F ) range , while extreme heat-adapted species , like the American desert iguana Dipsosaurus dorsalis , can have optimal physiological temperatures in the mammalian range , between 35° and 40 °C ( 95° and 104 °F ) . While the optimum temperature is often encountered when the animal is active , the low basal metabolism makes body temperature drop rapidly when the animal is inactive . As in all animals , reptilian muscle action produces heat . In large reptiles , like leatherback turtles , the low surface-to-volume ratio allows this metabolically produced heat to keep the animals warmer than their environment even though they do not have a warm-blooded metabolism . This form of homeothermy is called gigantothermy ; it has been suggested as having been common in large dinosaurs and other extinct large-bodied reptiles . The benefit of a low resting metabolism is that it requires far less fuel to sustain bodily functions . By using temperature variations in their surroundings , or by remaining cold when they do not need to move , reptiles can save considerable amounts of energy compared to endothermic animals of the same size . A crocodile needs from a tenth to a fifth of the food necessary for a lion of the same weight and can live half a year without eating . Lower food requirements and adaptive metabolisms allow reptiles to dominate the animal life in regions where net calorie availability is too low to sustain large-bodied mammals and birds . It is generally assumed that reptiles are unable to produce the sustained high energy output necessary for long distance chases or flying . Higher energetic capacity might have been responsible for the evolution of warm-bloodedness in birds and mammals . However , investigation of correlations between active capacity and thermophysiology show a weak relationship . Most extant reptiles are carnivores with a sit-and-wait feeding strategy ; whether reptiles are cold blooded due to their ecology is not clear . Energetic studies on some reptiles have shown active capacities equal to or greater than similar sized warm-blooded animals . Respiratory System All reptiles breathe using lungs . Aquatic turtles have developed more permeable skin , and some species have modified their cloaca to increase the area for gas exchange . Even with these adaptations , breathing is never fully accomplished without lungs . Lung ventilation is accomplished differently in each main reptile group . In squamates , the lungs are ventilated almost exclusively by the axial musculature . This is also the same musculature that is used during locomotion . Because of this constraint , most squamates are forced to hold their breath during intense runs . Some , however , have found a way around it . Varanids , and a few other lizard species , employ buccal pumping as a complement to their normal `` axial breathing '' . This allows the animals to completely fill their lungs during intense locomotion , and thus remain aerobically active for a long time . Tegu lizards are known to possess a proto-diaphragm , which separates the pulmonary cavity from the visceral cavity . While not actually capable of movement , it does allow for greater lung inflation , by taking the weight of the viscera off the lungs . Crocodilians actually have a muscular diaphragm that is analogous to the mammalian diaphragm . The difference is that the muscles for the crocodilian diaphragm pull the pubis ( part of the pelvis , which is movable in crocodilians ) back , which brings the liver down , thus freeing space for the lungs to expand . This type of diaphragmatic setup has been referred to as the `` hepatic piston '' . The airways bronchia form a number of double tubular chambers within each lung . On inhalation and exhalation air moves through the airways in the same direction

tc_2816--Reptile.txt

Of which reptile are there only two species, one living in the Mississippi and the other in China?

China , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , in Asia , is the world 's most populous state , with a population of over 1.381 billion . The state is governed by the Communist Party of China based in the capital of Beijing . It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , four direct-controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai , and Chongqing ) , two mostly self-governing special administrative regions ( Hong Kong and Macau ) , and claims sovereignty over Taiwan . China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia , and has been characterized as a potential superpower . Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers , China is the world 's second largest state by land area , and either the third or fourth-largest by total area , depending on the method of measurement . China 's landscape is vast and diverse , ranging from forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south . The Himalaya , Karakoram , Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from south and central Asia . The Yangtze and Yellow rivers , the third and sixth longest in the world , respectively , run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard . China 's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14500 km long , and is bounded by the Bohai , Yellow , East China , and South China seas . China is a cradle of civilization , with its known history beginning with an ancient civilization – one of the world 's earliest – that flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties . Since 221 BCE , when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire , the state has expanded , fractured and reformed numerous times . The Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the last dynasty in 1912 , and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949 , when it was defeated by the Communist Party of China in the Chinese Civil War . The Communist Party established the People 's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949 , while the ROC government relocated to Taiwan with its present capital in Taipei . Both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China . China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years , during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline . Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978 , China has become one of the world 's fastest-growing major economies . , it is the world 's second-largest economy by nominal GDP and largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . China is also the world 's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods . China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world 's largest standing army and second-largest defense budget . The PRC is a member of the United Nations , as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council in 1971 . China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations , including the WTO , APEC , BRICS , the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , the BCIM and the G-20 . Etymology The English word `` China '' is thought to have been originally derived from the Sanskrit word Cīna ( ) , which is translated into the Persian word Chīn ( ) . Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture , including the Mahābhārata ( 5th century BCE ) and the Laws of Manu ( 2nd century BCE ) .Wade , Geoff . `` [ http : //www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China ' ] '' . Sino-Platonic Papers , No . 188 , May 2009 , p. 20 . The word `` China '' itself was first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa . `` China '' . Oxford English Dictionary ( 1989 ) . ISBN 0-19-957315-8 . [ https : //books.google.com.vn/books ? id edzW9fuOF-cC & pgPA211 & dq # vonepage & q % 22Very % 20Great % 20Kingdom % 20of % 20China % 22 & ffalse The Book of Duarte Barbosa ] ( chapter title `` The Very Great Kingdom of China '' ) . ISBN 81-206-0451-2 . In the [ http : //purl.pt/435/ Portuguese original ] , the chapter is titled `` O Grande Reino da China '' . The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.Eden , Richard ( 1555 ) . Decades of the New World : `` The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world . '' The traditional theory , proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini and supported by many later scholars , is that the word China and its earlier related forms are ultimately derived from the state of `` Qin '' ( ) , the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou dynasty which unified China to form the Qin dynasty . Other suggestions for the derivation of `` China '' however exist . The official name of the modern state is the People 's Republic of China ( ) . The common Chinese names for the state are ' ( , from ' , `` central '' or `` middle '' , and ' , `` state '' or `` states '' , and in modern times , `` nation '' ) and ' ( ) , although the state 's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments . The term ' appeared in various ancient texts , such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BCE , and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived `` barbarians '' . The term , which can be either singular or plural , referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain , but was not used as a name for the state as a whole until the nineteenth century . The Chinese were not unique in regarding their state as `` central '' , with other civilizations having the same view of themselves . History Prehistory Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250,000 and 2.24 million years ago . A cave in Zhoukoudian ( near present-day Beijing ) exhibits hominid fossils dated at between 680,000 and 780,000 BCE . The fossils are of Peking Man , an example of Homo erectus who used fire . Fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125,000–80,000 BCE have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County , Hunan . Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC , Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC , Damaidi around 6000 BC and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC . Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols ( 7th millennium BC ) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system . Early dynastic rule According to Chinese tradition , the first dynasty was the Xia , which emerged around 2100 BCE . The dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou , Henan in 1959 . It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period . The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records . The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE . Their oracle bone script ( from c. 1500 BCE ) represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found , and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters . The Shang were conquered by the Zhou , who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE , though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords . Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year Spring and Autumn Period , only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king . By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE , there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China , each with its own king , ministry and army . Imperial China The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state . Qin Shi Huang , the emperor of Qin , proclaimed himself `` First Emperor '' ( ) and imposed reforms throughout China , notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters , measurements , length of cart axles , and currency . His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes , incorporating the Lingnan area into China . The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years , falling soon after Qin Shi Huang 's death , as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion . The subsequent Han dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE , and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day . The Han Dynasty expanded the empire 's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching southern Korea , Vietnam , Mongolia and Central Asia , and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia . Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world . The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism , a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period , as its official state ideology . Despite the Han 's official abandonment of Legalism , the official ideology of the Qin , Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government . After the collapse of Han , a period of disunion known as the period of the Three Kingdoms followed . The brief unification of the Jin dynasty was broken by the uprising of the Five Barbarians . Nevertheless , the ethnic integration in northern China was achieved with the drastic sinicization policy of Emperor Xiaowen of the Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei . In 581 CE , China was reunited under the Sui . However , the Sui Dynasty declined following its defeat in the Goguryeo–Sui War ( 598–614 ) . Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties , Chinese economy , technology and culture entered a golden age . The Tang Empire returned control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road , and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center . However , it was devastated and weakened by the An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century . In 907 , the Tang disintegrated completely with the local military governors being ungovernable . Finally the Song Dynasty ended the separatist situation , as a result the balance of power appeared between Song and Khitan Liao . The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade . Between the 10th and 11th centuries , the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people , mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China , and the production of abundant food surpluses . The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism , in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang , and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts , as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity . However , the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty . In 1127 , Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song Wars , remnants of the Song retreated to southern China . In the 13th century , China was gradually conquered by the Mongol Empire . In 1271 , the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty ; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279 . Before the Mongol invasion , the population of Song China was 120 million citizens ; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300 . A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty . Under the Ming Dynasty , China enjoyed another golden age , developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture . It was during this period that Zheng He led voyages throughout the world , reaching as far as Africa . In the early years of the Ming Dynasty , China 's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing . With the budding of capitalism , philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations . The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements , which , together with the famines and the wars against Japanese invasions of Korea and Manchu invasions led to an exhausted treasury . In 1644 , Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng . The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell . The Manchu Qing dynasty then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li 's short-lived Shun dynasty , and subsequently seized control of Beijing , which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty . End of dynastic rule The Qing dynasty , which lasted from 1644 until 1912 , was the last imperial dynasty of China . As a conquest dynasty , it successively conquered the Ming loyalists and Dzungar Khanate , adding Mongolia , Tibet and Xinjiang into the empire , and strengthened the centralized autocracy to crackdown on anti-Qing sentiment . The Haijin ( `` sea ban '' ) and the ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition caused social and technological stagnation . In the 19th century , the dynasty experienced Western imperialism following the First Opium War ( 1839–42 ) and the Second Opium War ( 1856–60 ) with Britain and France . China was forced to sign unequal treaties , pay compensation , open treaty ports , allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals , and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking . The First Sino-Japanese War ( 1894–95 ) resulted in Qing China 's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula , as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan . The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died . In the 1850s and 1860s , the failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China . Other major rebellions included the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars ( 1855–67 ) , the Nian Rebellion ( 1851–68 ) , the Miao Rebellion ( 1854–73 ) , the Panthay Rebellion ( 1856–73 ) and the Dungan Revolt ( 1862–77 ) . The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by the series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s . In the 19th century , the great Chinese Diaspora began . Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79 , in which between 9 and 13 million people died . In 1898 , the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy , but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi . The ill-fated anti-Western Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty . Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms , the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China . Republic of China ( 1912–49 ) On 1 January 1912 , the Republic of China was established , and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang ( the KMT or Nationalist Party ) was proclaimed provisional president . However , the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai , a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China . In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army , he was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic . After Yuan Shikai 's death in 1916 , China was politically fragmented . Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless ; regional warlords controlled most of its territory . In the late 1920s , the Kuomintang , under Chiang Kai-shek , the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy , was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings , known collectively as the Northern Expedition . The Kuomintang moved the nation 's capital to Nanjing and implemented `` political tutelage '' , an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen 's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state . The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists , against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War . This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang , especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March , until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan . The Second Sino-Japanese War ( 1937–1945 ) , a theatre of World War II , forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists . Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population ; in all , as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died . An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation . During the war , China , along with the UK , the US and the Soviet Union , were referred to as `` trusteeship of the powerful '' and were recognized as the Allied `` Big Four '' in the Declaration by United Nations . Along with the other three great powers , China was one of the four major Allies of World War II , and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war . After the surrender of Japan in 1945 , Taiwan , including the Pescadores , was returned to Chinese control . China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained . The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war . In 1947 , constitutional rule was established , but because of the ongoing unrest , many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China . People 's Republic of China ( 1949–present ) Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China , and the Kuomintang retreating offshore , reducing the ROC 's territory to only Taiwan , Hainan , and their surrounding islands . On 1 October 1949 , Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People 's Republic of China . In 1950 , the People 's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC and incorporating Tibet . However , remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s . Mao 's regime consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the land reform with between 1 and 2 million landlords executed . Under its leadership , China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons . The Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million . However , Mao 's Great Leap Forward , a large-scale economic and social reform project , resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961 , mostly from starvation . In 1966 , Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution , sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao 's death in 1976 . In October 1971 , the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations , and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council . In 1976 , Mao died . The Gang of Four was quickly arrested and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution . In 1978 Deng Xiaoping took power and instituted significant economic reforms . The Communist Party loosened governmental control over citizens ' personal lives , and the communes were gradually disbanded in favour of private land leases . This marked China 's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment . China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982 . In 1989 , the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries . Jiang Zemin , Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s . Under their administration , China 's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2 % . The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001 , and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao 's leadership in the 2000s . However , rapid growth also severely impacted the country 's resources and environment , and caused major social displacement . Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession , but centralized political control remained tight . Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals . During China 's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012 , Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping . Under Xi , the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy , which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth . The Xi–Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system . Geography Political geography The People 's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area after Russia , and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area , after Russia , Canada and , depending on the definition of total area , the United States . China 's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9600000 km2 . Specific area figures range from 9572900 km2 according to the Encyclopædia Britannica , 9596961 km2 according to the UN Demographic Yearbook , to 9596961 km2 according to the CIA World Factbook . China has the longest combined land border in the world , measuring 22117 km from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin . China borders 14 nations , more than any other country except Russia , which also borders 14 . China extends across much of East Asia , bordering Vietnam , Laos , and Myanmar ( Burma ) in Southeast Asia ; India , Bhutan , Nepal , Afghanistan , and Pakistan in South Asia ; Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia ; and Russia , Mongolia , and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia . Additionally , China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea , Japan , Vietnam , and the Philippines . Landscape and climate The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N , and longitudes 73° and 135° E. China 's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width . In the east , along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea , there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains , while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north , broad grasslands predominate . Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges , while the central-east hosts the deltas of China 's two major rivers , the Yellow River and the Yangtze River . Other major rivers include the Xi , Mekong , Brahmaputra and Amur . To the west sit major mountain ranges , most notably the Himalayas . High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north , such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert . The world 's highest point , Mount Everest ( 8,848m ) , lies on the Sino-Nepalese border . The country 's lowest point , and the world 's third-lowest , is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake ( −154m ) in the Turpan Depression . China 's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons , which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer . In the winter , northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry ; in summer , southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist . The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country 's highly complex topography . A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts , particularly the Gobi Desert . Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms , prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring , which then spread to other parts of east Asia , including Korea and Japan . China 's environmental watchdog , SEPA , stated in 2007 that China is losing a million acres ( 4,000 km² ) per year to desertification . Water quality , erosion , and pollution control have become important issues in China 's relations with other countries . Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people . Biodiversity China is one of 17 megadiverse countries , lying in two of the world 's major ecozones : the Palearctic and the Indomalaya . By one measure , China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants , making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world , after Brazil and Colombia . The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992 , and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993 . It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan , with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010 . China is home to at least 551 species of mammals ( the third-highest such number in the world ) , 1,221 species of birds ( eighth ) , 424 species of reptiles ( seventh ) and 333 species of amphibians ( seventh ) . China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside the tropics . Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world 's largest population of homo sapiens . At least 840 animal species are threatened , vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China , due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction , pollution and poaching for food , fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine . Endangered wildlife is protected by law , and , the country has over 2,349 nature reserves , covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares , 15 percent of China 's total land area . China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants , and is home to a variety of forest types . Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country , supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear , along with over 120 bird species . The understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo . In higher montane stands of juniper and yew , the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons . Subtropical forests , which are predominate in central and southern China , support as many as 146,000 species of flora . Tropical and seasonal rainforests , though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island , contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China . China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi , and of them , nearly 6,000 are higher fungi . Environmental issues In recent decades , China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution . While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent , they are poorly enforced , as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development . Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country ; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world 's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China . China is the world 's largest carbon dioxide emitter . The country also has significant water

qz_2111--China.txt

The Yalu river forms a sort of natural border between China and which of its neighbours?

New Amsterdam ( ) was a 17th-century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan Island , which served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland . The factorij became a settlement outside of Fort Amsterdam . Situated on the strategic , fortifiable southern tip of the island of Manhattan , the fort was meant to defend the Dutch West India Company 's fur trade operations in the North River ( Hudson River ) . It became a provincial extension of the Dutch Republic as of 1624 and was designated the capital of the province in 1625 . New Amsterdam was renamed New York on September 8 , 1664 , in honor of the then Duke of York ( later James II of England ) , in whose name the English had captured it . In 1667 the Dutch gave up their claim to the town and the rest of the colony , in exchange for control of the Spice Islands . History Early settlement ( 1609–1625 ) In 1524 , nearly a century before the arrival of the Dutch , the site that later became New Amsterdam was named New Angoulême by the Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano , to commemorate his patron King Francis I of France , former Count of Angoulême . The first recorded exploration by the Dutch of the area around what is now called New York Bay was in 1609 with the voyage of the ship Halve Maen ( English : `` Half Moon '' ) , captained by Henry Hudson in the service of the Dutch Republic , as the emissary of Maurice of Nassau , Prince of Orange , Holland 's stadholder . Hudson named the river the Mauritius River . He was covertly attempting to find the Northwest Passage for the Dutch East India Company . Instead , he brought back news about the possibility of exploitation of beaver by the Dutch who sent commercial , private missions to the area the following years . At the time , beaver pelts were highly prized in Europe , because the fur could be felted to make waterproof hats . A by-product of the trade in beaver pelts was castoreum—the secretion of the animals ' anal glands—which was used for its medicinal properties and for perfumes . The expeditions by Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiaensen in 1611 , 1612 , 1613 and 1614 resulted in the surveying and charting of the region from the 38th parallel to the 45th parallel . On their 1614 map , which gave them a four-year trade monopoly under a patent of the States General , they named the newly discovered and mapped territory New Netherland for the first time . It also showed the first year-round trading presence in New Netherland , Fort Nassau , which would be replaced in 1624 by Fort Orange , which eventually grew into the town of Beverwyck , now Albany . Dominican trader Juan Rodriguez ( rendered in Dutch as Jan Rodrigues ) , born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent , arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–1614 , trapping for pelts and trading with the local population as a representative of the Dutch . He was the first recorded non-Native American inhabitant of what would eventually become New York City . The territory of New Netherland was originally a private , profit-making commercial enterprise focusing on cementing alliances and conducting trade with the diverse Indian tribes . Surveying and exploration of the region was conducted as a prelude to an anticipated official settlement by the Dutch Republic , which occurred in 1624 . Pilgrims ' attempt to settle in the Hudson River area In 1620 the Pilgrims attempted to sail to the Hudson River from England . However , the Mayflower reached Cape Cod ( now part of Massachusetts ) on November 9 , 1620 , after a voyage of 64 days . ( page 20 ) . For a variety of reasons , primarily a shortage of supplies , the Mayflower could not proceed to the Hudson River and the colonists decided to settle somewhere on or near Cape Cod . The Dutch return The mouth of the Hudson River was selected as the ideal place for initial settlement as it had easy access to the ocean while also securing an ice-free lifeline to the beaver trading post near present-day Albany , settled in 1614 . Here American Indian hunters supplied them with pelts in exchange for European-made trade goods and wampum , which was soon being made by the Dutch on Long Island . In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was founded . Between 1621 and 1623 , orders were given to the private , commercial traders to vacate the territory , thus opening up the territory to Dutch settlers and company traders . It also allowed the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland to apply . Previously , during the private , commercial period , only the law of the ship had applied . In May 1624 , the first settlers in New Netherland arrived on Noten Eylandt aboard the ship New Netherland under the command of Cornelius Jacobsen May , who disembarked on the island with thirty families in order to take legal possession of the New Netherland territory . The families were then dispersed to Fort Wilhelmus on Verhulsten Island ( Burlington Island ) in the South River ( now the Delaware River ) , to Kievitshoek ( now Old Saybrook , Connecticut ) at the mouth of the Verse River ( now the Connecticut River ) and further north at Fort Nassau on the Mauritius or North River ( now the Hudson River ) , near what is now Albany . A fort and sawmill were soon erected at Nut Island . The latter was constructed by Franchoys Fezard , and was taken apart for iron in 1648 . Fort Amsterdam ( 1625 ) The threat of attack from other European colonial powers prompted the directors of the Dutch West India Company to formulate a plan to protect the entrance to the Hudson River . In 1625 many settlers were moved from Noten Eylant to Manhattan Island , where a citadel to contain Fort Amsterdam was being laid out by Cryn Frederickz van Lobbrecht at the direction of Willem Verhulst . By the end of 1625 , the site had been staked out directly south of Bowling Green on the site of the present U.S . Custom House . The Mohawk-Mahican War in the Hudson Valley led the company to relocate even more settlers to the vicinity of the new Fort Amsterdam . In the end , colonizing was a prohibitively expensive undertaking , only partly subsidized by the fur trade . This led to a scaling back of the original plans . By 1628 , a smaller fort was constructed with walls containing a mixture of clay and sand . The fort also served as the center of trading activity . It contained a barracks , the church , a house for the West India Company director and a warehouse for the storage of company goods . Troops from the fort used the triangle between the Heerestraat and what came to be known as Whitehall Street for marching drills . 1625–1664 Willem Verhulst , who , with his council , was responsible for the selection of Manhattan as a permanent place of settlement and for situating Fort Amsterdam , was replaced as the company director-general of New Amsterdam by Peter Minuit in 1626 . To legally safeguard the settlers ' investments , possessions and farms on Manhattan island , Minuit negotiated the `` purchase '' of Manhattan from a Manahatta band of Lenape for 60 guilders worth of trade goods . According to the writer Nathaniel Benchley , Minuit conducted the transaction with the Lenape chief Seyseys , who was only too happy to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was actually mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks . The deed itself has not survived , so the specific details are unknown . A textual reference to the deed became the foundation for the legend that Minuit had purchased Manhattan from the Native Americans for 24 dollars ' worth of trinkets and beads , the guilder rate at the time being about two and a half to a Spanish dollar . In modern money , the price of 60 Dutch guilders in 1626 amounts to around $ 1,100 in 2012 dollars . Further complicating the calculation is that the value of goods in the area would have been different than the value of those same goods in the developed market of the Netherlands . The Dutch exploited the hydropower of existing creeks by constructing mills at Turtle Bay ( between present day East 45th- 48th Streets ) and Montagne ’ s Kill , later called Harlem Mill Creek ( East 108th Street ) . In 1639 a sawmill was located in the northern forest at what was later the corner of East 74th Street and Second Avenue , at which African laborers cut lumber . The New Amsterdam settlement had a population of approximately 270 people , including infants . In 1642 the new director-general Willem Kieft decided to build a stone church within the fort . The work was carried out by recent English immigrants , the brothers John and Richard Ogden . The church was finished in 1645 and stood until destroyed in the Slave Insurrection of 1741 . A pen-and-ink view of New Amsterdam , drawn on-the-spot and discovered in the map collection of the Austrian National Library in Vienna in 1991 , provides a unique view of New Amsterdam as it appeared from Capske ( small Cape ) Rock in 1648 . Capske Rock was situated in the water close to Manhattan between Manhattan and Noten Eylant , and signified the start of the East River roadstead . New Amsterdam received municipal rights on February 2 , 1653 , thus becoming a city ( Albany , then named Beverwyck , received its city rights in 1652 . ) Nieuw Haarlem ( now known as Harlem ) was formally recognized in 1658 . The first Jews known to have lived in New Amsterdam arrived in 1654 . First to arrive were Solomon Pietersen and Jacob Barsimson , who sailed in the summer of 1654 directly from Holland , with passports that gave them permission to trade in the colony . Then in early September , 23 Jewish refugees arrived from the formerly Dutch city of Recife , which had been conquered by the Portuguese in January of that year . The director of New Amsterdam , Peter Stuyvesant , sought to turn them away but was ultimately overruled by the directors of the Dutch West India Company in Amsterdam . Asser Levy , an Ashkenazi Jew who was one of the 23 refugees , eventually prospered and in 1661 became the first Jew to own a house in New Amsterdam , which also made him the first Jew known to have owned a house anywhere in North America . English capture On August 27 , 1664 , while England and the Dutch Republic were at peace , four English frigates sailed into New Amsterdam 's harbor and demanded New Netherland 's surrender , whereupon New Netherland was provisionally ceded by director-general Peter Stuyvesant . On September 6 Stuyvesant sent lawyer Johannes De Decker and five other delegates to sign the official Articles of Capitulation . This was swiftly followed by the Second Anglo-Dutch War , between England and the Dutch Republic . In June 1665 , New Amsterdam was reincorporated under English law as New York City , named after the Duke of York ( later King James II ) . He was the brother of the English King Charles II , who had been granted the lands . That same year Jan van Bonnel built a saw mill on East 74th Street and the East River , where a 13,710-meter long creek or stream that began in the north of today 's Central Park , which became known as the Saw Kill or Saw Kill Creek , emptied into the river . Later owners of the property George Elphinstone and Abraham Shotwell replaced the saw mill with a leather mill in 1677 . The Saw-kill was later redirected into a culvert , arched over , and its trickling little stream called Arch Brook . In 1667 the Treaty of Breda ended the conflict . The Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland . In return , they were granted the tiny Island of Run in North Maluku , rich in nutmegs , and a guarantee for their de facto possession of Suriname , captured by them that year . In July 1673 , during the Third Anglo-Dutch War , the Dutch briefly occupied New York City and renamed it New Orange . Anthony Colve was installed as the first Governor . Previously there had only been West India Company Directors . After the signing of the Treaty of Westminster in November 1674 , the city was relinquished to the English and the name reverted to `` New York '' . Suriname became an official Dutch possession in return . Maps of New Amsterdam New Amsterdam 's beginnings , unlike most other colonies in the New World , were thoroughly documented in city maps . During the time of New Netherland 's colonization , the Dutch were Europe 's pre-eminent cartographers . Moreover , as the Dutch West India Company 's delegated authority over New Netherland was threefold : maintaining sovereignty on behalf of the States General , generating cash flow through commercial enterprise for its shareholders and funding the province 's growth ; its directors regularly required that censuses be taken . These tools to measure and monitor the province 's progress were accompanied by accurate maps and plans . These surveys , as well as grassroots activities to seek redress of grievances , account for the existence of some of the most important of the early documents . There is a particularly detailed city map called the Castello Plan . Virtually every structure in New Amsterdam at the time is believed to be represented , and by a fortunate coincidence it can be determined who resided in every house from the Nicasius de Sille List of 1660 , which enumerates all the citizens of New Amsterdam and their addresses . The city map known as the Duke 's Plan probably derived from the same 1660 census as the Castello Plan . The Duke 's Plan includes the earliest suburban development on Manhattan ( the two outlined areas along the top of the plan ) . The work was created for James ( 1633–1701 ) , the duke of York and Albany , after whom New York City and New York State 's capital Albany were named , just after the seizure of New Amsterdam by the British . After that provisional relinquishment of New Netherland , Stuyvesant reported to his superiors that he `` had endeavored to promote the increase of population , agriculture and commerce ... the flourishing condition which might have been more flourishing if the now afflicted inhabitants had been protected by a suitable garrison ... and had been helped with the long sought for settlement of the boundary , or in default thereof had they been seconded with the oft besought reinforcement of men and ships against the continual troubles , threats , encroachments and invasions of the British neighbors and government of Hartford Colony , our too powerful enemies . '' The existence of these city maps has proven to be very useful in the archaeology of New York City . For instance , the excavation of the Stadthuys ( City Hall ) of New Amsterdam had great help in finding the exact location of the building from the Castello map . Legacy The 1625 date of the founding of New Amsterdam is now commemorated in the official Seal of New York City . ( Formerly , the year on the seal was 1664 , the year of the provisional Articles of Transfer , assuring New Netherlanders that they `` shall keep and enjoy the liberty of their consciences in religion '' , negotiated with the English by Peter Stuyvesant and his council . ) Sometimes considered a dysfunctional trading post by the English who later acquired it from the Dutch , Russell Shorto , author of The Island at the Center of the World , suggests that the city left its cultural marks on later New York and , by extension , the United States as a whole . Major recent historical research has been based on a set of documents that have survived from that period , untranslated . They are the administrative records of the colony , unreadable by most scholars . Since the 1970s , a professor named Charles Gehring has made it his life 's work to translate this first-hand history of the Colony of New Netherland . The scholarly conclusion has largely been that the settlement of New Amsterdam is much more like current New York than previously thought . Cultural diversity and a mind-set that resembles the American Dream were already present in the first few years of this colony . Writers like Russell Shorto argue that the large influence of New Amsterdam on the American psyche has largely been overlooked in the classic telling of American beginnings , because of animosity between the English victors and the conquered Dutch . The original 17th-century architecture of New Amsterdam has completely vanished ( affected by the fires of 1776 and 1835 ) , leaving only archaeological remnants . The original street plan of New Amsterdam has stayed largely intact , as have some houses outside of Manhattan . The presentation of the legacy of the unique culture of 17th-century New Amsterdam remains a concern of preservationists and educators . The National Park Service celebrated in 2009 the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson 's 1609 voyage on behalf of the Dutch with the New Amsterdam Trail . The Dutch-American historian and journalist Hendrik Willem van Loon wrote in 1933 a work of alternative history entitled `` If the Dutch Had Kept Nieuw Amsterdam '' ( in If , Or History Rewritten , edited by J. C. Squire , 1931 , Simon & Schuster ) . A similar theme , at greater length , was taken up by writer Elizabeth Bear , who published the `` New Amsterdam '' series of detective stories that take place in a world where the city remained Dutch until the Napoleonic Wars and retained its name also afterwards . One of New York Broadway theatres is the New Amsterdam Theatre . The name New Amsterdam is also written on the architrave situated on top of the row of columns in front of the Manhattan Municipal Building , commemorating the name of the Dutch colony . Notes

bb_2650--New_Amsterdam.txt

What is the modern name of the island borough bought by Dutchman Peter Minuit from Native Americans in 1626, and then called New Amsterdam?

Chad ( ; died 2 March 672 ) was a prominent 7th century Anglo-Saxon churchman , who became abbot of several monasteries , Bishop of the Northumbrians and subsequently Bishop of the Mercians and Lindsey People . He was later canonised as a saint . He was the brother of Cedd , also a saint . He features strongly in the work of Bede the Venerable and is credited , together with Cedd , with introducing Christianity to the Mercian kingdom . Sources Most of our knowledge of Chad comes from the writings of Bede . Bede tells us that he obtained his information about Chad and his brother , Cedd , from the monks of Lastingham , where both were abbots . Bede gives this attribution great prominence , placing it in the introduction to his work . This may indicate that the brothers had become controversial figures : certainly Bede must have thought that his material about them would be of more than usual interest to the reader . Bede also refers to information he received from Trumbert , `` who tutored me in the Scriptures and who had been educated in the monastery by that master '' , i.e . Chad . In other words , Bede considered himself to stand in the spiritual lineage of Chad and had gathered information from at least one who knew him personally . Early life and education Family links Chad was one of four brothers , all active in the Anglo-Saxon church . The others were Cedd , Cynibil and Caelin . Chad seems to have been Cedd 's junior , arriving on the political scene about ten years after Cedd . It is reasonable to suppose that Chad and his brothers were drawn from the Northumbrian nobility : They certainly had close connections throughout the Northumbrian ruling class . However , the name Chad is actually of British Celtic , rather than Anglo-Saxon origin . It is an element found in the personal names of many Welsh princes and nobles of the period and signifies `` battle '' . This may indicate a family of mixed cultural and/or ethnic background , with roots in the original Celtic population of the region . Education The only major fact that Bede gives about Chad 's early life is that he was a student of Aidan at the Celtic monastery at Lindisfarne . In fact , Bede attributes the general pattern of Chad 's ministry to the example of Aidan and his own brother , Cedd , who was also a student of St. Aidan . Aidan was a disciple of Columba and was invited by the King Oswald of Northumbria to come from Iona to establish a monastery . Aidan arrived in Northumbria in 635 and died in 651 . Chad must have studied at Lindisfarne some time between these years . Travels in Ireland and dating of Chad 's life Chad later travelled to Ireland as a monk , before he was ordained as a priest . Bede 's references to this period are the only real evidence we have for dating the earlier part of Chad 's life , including his birth . Cedd is not mentioned as Chad 's companion in this stage of his education . Probably Cedd was considerably older than Chad , and was ordained priest some years earlier : certainly he was already a priest by 653 , when he was sent to work among the Middle Angles . Chad 's companion was Egbert , who was of about the same age as himself . The two travelled in Ireland for further study . Bede tells us that Egbert himself was of the Anglian nobility , although the monks sent to Ireland were of all classes . Bede places Egbert , and therefore Chad , among an influx of English scholars who arrived in Ireland while Finan and Colmán were bishops at Lindisfarne . This means that Egbert and Chad must have gone to Ireland later than the death of Aidan , in 651 . Bede gives a long account of how Egbert fell dangerously ill in Ireland in 664 and vowed to follow a lifelong pattern of great austerity so that he might live to make amends for the follies of his youth . His only remaining friend at this point was called Ethelhun , who died in the plague . Hence , Chad must have left Ireland before this . In fact , it is in 664 that he suddenly appears in Northumbria , to take over from his brother Cedd , also stricken by the plague . Chad 's time in Ireland , therefore must fit into period 651–664 . Bede makes clear that the wandering Anglian scholars were not yet priests , and ordination to the priesthood generally happened at the age of thirty – the age at which Jesus commenced his ministry . The year of Chad 's birth is thus likely to be 634 , or a little earlier , although certainty is impossible . Cynibil and Caelin were ordained priests by the late 650s , when they participated with Cedd in the founding of Lastingham . Chad was almost certainly the youngest of the four , probably by a considerable margin . The Benedictine rule was slowly spreading across Western Europe , with encouragement from Rome . Chad was educated in an entirely distinct monastic tradition , indigenous to Western Europe itself , and tending to look back to the saint and monastic founder Martin of Tours as an exemplar , although not as founder of an order . As Bede 's account makes clear , the Irish and early Anglo-Saxon monasticism experienced by Chad was peripatetic , stressed ascetic practices and had a strong focus on Biblical exegesis , which generated a profound eschatological consciousness . Egbert recalled later that he and Chad `` followed the monastic life together very strictly – in prayers and continence , and in meditation on Holy Scripture '' . Some of the scholars quickly settled in Irish monasteries , while others wandered from one master to another in search of knowledge . Bede says that the Irish monks gladly taught them and fed them , and even let them use their valuable books , without charge . Since books were all produced by hand , with painstaking attention to detail , this was astonishingly generous . The practice of loaning books freely seems to have been a distinctive feature of Irish monastic life : it was a violent dispute over rights to copies of a borrowed psalter which had allegedly led to Columba 's exile from Ireland many years before . Controversies Struggle for political hegemony Britain had no secure state structures even at a regional level . 7th-century rulers tried to build larger and more unified realms within defensible boundaries and to legitimise their power , under the prevailing culture . During Chad 's lifetime the most important conflict was between Northumbria and Mercia . Penda , the pagan king of Mercia , continually campaigned against Northumbrian rulers , usually with the support of the Christian Welsh princes . Any defeat in this struggle tended to endanger the fragile unity of the defeated kingdom . In 641 , Penda inflicted a crushing defeat on the Northumbrians , killing King Oswald . Northumbria broke into its component parts of Bernicia ( north ) and Deira , and its rival factions were easily manipulated by Penda . Northumbria was not fully reunited by Oswald 's successor , Oswiu , until 651 . Conversely , Oswiu defeated and killed Penda in 655 , causing Mercia to descend into disunity for more than a decade , and allowing the Northumbrian rulers to intervene in Mercian affairs throughout that period . Dispute over apostolic legitimacy in the Church Christianity in the south of Britain was closely associated with Rome and with the Church in continental Europe . This was because its organisation had developed from the missions of Augustine of 597 , sent by Pope Gregory I . However , the churches of Ireland and of western and northern Britain had their own distinct history and traditions . The churches of Wales and Cornwall had an unbroken tradition stretching back to Roman times . Ireland traced its Christian origins to missionaries from Wales , while Northumbria looked to the Irish monastery of Iona , in modern Scotland , as its source . Although all western Christians recognised Rome as the ultimate fount of authority , the semi-independent churches of Britain and Ireland did not accept actual Roman control . Considerable divergences had developed in practice and organisation . Most bishops in Ireland and Britain were not recognised by Rome because their apostolic succession was uncertain and they condoned non-Roman practices . Monastic practices and structures were very different : moreover monasteries played a much more important role in Britain and Ireland than on the continent , with abbots regarded as de facto leaders of the Church . Many of the differences related to disputes over the dating of Easter and the cut of the monastic tonsure , which were markedly and notoriously different in the local churches from those in Rome . These political and religious issues were constantly intertwined , and interacted in various ways . Christianity in Britain and Ireland largely progressed through royal patronage , while kings increasingly used the Church to stabilise and to confer legitimacy on their fragile states . A strongly local church with distinctive practices could be a source of great support to a fledgling state , allowing the weaving together of political and religious elites . Conversely , the Roman connection introduced foreign influence beyond the control of local rulers , but also allowed rulers to display themselves on a wider , European stage , and to seek out more powerful sources of legitimacy . These issues are also crucial in assessing the reliability of sources : Bede is the only substantial source for details of Chad 's life . Bede wrote about sixty years after the crucial events of Chad 's episcopate , when the Continental pattern of territorial bishoprics and Benedictine monasticism had become established throughout the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms , including Northumbria . Bede was concerned to validate the Church practices and structures of his own time . However he also sought to present a flattering picture of the earlier Northumbrian church and monarchy : a difficult balancing act because , as Bede himself has constantly to acknowledge , the earlier institutions had resisted Roman norms for many decades . Bede 's treatment of Chad is particularly problematic because he could not conceal that Chad departed from Roman practices in vital ways – not only before the Synod of Whitby , which Bede presents as a total victory for the Roman party and its norms , but even after it . However , Chad was the teacher of Bede 's own teacher , Trumbert , so Bede has an obvious personal interest in rehabilitating him , to say nothing of his loyalty to the Northumbrian establishment , which not only supported him but had played a notable part in Christianising England . This may explain a number of gaps in Bede 's account of Chad , and why Bede sometimes seems to attribute to Chad implausible motives . Chad lived at and through a watershed in relations between the Anglo-Saxons and the wider Europe . Bede constantly tries to elide the ambiguities of Chad 's career , not always successfully . The rise of a dynasty The course of Chad 's life between his stay in Ireland and his emergence as a Church leader is unknown . In fact , it is possible that he had only recently returned from Ireland when prominence was thrust upon him . However , the growing importance of his family within the Northumbrian state is clear from Bede 's account of Cedd 's career of the founding of their monastery at Lastingham . This concentration of ecclesiastical power and influence within the network of a noble family was probably common in Anglo-Saxon England : an obvious parallel would be the children of Merewalh in Mercia in the following generation . The rise of Cedd Cedd , probably the elder brother , had become a very prominent figure in the Church while Chad was in Ireland . Probably as a newly ordained priest , he was sent in 653 by Oswiu on a difficult mission to the Middle Angles , at the request of their sub-king Peada , part of a developing pattern of Northumbrian intervention in Mercian affairs . After perhaps a year , he was recalled and sent on a similar mission to the East Saxons , being ordained bishop shortly afterwards . Cedd 's position as both a Christian missionary and a royal emissary compelled him to travel often between Essex and Northumbria . The founding of Lastingham Caelin , the brother of Cedd and Chad , was chaplain to Ethelwald , a nephew of Oswiu , who had been appointed to administer the coastal area of Deira . Caelin suggested to Ethelwald the foundation of a monastery , in which he could one day be buried , and where prayers for his soul would continue . Caelin introduced Ethelwold to Cedd , who needed just such a political base and spiritual retreat . Ethelwald , according to Bede , practically forced on Cedd a gift of land : a wild place at Lastingham , near Pickering in the North York Moors , close to one of the still-usable Roman roads . Bede explains that Cedd `` fasted strictly in order to cleanse it from the filth of wickedness previously committed there '' . On the thirtieth day of his forty-day fast , he was called away on urgent business . Cynibil , another of his brothers , took over the fast for the remaining ten days . The whole incident shows not only how closely the brothers were linked with Northumbria 's ruling dynasty , but how close they were to each other . A fast by Cynibil was even felt to be equivalent to one by Cedd himself . Lastingham was handed over to Cedd , who became abbot . It was clearly conceived as a base for the family and destined to be under their control for the foreseeable future – not an unusual arrangement in this period . Notably , however , Chad is not mentioned in this context until he succeeds his brother as abbot . Chad as abbot of Lastingham Chad 's first appearance as an ecclesiastical prelate occurs in 664 , shortly after the Synod of Whitby , when many Church leaders had been wiped out by the plague – among them Cedd , who died at Lastingham itself . On the death of his elder brother , Chad succeeded to the position of abbot at Lastingham . Bede seldom mentions Chad without referring to his regime of prayer and study , so these clearly made up the greater part of monastic routine at Lastingham . Study would have been collective , with monks carrying out exegesis through dialectic . Yet not all of the monks were intellectuals . Bede tells us of a man called Owin ( Owen ) , who appeared at the door of Lastingham . Owin was a household official of Æthelthryth , an East Anglian princess who had come to marry Ecgfrith , Oswiu 's younger son . He decided to renounce the world , and as a sign of this appeared at Lastingham in ragged clothes and carrying an axe . He had come primarily to work manually . He became one of Chad 's closest associates . Chad 's eschatological consciousness and its effect on others is brought to life in a reminiscence attributed to Trumbert , who was one of his students at Lastingham . Chad used to break off reading whenever a gale sprang up and call on God to have pity on humanity . If the storm intensified , he would shut his book altogether and prostrate himself in prayer . During prolonged storms or thunderstorms he would go into the church itself to pray and sing psalms until calm returned . His monks obviously regarded this as an extreme reaction even to English weather and asked him to explain . Chad explained that storms are sent by God to remind humans of the day of judgement and to humble their pride . The typically Celtic Christian involvement with nature was not like the modern romantic preoccupation but a determination to read in it the mind of God , particularly in relation to the last things . Bishop of the Northumbrians The need for a bishop Bede gives great prominence to the Synod of Whitby in 663/4 , which he shows resolving the main issues of practice in the Northumbrian Church in favour of Roman practice . Cedd is shown acting as the main go-between in the synod because of his facility with all of the relevant languages . Cedd was not the only prominent churchman to die of plague shortly after the synod . This was one of several outbreaks of the plague ; they badly hit the ranks of the Church leadership , with most of the bishops in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms dead , including the archbishop of Canterbury . Bede tells us that Colmán , the bishop of the Northumbrians at the time of the Synod , had left for Scotland after the Synod went against him . He was succeeded by Tuda , who lived only a short time after his accession . The tortuous process of replacing him is covered by Bede briefly , but in some respects puzzlingly . The mission of Wilfrid The first choice to replace Tuda was Wilfrid , a particularly zealous partisan of the Roman cause . Because of the plague , there were not the requisite three bishops available to ordain him , so he had gone to the Frankish Kingdom of Neustria to seek ordination . This was on the initiative of Alfrid , sub-king of Deira , although presumably Oswiu knew and approved this action at the time . Bede tells us that Alfrid sought a bishop for himself and his own people . This probably means the people of Deira . According to Bede , Tuda had been succeeded as abbot of Lindisfarne by Eata , who had been elevated to the rank of bishop . Wilfrid met with his own teacher and patron , Agilbert , a spokesman for the Roman side at Whitby , who had been made bishop of Paris . Agilbert set in motion the process of ordaining Wilfrid canonically , summoning several bishops to Compiègne for the ceremony . Bede tells us that he then lingered abroad for some time after his ordination . The elevation of Chad Bede implies that Oswiu decided to take further action because Wilfrid was away for longer than expected . It is unclear whether Oswiu changed his mind about Wilfrid , or whether he despaired of his return , or whether he never really intended him to become bishop but used this opportunity to get him out of the country . Chad was invited then to become bishop of the Northumbrians by King Oswiu . Chad is often listed as a Bishop of York . Bede generally uses ethnic , not geographical , designations for Chad and other early Anglo-Saxon bishops . However at this point , he does also refer to Oswiu 's desire that Chad become bishop of the church in York . York later became the diocesan city partly because it had already been designated as such in the earlier Roman-sponsored mission of Paulinus to Deira , so it is not clear whether Bede is simply echoing the practice of his own day , or whether Oswiu and Chad were considering a territorial basis and a see for his episcopate . It is quite clear that Oswiu intended Chad to be bishop over the entire Northumbrian people , over-riding the claims of both Wilfrid and Eata . Chad faced the same problem over ordination as Wilfrid , and so set off to seek ordination amid the chaos caused by the plague . Bede tells us that he travelled first to Canterbury , where he found that Archbishop Deusdedit was dead and his replacement was still awaited . Bede does not tell us why Chad diverted to Canterbury . The journey seems pointless , since the archbishop had died three years previously – a fact that must have been well known in Northumbria , and was the very reason Wilfrid had to go abroad . The most obvious reason for Chad 's tortuous travels would be that he was also on a diplomatic mission from Oswiu , seeking to build an encircling alliance around Mercia , which was rapidly recovering from its position of weakness . From Canterbury he travelled to Wessex , where he was ordained by bishop Wini of the West Saxons and two British , i.e . Welsh , bishops . None of these bishops was recognised by Rome . Bede points out that `` at that time there was no other bishop in all Britain canonically ordained except Wini '' and the latter had been installed irregularly by the king of the West Saxons . Bede describes Chad at this point as `` a diligent performer in deed of what he had learnt in the Scriptures should be done . '' Bede also tells us that Chad was teaching the values of Aidan and Cedd . His life was one of constant travel . Bede says that Chad visited continually the towns , countryside , cottages , villages and houses to preach the Gospel . Clearly , the model he followed was one of the bishop as prophet or missionary . Basic Christian rites of passage , baptism and confirmation , were almost always performed by a bishop , and for decades to come they were generally carried out in mass ceremonies , probably with little systematic instruction or counselling . The removal of Chad In 666 , Wilfrid returned from Neustria , `` bringing many rules of Catholic observance '' , as Bede says . He found Chad already occupying the same position . It seems that he did not in fact challenge Chad 's pre-eminence in his own area . Rather , he would have worked assiduously to build up his own support in sympathetic monasteries , like Gilling and Ripon . He did , however , assert his episcopal rank by going into Mercia and even Kent to ordain priests . Bede tells us that the net effect of his efforts on the Church was that the Irish monks who still lived in Northumbria either came fully into line with Catholic practices or left for home . Nevertheless , Bede can not conceal that Oswiu and Chad had broken significantly with Roman practice in many ways and that the Church in Northumbria had been divided by the ordination of rival bishops . In 669 , a new Archbishop of Canterbury , Theodore of Tarsus , sent by Pope Vitalian arrived in England . He immediately set off on a tour of the country , tackling abuses of which he had been forewarned . He instructed Chad to step down and Wilfrid to take over . According to Bede , Theodore was so impressed by Chad 's show of humility that he confirmed his ordination as bishop , while insisting he step down from his position . Chad retired gracefully and returned to his post as abbot of Lastingham , leaving Wilfrid as bishop of the Northumbrians at York . Bishop of the Mercians The recall of Chad Later that same year , King Wulfhere of Mercia requested a bishop . Wulfhere and the other sons of Penda had converted to Christianity , although Penda himself had remained a pagan until his death ( 655 ) . Penda had allowed bishops to operate in Mercia , although none had succeeded in establishing the Church securely without active royal support . Archbishop Theodore refused to consecrate a new bishop . Instead he recalled Chad out of his retirement at Lastingham . According to Bede , Theodore was greatly impressed by Chad 's humility and holiness . This was displayed particularly in his refusal to use a horse : he insisted on walking everywhere . Despite his regard for Chad , Theodore ordered him to ride on long journeys and went so far as to lift him into the saddle on one occasion . Chad was consecrated bishop of the Mercians ( literally , frontier people ) and of the Lindsey people ( Lindisfaras ) . Bede tells us that Chad was actually the third bishop sent to Wulfhere , making him the fifth bishop of the Mercians . The Kingdom of Lindsey , covering the north-eastern area of modern Lincolnshire , was under Mercian control , although it had in the past sometimes fallen under Northumbrian control . Later Anglo-Saxon episcopal lists sometimes add the Middle Angles to his responsibilities . They were a distinct part of the Mercian kingdom , centred on the middle Trent and lower Tame – the area around Tamworth , Lichfield and Repton that formed the core of the wider Mercian polity . It was their sub-king , Peada , who had secured the services of Chad 's brother Cedd in 653 , and they were frequently considered separately from the Mercians proper , a people who lived further to the west and north . Monastic foundations Wulfhere donated land at Lichfield for Chad to build a monastery . It was because of this that the centre of the Diocese of Mercia ultimately became settled at Lichfield . The Lichfield monastery was probably similar to that at Lastingham , and Bede makes clear that it was partly staffed by monks from Lastingham , including Chad 's faithful retainer , Owin . Lichfield was very close to the old Roman road of Watling Street , the main route across Mercia , and a short distance from Mercia 's main royal centre at Tamworth . Wulhere also donated land sufficient for fifty families at a place in Lindsey , referred to by Bede as Ad Barwae . This is probably Barrow upon Humber : where an Anglo-Saxon monastery of a later date has been excavated . This was easily reached by river from the Midlands and close to an easy crossing of the River Humber , allowing rapid communication along surviving Roman roads with Lastingham . Chad remained abbot of Lastingham throughout his life , as well as heading the communities at both Lichfield and Barrow . Chad 's ministry among the Mercians Chad then proceeded to carry out much missionary and pastoral work within the kingdom . Bede tells us that Chad governed the bishopric of the Mercians and of the people of Lindsey 'in the manner of the ancient fathers and in great perfection of life ' . However , Bede gives little concrete information about the work of Chad in Mercia , implying that in style and substance it was a continuation of what he had done in Northumbria . The area he covered was very large , stretching across England from coast to coast . It was also , in many places , difficult terrain , with woodland , heath and mountain over much of the centre and large areas of marshland to the east . Bede does tell us that Chad built for himself a small house at Lichfield , a short distance from the church , sufficient to hold his core of seven or eight disciples , who gathered to pray and study with him there when he was not out on business . Chad worked in Mercia and Lindsey for only two and a half years before he too died during a plague . Yet St. Bede could write in a letter that Mercia came to the faith and Essex was recovered for it by the two brothers Cedd and Chad . In other words , Bede considered that Chad 's two years as bishop were decisive in Christianising Mercia . The death of Chad Chad died on 2 March 672 , and was buried at the Church of Saint Mary which later became part of the cathedral at Lichfield . Bede relates the death story as that of a man who was already regarded as a saint . In fact , Bede has stressed throughout his narrative that Chad 's holiness communicated across boundaries of culture and politics , to Theodore , for example , in his own lifetime . The death story is clearly of supreme importance to Bede , confirming Chad 's holiness and vindicating his life . The account occupies considerably more space in Bede 's account than all the rest of Chad 's ministry in Northumbria and Mercia together . Bede tells

sfq_18671--Chad_of_Mercia.txt

In which English city is the Anglican cathedral dedicated to St. Philip and the Catholic one to St. Chad?

Belfast West is a parliamentary constituency in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom . Boundaries 1950-1974 : The County Borough of Belfast wards of Court , Falls , St Anne 's , St George 's , Smithfield , and Woodvale . 1974-1983 : The County Borough of Belfast wards of Court , Falls , St Anne 's , St George 's , Smithfield , and Woodvale , and the Rural District of Lisburn electoral divisions of Andersonstown , Ballygammon , and Ladybrook . 1983-1997 : The District of Belfast wards of Andersonstown , Ballygomartin , Central , Clonard , Court , Falls , Grosvenor , Highfield , Ladybrook , Milltown , North Howard , St James , Suffolk , and Whiterock . 1997-2010 : The District of Belfast wards of Andersonstown , Beechmount , Clonard , Falls , Falls Park , Glencairn , Glencolin , Glen Road , Highfield , Ladybrook , Shankill , Upper Springfield , and Whiterock , and the District of Lisburn wards of Collin Glen , Kilwee , Poleglass , and Twinbrook . 2010-present : The District of Belfast wards of Andersonstown , Beechmount , Clonard , Falls , Falls Park , Glencairn , Glencolin , Glen Road , Highfield , Ladybrook , Shankill , Upper Springfield , and Whiterock , and the City of Lisburn wards of Collin Glen , Dunmurry , Kilwee , Poleglass , Twinbrook , and part of Derryaghy . The seat was restored in 1922 ( having been abolished for the 1918 general election ) when as part of the establishment of the devolved Stormont Parliament for Northern Ireland , the number of MPs in the Westminster Parliament was drastically cut . In 1983 the Sandy Row and Donegall Road areas were removed leaving a seat centred on the west section of Belfast , though between 1983 and 1997 it included the area around the Docks on the north east side of the Lagan Estuary . Belfast West also contains part of the city of Lisburn district in the shape of the Poleglass and Twinbrook estates . Prior to the 2010 general election , boundary changes added the Dunmurry ward and the northern part of Derriaghy ward to this seat . Following public consultation , the proposals were passed through Parliament via the Northern Ireland Parliamentary Constituencies Order . In an unprecedented move by a Boundary Commission , an electoral ward was split between constituencies following disquiet in parts of Derriaghy . This ward is now split between Belfast West and Lagan Valley . History Belfast West has historically been the most nationalist of Belfast 's four constituencies , though it is only in the last few decades that the votes for unionist parties have plunged to tiny levels . The constituency is largely made of a long , slender , belt along the Falls Road and its suburban extensions , with three of the five wards from the staunchly unionist Shankill area now something of a bolt-on , with a several kilometre long peace line dividing them from the rest of the constituency . There is also a smaller Protestant enclave at Suffolk . The tenor of the constituency is largely working class and in the 1991 census it was one of only twenty constituencies where the majority of housing was still state owned . Although there are now large pockets of middle-class housing in Andersonstown and other suburban parts of the seat . Closer to the centre public-sector terraced housing , both Victorian and high quality modern housing , predominates , while in the suburbs , leafy pockets are scattered among post-War housing estates such as Lenadoon and Twinbrook . The Westminster constituency was consistently held by the Ulster Unionist Party but always had strong Labour movement sympathies . In the UK general election , 1923 , the Belfast Labour Party came within 1,000 votes of taking the seat . A by-election in 1943 was won by Jack Beattie , standing for the Northern Ireland Labour Party . For the next twenty-three years the seat would regularly change from unionist to nationalist/labour , with the latter represented by a variety of parties . In the 1966 general election the seat was won by Gerry Fitt of the Republican Labour Party . Later in 1970 he left that party to become a founder and first leader of the Social Democratic and Labour Party . In the February 1974 general election , Belfast West was the only constituency in Northern Ireland to elect an MP supporting the Sunningdale Agreement . Fitt 's majority was a narrow 2180 votes in February 1974 primarily due to the candidature of Albert Price , father of the Price sisters who were in prison in England for PIRA related offences . However the candidacy of a UVF backed candidate in October 1974 and a declining Unionist vote in 1979 led to him increasing his majorities in subsequent years . He retained the seat for the next nine years but increasingly distanced himself from nationalist groups and in late 1979 he left the SDLP altogether . He sat as an independent socialist but lost his seat in the 1983 when it was won by Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin . The Unionist vote which had still been at 30 % in the 1982 Assembly elections was cut to 20 % as a result of the 1983 boundary changes which , while adding the loyalist Glencairn area , removed the Donegall Road , Sandy Row and added the Nationalist Lenadoon area . Adams ' share of the vote , at 37 % , was short of a majority and he achieved victory only due to Fitt and the SDLP candidate splitting the non-Sinn Féin vote . In 1987 Adams narrowly held his seat , but lost it in the 1992 general election amidst a strong tactical voting campaign in favour of Joe Hendron of the Social Democratic and Labour Party by unionists in the Shankill Road area of the constituency . After the election a constituent , Maura McCrory , lodged an election petition challenging the result . The election court reported Hendron personally guilty of the illegal practice of failing to deliver a declaration verifying the return of his election expenses , and guilty through his election agent of failing to deliver a verified return of election expenses within 35 days , exceeding the maximum spending by £782.02 , and failing to pay all the expenses within 28 days . Hendron 's agent was also reported personally guilty of distributing election material without the name and address of the printer and publisher . The Judges granted both Hendron and his agent relief from their findings , on the grounds that the law had been broken through inadvertence ; they therefore certified that Hendron had been duly elected . In the mid-1990s the Boundary Commission originally suggested removing the Shankill wards from the constituency and replacing them with about half of the Belfast South constituency namely the 6 wards of the Balmoral Electoral Area and the Shaftesbury ward , effectively transforming the seat into a Belfast South West constituency . The subsequent local enquiries were bitterly contested with the SDLP favouring the commission 's original proposals which would add an area where Sinn Féin had little support ( and aside from the Shaftesbury ward , had not contested in council elections ) , while Sinn Féin argued instead for adding the mostly republican Twinbrook and Poleglass estates ( where they were outpolling the SDLP in council elections by a margin of 3 to 1 ) . With all parties except the SDLP supporting an option of retaining four seats in Belfast the latter option became the commissions final proposals and the Shankill wards remained in the constituency . The boundary changes , coupled with the IRA ceasefire , meant that support for Sinn Féin in the constituency soared to new levels and in all elections held in the seat since 1996 they have taken over 50 % of the vote . In 1997 Adams regained the seat and held it in 2001 , 2005 and 2010 . In 2011 , Adams decided to stand in the 2011 Republic of Ireland general election and vacated his seat . Members of Parliament The Member of Parliament since a 2011 by-election is Paul Maskey of Sinn Féin , who succeeded Gerry Adams , the party president . Adams previously held the seat from 1983 to 1992 when he lost it to Joe Hendron of the Social Democratic and Labour Party but regained it in 1997 . In November 2010 , Adams announced his intention to contest the imminent election in the Republic of Ireland . Although the Disqualifications Act 2000 permits MPs to sit in Dáil Éireann , he submitted a letter of resignation to the Speaker in January 2011 . However , the prescribed procedure for vacating a parliamentary seat involves applying for the post of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead , which he had `` no intention '' of doing . Thus he was still considered to hold the seat . On 26 January , HM Treasury announced that Adams had been appointed as Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead . The Prime Minister , David Cameron claim that Adams had applied for the appointment , but this was later clarified to state that although he had not requested the appointment . Adams stated the Prime Minister 's private secretary had apologised to him for making the announcement that Adams had 'accepted ' the position , when in fact Adams resignation letter was taken to be a request to be so appointed , whatever his own wishes . Election results Elections in the 2010s Changes above relate to the by-election in 2011 except for the turnout where the comparison is with the General Election in 2010 . Elections in the 2000s Elections in the 1990s 1997 Changes are compared to the 1992 notional results shown below . Elections in the 1980s Following the 1979 election , Fitt became increasingly at odds with the SDLP and left it , continuing to sit as an independent socialist . Elections in the 1970s After the 1970 election Fitt left the Republican Labour Party to cofound the Social Democratic & Labour Party . The remains of Republican Labour had disintegrated by 1974 . Elections in the 1960s Elections in the 1950s Elections in the 1940s Elections in the 1930s Note : The sitting MP , W.E.D . Allen , had joined the New Party earlier in 1931 but did not contest the seat at the general election . Elections in the 1920s Elections in the 1910s Elections in the 1900s Elections in the 1890s Elections in the 1880s

sfq_12326--Belfast_West_(UK_Parliament_constituency).txt

As at 2010 who is the MP for Belfast West?

An embryo is a multicellular diploid eukaryote in an early stage of embryogenesis , or development . In general , in organisms that reproduce sexually , an embryo develops from a zygote , the single cell resulting from the fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm cell . The zygote possesses half the DNA of each of its two parents . In plants , animals , and some protists , the zygote will begin to divide by mitosis to produce a multicellular organism . The result of this process is an embryo . In humans , a pregnancy is generally considered to be in the embryonic stage of development between the fifth and the eleventh weeks after fertilization , and is considered a fetus from the twelfth week on . Etymology First attested in English in the mid-14c. , the word embryon derives from Medieval Latin embryo , itself from Greek ( embruon ) , lit . `` young one '' , which is the neuter of ( embruos ) , lit . `` growing in '' , from ἐν ( en ) , `` in '' and βρύω ( bruō ) , `` swell , be full '' ; the proper Latinized form of the Greek term would be embryum . Development In animals , the development of the zygote into an embryo proceeds through specific recognizable stages of blastula , gastrula , and organogenesis . The blastula stage typically features a fluid-filled cavity , the blastocoel , surrounded by a sphere or sheet of cells , also called blastomeres . In a placental mammal , an ovum is fertilized in a fallopian tube through which it travels into the uterus . An embryo is called a fetus at a more advanced stage of development and up until birth or hatching . In humans , this is from the eleventh week of gestation . However , animals which develop in eggs outside the mother 's body , are usually referred to as embryos throughout development ; e.g . one would refer to a chick embryo , not a `` chick fetus , '' even at later stages . During gastrulation the cells of the blastula undergo coordinated processes of cell division , invasion , and/or migration to form two ( diploblastic ) or three ( triploblastic ) tissue layers . In triploblastic organisms , the three germ layers are called endoderm , ectoderm , and mesoderm . The position and arrangement of the germ layers are highly species-specific , however , depending on the type of embryo produced . In vertebrates , a special population of embryonic cells called the neural crest has been proposed as a `` fourth germ layer '' , and is thought to have been an important novelty in the evolution of head structures . During organogenesis , molecular and cellular interactions between germ layers , combined with the cells ' developmental potential , or competence to respond , prompt the further differentiation of organ-specific cell types . For example , in neurogenesis , a subpopulation of ectoderm cells is set aside to become the brain , spinal cord , and peripheral nerves . Modern developmental biology is extensively probing the molecular basis for every type of organogenesis , including angiogenesis ( formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones ) , chondrogenesis ( cartilage ) , myogenesis ( muscle ) , osteogenesis ( bone ) , and many others . Generally , if a structure pre-dates another structure in evolutionary terms , then it often appears earlier than the second in an embryo ; this general observation is sometimes summarized by the phrase `` ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny '' . For example , the backbone is a common structure among all vertebrates such as fish , reptiles , and mammals , and the backbone also appears as one of the earliest structures laid out in all vertebrate embryos . The cerebrum in humans , which is the most sophisticated part of the brain , develops last . This sequencing rule is not absolute , but it is recognized as being partly applicable to development of the human embryo . Plant embryos In botany , a seed plant embryo is part of a seed , consisting of precursor tissues for the leaves , stem ( see hypocotyl ) , and root ( see radicle ) , as well as one or more cotyledons . Once the embryo begins to germinate — grow out from the seed — it is called a seedling ( plantlet ) . Bryophytes and ferns also produce an embryo , but do not produce seeds . In these plants , the embryo begins its existence attached to the inside of the archegonium on a parental gametophyte from which the egg cell was generated . The inner wall of the archegonium lies in close contact with the `` foot '' of the developing embryo ; this `` foot '' consists of a bulbous mass of cells at the base of the embryo which may receive nutrition from its parent gametophyte . The structure and development of the rest of the embryo varies by group of plants . Once the embryo has expanded beyond the enclosing archegonium , it is no longer termed an embryo . Research and technology Embryos are used in various fields of research and in techniques of assisted reproductive technology . An egg may be fertilized in vitro and the resulting embryo may be frozen for later use . The potential of embryonic stem cell research , reproductive cloning , and germline engineering are currently being explored . Prenatal diagnosis or preimplantation diagnosis enables testing embryos for diseases or conditions . Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is a practice in which one collects animal germplasms , such as embryos , and stores them in low temperatures with the intent of conserving the genetic material . The embryos of Arabidopsis thaliana have been used as a model to understand gene activation , patterning , and organogenesis of seed plants . In regards to research using human embryos , the ethics and legalities of this application continue to be debated . Fossilized embryos Fossilized animal embryos are known from the Precambrian , and are found in great numbers during the Cambrian period . Even fossilized dinosaur embryos have been discovered . Miscarriage & abortion Some embryos do not survive to the next stage of development . When this happens naturally , it is called spontaneous abortion or miscarriage . There are many reasons why this may occur . The most common natural cause of miscarriage is chromosomal abnormality in animals or genetic load in plants . In species which produce multiple embryos at the same time , miscarriage or abortion of some embryos can provide the remaining embryos with a greater share of maternal resources . This can also disturb the pregnancy , causing harm to the second embryo . Genetic strains which miscarry their embryos are the source of commercial seedless fruits . Abortion is the process of artificially ( non-naturally ) removing the embryo through deliberate pharmaceutical or surgical methods .

bb_3277--Embryo.txt

Name the earliest (post-gamete) developmental stage of the human embryo?

The 2010 FIFA World Cup Final was a football match that took place on 11 July 2010 at Soccer City in Johannesburg , South Africa , to determine the winner of the 2010 FIFA World Cup . Spain defeated the Netherlands 1–0 with a goal from Andrés Iniesta four minutes from the end of extra time which was the latest FIFA World Cup Final winning goal , excluding penalty shoot-outs . English referee Howard Webb was selected to officiate the match , which was marked by an unusually high number of yellow cards . With both the Netherlands and Spain attempting to win their first FIFA World Cup , the 2010 final became the sixth final to be contested between non-former champions after 1930 , 1934 , 1954 , 1958 , and 1978 . The Netherlands had been beaten in the final in 1974 and 1978 , while Spain 's best performance had been fourth place in 1950 . It was the second consecutive all-European final , and marked the first time a European team has won the trophy outside Europe . Finalists Prior to this game , the Netherlands and Spain had never met each other in the main tournament stages of either a World Cup or a European Championship , the two major tournaments for European international teams . In all-time head-to-head results , the teams had met nine times previously since 1920 , winning four games each and drawing once , in either friendlies , European Championship qualifying games , and once in the 1920 Summer Olympics . It was the first time since the 1978 final that neither of the finalists had previously won the World Cup . The Netherlands were runners-up twice before , losing 2–1 to West Germany in 1974 , and 3–1 ( after extra time ) to Argentina in 1978 . Reaching the 2010 final was Spain 's best performance in the World Cup , having previously finished fourth in 1950 when the tournament had a round-robin final stage , and the quarter-finals stage in 1934 , 1986 , 1994 and 2002 , when single elimination knock-out stages featured . Spain became the 12th different country to play in a World Cup Final , and first new team since France in 1998 . The Netherlands played in its third final without a win , surpassing the record it had shared with Hungary and Czechoslovakia . Overall , Germany leads with four final losses . It was the first World Cup final not to feature at least one of Brazil , Italy , Germany or Argentina . Spain became just the eighth country to win the World Cup , joining England and France as nations who have won it just once . Before the match Spain had an Elo rating of 2111 points and the Netherlands a rating of 2100 points . Thus , the finalists combined for 4211 points , the highest for any international football match ever played , beating the previous record of 4161 combined points for the 1954 FIFA World Cup Final between Hungary and West Germany . Route to the final Spain entered the 2010 World Cup as the reigning UEFA European Football Champions , having won UEFA Euro 2008 , and as the shared holders of the international football record of consecutive unbeaten games for a national team , spanning 35 matches from 2007 to 2009 ; they also won all 10 matches of their qualifying campaign . The Netherlands entered the World Cup having won all eight matches in their UEFA Group 9 qualifying campaign . Once at the finals in South Africa , the Netherlands reached the knockout stage as winners of Group E , with three wins out of three against Denmark , Japan and Cameroon , conceding only one goal . In the knockout stage , they beat World Cup debutants Slovakia , five-time champions Brazil and two-time champions Uruguay . The Netherlands reached the Final in a 25-match unbeaten streak since September 2008 . In Group H , Spain recovered from a loss to Switzerland in their opening game to beat Honduras and then Chile , finishing top of the group ahead of Chile on goal difference . In the knockout stage , they then beat their Iberian neighbours Portugal , quarter-final debutants Paraguay and three-time World Cup winners Germany . The semi-final was a repeat of the match up for the UEFA Euro 2008 Final , and again saw Spain beat Germany , who were the top scorers of the 2010 tournament up to that point . In the six games both teams played in South Africa to reach the final , the Netherlands scored a total of twelve goals and conceded five , while Spain scored seven and conceded two . Going into the final , Wesley Sneijder of the Netherlands and David Villa of Spain were tied as the top scorers with five goals each ; Arjen Robben of the Netherlands with two was the only other player in the finalists ' squads with more than one goal in the tournament . Match ball The match ball for the 2010 FIFA World Cup Final , revealed on 20 April 2010 , was the Jo'bulani , a gold version of the Adidas Jabulani ball used for every other match in the tournament . The name of the ball is a reference to `` Jo'burg '' , a common nickname for Johannesburg , the match venue . The gold colouring of the ball mirrors the colour of the FIFA World Cup Trophy and also echoes another of Johannesburg 's nicknames : `` the City of Gold '' . The Jo'bulani is the second ball to be specifically produced for the FIFA World Cup Final , after the Teamgeist Berlin was used for the 2006 final . Squads At the time of the final , all but three members of the Spanish squad played for clubs in Spain ; the other three were based in England . The Netherlands squad drew its players from clubs in five European countries , with just nine based in the Netherlands ; six played in Germany , five in England , two in Italy and one in Spain . Match officials The referee for the final was Howard Webb , representing The Football Association of England . He was assisted by fellow Englishmen Darren Cann and Mike Mullarkey . Webb was the first Englishman to referee a World Cup final since Jack Taylor officiated the 1974 final between the Netherlands and West Germany . A police officer from Rotherham , South Yorkshire , 38-year-old Webb is one of the English Select Group Referees , and has officiated Premier League matches since 2003 . He was appointed to the FIFA list of international match referees in 2005 , and before the World Cup , he had taken charge of the 2010 UEFA Champions League Final and the 2009 FA Cup Final . At the 2010 World Cup , Webb refereed three games , all with Cann and Mullarkey as his assistants . In the group stage , he refereed the Spain–Switzerland and Slovakia–Italy games , and then took charge of the Brazil–Chile match in the Round of 16 . In those three games , he never showed a red card or awarded a penalty , but he did issue the second highest number of yellow cards in the tournament , an average of 5.67 bookings per game . With fourteen yellow cards in the final ( one red card to John Heitinga – twice yellow ) , he easily broke the previous record of six for most cards in a World Cup final , set in 1986 . Nine of these Final yellow cards came in the first 90 minutes . Webb 's total of 31 yellow cards throughout the tournament came to an average of 7.75 per game . Yuichi Nishimura and Toru Sagara , both from Japan , were the fourth and fifth officials respectively . Match Summary The final was played on 11 July 2010 at Soccer City , Johannesburg . Spain defeated the Netherlands 1–0 , after an extra time goal by Andrés Iniesta . The win gave Spain its first World Cup title . It was the first time since England in 1966 that the winners of the final wore their second-choice strip . The match had the most yellow cards awarded in a World Cup final , more than doubling the previous record for a final , set when Argentina and West Germany shared six cards in 1986 . Fourteen yellow cards were awarded ( nine for the Netherlands and five for Spain ) , and John Heitinga of the Netherlands was sent off for receiving a second yellow card . One yellow card was for Nigel de Jong 's studs-up kick to the chest of Xabi Alonso during the first half , for which Rob Hughes of the New York Times , among others , believed the referee should have given a red card . The referee , Howard Webb , later said after reviewing the foul that it should have been a red card , but that his view during play was partially obstructed . The Netherlands had several chances to score , most notably in the 62nd minute when Arjen Robben was released by Wesley Sneijder putting him one-on-one with Spain 's goalkeeper Iker Casillas , but Casillas pushed the shot wide with an outstretched leg . Meanwhile , for Spain , Sergio Ramos missed a free header from a corner kick when he was unmarked . Dutch captain Giovanni van Bronckhorst was substituted in the 105th minute by Edson Braafheid ; Real Madrid midfielder Rafael van der Vaart , who had come on as a substitute in the 99th minute for Nigel de Jong , took over as captain for the last 15 minutes . From the 109th minute , the Dutch played with 10 men due to Heitinga 's second yellow card . With a penalty shootout seeming inevitable , Jesús Navas sprinted into opposing territory and began a series of passes that led to Iniesta finally breaking the deadlock four minutes before the end of extra time , scoring with a right footed half-volleyed shot low to the goalkeeper 's right after receiving a pass from Cesc Fàbregas on the right of the penalty area . Just before the goal was scored , the Dutch team had a free kick that hit the wall ( apparently taking a deflection off Fàbregas ) before going out . Despite the deflection , which should have given possession and a corner kick to the Dutch , a goal kick was given to Spain , starting the play that led to the goal . The Dutch , however , momentarily had possession of the ball near the Spanish penalty area in between the goal kick and Iniesta 's goal . Joris Mathijsen was yellow-carded for his strong protests to the referee after the goal , and other Dutch players criticised Webb for this decision after the match . Iniesta was yellow-carded for the removal of his team shirt when celebrating his goal . Underneath he had a white vest with the handwritten message : `` '' ( `` Dani Jarque , always with us '' ) . Details Statistics * [ http : //www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/southafrica2010/matches/round249721/match 300061509/index.html FIFA.com – Netherlands-Spain – Overview ] * [ http : //www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/southafrica2010/statistics/matches/round249721/match 300061509/index.html FIFA.com – Match 64 – Final 11 July – Full time statistics ] Aftermath and reaction At the conclusion of the match , the Spanish team changed into their red shirted home kit for the presentation . These shirts already had a star over the emblem , signifying Spain 's World Cup victory . Spain had become the third side to win a World Cup final while playing in their away kit ( Brazil in 1958 and England in 1966 were earlier winners who played in away kit ) . The Spanish formed a guard of honor for the defeated Dutch as they went up to receive their runner up medals . Afterwards , the now red shirted Spaniards went up to receive their medals led by Xavi . Spain captain Iker Casillas ( who as per tradition went last ) was presented with the trophy by South African President Jacob Zuma and FIFA boss Sepp Blatter , Spain were the latest new World Champions since France 's win in 1998 , and the La Roja also became the first new winners since Brazil in 1958 to win outside their home country and also the first European team to win outside their own continent . The day after the final , Johan Cruyff publicly criticised the Dutch team in El Periódico de Catalunya for having played `` in a very dirty fashion '' , describing their contribution to the final as `` ugly '' , `` vulgar '' and `` anti-football '' . He added that the Dutch should have had two players sent off early in the match , and criticised referee Howard Webb for failing to dismiss them . The Associated Press was of the opinion that the Dutch had `` turned far too often to dirty tactics '' . The Dutch received nine yellow cards , compared with five yellow cards issued to Spain . Before the final , Webb was tied with Yuichi Nishimura of Japan for issuing the highest number of yellow cards ( 17 ) . After the match some Dutch players , such as Robben , Stekelenburg , Robin van Persie , Dirk Kuyt and Wesley Sneijder , accused Webb of favouring the Spaniards , while in Switzerland 's earlier defeat of Spain , Spain supporters accused Webb of favouring Switzerland . Other critics noted poor and missed calls on both teams . By the end of the tournament , the Dutch team had earned 22 yellow cards in its seven games , while Spain had earned only eight ( the lowest of the four semi-finalists , with Germany and Uruguay having earned 13 each ) . Spain was awarded FIFA 's Fair Play award after the final . Some English commentators , such as Sam Wallace , Graham Poll and Dermot Gallagher , have defended Webb . FIFA President Sepp Blatter admitted Webb had a `` very hard task '' in the match . Dutch midfielder Nigel de Jong stated that Webb , whom he knows from the Premier League , is not a bad referee , and admitted he was lucky not to have received a red card for his high challenge . Webb himself said , in a subsequent interview : The Dutch team was welcomed back to Amsterdam by an estimated 200,000 supporters lining the banks of the canals , and team captain Giovanni van Bronckhorst and coach Bert van Marwijk were named Knights in the Order of Oranje-Nassau by Dutch Queen Beatrix . Further , there were also reports that noted the play-acting and fouls by some of the Spanish players . Renowned German footballer Franz Beckenbauer criticised both teams and Webb saying that the match was `` lacking flow , [ with ] constant protests from the players and a referee who did n't have too much of an overview . '' There was negative and positive criticism following Spain 's ball possession strategy in the World Cup final . While some maintained that it was effective , but `` boring '' , others claimed it was `` beautiful '' . Broadcasting FIFA estimated that 910 million viewers worldwide watched at least part of the final . In Spain , the final attracted 15.6 million total Spanish viewers across three networks , which represents 86 % share of the audience , becoming the highest rated TV broadcast in Spanish history . Spain ’ s previous record was set by the Euro 2008 quarter-final penalty shootout between Spain and Italy , which drew 14.1 million viewers . In the Netherlands , 12.2 million people watched the final on television , which is 74 % of the total population of the country . In United States , World Cup television viewership rose 41 percent over 2006 final for English-language telecasts , with the final setting a record for a men 's football game . The final in Johannesburg , which gave the Spanish their first World Cup title , was seen by 15,545,000 viewers on ABC , according to fast national ratings . The previous high was 14,863,000 viewers for the United States ' 2–1 extra time loss to Ghana in the second round on 26 June . An additional 8.821 million viewers watched Spanish-language coverage on Univision , according to Nielsen Media Research , bringing the total to nearly 24.4 million . The final received an 8.1 rating on ABC , up 6 percent from the 7.7 for Italy 's penalty-kicks win over France in the 2006 final . This was the fourth-highest rating for a men 's World Cup game behind Brazil 's penalty-kicks victory over Italy in the 1994 final at the Rose Bowl ( 9.5 ) , Brazil 's second-round victory over the U.S. in 1994 ( 9.3 ) and Ghana-U.S. match in 2010 ( 8.5 ) . Viewership for the final on Univision was up 49 percent from 5,903,000 for 2006 . It was the third most-watched program on U.S. Spanish-language TV , trailing Argentina 's win over Mexico on June 27 ( 9,405,000 ) and the finale of the telenovela `` Destilando Amor ( Essence of Love ) '' on December 3 , 2007 ( 9,018,000 ) . In Canada , coverage of the final brought in unprecedented numbers of viewers . It attracted an average audience of 5.131 million to the CBC , with a peak of 7.664 million , according to BBM overnight measurements . Radio-Canada television drew 685,000 in French for a combined 5.816 million watchers , a number 105 per cent higher than the English and French broadcasts of the 2006 final brought in . Notable spectators The match was attended by members of both the Dutch and Spanish Royal Families . South African dignitaries and celebrities attending included Charlize Theron ( actress ) , and Jacob Zuma ( President of South Africa ) , while Nelson Mandela ( former President of South Africa ) made a brief appearance before the match wheeled in by motorcart . Spaniards Plácido Domingo , Rafael Nadal ( tennis player ) and Pau Gasol ( basketball player ) were in attendance to cheer on their team . Other international celebrities to attend the match included American actor Morgan Freeman ( who played Mandela in the 2009 film Invictus ) . [ http : //www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/soccer/worldcup2010newsfeed/ ? feedID=252509717350876 Freeman , Theron among celebs to attend World Cup final ] .

sfq_13362--2010_FIFA_World_Cup_Final.txt

Who scored Spain's winning goal in the final of the 2010 FIFA World Cup?

Sir Kenneth Charles Branagh ( ; born 10 December 1960 ) is a Northern Irish actor , director , producer , and screenwriter . Branagh trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London . He has directed or starred in several film adaptations of William Shakespeare 's plays , including Henry V ( 1989 ) ( for which he was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Actor and Best Director ) , Much Ado About Nothing ( 1993 ) , Othello ( 1995 ) , Hamlet ( 1996 ) ( for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay ) , Love 's Labour 's Lost ( 2000 ) , and As You Like It ( 2006 ) . He has also starred in numerous other films and television series including Fortunes of War ( 1987 ) , Woody Allen 's Celebrity ( 1998 ) , Wild Wild West ( 1999 ) , The Road to El Dorado ( 2000 ) , Conspiracy ( 2001 ) , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets ( 2002 ) , Warm Springs ( 2005 ) , Valkyrie ( 2008 ) , The Boat That Rocked ( 2009 ) , Wallander ( 2008–present ) , and My Week with Marilyn ( 2011 ) as Sir Laurence Olivier ( Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor ) . He has directed such notable films as Dead Again ( 1991 ) in which he also starred , Swan Song ( 1992 ) ( Academy Award nominated for Best Live Action Short Film ) , Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein ( 1994 ) in which he also starred , The Magic Flute ( 2006 ) , Sleuth ( 2007 ) , the blockbuster superhero film Thor ( 2011 ) , the action thriller Jack Ryan : Shadow Recruit ( 2014 ) in which he also co-stars , and Cinderella ( 2015 ) . He also narrated the BBC documentary miniseries ' Walking with Dinosaurs ( starred in 1999 ) ( as well as The Ballad of Big Al ) , Walking with Beasts ( 2001 ) and Walking with Monsters ( 2005 ) . Branagh has been nominated for five Academy Awards , five Golden Globes , and has won three BAFTAs , and an Emmy . He was appointed a knight bachelor in the 2012 Birthday Honours and was knighted on 9 November 2012 . Early life Branagh , the middle of three children , was born and raised in Belfast , the son of working-class Protestant parents Frances ( née Harper ) and William Branagh , a plumber and joiner who ran a company that specialised in fitting partitions and suspended ceilings . At the age of nine , he relocated with his family to Reading , Berkshire , to escape the Troubles . He was educated at Grove Primary School , Whiteknights Primary School , then Meadway School , Tilehurst , where he appeared in school productions such as Toad of Toad Hall and Oh , What a Lovely War ! . At school , he acquired an English accent to avoid bullying . On his identity today he has said , `` I feel Irish . I do n't think you can take Belfast out of the boy , '' and he attributes his `` love of words '' to his Irish heritage . He is known to have attended the ( amateur ) Reading Cine & Video Society ( now called Reading Film & Video Makers ) as a member and was a keen member of Progress Theatre for whom he is now the patron . Branagh went on to train at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London . Career Stage work Branagh achieved some early measure of success in his native Northern Ireland for his role as Billy , the title character in the BBC 's Play for Today trilogy known as the Billy Plays ( 1982–84 ) , written by Graham Reid and set in Belfast . He received acclaim in the UK for his stage performances , first winning the 1982 SWET Award for Best Newcomer , for his role as Judd in Julian Mitchell 's Another Country , immediately after leaving RADA . Branagh was part of the 'new wave ’ of actors to emerge from the Academy . Others included Jonathan Pryce , Juliet Stevenson , Alan Rickman , Anton Lesser , Bruce Payne and Fiona Shaw . In 1984 he appeared in the Royal Shakespeare Company production of Henry V , directed by Adrian Noble . The production played to full houses , especially at the Barbican in London . It was this production that he adapted for the film version of the play in 1989 . He and David Parfitt founded the Renaissance Theatre Company in 1987 , following success with several productions on the London 'Fringe ' , including Branagh 's full-scale production of Romeo and Juliet at the Lyric Studio , co-starring with Samantha Bond . The first major Renaissance production was Branagh 's Christmas 1987 staging of Twelfth Night at Riverside Studios in Hammersmith , starring Richard Briers as Malvolio and Frances Barber as Viola , and with an original score by actor , musician and composer Patrick Doyle , who two years later was to compose the music for Branagh 's film adaptation of Henry V. This Twelfth Night was later adapted for television . Branagh became a major presence in the media and on the British stage when Renaissance collaborated with Birmingham Rep for a 1988 touring season of three Shakespeare plays under the umbrella title of Renaissance Shakespeare on the Road , which also played a repertory season at the Phoenix Theatre in London . It featured directorial debuts for Judi Dench with Much Ado About Nothing ( starring Branagh and Samantha Bond as Benedick and Beatrice ) , Geraldine McEwan with As You Like It , and Derek Jacobi directing Branagh in the title role in Hamlet , with Sophie Thompson as Ophelia . Critic Milton Shulman of the London Evening Standard wrote : `` On the positive side Branagh has the vitality of Olivier , the passion of Gielgud , the assurance of Guinness , to mention but three famous actors who have essayed the role . On the negative side , he has not got the magnetism of Olivier , nor the mellifluous voice quality of Gielgud nor the intelligence of Guinness . '' A year later in 1989 Branagh co-starred with Emma Thompson in the Renaissance revival of Look Back in Anger . Judi Dench directed both the theatre and television productions , presented first in Belfast then at the London Coliseum and Lyric Theatre . In 2002 , Branagh starred at the Crucible Theatre , Sheffield as Richard III . In 2003 he starred in the Royal National Theatre 's production of David Mamet 's Edmond . Branagh directed The Play What I Wrote in England in 2001 and directed a Broadway production in 2003 . From September to November 2008 , Branagh appeared at Wyndham 's Theatre as the title character in the Donmar West End revival of Anton Chekhov 's Ivanov in a new version by Tom Stoppard . His performance was lauded as the `` performance of the year '' by several critics . It won him the Critics ' Circle Theatre Award for Best Male Performance but did not get him a Laurence Olivier Award nomination , to the surprise of critics . In July 2013 he co-directed Macbeth at Manchester International Festival with Rob Ashford . With Branagh in the title role , Alex Kingston played Lady Macbeth and Ray Fearon featured as Macduff . The final performance of the completely sold out run , was broadcast to cinemas on 20 July as part of National Theatre Live . He repeated his performance and directorial duties opposite Ashford and Kingston when the production moved to New York City 's Park Avenue Armory in June 2014 . The production marked his New York stage debut . In April 2015 , Branagh announced his formation of the Kenneth Branagh Theatre Company , in which he would appear as actor-manager . With the company , he announced he will present a season of five shows at London 's Garrick Theatre from October 2015 - November 2016 . The shows will be The Winter 's Tale , a double bill of Harlequinade and All On Her Own , Red Velvet , The Painkiller , Romeo and Juliet and The Entertainer . Branagh will direct all but The Entertainer , in which he will star . Branagh will also star in The Winter 's Tale , Harlequinade and The Painkiller . Kenneth Branagh Theatre Company also includes Judi Dench ( The Winter 's Tale ) , Zoë Wanamaker ( Harlequinade/All On Her Own ) , Derek Jacobi , Lily James and Richard Madden ( Romeo and Juliet ) and Rob Brydon ( The Painkiller ) . [ http : //www.branaghtheatre.com/ Kenneth Branagh Season ] In September 2015 was announced that The Winter 's Tale , Romeo and Juliet and The Entertainer will be broadcast in cinemas , in partnership with Picturehouse Entertainment . Film work Branagh is known for his film adaptations of William Shakespeare , beginning with Henry V ( 1989 ) , followed by Much Ado About Nothing ( 1993 ) , Hamlet ( 1996 ) , Love 's Labour 's Lost ( 2000 ) and As You Like It ( 2006 ) . As You Like It premiered in theatres in Europe , but was sent directly to television in the U.S. , where it aired on HBO in August 2007 . He was rumored to have been under consideration for the role of Obi-Wan Kenobi in the Star Wars prequel trilogy . Notable non-Shakespeare films in which Branagh has appeared include Dead Again ( 1991 ) and Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein ( 1994 ) , both of which he also directed , Wild Wild West ( 1999 ) , Rabbit-Proof Fence ( 2002 ) and Valkyrie ( 2008 ) . He starred as Gilderoy Lockhart in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets ( 2002 ) . He also played the Minister , Dormandy ( a parody of PMG Tony Benn ) , in the film The Boat That Rocked ( 2009 ) . From 1989 to 1996 , Branagh mostly directed his own films , including Peter 's Friends with an outstanding cast including former schoolmates Emma Thompson , Hugh Laurie , Tony Slattery and Stephen Fry , as well as Imelda Staunton and Rita Rudner ; but the commercial and critical failure of Love 's Labour 's Lost ended his directorial career for a time . In 2006 , the same year that Branagh 's film version of As You Like It was released , he also directed a film version of Mozart 's opera The Magic Flute , which has yet to be released in the U.S. , where it has not even been shown on cable television or released on a Region 1 DVD . Branagh has also directed the thriller Sleuth ( 2007 ) , a remake of the 1972 film . At a film promotion for Valkyrie in 2008 , Branagh confirmed that he would be directing Thor , a film based on the Marvel superhero . Thor , Branagh 's return to big-budget directing , was released on 6 May 2011 . In 2011 , Branagh portrayed Sir Laurence Olivier in My Week with Marilyn . Branagh directed Disney 's live-action version of Cinderella ( 2015 ) . Branagh is to star in Christopher Nolan 's 2017 action-thriller Dunkirk based on the British military evacuation of the French city of Dunkirk in 1940 during World War II . He will appear alongside Tom Hardy , Mark Rylance and Harry Styles . Television Branagh has also been involved in several made-for-TV films . Among his most acclaimed portrayals is that of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the film Warm Springs ( 2005 ) , for which he received an Emmy Award nomination . Though the film received 16 Emmy nominations , winning five ( including Best Made-For-Television Film ) , Branagh did not win the award for his portrayal . He did , though , receive an Emmy for his portrayal of SS leader Reinhard Heydrich in the TV film Conspiracy ( 2001 ) , a depiction of the Wannsee Conference , where Nazi officials decided on the Final Solution . In 2002 Branagh starred in the two-part television movie Shackleton , a dramatization of the 1914 Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition 's battle for survival , for which he was nominated for a BAFTA award and an Emmy . In 1998 he narrated the twenty-four episode documentary series Cold War . [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20081210013042/http : //www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/01/ cnn.com/ColdWar ] at Internet Archive Branagh also narrated the BBC documentaries Walking with Dinosaurs , World War 1 in Colour , Walking with Beasts and Walking with Monsters , and the BBC miniseries Great Composers . Branagh is the star of the English-language Wallander television series , adaptations of Henning Mankell 's best-selling Wallander crime novels . Branagh plays the eponymous Inspector Kurt Wallander and also serves as the executive producer of the series . The first series of three episodes were broadcast on BBC One in November and December 2008 . Branagh won the award for best actor at the 35th Broadcasting Press Guild Television and Radio Awards ( 2009 ) . It was his first major television award win in the UK . He received his first BAFTA TV on 26 April 2009 for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series . For his performance in the episode One Step Behind , he was nominated in the Outstanding Actor , Miniseries or Movie category of the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . The role also gained him a nomination for Best Actor at the 2009 Crime Thriller Awards . The second Wallander series of three episodes aired initially in January 2010 on the BBC , and the third season aired in July 2012 . The fourth and final series was shot from October 2014 to January 2015 and premiered on German TV , dubbed into German , in December 2015 . The final series will air in the original English in May 2016 . Radio Branagh has also played the title role in BBC radio broadcasts of Hamlet and Cyrano de Bergerac , and the role of Edmund in King Lear . Other work Branagh has narrated several audiobooks , such as The Magician 's Nephew by C. S. Lewis . Branagh participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony portraying Isambard Kingdom Brunel during the Industrial Revolution segment , giving the speech from The Tempest originally read by the character Caliban . Personal life From 1989 to 1995 , Branagh was married to actress Emma Thompson , with whom he starred in Fortunes of War among other projects . During their marriage , and while directing and co-starring with Helena Bonham Carter in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , he began an affair with her . After Thompson divorced him , he and Bonham-Carter were in a well-publicised relationship for several years . In 2003 , he married film art director Lindsay Brunnock , whom he met during the shooting of Shackleton . He is a fan of English football club Tottenham Hotspur and Scottish football club Rangers . Branagh stated that he became deeply religious by listening to Laurence Olivier 's narration of the Bible . Honours Branagh has been nominated for five Academy Awards , the first man to be nominated for five different categories . His first two nominations were for Henry V ( one each for directing and acting ) . He also received similar BAFTA Award nominations for his film work , winning one for his direction . His first BAFTA TV award came in April 2009 , for Best Drama Series ( Wallander ) . Branagh 's two other Academy Award nominations were for the 1992 film short subject Swan Song and for his work on the screenplay of Hamlet in 1996 . His most recent is for his portrayal of Lord Laurence Olivier in My Week With Marilyn . Branagh has co-starred several times with actress Emma Thompson , to whom he was married from 1989 to 1995 . They appeared together in Look Back in Anger , Henry V , Much Ado About Nothing , Dead Again , and Peter 's Friends . More recently , they both appeared in The Boat That Rocked , though with no shared scenes . He is Honorary President of NICVA ( the Northern Ireland Council for Voluntary Action ) . He received an honorary Doctorate in Literature from Queen 's University of Belfast in 1990 . He is also a patron for the charity Over The Wall . In 1994 , Branagh declined an appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) . Branagh was the youngest actor to receive the Golden Quill ( also known as the Gielgud Award ) in 2000 . In 2001 he was appointed an honorary Doctor of Literature at the Shakespeare Institute of The University of Birmingham ; the Shakespeare Institute Library keeps the archive of his Renaissance Theatre Company and Renaissance Films . Alongside Roberto Benigni , he is one of only two non-American actors to be nominated for Oscars for acting , writing , and directing , and one of eight actors to have achieved this honour . The other six are Orson Welles , Woody Allen , Warren Beatty , George Clooney , John Huston and John Cassavetes . On 10 July 2009 , Branagh was presented with the Lifetime Achievement Award at the RomaFictionFest . He was appointed a knight bachelor in the 2012 Birthday Honours for services to drama and to the community in Northern Ireland . He received the accolade at Buckingham Palace on 9 November 2012 ; afterwards , Branagh told a BBC reporter that he was `` humble , elated , and incredibly lucky '' to be knighted . In October 2015 , it was announced that Branagh would be the new President of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , succeeding the late Lord Attenborough . Filmography Accolades Discography and audiobooks * Shakespeare 's Richard III ( complete ) for Naxos Audiobooks * In the Ravine & Other Short Stories by Anton Chekhov ( unabridged ) for Naxos Audiobooks * Felix Mendelssohn 's incidental music for A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( speaker ) live recording for Sony Classical , conducted by Claudio Abbado * The Diary of Samuel Pepys 1660–1669 ( abridged ) for Hodder Headline Audio Classics * The Magician 's Nephew by C.S . Lewis for Harper Books * Shakespeare 's `` Sonnet 30 '' for the 2002 compilation album , When Love Speaks ( EMI Classics ) * Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein [ Abridged ] * Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness for Audible.com .

qz_5598--Kenneth_Branagh.txt

Mel Gibson (1990) and Kenneth Branagh (1996) have both played which character in movies?

Not to be confused with Lunar orbit ( the orbit of an object around the Moon ) . The Moon orbits Earth in the prograde direction and completes one revolution relative to the stars in approximately 27.322 days ( a sidereal month ) . Earth and the Moon orbit about their barycentre ( common center of mass ) , which lies about from Earth 's center ( about of the radius of Earth ) . On average , the Moon is at a distance of about from Earth 's center , which corresponds to about 60 Earth radii . With a mean orbital velocity of 1.022 km/s , the Moon appears to move relative to the stars each hour by an amount roughly equal to its angular diameter , or by about half a degree . The Moon differs from most satellites of other planets in that its orbit is close to the plane of the ecliptic , and not to Earth 's equatorial plane . The plane of the lunar orbit is inclined to the ecliptic by about 5° , whereas the Moon 's equatorial plane is inclined by only 1.5° to the ecliptic . Properties The properties of the orbit described in this section are approximations . The Moon 's orbit around Earth has many irregularities ( perturbations ) , whose study ( lunar theory ) has a long history . Elliptic shape The orbit of the Moon is distinctly elliptical , with an average eccentricity of 0.0549 . The non-circular form of the lunar orbit causes variations in the Moon 's angular speed and apparent size as it moves towards and away from an observer on Earth . The mean angular movement relative to an imaginary observer at the barycentre is ° per day to the east ( Julian Day 2000.0 rate ) . Elongation The Moon 's elongation is its angular distance east of the Sun at any time . At new moon , it is zero and the Moon is said to be in conjunction . At full moon , the elongation is 180° and it is said to be in opposition . In both cases , the Moon is in syzygy , that is , the Sun , Moon and Earth are nearly aligned . When elongation is either 90° or 270° , the Moon is said to be in quadrature . Rotation The orientation of the orbit is not fixed in space , but rotates over time . This orbital precession is also called apsidal precession and is the rotation of the Moon 's orbit within the orbital plane , i.e . the axes of the ellipse change direction . The Moon 's major axis – the longest diameter of the orbit , joining its nearest and farthest points , the perigee and apogee , respectively – makes one complete revolution every 8.85 Earth years , or 3,232.6054 days , as it rotates slowly in the same direction as the Moon itself ( direct motion ) . The Moon 's apsidal precession is distinct from , and should not be confused with its axial precession . Inclination The mean inclination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic plane is 5.145° . The rotational axis of the Moon is also not perpendicular to its orbital plane , so the lunar equator is not in the plane of its orbit , but is inclined to it by a constant value of 6.688° ( this is the obliquity ) . This does not mean that , as a result of the precession of the Moon 's orbital plane , the angle between the lunar equator and the ecliptic would vary between the sum ( 11.833° ) and difference ( 1.543° ) of these two angles , but , as was discovered by Jacques Cassini in 1722 , the rotational axis of the Moon precesses with the same rate as its orbital plane , but is 180° out of phase ( see Cassini 's Laws ) . Therefore , the angle between the ecliptic and the lunar equator is always 1.543° , even though the rotational axis of the Moon is not fixed with respect to the stars . Because of the inclination of the moon 's orbit , the moon is above the horizon at the North and South Pole for almost two weeks every month , even though the sun is below the horizon for six months at a time . The period from moonrise to moonrise at the poles is quite close to the sidereal period , or 27.3 days . When the sun is the furthest below the horizon ( winter solstice ) , the moon will be full when it is at its highest point . The moon 's light is used by zooplankton in the Arctic when the sun is below the horizon for months and must have been helpful to the animals that lived in Arctic and Antarctic regions when the climate was warmer . Nodes The nodes are points at which the Moon 's orbit crosses the ecliptic . The Moon crosses the same node every 27.2122 days , an interval called the draconic or draconitic month . The line of nodes , the intersection between the two respective planes , has a retrograde motion : for an observer on Earth it rotates westward along the ecliptic with a period of 18.60 years , or 19.3549° per year . When viewed from celestial north , the nodes move clockwise around Earth , opposite to Earth 's own spin and its revolution around the Sun . Lunar and solar eclipses can occur when the nodes align with the Sun , roughly every 173.3 days . Lunar orbit inclination also determines eclipses ; shadows cross when nodes coincide with full and new moon , when the Sun , Earth , and Moon align in three dimensions . In effect , this means that the `` tropical year '' on the moon is only 347 days long . This is called the draconic year or eclipse year . The `` seasons '' on the moon fit into this period . For about half of this draconic year , the sun is north of the lunar equator ( but at most 1.543° ) , and for the other half it is south of the lunar equator . Obviously the effect of these seasons is very minor compared to the difference between lunar night and lunar day . At the poles , there are not days and nights of about 15 earth days , but rather the sun will be `` up '' for 173 days at a time . `` Up '' here means that the centre of the sun is above the horizon . The sunrise and sunset at the poles each take about 18 days . These polar sunrises and sunsets occur around the time of eclipses ( solar or lunar ) . For example , at the Solar eclipse of March 9 , 2016 , the moon was near its descending node , and the sun was near the point in the sky where the equator of the moon crosses the ecliptic . When the sun reached that point , the center of the sun set at the north pole and rose at the south pole . Lunar standstill Every 18.6 years , the angle between the moon 's orbit and the earth 's equator reaches a maximum of 28°36′ ( the sum of the Earth 's inclination 23°27′ and the Moon 's inclination 5°09′ ) . This is called major lunar standstill . Around this time , the moon 's latitude will vary from −28°36′ to +28°36′ . 9.3 years later , the angle between the moon 's orbit and the earth 's equator reaches its minimum , 18°20′ . This is called a minor lunar standstill . When the inclination of the moon 's orbit to the earth 's equator is at its minimum of 18°20′ , the centre of the moon 's disk will be above the horizon every day as far north and as far south as 90°−18°20 ' or 71°40 ' latitude , whereas when the inclination is at its maximum of 28°36 ' the centre of the moon 's disk will only be above the horizon every day for latitudes less than 90°−28°36 ' or 61°24 ' . At higher latitudes there will be a period of at least a day each month when the moon does not rise , but there will also be a period of at least a day each month during which the moon does not set . This is similar to the behavior of the sun , but with a period of 27.3 days instead of 365 days . Note that a point on the moon can actually be visible when it is below the horizon by about 34 arc minutes , due to refraction ( see Sunrise ) . Scale model File : Earth-moon-to-scale.svg|Scale model of the Earth–Moon system : Each pixel represents 500 km . Sizes and distances are to scale . History of observations and measurements About 1000 BC , the Babylonians were the first human civilization to keep a consistent record of lunar observations . Clay tablets from that period , which have been found over the territory of present-day Iraq , are inscribed with cuneiform writing recording the times and dates of moonrises and moonsets , the stars that the Moon passed close by , and the time differences between rising and setting of both the Sun and the Moon around the time of the full moon . Babylonian astronomy discovered the three main periods of the Moon 's motion and used data analysis to build lunar calendars that extended well into the future . This use of detailed , systematic observations to make predictions based on experimental data may be classified as the first scientific study in human history . However , the Babylonians seem to have lacked any geometrical or physical interpretation of their data , and they could not predict future lunar eclipses ( although `` warnings '' were issued before likely eclipse times ) . Ancient Greek astronomers were the first to introduce and analyze mathematical models of the motion of objects in the sky . Ptolemy described lunar motion by using a well-defined geometric model of epicycles and evection . Isaac Newton was the first to develop a complete theory of motion , mechanics . The sheer wealth of humanity 's observations of the lunar motion was the main testbed of his theory . Lunar periods There are several different periods associated with the lunar orbit . The sidereal month is the time it takes to make one complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars . It is about 27.32 days . The synodic month is the time it takes the Moon to reach the same visual phase . This varies notably throughout the year , Jean Meeus , Astronomical Algorithms ( Richmond , VA : Willmann-Bell , 1998 ) p 354 . From 1900–2100 , the shortest time from one new moon to the next is 29 days , 6 hours , and 35 min , and the longest 29 days , 19 hours , and 55 min . but averages around 29.53 days . The synodic period is longer than the sidereal period because the Earth–Moon system moves in its orbit around the Sun during each sidereal month , hence a longer period is required to achieve a similar alignment of Earth , the Sun , and the Moon . The anomalistic month is the time between perigees and is about 27.55 days . The Earth–Moon separation determines the strength of the lunar tide raising force . The draconic month is the time from ascending node to ascending node . The time between two successive passes of the same ecliptic longitude is called the tropical month . The latter three periods are slightly different from the sidereal month . The average length of a calendar month ( a twelfth of a year ) is about 30.4 days . This is not a lunar period , though the calendar month is historically related to the visible lunar phase . Tidal evolution The gravitational attraction that the Moon exerts on Earth is the cause of tides in the sea ; the Sun has a lesser tidal influence . If Earth had a global ocean of uniform depth , the Moon would act to deform both the solid Earth ( by a small amount ) and the ocean in the shape of an ellipsoid with the high points roughly beneath the Moon and on the opposite side of Earth . However , because of the presence of the continents , Earth 's much faster rotation and varying ocean depths , this simplistic visualisation does not happen . Although the tidal flow period is generally synchronized to the Moon 's orbit around Earth , its relative timing varies greatly . In some places on Earth , there is only one high tide per day , whereas others have four , though this is somewhat rare . The notional tidal bulges are carried ahead of the Earth–Moon axis by the continents as a result of Earth 's rotation . The eccentric mass of each bulge exerts a small amount of gravitational attraction on the Moon , with the bulge on the side of Earth closest to the Moon pulling in a direction slightly forward along the Moon 's orbit ( because Earth 's rotation has carried the bulge forward ) . The bulge on the side furthest from the Moon has the opposite effect , but because the gravitational attraction varies inversely with the square of distance , the effect is stronger for the near-side bulge . As a result , some of Earth 's angular ( or rotational ) momentum is gradually being transferred to the rotation of the Earth–Moon pair around their mutual centre of mass , called the barycentre . This slightly faster rotation causes the Earth–Moon distance to increase at approximately 38 millimetres per year . Conservation of angular momentum means that Earth 's axial rotation is gradually slowing , and because of this its day lengthens by approximately 23 microseconds every year ( excluding glacial rebound ) . Both figures are valid only for the current configuration of the continents . Tidal rhythmites from 620 million years ago show that , over hundreds of millions of years , the Moon receded at an average rate of 22 millimetres per year and the day lengthened at an average rate of 12 microseconds per year , both about half of their current values . See tidal acceleration for a more detailed description and references . The Moon is gradually receding from Earth into a higher orbit , and calculations suggest that this would continue for about 50 billion years . By that time , Earth and the Moon would be in a mutual spin–orbit resonance or tidal locking , in which the Moon will orbit Earth in about 47 days ( currently 27 days ) , and both the Moon and Earth would rotate around their axes in the same time , always facing each other with the same side . This has already happened to the Moon—the same side always faces Earth and is also slowly happening to Earth . However , the slowdown of Earth 's rotation is not occurring fast enough for the rotation to lengthen to a month before other effects change the situation : approximately 2.3 billion years from now , the increase of the Sun 's radiation will have caused Earth 's oceans to evaporate , removing the bulk of the tidal friction and acceleration . Libration The Moon is in synchronous rotation , meaning that it keeps the same face toward Earth at all times . This synchronous rotation is only true on average , because the Moon 's orbit has a definite eccentricity . As a result , the angular velocity of the Moon varies as it orbits Earth and hence is not always equal to the Moon 's rotational velocity . When the Moon is at its perigee , its rotation is slower than its orbital motion , and this allows us to see up to eight degrees of longitude of its eastern ( right ) far side . Conversely , when the Moon reaches its apogee , its rotation is faster than its orbital motion and this reveals eight degrees of longitude of its western ( left ) far side . This is referred to as longitudinal libration . Because the lunar orbit is also inclined to Earth 's ecliptic plane by 5.1° , the rotational axis of the Moon seems to rotate towards and away from Earth during one complete orbit . This is referred to as latitudinal libration , which allows one to see almost 7° of latitude beyond the pole on the far side . Finally , because the Moon is only about 60 Earth radii away from Earth 's centre of mass , an observer at the equator who observes the Moon throughout the night moves laterally by one Earth diameter . This gives rise to a diurnal libration , which allows one to view an additional one degree 's worth of lunar longitude . For the same reason , observers at both of Earth 's geographical poles would be able to see one additional degree 's worth of libration in latitude . Path of Earth and Moon around Sun When viewed from the north celestial pole , i.e . from the star Polaris , the Moon orbits Earth anticlockwise and Earth orbits the Sun anticlockwise , and the Moon and Earth rotate on their own axes anticlockwise . The right-hand rule can be used to indicate the direction of the angular velocity . If the thumb of the right hand points to the north celestial pole , its fingers curl in the direction that the Moon orbits Earth , Earth orbits the Sun , and the Moon and Earth rotate on their own axes . In representations of the Solar System , it is common to draw the trajectory of Earth from the point of view of the Sun , and the trajectory of the Moon from the point of view of Earth . This could give the impression that the Moon orbits Earth in such a way that sometimes it goes backwards when viewed from the Sun 's perspective . Because the orbital velocity of the Moon around Earth ( 1 km/s ) is small compared to the orbital velocity of Earth about the Sun ( 30 km/s ) , this never happens . There are no rearward loops in the Moon 's solar orbit . Considering the Earth–Moon system as a binary planet , its centre of gravity is within Earth , about 4,624 km from its centre or 72.6 % of its radius . This centre of gravity remains in-line towards the Moon as Earth completes its diurnal rotation . It is this mutual centre of gravity that defines the path of the Earth–Moon system in the solar orbit . Consequently , Earth 's centre veers inside and outside the orbital path during each synodic month as the Moon moves in the opposite direction . Unlike most moons in the Solar System , the trajectory of the Moon around the Sun is very similar to that of Earth . The Sun 's gravitational effect on the Moon is more than twice that of Earth 's on the Moon ; consequently , the Moon 's trajectory is always convex ( as seen when looking Sunward at the entire Sun–Earth–Moon system from a great distance outside Earth–Moon solar orbit ) , and is nowhere concave ( from the same perspective ) or looped.The reference by H. L. Vacher ( 2001 ) ( details separately cited in this list ) describes this as 'convex outward ' , whereas older references such as `` [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1912JRASC ... 6 .. 117T The Moon 's Orbit Around the Sun , Turner , A . B . Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada , Vol . 6 , p. 117 , 1912JRASC ... 6 .. 117T ] '' ; and `` [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idQKvx4pm0QJgC & pg PA85 H Godfray , Elementary Treatise on the Lunar Theory ] '' describe the same geometry by the words concave to the sun . That is , the region enclosed by the Moon 's orbit of the Sun is a convex set .

qw_1849--Orbit_of_the_Moon.txt

What is the name for the point in the lunar orbit when the moon is nearest to the earth?

A board game is a tabletop game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or `` board '' , according to a set of rules . Some games are based on pure strategy , but many contain an element of chance ; and some are purely chance , with no element of skill . Games usually have a goal that a player aims to achieve . Early board games represented a battle between two armies , and most modern board games are still based on defeating opposing players in terms of counters , winning position , or accrual of points . There are many varieties of board games . Their representation of real-life situations can range from having no inherent theme ( e.g. , checkers ) , to having a specific theme and narrative ( e.g. , Cluedo ) . Rules can range from the very simple ( e.g. , Tic-tac-toe ) , to those describing a game universe in great detail ( e.g. , Dungeons & Dragons ) although most of the latter are role-playing games where the board is secondary to the game , serving to help visualize the game scenario . The time required to learn to play or master a game varies greatly from game to game , but is not necessarily correlated with the number or complexity of rules ; games like chess or go possess relatively simple rulesets , but have great strategic depth . History Ancient board games Board games have been played in most cultures and societies throughout history . A number of important historical sites , artifacts , and documents shed light on early board games such as : * Jiroft civilization gameboards * Senet , found in Predynastic and First Dynasty burials of Egypt , c. 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively ; the oldest board game known to have existed , Senet was pictured in a fresco found in Merknera 's tomb ( 3300–2700 BC ) * Mehen , also from Predynastic Egypt * Go , originating in China * Liubo , also originating in China * Patolli , originating in Mesoamerica played by the ancient Aztec * Royal Game of Ur , the Royal Tombs of Ur contain this game , among others , dating to Mesopotamia 4,600 years agoJason R. Edwards , [ http : //visionandvalues.org/docs/familymatters/Edwards_Jason.pdf Saving Families , One Game at a Time ] * Buddha games list , the earliest known list of games * Pachisi and Chaupar , of India File : Maler der Grabkammer der Nefertari 003.jpg|Senet , one of the oldest known board games File : Alfonso LJ 97V.jpg|The game of astronomical tables , from Libro de los juegos File : AMI - Schachbrett.jpg|Knossos , New Palace period 1600–1500 BC File : Black figure plate with warriors playing a board game Antikensammlung Berlin 1.jpg|Ancient Greek hoplites playing a board game , c. 520 BC , Olympia , Greece File : Jiroft scorpion.png|A gameboard found in the Jiroft civilization Europe File : VA23Oct10 171.jpg|French earthenware tray and board game , 1720–50 File : Anon-The screene of fortune here behold-Early-Harl5937271-E2 4 240 -p1.tiff|The screene of fortune here behold , British fortune-telling game , c. 1650–1750 United States In seventeenth and eighteenth century colonial America , the agrarian life of the country left little time for game playing though draughts ( checkers ) , bowling , and card games were not unknown . The Pilgrims and Puritans of New England frowned on game playing and viewed dice as instruments of the devil . When the Governor William Bradford discovered a group of non-Puritans playing stool-ball , pitching the bar , and pursuing other sports in the streets on Christmas Day , 1622 , he confiscated their implements , reprimanded them , and told them their devotion for the day should be confined to their homes . In Thoughts on Lotteries ( 1826 ) Thomas Jefferson wrote : Almost all these pursuits of chance [ i.e. , of human industry ] produce something useful to society . But there are some which produce nothing , and endanger the well-being of the individuals engaged in them or of others depending on them . Such are games with cards , dice , billiards , etc . And although the pursuit of them is a matter of natural right , yet society , perceiving the irresistible bent of some of its members to pursue them , and the ruin produced by them to the families depending on these individuals , consider it as a case of insanity , quoad hoc , step in to protect the family and the party himself , as in other cases of insanity , infancy , imbecility , etc. , and suppress the pursuit altogether , and the natural right of following it . There are some other games of chance , useful on certain occasions , and injurious only when carried beyond their useful bounds . Such are insurances , lotteries , raffles , etc . These they do not suppress , but take their regulation under their own discretion . The board game Traveller 's Tour Through the United States and its sister game Traveller ’ s Tour Through Europe were published by New York City bookseller F. & R. Lockwood in 1822 and today claims the distinction of being the first board game published in the United States . As the United States shifted from agrarian to urban living in the nineteenth century , greater leisure time and a rise in income became available to the middle class . The American home , once the center of economic production , became the locus of entertainment , enlightenment , and education under the supervision of mothers . Children were encouraged to play board games that developed literacy skills and provided moral instruction . The earliest board games published in the United States were based upon Christian morality . The Mansion of Happiness ( 1843 ) , for example , sent players along a path of virtues and vices that led to the Mansion of Happiness ( Heaven ) . The Game of Pope or Pagan , or The Siege of the Stronghold of Satan by the Christian Army ( 1844 ) pitted an image on its board of a Hindu woman committing suttee against missionaries landing on a foreign shore . The missionaries are cast in white as `` the symbol of innocence , temperance , and hope '' while the pope and pagan are cast in black , the color of `` gloom of error , and ... grief at the daily loss of empire '' . Commercially produced board games in the mid-nineteenth century were monochrome prints laboriously hand-colored by teams of low paid young factory women . Advances in paper making and printmaking during the period enabled the commercial production of relatively inexpensive board games . The most significant advance was the development of chromolithography , a technological achievement that made bold , richly colored images available at affordable prices . Games cost as little as US $ .25 for a small boxed card game to $ 3.00 for more elaborate games . American Protestants believed a virtuous life led to success , but the belief was challenged mid-century when Americans embraced materialism and capitalism . The accumulation of material goods was viewed as a divine blessing . In 1860 , The Checkered Game of Life rewarded players for mundane activities such as attending college , marrying , and getting rich . Daily life rather than eternal life became the focus of board games . The game was the first to focus on secular virtues rather than religious virtues , and sold 40,000 copies its first year . Game of the District Messenger Boy , or Merit Rewarded , published in 1886 by the New York City firm of McLoughlin Brothers , was one of the first board games based on materialism and capitalism published in the United States . The game is a typical roll-and-move track board game . Players move their tokens along the track at the spin of the arrow toward the goal at track 's end . Some spaces on the track will advance the player while others will send him back . In the affluent 1880s , Americans witnessed the publication of Algeresque rags to riches games that permitted players to emulate the capitalist heroes of the age . One of the first such games , The Game of the District Messenger Boy , encouraged the idea that the lowliest messenger boy could ascend the corporate ladder to its topmost rung . Such games insinuated that the accumulation of wealth brought increased social status . Competitive capitalistic games culminated in 1935 with Monopoly , the most commercially successful board game in United States history . McLoughlin Brothers published similar games based on the telegraph boy theme including Game of the Telegraph Boy , or Merit Rewarded ( 1888 ) . Greg Downey notes in his essay , `` Information Networks and Urban Spaces : The Case of the Telegraph Messenger Boy '' that families who could afford the deluxe version of the game in its chromolithographed , wood-sided box would not `` have sent their sons out for such a rough apprenticeship in the working world . '' Margaret Hofer described the period of 1880s–1920s as `` The Golden Age '' of board gaming in America . Board games popularity was boosted , like that of many items , through mass production , which made them cheaper and more easily available to the populace . Through there are no detailed statistics , some scholars suggest that the 20th century saw a decline in the popularity of the hobby . 21st century The late 1990s onwards have seen substantial growth in the reach and market of board games . This has been attributed to , among other factors , the Internet , which has made it easier for people to find out about games and to find opponents to play against . Around the year 2000 the board gaming industry began significant growth with companies producing a rising number of new games to be sold to a growing worldwide audience . In the 2010s , a number of publications referred to the board games as having a new Golden Age . Board game venues are also growing in popularity ; for example the board game cafes are reported to be very popular in China . Luck , strategy , and diplomacy Some games , such as chess , depend completely on player skill , while many children 's games such as Candy Land and Snakes and Ladders require no decisions by the players and are decided purely by luck . Many games require some level of both skill and luck . A player may be hampered by bad luck in backgammon , Monopoly , Risk ; but over many games a skilled player will win more often and the elements of luck can make for more excitement , and more diverse and multifaceted strategies , as concepts such as expected value and risk management must be considered . Luck may be introduced into a game by a number of methods . The use of dice of various sorts goes back to the earliest board games . These can decide everything from how many steps a player moves their token , as in Monopoly , to how their forces fare in battle , as in Risk , or which resources a player gains , as in The Settlers of Catan . Other games such as Sorry ! use a deck of special cards that , when shuffled , create randomness . Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters . Other games use spinners , timers of random length , or other sources of randomness . German-style board games are notable for often having less luck element than many North American board games . Another important aspect of some games is diplomacy , that is , players making deals with one another . Negotiation generally features only in games with three or more players , cooperative games being the exception . An important facet of The Settlers of Catan , for example , is convincing players to trade with you rather than with opponents . In Risk , two or more players may team up against others . Easy diplomacy involves convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against . Advanced diplomacy ( e.g . in the aptly named game Diplomacy ) consists of making elaborate plans together , with the possibility of betrayal . In a perfect information games like chess each player has complete information on the state of the game , but in other games , such as Tigris and Euphrates or Stratego , some information is hidden from players . This makes finding the best move more difficult , and may involve estimating probabilities by the opponents . Board games and other media Many board games are now available as video games , which can include the computer itself as one of several players , or as a sole opponent . Many board games can now be played online against a computer and/or other players . Some websites allow play in real time and immediately show the opponents ' moves , while others use email to notify the players after each move . The internet and cheaper home printing has also influenced board games via print-and-play games that may be purchased and printed . Some games use external media such as audio cassettes or DVDs in accompaniment to the game . Market While the board gaming market is estimated to be smaller than that for video games , it has also experienced significant growth from the late 1990s . A 2012 article in The Guardian described board games as `` making a comeback '' . Another from 2014 gave an estimate that put the growth of the board game market at `` between 25 % and 40 % annually '' since 2010 , and described the current time as the `` golden era for board games '' . The rise in board game popularity has been attributed to quality improvement ( more elegant mechanics and graphics ) as well as increased availability thanks to sales through the Internet . A 1991 estimate for the global board game market was over $ 1.2 billion . A 2001 estimate for the United States `` board games and puzzle '' market gave the value of under $ 400 million , and for United Kingdom , of about £50 million . A 2009 estimate for the Korean market was put at 800 million won , and another estimate for the American board game market for the same year was at about $ 800 million . A 2011 estimate for the Chinese board game market was at over 10 billion yuan . ( Some estimates may split board games from collectible card , miniature and role-playing games ; for example another 2014 estimate distinguishing board games from other types of hobby games gave the estimate for US and Canada market at only $ 75 million , with the total size of what it defined as the hobby game market at over $ 700 million , with a 2015 estimate suggesting a value of almost $ 900 million ) A 2013 estimate put the size of the German toy market at 2.7 billion euro ( out of which , board games and puzzle market is worth about 375 million euro ) , and Polish markets , at 2 billion and 280 million złoties , respectively . Per capita , in 2009 Germany was considered to be the best market , with the highest number of games sold per individual . Research into gaming A dedicated field of research into gaming exists , known as game studies or ludology . While there has been a fair amount of scientific research on the psychology of older board games ( e.g. , chess , Go , mancala ) , less has been done on contemporary board games such as Monopoly , Scrabble , and Risk . Much research has been carried out on chess , in part because many tournament players are publicly ranked in national and international lists , which makes it possible to compare their levels of expertise . The works of Adriaan de Groot , William Chase , Herbert A. Simon , and Fernand Gobet have established that knowledge , more than the ability to anticipate moves , plays an essential role in chess-playing . Linearly arranged board games have been shown to improve children 's spatial numerical understanding . This is because the game is similar to a number line in that they promote a linear understanding of numbers rather than the innate logarithmic one . Research studies show that board games such as Chutes and Ladders result in children showing significant improvements in aspects of basic number skills such as counting , recognizing numbers , numerical estimation and number comprehension . They also practice fine motor skills each time they grasp a game piece . Playing board games has also been tied to improving children 's executive skills . Additionally , board games can be therapeutic . Bruce Halpenny , a games inventor said when interviewed about his game , The Great Train Robbery : With crime you deal with every basic human emotion and also have enough elements to combine action with melodrama . The player ’ s imagination is fired as they plan to rob the train . Because of the gamble they take in the early stage of the game there is a build up of tension , which is immediately released once the train is robbed . Release of tension is therapeutic and useful in our society , because most jobs are boring and repetitive.Stealing the show . Toy Retailing News , Volume 2 Number 4 ( December 1976 ) , p. 2 Playing games have been suggested as a viable addition to traditional educational curriculum . Categories There are a number of ways in which board games can be classified , and considerable overlap may exist , so that a game belong in several categories . The following is a list of some of the most common : * Abstract strategy games – e.g . chess , checkers , Go , Reversi , tafl games , or modern games such as Abalone , Stratego , Hive , or GIPF * Alignment games – e.g . Renju , Gomoku , Connect6 , Nine Men 's Morris , or Tic-tac-toe * Auction games – e.g . Hoity Toity * Chess variants – traditional variants e.g . shogi , xiangqi , or janggi ; modern variants e.g . Chess960 , Grand chess , Hexagonal chess , or Alice chess * Configuration games – e.g . Lines of Action , Hexade , or Entropy * Connection games – e.g . TwixT , Hex , or Havannah * Cooperative games – e.g . Max the Cat , Caves and Claws , or Pandemic * Count and capture games – e.g . mancala games * Cross and circle games – e.g . Yut , Ludo , or Aggravation * Deduction games – e.g . Mastermind or Black Box * Dexterity games – e.g . Tumblin ' Dice or Pitch Car * Economic simulation games – e.g . The Business Game , Monopoly , or The Game of Life * Educational games – e.g . Arthur Saves the Planet , Cleopatra and the Society of Architects , or Shakespeare : The Bard Game * Elimination games – e.g . draughts , Alquerque , Fanorona , Yoté , or Surakarta * Family games – e.g . Roll Through the Ages , Birds on a Wire , or For Sale * Fantasy games – e.g . Shadows Over Camelot * German-style board games or Eurogames – e.g . The Settlers of Catan , Carcassonne , Decatur • The Game , Carson City , or Puerto Rico * Guessing games – e.g . Pictionary or Battleship * Hidden-role games - e.g . Mafia ( game ) or The Resistance * Historical simulation games – e.g . Through the Ages or Railways of the World * Large multiplayer games – e.g . Take It Easy or Swat ( 2010 ) * Learning/communication non-competitive games – e.g . The Ungame ( 1972 ) * Mancala games – e.g . Wari , Oware , or The Glass Bead Game * Multiplayer games – e.g . Risk , Monopoly , or Four-player chess * Musical games – e.g . Spontuneous * Negotiation games – e.g . Diplomacy * Paper-and-pencil games – e.g . Tic-tac-toe or Dots and Boxes * Physical skill games – e.g . Camp Granada * Position games ( no captures ; win by leaving the opponent unable to move ) – e.g . Konane , mū tōrere , or the L game * Race games – e.g . Pachisi , backgammon , Snakes and Ladders , Hyena chase , or Worm Up * Role-playing game - e.g . Dungeons & Dragons * Roll-and-move games – e.g . Monopoly or Life * Share-buying games ( games in which players buy stakes in each other 's positions ) – typically longer economic-management games - Acquire or Panamax * Single-player puzzle games – e.g . peg solitaire or Sudoku * Spiritual development games ( games with no winners or losers ) – e.g . Transformation Game or Psyche 's Key * Story telling games – e.g . Dixit or Tales of the Arabian Nights * Stacking games – e.g . Lasca or DVONN * Territory games – e.g . Go or Reversi * Tile-based games – e.g . Carcassonne , Scrabble , Tigris and Euphrates , or Evo * Train games – e.g . Ticket to Ride , Steam , or 18xx * Trivia games – e.g . Trivial Pursuit * Two-player-only themed games – e.g . En Garde or Dos de Mayo * Unequal forces ( or `` hunt '' ) games – e.g . Fox and Geese or Tablut * Wargames – ranging from Risk , Diplomacy , or Axis & Allies , to Attack ! or Conquest of the Empire * Word games – e.g . Scrabble , Boggle , Anagrams , or What 's My Word ? ( 2010 ) Glossary Although many board games have a jargon all their own , there is a generalized terminology to describe concepts applicable to basic game mechanics and attributes common to nearly all board games .

wh_1763--Board_game.txt

The traditional Royal Navy game of Uckers, invented in the late 18th century was an early version of which now popular board game?