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Burgundy wine ( or ' ) is wine made in the Burgundy region in eastern France , in the valleys and slopes west of the Saône , a tributary of the Rhône . The most famous wines produced here—those commonly referred to as `` Burgundies '' —are dry red wines made from Pinot noir grapes and white wines made from Chardonnay grapes . Red and white wines are also made from other grape varieties , such as Gamay and Aligoté , respectively . Small amounts of rosé and sparkling wines are also produced in the region . Chardonnay-dominated Chablis and Gamay-dominated Beaujolais are formally part of the Burgundy wine region , but wines from those subregions are usually referred to by their own names rather than as `` Burgundy wines '' . Burgundy has a higher number of ' ( AOCs ) than any other French region , and is often seen as the most '-conscious of the French wine regions . The various Burgundy AOCs are classified from carefully delineated ' vineyards down to more non-specific regional appellations . The practice of delineating vineyards by their ' in Burgundy goes back to medieval times , when various monasteries played a key role in developing the Burgundy wine industry . Geography and climate The Burgundy region runs from Auxerre in the north to Mâcon in the south , or to Lyon if the Beaujolais area is included as part of Burgundy . Chablis , a white wine made from Chardonnay grapes , is produced in the area around Auxerre . Other smaller appellations near to Chablis include Irancy , which produces red wines and Saint-Bris , which produces white wines from Sauvignon blanc . 85 miles southeast of Chablis is the Côte d'Or , where Burgundy 's most famous and most expensive wines originate , and where all Grand Cru vineyards of Burgundy ( except for Chablis Grand Cru ) are situated . The Côte d'Or itself is split into two parts : the Côte de Nuits which starts just south of Dijon and runs till Corgoloin , a few kilometers south of the town of Nuits-Saint-Georges , and the Côte de Beaune which starts at Ladoix and ends at Dezize-les-Maranges . The wine-growing part of this area in the heart of Burgundy is just 40 km long , and in most places less than 2 km wide . The area is made up of tiny villages surrounded by a combination of flat and sloped vineyards on the eastern side of a hilly region , providing some rain and weather shelter from the prevailing westerly winds . The best wines - from Grand Cru vineyards - of this region are usually grown from the middle and higher part of the slopes , where the vineyards have the most exposure to sunshine and the best drainage , while the Premier Cru come from a little less favourably exposed slopes . The relatively ordinary `` Village '' wines are produced from the flat territory nearer the villages . The Côte de Nuits contains 24 out of the 25 red Grand Cru appellations in Burgundy , while all but one of the region 's white Grand Cru wines are in the Côte de Beaune ( the exception being Musigny Blanc ) . This is explained by the presence of different soils , which favour Pinot noir and Chardonnay , respectively . Further south is the Côte Chalonnaise , where again a mix of mostly red and white wines are produced , although the appellations found here such as Mercurey , Rully and Givry are less well-known than their counterparts in the Côte d'Or . Below the Côte Chalonnaise is the Mâconnais region , known for producing large quantities of easy-drinking and more affordable white wine . Further south again is the Beaujolais region , famous for fruity red wines made from Gamay grapes . Burgundy experiences a continental climate characterized by cold winters and hot summers . The weather is very unpredictable , with rains , hail , and frost all possible around harvest time . Because of this climate , vintages from Burgundy vary considerably . History Archaeological evidence establishes viticulture in Burgundy as early as the second century AD , although the Celts may have been growing vines in the region previous to the Roman conquest of Gaul in 51 BC . Greek traders , for whom viticulture had been practiced since the late Neolithic period , had founded Massalía in about 600 BC , and traded extensively up the Rhône valley , where the Romans first arrived in the second century BC . The earliest recorded praise of the wines of Burgundy was written in 591 by Gregory of Tours , who compared it to the Roman wine Falernian . Monks and monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church have had an important influence on the history of Burgundy wine . The first known donation of a vineyard to the church was by king Guntram in 587 , but the influence of the church became important in Charlemagne 's era . The Benedictines , through their Abbey of Cluny founded in 910 , became the first truly big Burgundy vineyard owner over the following centuries . Another order which exerted influence was the Cistercians , founded in 1098 and named after Cîteaux , their first monastery , situated in Burgundy . The Cistercians created Burgundy 's largest wall-surrounded vineyard , the Clos de Vougeot , in 1336 . More importantly , the Cistercians , extensive vineyard owners as they were , were the first to notice that different vineyard plots gave consistently different wines . They therefore laid the earliest foundation for the naming of Burgundy crus and the region 's terroir thinking . Since Burgundy is land-locked , very little of its wine left the region in Medieval times , when wine was transported in barrels , meaning that waterways provided the only practical means of long-range transportation . The only part of Burgundy which could reach Paris in a practical way was the area around Auxerre by means of the Yonne . This area includes Chablis , but had much more extensive vineyards until the 19th century . These were the wines referred to as vin de Bourgogne in early texts . The wines from Côte d'Or would then be called ( vin de ) Beaune . These wines first became famous in the 14th century , during the Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy in Avignon , which was reachable by Saône and Rhône after some overland transport . In the extravagance of the papal court , Beaune was generally seen as the finest wine , and better than anything available in Rome at that time . The status of Burgundy wines continued in the court of the House of Valois , which ruled as Dukes of Burgundy for much of the 14th and 15th centuries . Their ban on the import and export of non-Burgundian wines , effectively shutting out the then popular wines of the Rhone Valley from north European markets , gave a considerable boost to the Burgundy wine industry . It was during this era that the first reliable references to grape varieties in Burgundy were made . Pinot noir was first mentioned in 1370 under the name Noirien , but it was believed to have been cultivated earlier than that , since no other grape variety associated with Medieval Burgundy is believed to have been able to produce red wines of a quality able to impress the papal court . On 6 August 1395 , Duke Philip the Bold issued a decree concerned with safeguarding the quality of Burgundy wines . The duke declared the `` vile and disloyal Gamay '' —which was a higher-yielding grape than Pinot noir in the 14th century , as it is today—unfit for human consumption and banned the use of organic fertilizer ( manure ) , which probably increased yields even further to the detriment of quality . High-quality white Burgundy wines of this era were probably made from Fromenteau , which is known as a quality grape in northeastern France in this time . Fromenteau is probably the same variety as today 's Pinot gris . Chardonnay is a much later addition to Burgundy 's vineyards . In the 18th century , the quality of roads in France became progressively better , which facilitated commerce in Burgundy wines . The first négociant houses of the region were established in the 1720s and 1730s . In the 18th century , Burgundy and Champagne were rivals for the lucrative Paris market , to which Champagne had earlier access . The two regions overlapped much in wine styles in this era , since Champagne was then primarily a producer of pale red still wines rather than of sparkling wines . A major work on Burgundy wines written by Claude Arnoux in 1728 deals with the famous red wines of Côte de Nuits and the Œil-de-Perdrix pink wines of Volnay , but only briefly mentions white wines . After Burgundy became incorporated in the Kingdom of France , and the power of the church decreased , many vineyards which had been in the church 's hands were sold to the bourgeoisie from the 17th century . After the French revolution of 1789 , the church 's remaining vineyards were broken up and from 1791 sold off . The Napoleonic inheritance laws then resulted in the continued subdivision of the most precious vineyard holdings , so some growers hold only a row or two of vines . This led to the emergence of négociants who aggregate the produce of many growers to produce a single wine . It has also led to a profusion of increasingly smaller , family-owned wineries , exemplified by the dozen-plus Gros family domaines . The awareness of the difference of quality and style of Burgundy wines produced from different vineyards goes back to Medieval times , with certain climats being more highly rated than others . An early author on this aspect of Burgundy wines was Denis Morelot with his La Vigne et le Vin en Côte d'Or from 1831 . In 1855 , the same year as the famous Bordeaux Wine Official Classification was launched , Dr. Jules Lavalle published an influential book , Histoire et Statistique de la Vigne de Grands Vins de la Côte-d'Or , which included an unofficial classification of the Burgundy vineyards in five classes and which built on Morelot 's book . In decreasing order , Lavalle 's five classes were hors ligne , tête de cuvée , 1ère cuvée , 2me cuvée and 3me cuvée . Lavalle 's classification was formalized in modified form by the Beaune Committee of Agriculture in 1861 , and then consisted of three classes . Most of the `` first class '' vineyards of the 1861 classification were made into Grand Cru appellations d'origine contrôlées when the national AOC legislation was implemented in 1936 . Burgundy wine has experienced much change over the past 75 years . Economic depression during the 1930s was followed by the devastation caused by World War II . After the War , the vignerons returned home to their unkempt vineyards . The soils and vines had suffered and were sorely in need of nurturing . The growers began to fertilize , bringing their vineyards back to health . Those who could afford it added potassium , a mineral fertilizer that contributes to vigorous growth . By the mid-1950s , the soils were balanced , yields were reasonably low and the vineyards produced some of the most stunning wines in the 20th century . For the next 30 years , they followed the advice of renowned viticultural experts , who advised them to keep spraying their vineyards with chemical fertilizers , including potassium . While a certain amount of potassium is natural in the soil and beneficial for healthy growth , too much is harmful because it leads to low acidity levels , which adversely affect the quality of the wine . As the concentration of chemicals in the soil increased , so did the yields . In the past 30 years , yields have risen by two-thirds in the appellations contrôlées vineyards of the Côte d'Or , from 29 hectoliters per hectare ( hl/ha ) ( yearly average from 1951 to 1960 ) to almost 48 hl/ha ( 1982–91 ) , according to a study by the Institut National des Appellations d'Origine . With higher yields came wines of less flavor and concentration . Within 30 years , the soils had been significantly depleted of their natural nutrients . The period between 1985 and 1995 was a turning point in Burgundy . During this time , many Burgundian ' renewed efforts in the vineyards and gradually set a new course in winemaking . All this led to deeper , more complex wines . Today , the Burgundy wine industry is reaping the rewards of those efforts . Wine characteristics and classification Burgundy is in some ways the most terroir-oriented region in France ; immense attention is paid to the area of origin , and in which of the region 's 400 types of soil a wine 's grapes are grown . As opposed to Bordeaux , where classifications are producer-driven and awarded to individual chateaux , Burgundy classifications are geographically-focused . A specific vineyard or region will bear a given classification , regardless of the wine 's producer . This focus is reflected on the wine 's labels , where appellations are most prominent and producers ' names often appear at the bottom in much smaller text . The main levels in the Burgundy classifications , in descending order of quality , are : Grand crus , Premier crus , village appellations , and finally regional appellations : * Grand Cru wines are produced from the small number of the best vineyard sites in the Côte d'Or , as strictly defined by the AOC laws . These Cru wines make up 2 % of the production at 35 hl/ha , and are generally produced in a style meant for cellaring , and typically need to be aged a minimum of five to seven years . The best examples can be kept for more than 15 years . Grand Cru wines will only list the name of the vineyard as the appellation - such as Corton or Montrachet - on the wine label , plus the Grand Cru term , but not the village name . * Premier Cru wines are produced from specific vineyard sites that are still considered to be of high quality , but not as well regarded as the Grand Cru sites . Premier Cru wines make up 12 % of production at 45 hl/ha . These wines often should be aged three to five years , and again the best wines can keep for much longer . Premier Cru wines are labelled with the name of the village of origin , the Premier Cru status , and usually the vineyard name , for example , `` Volnay 1er Cru Les Caillerets '' . Some Premier Cru wines are produced from several Premier Cru vineyards in the same village , and do not carry the name of an individual vineyard . * Village appellation wines are produced from a blend of wines from supposedly lesser vineyard sites within the boundaries of one of 42 villages , or from one individual but unclassified vineyard . Wines from each different village are considered to have their own specific qualities and characteristics , and not all Burgundy communes have a village appellation . Village wines make up 36 % of production at 50 hl/ha . These wines can be consumed two to four years after the release date , although again some examples will keep for longer . Village wines will show the village name on the wine label , such as `` Pommard '' , and sometimes - if applicable - the name of the single vineyard or climat where it was sourced . Several villages in Burgundy have appended the names of their Grand Cru vineyards to the original village name - hence village names such as `` Puligny-Montrachet '' and `` Aloxe-Corton '' . * Regional appellation wines are wines which are allowed to be produced over the entire region , or over an area significantly larger than that of an individual village . At the village , Premier Cru and Grand Cru levels , only red and white wines are found , but some of the regional appellations also allow the production of rosé and sparkling wines , as well as wines dominated by grape varieties other than Pinot noir or Chardonnay . These appellations can be divided into three groups : * * AOC Bourgogne , the standard or `` generic '' appellation for red or white wines made anywhere throughout the region , and represent simpler wines which are still similar to the village . These wines may be produced at 55 hl/ha . These wines are typically intended for immediate consumption , within three years after the vintage date . * * Subregional ( sous-régional ) appellations cover a part of Burgundy larger than a village . Examples are Bourgogne Hautes-Côtes de Beaune , Bourgogne Hautes-Côtes de Nuits and Mâcon-Villages . Typically , those communes which do not have a village appellation will have access to at least one subregional appellation . This level is sometimes described as intermediate between AOC Bourgogne and the village level . * * Wines of specific styles or other grape varieties include white Bourgogne Aligoté ( which is primarily made with the Aligoté grape ) , red Bourgogne Passe-Tout-Grains ( which can contain up to two-thirds Gamay ) and sparkling Crémant de Bourgogne . Chablis wines are labeled using a similar hierarchy of Grand Cru , Premier Cru , and Village wines , plus Petit Chablis as a level below Village Chablis . Wines from Beaujolais are treated still differently . In general , producers are always allowed to declassify their wine in steps to a lower-ranked AOC if they wish to do so . Thus , a wine from a Grand Cru vineyard may be sold as a Premier Cru from that vineyard 's village , a Premier Cru wine may be sold as a Village wine , and so on . This practice will almost invariably mean the declassified wine will have to be sold at a lower price , so this is only practiced when something is to be gained overall in the process . One motive may be to only include vines of a certain age in a Grand Cru wine , to improve its quality and raise its prestige and price , in which case the wine coming from younger vines may be sold as a Premier Cru at a lower price . Overall , such a practice may allow a producer to keep a higher average price for the wine sold . In total , around 150 separate AOCs are used in Burgundy , including those of Chablis and Beaujolais . While an impressive number , it does not include the several hundred named vineyards ( lieux-dits ) at the Village and Premier Cru level , which may be displayed on the label , since at these levels , only one set of appellation rules is available per village . The total number of vineyard-differentiated AOCs that may be displayed is well in excess of 500 . Production In 2003 , the Burgundy vineyards ( including Chablis but excluding Beaujolais ) covered a total of 28530 ha . Côte d'Or as a whole , including Hautes Côtes de Beaune and Hautes Côtes de Nuits , covered 8000 ha , of which the heartland of Côte de Nuits covered 1700 ha and Côte de Beaune 3600 ha . In 2000 , Burgundy had a total of 3 200 wine domaines ( compared to 50 in the early 19th century ) , of which 520 were in the department of Yonne , 1 100 in Côte-d'Or and 1 570 in Saône-et-Loir . Generally , the small growers sell their grapes to larger producers , merchants called négociants , who blend and bottle the wine . The roughly 115 négociants who produce the majority of the wine only control around 8 % of the area . Individual growers have around 67 % of the area , but produce and market only around 25 % of the wine . Some small wineries produce only 100-200 cases/year , while many producers make a few thousand cases/year . Grower/producer-made wines can be identified by the terms Mis en bouteille au domaine , Mis au domaine , or Mis en bouteille à la propriété . The largest producer is Maison Louis Latour in Beaune with 350,000 cases/year . The négociants may use the term Mis en bouteille dans nos caves ( bottled in our cellars ) , but are not entitled to use the estate-bottled designation of the grower/producers . Most négociants tend to use the term Mis en bouteille par ... ( bottled by ... ) . Grape varieties Of the white grapes , Chardonnay is the most common . Another grape found in the region , Aligoté , tends to produce cheaper wines which are higher in acidity . Aligoté from Burgundy is the wine traditionally used for the Kir drink , where it is mixed with black currant liqueur . Sauvignon blanc is also grown in the Saint Bris appellation . Chablis , Mâcon wines and the Côte d'Or whites are mostly produced from 100 % Chardonnay grapes . Of the red grapes , the majority of production in the Côte d'Or is focused on the Pinot noir grape , while the Gamay grape is grown in Beaujolais . In the Côte de Nuits region , 90 % of the production is red grapes . Rules for the red Burgundy appellations , from regional to Grand Cru level , generally allow up to 15 % of the white grape varieties Chardonnay , Pinot blanc and Pinot gris to be blended in , but this is not widely practiced today . Reputation and appreciation Burgundy is home to some of the most expensive wines in the world , including those of Domaine de la Romanée-Conti , Domaine Leroy , Henri Jayer , Emmanuel Rouget , Domaine Dugat-Py , Domaine Leflaive and Domaine Armand Rousseau . However , some top vintage first growth Bordeaux wines and a few iconic wines from the New World are more expensive than some Grand Cru class Burgundies . Its renown goes back many centuries ; in 1522 Erasmus wrote : `` O happy Burgundy which merits being called the mother of men since she furnishes from her mammaries such a good milk '' This was echoed by Shakespeare , who refers in King Lear to `` the vines of France and milk of Burgundy '' . To accompany the finer wines , especially `` the wines of the Cote [ d'Or ] , it is recommended to taste some great cheeses like that of Citeaux , or ' l'ami du Chambertin ' or ' l'amour de Nuits ' '' . British wine critic Jancis Robinson emphasizes , `` price is an extremely unreliable guide '' and `` what a wine sells for often has more to do with advertising hype and marketing decisions than the quality contained in the bottle . '' While Grand Crus often command steep prices , village level wines from top producers can be found at quite reasonable prices . In 2010 , the Burgundy region experienced a notable increase in internet coverage thanks to official efforts like the online broadcast of the famous Hospices de Beaune , as well as the efforts of independent wine aficionados , such as Bourgogne Live . Some burgundies are also increasingly valued as investment wines . Fans of Burgundy wine have been organizing events celebrating its virtues for decades . The most famous of these is La Paulée de Meursault .

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Which grape is used to produce top-quality Burgundy red wines?

Estelle Margaret Parsons ( born November 20 , 1927 ) is an American stage , film and television actress , Today Show television series host , and stage director . After studying law , Parsons became a singer before deciding to pursue a career in acting . She worked for the television program Today and made her stage debut in 1961 . During the 1960s , Parsons established her career on Broadway before progressing to film . She received an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Blanche Barrow in Bonnie and Clyde ( 1967 ) , and was also nominated for her work in Rachel , Rachel ( 1968 ) . She worked extensively in film and theatre during the 1970s and later directed several Broadway productions . More recently her television work included playing Beverly Harris on the sitcom Roseanne . She has been nominated five times for the Tony Award ( four times for Lead Actress of a Play and once for Featured Actress ) . In 2004 , Parsons was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame . Early life Parsons was born in Lynn Hospital , Lynn , Massachusetts . Her mother , Elinor Ingeborg ( née Mattsson ) , was a native of Sweden , and her father , Eben Parsons , was of English descent . She attended Oak Grove School for Girls in Maine . After graduating from Connecticut College in 1949 , Parsons initially studied law at Boston University , and then worked as a singer with a band before settling on an acting career in the early 1950s . Career Moving to New York City , Parsons worked as a writer , producer and commentator for The Today Show . She made her Broadway debut in 1956 in the ensemble of the Ethel Merman musical Happy Hunting . She began performing Off-Broadway in 1961 , and received a Theatre World Award in 1963 for her performance in Whisper into My Good Ear/Mrs . Dally Has a Lover ( 1962 ) . In 1964 , Parsons won an Obie Award for Best Actress for her performance in two Off-Broadway plays , Next Time I 'll Sing to You and In the Summer House . Parsons has received Tony Award nominations for her work in The Seven Descents of Myrtle ( 1968 ) , And Miss Reardon Drinks a Little ( 1971 ) , Miss Margarida 's Way ( 1978 ) , and Morning 's at Seven ( 2002 ) . She played the Widow Begbick in the American premiere of the Weill–Brecht opera , Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny ( 1970 ) , and performed as Mrs. Peacham to Lotte Lenya 's Jenny in Threepenny Opera on tour and in New York City . In 1978 she played Lady MacBeth in the Kauai Community Players production . She also played Ruth in Gilbert & Sullivan 's The Pirates of Penzance on Broadway in 1981 . From June 17 , 2008 through May 17 , 2009 , she played the role of Violet Weston in August : Osage County . She continued playing the role during the show 's national tour beginning July 24 , 2009 , in Denver . As a director , Parsons has a number of Broadway credits , including a production of Romeo and Juliet , Macbeth and As You Like It in 1986 . Off-Broadway , she directed Dario Fo 's Orgasmo Adulto Escapes from the Zoo ( 1983 ) . She also served as the Artistic Director of the Actors Studio for five years , ending in 2003 . In 2016 she starred in Israel Horovitz 's new play Out Of The Mouths Of Babes along with Judith Ivey directed by Barnet Kellman at The Cherry Lane Theater in New York City . In 2004 , Parsons was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame . Parsons ' film career includes an Oscar for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Blanche Barrow in Bonnie and Clyde ( 1967 ) , and a nomination for Rachel , Rachel ( 1968 ) . She received a BAFTA Award nomination for her role in Watermelon Man ( 1970 ) , and appeared in I Never Sang for My Father ( 1970 ) , Two People ( 1973 ) , A Memory of Two Mondays ( 1974 ) , For Pete 's Sake ( 1974 ) , Dick Tracy ( 1990 ) and Boys on the Side ( 1995 ) . She was also the original choice to play the part of Pamela Voorhees in the 1980 film Friday the 13th ; the part later went to Betsy Palmer . On television , Parsons played the recurring role of Beverly , on Roseanne . Other television credits include appearances in The Patty Duke Show , Love , American Style , All In The Family , Archie Bunker 's Place , Open Admissions , Frasier , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit , and The Good Wife , as well as The UFO Incident : The Story of Betty and Barney Hill and the PBS production of June Moon . She played the part of Babe in two episodes of the second series of `` Grace and Frankie '' . She was honored with a Woman of Achievement Award from the Women 's Project Theater in 2009 . Parsons recently 2010 appeared in London playing psychic Helga ten Dorp in Deathtrap at the Noël Coward Theatre in the West End . She was recently seen on Broadway in David Lindsay-Abaire 's Good People , and opened 24 April 2012 , in Nice Work If You Can Get It . Filmography Film Television Personal life Her grandson is former Chicago Bears and Jacksonville Jaguars guard/tackle , Eben Britton . Her second husband Peter Zimroth was appointed police monitor for the NYPD in August 2013 .

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Estelle Parsons won a best supporting actress Oscar for her role in which 1967 film?

John Alvin `` Johnnie '' Ray ( January 10 , 1927 – February 24 , 1990 ) was an American singer , songwriter , and pianist . Extremely popular for most of the 1950s , Ray has been cited by critics as a major precursor of what would become rock and roll , for his jazz and blues-influenced music and his animated stage personality . Tony Bennett credits Ray as being the true father of rock and roll . British Hit Singles & Albums noted that Ray was `` a sensation in the 1950s , the heart-wrenching vocal delivery of 'Cry ' ... influenced many acts including Elvis and was the prime target for teen hysteria in the pre-Presley days . '' In 1952 , Ray rose very quickly from obscurity to stardom in the United States . He became a major star in the United Kingdom by performing and releasing recordings there in 1953 and shared billing there with many acts including Frank Holder . He matched these achievements in Australia the following year . His career in his native United States began to decline in the late 1950s , and his American record label dropped him in 1960 . He never regained a strong following there and very rarely appeared on American television after 1973 . His fan base in other countries , however , remained strong until his last year of performing , which was 1989 . His recordings never stopped selling outside the United States . Early life Johnnie Ray was born January 10 , 1927 , in Hopewell , Oregon , to parents Elmer and Hazel ( Simkins ) Ray . Along with older sister Elma , Ray spent part of his childhood on a farm in Dallas , Oregon and attended grade school there . The family later moved to Portland , Oregon , where Ray attended high school . At age 13 , Ray became deaf in his left ear following a mishap that occurred during a Boy Scout `` blanket toss . '' In later years , Ray performed wearing a hearing aid . Surgery performed in 1958 left him almost completely deaf in both ears , although hearing aids helped his condition . Career Inspired by rhythm singers like Kay Starr , LaVern Baker and Ivory Joe Hunter , Ray developed a unique rhythm-based singing style , described as alternating between pre-rock R & B and a more conventional classic pop approach . He began singing professionally on a Portland , Oregon , radio station at age 15 . Ray first attracted the attention of Bernie Lang , a song plugger , who was taken to the Flame Showbar nightclub in Detroit , Michigan by local DJ , Robin Seymour of WKMH . Lang went to New York to sell the singer to Danny Kessler of the Okeh label , a subsidiary of Columbia Records . Kessler came over from New York , and he , Lang and Seymour went to the Flame . According to Seymour , Kessler 's reaction was , `` Well , I do n't know . This kid looks well on the stand , but he will never go on records . '' It was Seymour and Lowell Worley of the local office of Columbia who persuaded Kessler to have a test record made of Ray . Worley arranged for a record to be cut at the United Sound Studios in Detroit . Seymour told reporter Dick Osgood that there was a verbal agreement that he would be cut in on the three-way deal in the management of Ray . But the deal mysteriously evaporated , and so did Seymour 's friendship with Kessler . Ray 's first record , the self-penned R & B number for OKeh Records , `` Whiskey and Gin , '' was a minor hit in 1951 . The following year he dominated the charts with the double-sided hit single of `` Cry '' and `` The Little White Cloud That Cried '' . Selling over two million copies of the 78rpm single , Ray 's delivery struck a chord with teenagers and he quickly became a teen idol . When executives of Columbia Records , the parent company of OKeh , realized that the Caucasian Ray had developed a fan base of white listeners , he was moved over to the Columbia label . 20th Century Fox capitalized on his stardom by including him in the ensemble cast of the movie There 's No Business Like Show Business ( 1954 ) alongside Ethel Merman as his mother , Dan Dailey as his father , Donald O'Connor as his brother and Marilyn Monroe as his sister-in-law . Ray 's performing style included theatrics later associated with rock and roll , including tearing at his hair , falling to the floor , and crying . Ray quickly earned the nicknames `` Mr. Emotion '' , `` The Nabob of Sob '' , and `` The Prince of Wails '' , and several others . More hits followed , including `` Please Mr. Sun , '' `` Such a Night , '' `` Walkin ' My Baby Back Home , '' `` A Sinner Am I '' and `` Yes Tonight Josephine . '' He had a United Kingdom number 1 hit with `` Just Walkin ' in the Rain '' ( which Ray initially disliked ) during the Christmas season in 1956 . He hit again in 1957 with `` You Do n't Owe Me a Thing , '' which reached number 10 in the Billboard charts . Though his American popularity was declining in 1957 , he remained popular in the United Kingdom , breaking the record at the London Palladium formerly set by fellow Columbia Records artist Frankie Laine . In later years , he retained a loyal fan base overseas , particularly in Australia . Later career Ray had a close relationship with journalist and television game show panelist Dorothy Kilgallen . They became acquainted soon after his sudden rise to stardom in the United States . They remained close as his American career declined . Two months before Kilgallen 's death in 1965 , her newspaper column plugged Ray 's engagements at the Latin Quarter in New York and the Tropicana Resort & Casino in Las Vegas , Nevada . He began his engagement at the Latin Quarter immediately after an eight-month vacation in Spain during which he and new manager Bill Franklin had extricated themselves from contracts with Bernie Lang , who had managed Ray from 1951 to 1963 . Ray and Franklin believed that a dishonest Lang had been responsible for the end of Ray 's stardom in the United States and for large debts that he owed the Internal Revenue Service . In early 1969 , Ray befriended Judy Garland , performing as her opening act during her last concerts in Copenhagen , Denmark and Malmö , Sweden . Ray was also the best man during Garland 's wedding to nightclub manager Mickey Deans in London . In the early 1970s , Ray 's American career revived to a limited extent , as he had not released a record album or single for more than ten years . He made network television appearances on The Andy Williams Show in 1970 and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson three times during 1972 and 1973 . His personal manager Bill Franklin resigned in 1976 and cut off contact with the singer a few years later . His American revival turned out to be short-lived as Ray 's career had already begun to decline as the 1980s approached . Speculation why has been attributed to booking agents and songwriters not knowing who he was or what his `` sound '' was like , thus ignoring him as a commercial talent . In 1981 , Ray hired Alan Eichler as his manager and resumed performing with an instrumental quartet rather than with the large orchestras he and his audiences had been accustomed to for the first 25 years of his career . When Ray and the quartet performed at a New York club called Marty 's on Third Avenue and East 73rd Street in 1981 , The New York Times stated , `` The fact that Mr. Ray , in the years since his first blush of success , has been seen and heard so infrequently in the United States is somewhat ironic because it was his rhythm and blues style of singing that help lay the groundwork for the rock-and-roll that turned Mr. Ray 's entertainment world around . Recently , Ringo Starr of the Beatles pointed out that the three singers that the Beatles listened to in their fledgling days were Chuck Berry , Little Richard and Johnnie Ray . '' In 1986 , Ray appeared as a Los Angeles taxicab driver in Billy Idol 's `` Do n't Need a Gun '' video and is name-checked in the lyrics of the song . During this time period , Ray was generally playing small venues in the United States such as Citrus College in Los Angeles County , California . He performed there in 1987 `` with a big-band group , '' according to a Los Angeles Times profile of him during that year . While his popularity continued to wane in the United States , Australian , English and Scottish promoters booked him for large venues as late as 1989 , his last year of performing . Personal life In 1951 , when Ray was obscure and not yet signed to a record label , he was arrested in Detroit for accosting and soliciting an undercover vice squad police officer in the restroom of the Stone Theatre , a burlesque house . When he appeared in court , he pleaded guilty . He paid a fine and was released . Because of his obscurity at the time , the Detroit newspapers did not report the story . After his sudden rise to fame the following year , rumors about his sexuality began to spread . Despite her knowledge of the solicitation arrest , Marilyn Morrison , daughter of the owner of West Hollywood 's Mocambo nightclub , married Ray at the peak of his American fame . The wedding ceremony took place in New York a short time after he gave his first New York concert , which was at the Copacabana . The New York Daily News made the wedding its cover story for May 26 , 1952 , and it reported that guests included Mayor Vincent R. Impellitteri . Aware of Ray 's sexuality , Morrison told a friend she would `` straighten it out . '' The couple separated in 1953 and divorced in 1954 . Several writers have noted that the Ray-Morrison marriage occurred under false pretenses , and that Ray had a long-term relationship with his manager , Bill Franklin . ( A biography of Ray points out , however , that Franklin was 13 years younger than Ray and that both their personal and business relationships began in 1963 , many years after the Ray-Morrison divorce . ) In a 1953 newspaper interview with James Bacon , Ray blamed rumors about his sexuality for the breakup of his marriage to Morrison . In 1959 , Ray was arrested again in Detroit for soliciting an undercover officer at the Brass Rail , a bar that was described many years later by one biographer as a haven for musicians and by another biographer as a gay bar . Ray went to trial following this second arrest and was found not guilty . During the era of Johnnie Ray 's stardom in the United States , journalists did not ask performers about their sexuality , and what the performers said offstage was often truncated for publication . In the 1970s , when performers gave long magazine interviews that included their revelations of sexual preferences , Ray was not among them . His career had declined and information about him was no longer newsworthy in the United States . Two years after his death , several friends shared with biographer Jonny Whiteside their knowledge of his homosexuality . Later years and death In 1960 , Ray was hospitalized after contracting tuberculosis . In 1965 , he was 38 years old when he was emotionally devastated by the death of close friend Dorothy Kilgallen . Biographer Jonny Whiteside claimed that Ray managed to stay sober despite his grief . He began to regain his health . Shortly after he returned to the United States from a European concert tour that he headlined with Judy Garland , an American doctor informed him that he was well enough to drink an occasional glass of wine . Ray resumed drinking heavily and his health quickly began to decline . He continued touring until he gave his final concert , a benefit for the Grand Theater in Salem , Oregon , on October 6 , 1989 . In early 1990 , poor health forced him to check into Cedars-Sinai Medical Center . On February 24 , 1990 , he died of liver failure at Cedars-Sinai in Los Angeles . He is buried at Hopewell Cemetery near Hopewell , Oregon . For his contribution to the recording industry , Johnnie Ray was honored with a star in 1960 on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6201 Hollywood Boulevard . In 1999 , Bear Family Records issued two five CD sets of his entire body of work , each containing an 84-page book on his career . Companies like Sony and Collectables have kept his large catalogue of recordings in continual release worldwide . In popular culture Archival footage of Ray arriving at London Heathrow Airport in 1954 was featured in the 1982 music video for Dexys Midnight Runners ' single `` Come On Eileen '' . The lyrics of the song also mention him : `` Poor old Johnnie Ray sounded sad upon the radio / He moved a million hearts in mono . '' Ray is one of the cultural touchstones mentioned in the first verse ( concerning events from the late 1940s and early 1950s ) of Billy Joel 's 1989 hit single `` We Did n't Start the Fire '' , between Red China and South Pacific . Ray was name-checked by Van Morrison in his duet with Tom Jones titled `` Sometimes We Cry '' that was released in 1997 . Selected discography Chart hits Studio albums * Johnnie Ray ( Columbia , 1952 ) * I Cry For You ( Columbia , 1955 ) * The Big Beat ( Columbia , 1957 ) * At the Desert Inn in Las Vegas ( Columbia , 1958 ) * 'Till Morning ( Columbia , 1958 ) * On The Trail ( Columbia , 1959 ) * A Sinner Am I ( Philips Records , United Kingdom , 1959 ) * High Drama : The Real Johnnie Ray ( Columbia/Legacy , 1997 ) Live albums * Johnnie Ray At The Palladium ( Philips Records , United Kingdom , 1954 ) Compilations * Johnny Ray 's Greatest Hits ( Columbia Records , CL 1227 ) * 20 Golden Greats ( Columbia Records & Warwick Records , UK PR 5065 - 1979 ) * Cry ( Bear Family Records , 1999 ) * Yes Tonight , Josephine ( Bear Family Records , 1999 ) Songs 1951 * `` Cry '' ( with The Four Lads ) * `` ( Here Am I ) Brokenhearted '' ( with The Four Lads ) * `` The Little White Cloud That Cried '' ( with The Four Lads ) * `` She Did n't Say Nothin ' At All '' * `` Tell The Lady I Said Goodbye '' * `` Whiskey And Gin '' 1952 * `` All of Me '' * `` A Sinner Am I '' * `` Candy Lips '' ( with Doris Day ) * `` Coffee and Cigarettes ( Think It Over ) '' ( with The Four Lads ) * `` Do n't Blame Me '' * `` Faith Can Move Mountains '' ( with The Four Lads ) * `` Let 's Walk That-A-Way '' ( with Doris Day ) * `` Mountains in the Moonlight '' * `` Out in the Cold Again '' * `` Please Mr. Sun '' ( with The Four Lads ) * `` The Lady Drinks Champagne '' * `` Walkin ' My Baby Back Home '' * `` Do n't Take Your Love From Me '' * `` Somebody Stole My Gal '' 1953 * `` Full Time Job '' ( with Doris Day ) * `` Ma Says , Pa Says '' ( with Doris Day ) 1954 * `` Alexander 's Ragtime Band '' * `` As Time Goes By '' * `` Going-Going-Gone '' * `` Hernando 's Hideaway '' * `` Hey There '' * `` If You Believe '' * `` Johnnie 's Comin ' Home '' * `` Such a Night '' 1955 * `` Flip , Flop and Fly '' * `` I 've Got So Many Million Years '' * `` Paths of Paradise '' * `` Song of the Dreamer '' 1956 * `` Ai n't Misbehavin ' '' * `` Everyday I Have The Blues '' * `` How Long , How Long Blues '' * `` I Want to Be Loved ( But Only by You ) '' * `` I 'll Never Be Free '' * `` I 'm Gon na Move to the Outskirts of Town '' * `` Just Walkin ' in the Rain '' * `` Lotus Blossom '' * `` Sent For You Yesterday '' * `` Shake A Hand '' * `` Who 's Sorry Now '' 1957 * `` Build Your Love ( On a Strong Foundation ) '' * `` Good Evening Friends '' ( with Frankie Laine ) * `` Look Homeward Angel '' * `` Should I ? '' * `` Soliloquy Of a Fool '' * `` Street Of Memories '' * `` Up Above My Head '' ( with Frankie Laine ) * `` You Do n't Owe Me a Thing '' * `` Yes Tonight Josephine '' 1958 * `` I 'm Beginning To See the Light '' * `` I 'm Confessin ' '' * `` The Lonely Ones '' * `` Up Until Now '' 1959 * `` Cool Water '' * `` Empty Saddles '' * `` I 'll Never Fall in Love Again '' * `` It 's All in the Game '' * `` Red River Valley '' * `` Twilight On the Trail '' * `` Wagon Wheels '' * `` When It 's Springtime in the Rockies '' 1960 * `` I 'll Make You Mine '' 1961 * `` Lookout Chattanooga '' * `` Shop Around '' Filmography Quotation NME – June 1955

odql_10060--Johnnie_Ray.txt

“Poor old Johnny Ray” is the opening line of which number one hit?

Salem is the capital of the U.S. state of Oregon , and the county seat of Marion County . It is located in the center of the Willamette Valley alongside the Willamette River , which runs north through the city . The river forms the boundary between Marion and Polk counties , and the city neighborhood of West Salem is in Polk County . Salem was founded in 1842 , became the capital of the Oregon Territory in 1851 , and was incorporated in 1857 . Salem had a population of 154,637 at the 2010 census , making it the third largest city in the state after Portland and Eugene . Salem is less than an hour driving distance away from Portland . Salem is the principal city of the Salem Metropolitan Statistical Area , a metropolitan area that covers Marion and Polk counties and had a combined population of 390,738 at the 2010 census . A 2013 estimate placed the metropolitan population at 400,408 , the state 's second largest . The city is home to Willamette University , Corban University , and Chemeketa Community College . The State of Oregon is the largest public employer in the city , and Salem Health is the largest private employer . Transportation includes public transit from Salem-Keizer Transit , Amtrak service , and non-commercial air travel at McNary Field . Major roads include Interstate 5 , Oregon Route 99E , and Oregon Route 22 , which connects West Salem across the Willamette River via the Marion Street and Center Street bridges . History Origin of name The Native Americans who inhabited the central Willamette Valley at first European contact , the Kalapuya , called the area Chim-i-ki-ti , which means `` meeting or resting place '' in the Central Kalapuya language ( Santiam ) . When the Methodist Mission moved to the area , they called the new establishment Chemeketa ; although it was more widely known as the Mill , because of its situation on Mill Creek . When the Oregon Institute was established , the community became known as the Institute . When the Institute was dissolved , the trustees decided to lay out a townsite on the Institute lands . Some possible sources for the name `` Salem '' include William H. Willson , who in 1850 and 1851 filed the plats for the main part of the city , and suggested adopting an Anglicized version of the Biblical word `` Shalom '' , meaning peace . The Reverend David Leslie , President of the town 's Trustees , also wanted a Biblical name , and suggested using the last five letters of `` Jerusalem '' . Or , the town may be named after Salem , Massachusetts , where Leslie was educated . There were many names suggested , and even after the change to Salem , some people , such as Asahel Bush ( editor of the Oregon Statesman ) , believed the name should be changed back to Chemeketa . [ http : //www.salemhistory.net/brief_history/salem_name.htm Salem Online.net Salem name ] The Vern Miller Civic Center , which houses the city offices and library , has a public space dedicated as the Peace Plaza in recognition of the names by which the city has been known . Native Americans It is estimated that the Willamette Valley area has been inhabited for over 10,000 years . The Kalapuya peoples would gather on the plateau east and south of the current downtown area in the winter and establish camps . They fished and harvested in the streams and fields of the area . One staple of life was the camas root , and periodically the Kalapuya would set fires that would clear and fertilize the meadows where it grew . In the early 1850s , the Kalapuya , along with the other native peoples west of the Cascade Mountains , were removed by the U.S. government through a combination of treaties and force . Most Kalapuya people were moved to the Grande Ronde Reservation somewhat to the west of Salem , with smaller numbers ending up at Siletz Reservation and other Oregon and Washington reservations . Europeans The first people of European descent arrived in the area as early as 1812 ; they were animal trappers and food gatherers for the fur trading companies in Astoria , Oregon . The first permanent American settlement in the area was the Jason Lee Methodist mission ( 1840 ) located in the area north of Salem known as Wheatland . [ http : //www.salemhistory.net/brief_history/brief_history.htm Salem Online.net Brief history of Salem ] In 1842 , the missionaries established the Oregon Institute ( the forerunner of Willamette University ) in the area that was to become the site of Salem . In 1844 , the mission was dissolved and the town site established . In 1851 , Salem became the territorial capital after it was moved from Oregon City . The capital was moved briefly to Corvallis in 1855 , but was moved back to Salem permanently that same year . Salem incorporated as a city in 1857 , and with the coming of statehood in 1859 , it became the state capital . Capitol buildings Oregon has had three capitol buildings in Salem . A two-story state house , which had been occupied for only two months , burned to the ground in December 1855 . Oregon 's second capitol building was completed in 1876 on the site of the original . The revival-style building was based in part on the U.S. Capitol building . The building received its distinctive copper dome in 1893 . On April 25 , 1935 , this building was also destroyed by fire . The third and current Oregon State Capitol was completed on the same site in 1938 . It is recognizable by its distinctive pioneer statue atop the capitol dome that is plated with gold-leaf and officially named the Oregon Pioneer . State fair and cherry festival Agriculture has always been important to Salem , and the city has historically recognized and celebrated it in a number of ways . In 1861 , Salem was chosen as the permanent site of the Oregon State Fair by the Oregon State Agricultural Association.Heine , Steven Robert [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id UY1bWuRoaswC & pgPA130 & dq The+Oregon+State+Fair+Images+of+America & sig=0R6dJjCQh4mFCGyGqCB0XFTcpgs # PPP1 , M1 The Oregon State Fair Images of America ] Arcadia Publishing 2007-08-20 Salem is nicknamed the `` Cherry City '' , because of the past importance of the local cherry-growing industry . The first cherry festival in Salem was held in 1903 and was an annual event , with parades and the election of a cherry queen , until sometime after World War I . The event was briefly revived as the Salem Cherryland Festival for several years in the late 1940s . Geography and climate Salem is located in the north-central Willamette Valley , in Marion and Polk counties . The 45th Parallel ( roughly the halfway point between the North Pole and the Equator ) passes through Salem 's city limits . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water . Although the Willamette River flows through Salem , the North Santiam River watershed is Salem 's primary drinking water source . Other important streams that pass through Salem are Mill Creek , the Mill Race , Pringle Creek , and Shelton Ditch . Smaller streams in the southern and southeastern parts of the city include Clark Creek , Jory Creek , Battle Creek , Croisan Creek , and Claggett Creek , while Glen Creek and Brush Creek flow through West Salem . Elevation within the city limits ranges from about 120 to . Salem contains the volcanic Salem Hills in the south and is sandwiched by the 1000 ft Eola Hills directly to the west and the 600 ft Waldo Hills to the east . Northern and eastern Salem are less hilly . South and West Salem contain some canyons and are the hilliest areas . The coast range and the Cascades—including Mount Hood , Mount Jefferson , and on the clearest of days , Mount St. Helens and Mount Adams in Washington—can be viewed from throughout the city . Like most of the Willamette Valley area , Salem has a Marine West Coast climate ( Köppen Csb ) with some distinct characteristics of the Mediterranean climate . Rain is heaviest in late fall and throughout winter , and almost all of the annual precipitation falls between October and May , with a dry season from June through September . Light snowfall occurs in winter , but major snows are rare . Mostly cloudy skies and low cloud ceilings are commonplace during the rainy season . Salem 's mean annual temperature is 53 °F ; its annual precipitation is , with an average of snow included . However , over a quarter of years receive no snowfall . The state capital is about 47 mi south of Portland , but actually has a lower average temperature than Portland ( ) , due in part to the lower daily minima . Demographics 2010 census As of the census of 2010 , there were 154,637 people , 57,290 households , and 36,261 families residing in the city . The population density was . There were 61,276 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 79.0 % White , 1.5 % African American , 1.5 % Native American , 2.7 % Asian , 0.9 % Pacific Islander , 10.1 % from other races , and 4.3 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 20.3 % of the population . There were 57,290 households of which 33.8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 45.0 % were married couples living together , 13.0 % had a female householder with no husband present , 5.2 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 36.7 % were non-families . 28.8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.15 . The median age in the city was 34.5 years . 25.2 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 10.8 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 27.6 % were from 25 to 44 ; 24.5 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 12 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 49.9 % male and 50.1 % female . 2000 census As of the census of 2000 , there were 136,924 people , 50,676 households , and 32,331 families residing in the city . The population density was 2,994.0 people per square mile ( 1,156.1/km² ) . There were 53,817 housing units at an average density of 1,176.8 per square mile ( 454.4/km² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 83.1 % White , 1.3 % African American , 1.5 % Native American , 2.4 % Asian , 0.5 % Pacific Islander , 7.9 % from other races , and 3.4 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.6 % of the population . Non-Hispanic Whites were 70.7 % of the population in 2010 , compared to 88.6 % in 1990 . There were 50,676 households out of which 32.4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 47.7 % were married couples living together , 11.6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 36.2 % were non-families . 28.3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2.53 and the average family size was 3.10 . In the city the population was spread out with 25.4 % under the age of 18 , 11.4 % from 18 to 24 , 30.1 % from 25 to 44 , 20.6 % from 45 to 64 , and 12.4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 34 years . For every 100 females , there were 100.9 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 99.5 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 38,881 , and the median income for a family was $ 46,409 . Males had a median income of $ 34,746 versus $ 26,789 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 19,141 . About 10.5 % of families and 15.0 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 20.2 % of those under age 18 and 7.1 % of those age 65 or over . Government Salem is governed using the council–manager government model . The city council consists of eight members who are elected from single member wards . The mayor is elected in a citywide vote . Economy State government is Salem 's largest employer , but the city also serves as a hub for the area farming communities and is a major agricultural food processing center . It lies along the I-5 corridor and is within an hour 's drive of Oregon 's largest city , Portland . Salem is the home of Kettle Foods , Inc. , a maker of potato chips since 1982 . Kettle employs 700 in Salem and at a plant in Bowthorpe , England . NORPAC Foods , Inc. , is a large food processor in Salem and elsewhere in Marion County . Its brands include Flav-R-Pac and West-Pac frozen fruits and vegetables , and Santiam canned vegetables . Oregon Fruit Products , Inc. , has been canning blackberries , marionberries and other fruits in Salem since 1935 , with Oregon as its brand name . In a bid to diversify its economic base , Salem attracted a number of computer-related manufacturing plants in the 1990s . In November 2003 , the Sumitomo Mitsubishi Silicon Group ( SUMCO ) , one of these arrivals , announced it would be closing its two silicon wafer plants at the end of 2004 , eliminating 620 jobs , and moving production to other plants . Salem is the headquarters of the Oregon Department of Corrections and home to four state correctional facilities , including the Oregon State Penitentiary , Oregon 's only maximum-security prison . Numerous projects are underway to increase the supply of housing in the downtown core . These projects will provide upscale , low and high rise condominium and office space . Top employers According to Salem 's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the top employers in the area are : People and culture Neighborhood associations Salem has 18 recognized neighborhood associations , which are independent groups that receive administrative support from the city . Cultural events and series From May through October the Salem Saturday Market , located north of the Capitol , exhibits an emphasis on local products including crafts , baked goods , produce , meat , and other items . In addition to the Saturday Market , there is a Wednesday Farmers ' Market hosted downtown in Courthouse Square during the summer , as well a Holiday Gift Market in December . The 60+ year old , indoor Saturday Public Market is open all year round . The annual World Beat Festival , held in June , is sponsored by the nonprofit Salem Multicultural Institute . The event lasts for two days and is held at the Riverfront Park . It features international crafts , music , dance , food , and folklore from every continent , and in recent years has held a Dragon Boat race similar to the ones held during the nearby Rose Festival in Portland . The Salem Art Association sponsors the annual Salem Art Fair and Festival , which takes place at Bush 's Pasture Park during the summer . Its displays , interactive exhibits , food , and performances attract thousands of visitors each year . The Bite of Salem , held in July at the Riverfront Park , is an event similar to others such as the Bite of Oregon in Portland . The event consists of a weekend of local restaurants in Salem offering samples of their menus to patrons in a festival atmosphere , with live entertainment and benefiting local charities . In the summer , Chef 's Nite Out is a wine and food benefit held for Marion-Polk Food Share . Oregon Wine & Food Festival takes place at that state 's fairgrounds in January . The largest event in Salem is the Oregon State Fair at the end of August through Labor Day . Located in the Oregon State Fairgrounds in North Salem , the fair offers exhibits , competitions and carnival rides . Other events such as concerts , horse shows and rodeos take place at the Oregon State Fair and Expo Center throughout the year . The Mid-Valley Video Festival offers local , national and international independent films in theaters throughout the city . The Salem Film Festival has included feature films that were Oregon premieres . The Salem Repertory Theatre presents shows at the Reed Opera House . The Pentacle Theatre , which features plays and musicals , is located in West Salem . The Elsinore Theatre is a historic landmark featuring recitals , concerts , films , and plays . It has the largest working pipe organ on the west coast , a remnant of its days as a showcase for silent films , in the early days of cinema . Grand Theater is undergoing renovation and has hosted the Salem Progressive Film Series and other shows . Capitol Pride ( Salem 's yearly Gay Pride Event ) is held in early August . The personal house and garden of landscape architects Elizabeth Lord and Edith Schryver , known as Gaiety Hollow , are on the National Register of Historic Places . Lord and Schryver had designed the gardens of Historic Deepwood Estate . Museums and other points of interest In addition to the Oregon State Capitol and adjacent Willson Park , Salem 's downtown contains the Mission Mill Museum , Hallie Ford Museum of Art , the Elsinore Theatre , Riverfront Park , the Willamette River , some of the oldest buildings in Oregon , as well as shopping and restaurants . The A.C. Gilbert 's Discovery Village interactive children 's museum and Prewitt-Allen Archaeological Museum are both also located in Salem . The two leading candidates for the tallest building in Salem are Salem First United Methodist Church and the Capitol Center . A private survey commissioned by a local publication holds that the church is the tallest . The tall white spire of the 1878 church rises at the intersection of Church and State Streets across from the Capitol grounds . The Capitol Center ( originally the First National Bank Building , then the Livesley Building ) was built in 1927 by former Salem mayor Thomas A. Livesley , a prominent Salem-area businessman and civic leader . At that time of its completion , it was the tallest commercial building in the state . In 1988 , Livesley 's family home was purchased through private donations and was donated to the state . It now serves as the official residence of the Governor and family . Now known as Mahonia Hall , it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) in 1990 . The Oregon Symphony , based in Portland , presents approximately ten classical and pops concerts each year in Salem . The Salem Chamber Orchestra includes professional area musicians as well as students . The Salem Armory Auditorium has hosted touring bands including Korn and Phish . The Salem Concert Band is a community band made up of professional and amateur musicians that performs several classical and pops concerts annually . Because Salem is the state capital , it has a multitude of government agencies , departments , and boards housed in buildings with architectural designs ranging from the early 20th century to examples of state-of-the-art civil building design . The historic Reed Opera House in downtown Salem has a number of local shops and dining establishments , as well as an art gallery . Salem has been awarded `` Tree City USA '' status by the National Arbor Day Foundation for 30 consecutive years for its dedication to urban forestry . Salem was the first city in Oregon to receive the award . In keeping with the city 's `` Cherry City '' theme , flowering cherry trees have been planted along many Salem streets as well as on the Capitol Mall across from the Capitol . The Salem Public Library 's main branch is located just south of downtown . A branch library is located in West Salem ( Polk County ) . The Library participates in the Chemeketa Cooperative Regional Library Service , so Salem Public Library cards are also valid in the member libraries in Yamhill , Polk , Marion , and parts of Linn County . In addition to the Salem Public Library the Mark O. Hatfield Library at Willamette University is open to the public as well , although the hours are limited . The film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest was filmed at the Oregon State Hospital . Salem and its environs have a multitude of wineries and vineyards that are open to the public , including Oregon 's oldest winery , Honeywood Winery . [ http : //www.HoneywoodWinery.com Honeywood Winery ] Media Salem has one daily newspaper , the Gannett-owned Statesman Journal , and an independent bi-monthly alternative newspaper Salem Weekly . The Capital Press , a weekly agricultural newspaper , is published in the city and is distributed throughout the West Coast . The monthly Salem Business Journal covers business and government . The Salem Magazine , published quarterly , both in physical and digital ( online ) issues , focuses upon its people ; its unique culture ; and its downtown and surrounding neighborhood communities . Northwest Television operates three television stations that have Salem transmitters : KWVT-LD , KSLM , and KPWC , which serve an area from Longview , Washington to Eugene , Oregon . Two stations are licensed to Salem but operate out of Portland and Seattle respectively : KPXG-TV and KRCW . As of 2012 , seven radio stations broadcast from Salem , including three commercial AM stations , three non-commercial FM stations , and a community radio station . KBZY was a popular Top 40 station from its sign-on in 1957 through the 1960s and 1970s . Today KBZY has an oldies format , and continues to use live and local personalities . KBZY is affiliated with the ABC Radio Network . KYKN carries syndicated conservative talk hosts . KWOD is a Spanish language sports talk station . KPJC features Christian talk programming . KWBX is a non-commercial station licensed to Corban University with a Contemporary Christian format . KMUZ , established in 2012 , is a non-commercial community radio station carrying locally produced content in a variety format . Salem is part of the Portland Arbitron survey area for radio stations , and most of the Portland stations can be received in Salem . Powerful AM news/talk stations include KEX , KXTG , and progressive talk KPOJ . Stations to the south in Corvallis and Albany are also easily heard in Salem . NPR programming is carried by Oregon Public Broadcasting , which can be heard on KOPB-FM from Portland , and KOAC from Corvallis . Sports The Salem-Keizer Volcanoes , a minor league baseball team , play their home games in the city of Keizer , which adjoins Salem on the north . Three teams within the Eugene-based NNFL are from Salem ; the Copperheads , Chargers , and three-time league champion , Pioneers . The Willamette University Bearcats are also based in Salem , they are a Division III athletics program . More recently there has been an addition of a women 's roller derby league known as the Cherry City Derby Girls . CCDG is home to four home teams , the Rydel Bells , Thrill Kill Kittens , Dolls of Anarchy , and Panty Raiders as well as a travel team the 8 Wheel Assassins . CCDG also has a `` b '' ranked travel team called the Bone Yard Brawlers . CCDG hosts a juniors derby league . The Star City Offense , a men 's roller derby team , is also based in Salem . Parks and recreation City parks Salem 's Department of Community Services Parks Operations Division is responsible for a park system encompassing 1874 acre with of trails , 46 parks , and another 55 open and undeveloped areas . Minto-Brown Island Park is the largest at 1200 acre . Bush 's Pasture Park , a urban park a few blocks south of downtown Salem , features natural groves of native Oregon White Oak trees , the historic Bush House , a rose garden , and adjacent Deepwood Estates . Other city parks include 101 acre Cascade Gateway Park and 23 acre Riverfront Park which is adjacent to downtown and the Willamette River and is home to the Salem Carousel . Marion Square Park is downtown next to Marion Street Bridge and has a skatepark and basketball court . The skatepark also allows bicycles . Marion Square Park was laid out by city founder William H. Willson , and is the next oldest municipal park in Salem after Willson Park at the Oregon State Capitol . Across the Willamette River in West Salem is the 114 acre Wallace Marine Park , which includes a boat ramp and floating boat dock allowing easy access to the river for water sports . The NRHP-listed Union Street Railroad Bridge , repurposed as a bicycle and pedestrian bridge , connects Wallace Marine Park and West Salem to Riverfront Park and downtown Salem . Salem is also home to one of the smallest city parks in the world , Waldo Park , which consists of a single Sequoia tree . Mill Ends Park in Portland is the smallest in the world . The capitol grounds , which is maintained by the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department , cover three city blocks and include Willson and Capitol parks . Recreation Other large parks located in the Salem area include the 1680 acre Willamette Mission State Park north of the city , and Silver Falls State Park east of Salem . Both of these parks have extensive hiking , biking , and horse trails . Salem 's central location provides access to a wide variety of recreational activities in a variety of climates and geographies year round . The Coast Range and the Pacific Ocean is to the west . The Santiam Canyon area , the Western Cascades and the High Cascades are to the east . Portland and its environs are to the north , while Eugene and its environs are to the south . Salem also provides two great disc golf courses . A nine-hole course located in the woods of Woodmansee Park ( located behind Judson Middle School ) , and a more open style 18-hole course located throughout Cascade Gateway Park . They are both free and open to the public . Education Elementary and secondary Salem 's public elementary and secondary schools are part of the Salem-Keizer School District which has approximately 39,000 students and is the second largest public school district in the state . The city also has many private elementary and secondary schools such as Blanchet Catholic School and Salem Academy Christian . One school , Willamette Academy , is part of an outreach program run by Willamette University that is designed to expose under represented students to the rewards of an academic life at an early age ( 7th–12th grade ) . Salem is also home to several public boarding schools , the Chemawa Indian School a Native American high school and the Oregon School for the Deaf . Colleges and universities Post secondary schools include Chemeketa Community College , Corban University , Tokyo International University of America and Willamette University , the oldest university in the American west.Gatke

sfq_18424--Salem,_Oregon.txt

Which American state, with the capital Salem, is nicknamed the Beaver State?

Marion Mitchell Morrison ( born Marion Robert Morrison ; May 26 , 1907 – June 11 , 1979 ) , better known by his stage name John Wayne and the nickname Duke , was an American actor , director , and producer . An Academy Award-winner for True Grit ( 1969 ) , Wayne was among the top box office draws for three decades . Born in Winterset , Iowa , Wayne grew up in Southern California . He found work at local film studios when he lost his football scholarship to the University of Southern California ( USC ) as a result of a bodysurfing accident . Initially working for the Fox Film Corporation , he mostly appeared in small bit parts . His first leading role came in Raoul Walsh 's lavish widescreen epic The Big Trail ( 1930 ) , which led to leading roles in numerous B movies throughout the 1930s , many of them in the Western genre . Wayne 's career took off in 1939 , with John Ford 's Stagecoach making him an instant mainstream star . Wayne went on to star in 142 pictures . Biographer Ronald Davis says : `` John Wayne personified for millions the nation 's frontier heritage . Eighty-three of his movies were Westerns , and in them he played cowboys , cavalrymen , and unconquerable loners extracted from the Republic 's central creation myth . '' Wayne 's other well-known Western roles include a cattleman driving his herd north on the Chisholm Trail in Red River ( 1948 ) , a Civil War veteran whose young niece is abducted by a tribe of Comanches in The Searchers ( 1956 ) , and a troubled rancher competing with an Eastern lawyer for a woman 's hand in marriage in The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance ( 1962 ) . He is also remembered for his roles in The Quiet Man ( 1952 ) , Rio Bravo ( 1959 ) , and The Longest Day ( 1962 ) . In his final screen performance , he starred as an aging gunfighter battling cancer in The Shootist ( 1976 ) . He appeared with many important Hollywood stars of his era , and his last public appearance was at the Academy Awards ceremony on April 9 , 1979 . Early life Wayne was born Marion Robert Morrison on May 26 , 1907 at 224 South Second Street in Winterset , Iowa . The local paper , Winterset Madisonian , reported on page 4 of the May 30 , 1907 edition that Wayne weighed 13 pounds at birth . His middle name was soon changed from Robert to Mitchell when his parents decided to name their next son Robert . Wayne 's father , Clyde Leonard Morrison ( 1884–1937 ) , was the son of American Civil War veteran Marion Mitchell Morrison ( 1845–1915 ) . Wayne 's mother , the former Mary `` Molly '' Alberta Brown ( 1885–1970 ) , was from Lancaster County , Nebraska . Wayne 's ancestry included English , Irish , Scots-Irish , and Scottish . He was brought up as a Presbyterian . Wayne 's family moved to Palmdale , California , and then in 1916 to Glendale , California , where his father worked as a pharmacist . A local fireman at the station on his route to school in Glendale started calling him `` Little Duke '' because he never went anywhere without his huge Airedale Terrier , Duke . He preferred `` Duke '' to `` Marion '' , and the nickname stuck . Wayne attended Wilson Middle School in Glendale . As a teen , he worked in an ice cream shop for a man who shod horses for Hollywood studios . He was also active as a member of the Order of DeMolay , a youth organization of the Freemasons . He played football for the 1924 league champion Glendale High School team . Wayne applied to the U.S . Naval Academy , but he was not accepted . He instead attended the University of Southern California ( USC ) , majoring in pre-law . He was a member of the Trojan Knights and Sigma Chi fraternities . Wayne also played on the USC football team under coach Howard Jones . A broken collarbone injury curtailed his athletic career ; Wayne later noted he was too terrified of Jones 's reaction to reveal the actual cause of his injury , a bodysurfing accident . He lost his athletic scholarship , and without funds , had to leave the university.Shephard , Richard . [ http : //www.jwayne.com/biography.shtml Biography ] . JWayne.com . Retrieved March 11 , 2010 . As a favor to USC football coach Howard Jones , who had given silent western film star Tom Mix tickets to USC games , director John Ford and Mix hired Wayne as a prop boy and extra . Wayne later credited his walk , talk , and persona to his acquaintance with Wyatt Earp , who was good friends with Tom Mix . Wayne soon moved to bit parts , establishing a longtime friendship with the director who provided most of those roles , John Ford . Early in this period , he had a minor , uncredited role as a guard in the 1926 film Bardelys the Magnificent . Wayne also appeared with his USC teammates playing football in Brown of Harvard ( 1926 ) , The Dropkick ( 1927 ) , and Salute ( 1929 ) and Columbia 's Maker of Men ( filmed in 1930 , released in 1931 ) . [ http : //library.thinkquest.org/21065/past/wayne/index.htm Biography of John Wayne ] . Think Quest : Library . Film career Early career and breakthrough While working for Fox Film Corporation in bit roles , Wayne was given on-screen credit as `` Duke Morrison '' only once , in Words and Music ( 1929 ) . In 1930 , director Raoul Walsh saw him moving studio furniture while working as a prop boy and cast him in his first starring role in The Big Trail ( 1930 ) . For his screen name , Walsh suggested `` Anthony Wayne '' , after Revolutionary War general `` Mad '' Anthony Wayne . Fox Studios chief Winfield Sheehan rejected it as sounding `` too Italian '' . Walsh then suggested `` John Wayne '' . Sheehan agreed , and the name was set . Wayne was not even present for the discussion . His pay was raised to $ 105 a week ( worth $ today ) . The Big Trail was to be the first big-budget outdoor spectacle of the sound era , made at a then-staggering cost of over $ 2 million , using hundreds of extras and wide vistas of the American southwest , still largely unpopulated at the time . To take advantage of the breathtaking scenery , it was filmed in two versions , a standard 35-mm version and another in the new 70 mm Grandeur film process , using an innovative camera and lenses . Many in the audience who saw it in Grandeur stood and cheered . However , only a handful of theaters were equipped to show the film in its widescreen process , and the effort was largely wasted . Despite being highly regarded by modern critics , the film was considered a huge box office flop at the time . After the commercial failure of The Big Trail , Wayne was relegated to small roles in A-pictures , including Columbia Pictures 's The Deceiver ( 1931 ) , in which he played a corpse . He appeared in the serial The Three Musketeers ( 1933 ) , an updated version of the Alexandre Dumas novel in which the protagonists were soldiers in the French Foreign Legion in then-contemporary North Africa . He played the lead , with his name over the title , in many low-budget `` Poverty Row '' Westerns , mostly at Monogram Pictures and serials for Mascot Pictures Corporation . By Wayne 's own estimation , he appeared in about 80 of these horse operas from 1930 to 1939 . In Riders of Destiny ( 1933 ) , he became one of the first singing cowboys of film , albeit via dubbing . Wayne also appeared in some of the Three Mesquiteers Westerns , whose title was a play on the Dumas classic . He was mentored by stuntmen in riding and other Western skills . Famed stuntman Yakima Canutt and he developed and perfected stunts and onscreen fisticuffs techniques still used today . Wayne 's breakthrough role came with director John Ford 's classic Stagecoach ( 1939 ) . Because of Wayne 's B-movie status and track record in low-budget Westerns throughout the 1930s , Ford had difficulty getting financing for what was to be an A-budget film . After rejection by all the top studios , Ford struck a deal with independent producer Walter Wanger in which Claire Trevor—a much bigger star at the time—received top billing . Stagecoach was a huge critical and financial success , and Wayne became a mainstream star . Cast member Louise Platt credits Ford as saying at the time that Wayne would become the biggest star ever because of his appeal as the archetypal `` everyman '' . America 's entry into World War II resulted in a deluge of support for the war effort from all sectors of society , and Hollywood was no exception . Wayne was exempted from service due to his age ( 34 at the time of Pearl Harbor ) and family status , classified as 3-A ( family deferment ) . He repeatedly wrote to John Ford saying he wanted to enlist , on one occasion inquiring whether he could get into Ford 's military unit , but consistently kept postponing it until after `` he finished just one or two pictures '' . Wayne did not attempt to prevent his reclassification as 1-A ( draft eligible ) , but Republic Studios was emphatically resistant to losing him . Herbert J. Yates , President of Republic , threatened Wayne with a lawsuit if he walked away from his contract , and Republic Pictures intervened in the Selective Service process , requesting Wayne 's further deferment . Wayne toured U.S. bases and hospitals in the South Pacific for three months in 1943 and 1944. with the USO By many accounts , his failure to serve in the military was the most painful part of his life . His widow later suggested that his patriotism in later decades sprang from guilt , writing : `` He would become a 'superpatriot ' for the rest of his life trying to atone for staying home . '' U.S. National Archives records indicate that Wayne had , in fact , made an application to serve in the Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) , that day 's equivalent of the CIA , and had been accepted within the U.S. Army 's allotted billet to the OSS . William J. Donovan , OSS Commander , wrote Wayne a letter informing him of his acceptance in to the Field Photographic Unit , but the letter went to his estranged wife Josephine 's home . She never told him about it . Donovan also issued an OSS Certificate of Service to Wayne . Commercial success Wayne 's first color film was Shepherd of the Hills ( 1941 ) , in which he co-starred with his longtime friend Harry Carey . The following year , he appeared in his only film directed by Cecil B. DeMille , the Technicolor epic Reap the Wild Wind ( 1942 ) , in which he co-starred with Ray Milland and Paulette Goddard ; it was one of the rare times he played a character with questionable values . He would appear in more than 20 of John Ford 's films throughout the next two decades , including She Wore a Yellow Ribbon ( 1949 ) , The Quiet Man ( 1952 ) , The Searchers ( 1956 ) , The Wings of Eagles ( 1957 ) , and The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance ( 1962 ) with James Stewart : the first movie in which he called someone `` Pilgrim '' . In 1949 , director Robert Rossen offered the starring role of All the King 's Men to Wayne . Wayne refused , believing the script to be un-American in many ways . Broderick Crawford , who eventually got the role , won the 1949 Oscar for best male actor , ironically beating out Wayne , who had been nominated for Sands of Iwo Jima . He lost the leading role in The Gunfighter ( 1950 ) to Gregory Peck due to his refusal to work for Columbia Pictures because its chief , Harry Cohn , had mistreated him years before when he was a young contract player . Cohn had bought the project for Wayne , but Wayne 's grudge was too deep , and Cohn sold the script to Twentieth Century Fox , which cast Peck in the role Wayne badly wanted but for which he refused to bend . One of Wayne 's most popular roles was in The High and the Mighty ( 1954 ) , directed by William Wellman , and based on a novel by Ernest K. Gann . His portrayal of a heroic copilot won widespread acclaim . Wayne also portrayed aviators in Flying Tigers ( 1942 ) , Flying Leathernecks ( 1951 ) , Island in the Sky ( 1953 ) , The Wings of Eagles ( 1957 ) , and Jet Pilot ( 1957 ) . The Searchers ( 1956 ) continues to be widely regarded as arguably Wayne 's finest and most complex performance . In 2006 , Premiere magazine ran an industry poll in which Wayne 's portrayal of Ethan Edwards was rated the 87th-greatest performance in film history . He named his youngest son Ethan after the character . Later career John Wayne won a Best Actor Oscar for True Grit ( 1969 ) . This came 17 years after his only other nomination . Wayne was also nominated as the producer of Best Picture for The Alamo ( 1960 ) , one of two films he directed . The other was The Green Berets ( 1968 ) , the only major film made during the Vietnam War to support the war . During the filming of The Green Berets , the Degar or Montagnard people of Vietnam 's Central Highlands , fierce fighters against communism , bestowed on Wayne a brass bracelet that he wore in the film and all subsequent films . Wayne took on the role of gritty detective McQ in the 1974 crime drama . His last film was The Shootist ( 1976 ) , whose main character , J . B . Books , was dying of cancer—the illness to which Wayne himself succumbed three years later . According to the Internet Movie Database , Wayne played the lead in 142 of his film appearances . Batjac , the production company cofounded by Wayne , was named after the fictional shipping company Batjak in Wake of the Red Witch ( 1948 ) , a film based on the novel by Garland Roark . ( A spelling error by Wayne 's secretary was allowed to stand , accounting for the variation . ) Batjac ( and its predecessor , Wayne-Fellows Productions ) was the arm through which Wayne produced many films for himself and other stars . Its best-known non-Wayne production was Seven Men From Now ( 1956 ) , which started the classic collaboration between director Budd Boetticher and star Randolph Scott . In the Motion Picture Herald Top Ten Money-Making Western Stars poll , Wayne was listed in 1936 and 1939 . He appeared in the similar Box Office poll in 1939 and 1940 . While these two polls are really an indication only of the popularity of series stars , Wayne also appeared in the Top Ten Money Makers Poll of all films from 1949 to 1957 and 1958 to 1974 , taking first place in 1950 , 1951 , 1954 , and 1971 . With a total of 25 years on the list , Wayne has more appearances than any other star , beating Clint Eastwood ( 21 ) into second place . In later years , Wayne was recognized as a sort of American natural resource , and his various critics , of his performances and his politics , viewed him with more respect . Abbie Hoffman , the radical of the 1960s , paid tribute to Wayne 's singularity , saying , `` I like Wayne 's wholeness , his style . As for his politics , well—I suppose even cavemen felt a little admiration for the dinosaurs that were trying to gobble them up . '' Reviewing The Cowboys ( 1972 ) , Vincent Canby of the New York Times , who did not particularly care for the film , wrote : `` Wayne is , of course , marvelously indestructible , and he has become an almost perfect father figure . '' Personal life Wayne was married three times and divorced twice . He was fluent in Spanish and his three wives , each of Hispanic descent , were Josephine Alicia Saenz , Esperanza Baur , and Pilar Pallete . He had four children with Josephine : Michael Wayne ( November 23 , 1934 – April 2 , 2003 ) , Mary Antonia `` Toni '' Wayne LaCava ( February 25 , 1936 – December 6 , 2000 ) , Patrick Wayne ( born July 15 , 1939 ) , and Melinda Wayne Munoz ( born December 3 , 1940 ) . He had three more children with Pilar : Aissa Wayne ( born March 31 , 1956 ) , John Ethan Wayne ( born February 22 , 1962 ) , and Marisa Wayne ( born February 22 , 1966 ) . Several of Wayne 's children entered the film and television industry ; Wayne 's son Ethan was billed as John Ethan Wayne in a few films , and played one of the leads in the 1990s update of the Adam-12 television series . His stormiest divorce was from Esperanza Baur , a former Mexican actress . She believed that Wayne and co-star Gail Russell were having an affair , a claim which both Wayne and Russell denied . The night the film Angel and the Badman ( 1947 ) wrapped , there was the usual party for cast and crew , and Wayne came home very late . Esperanza was in a drunken rage by the time he arrived , and she attempted to shoot him as he walked through the front door . Wayne had several high-profile affairs , including one with Marlene Dietrich that lasted for three years and one with Merle Oberon that lasted from 1938 to 1947 . After his separation from his wife , Pilar , in 1973 , Wayne became romantically involved and lived with his former secretary Pat Stacy ( 1941–1995 ) until his death in 1979 . She published a biography of her life with him in 1983 , titled Duke : A Love Story . Wayne 's hair began thinning in the 1940s , and he started wearing a hairpiece by the end of that decade . He was occasionally seen in public without the hairpiece ( notably , according to Life magazine , at Gary Cooper 's funeral ) . During a widely noted appearance at Harvard University , Wayne was asked by a student `` Is it true that your toupée is real mohair ? '' He responded : `` Well sir , that 's real hair . Not mine , but real hair . '' A close friend of Wayne 's , California Congressman Alphonzo E. Bell , Jr. , wrote of him , `` Duke 's personality and sense of humor were very close to what the general public saw on the big screen . It is perhaps best shown in these words he had engraved on a plaque : 'Each of us is a mixture of some good and some not so good qualities . In considering one 's fellow man it 's important to remember the good things ... We should refrain from making judgments just because a fella happens to be a dirty , rotten SOB . ' '' Wayne biographer Michael Munn chronicled Wayne 's drinking habits . According to Sam O'Steen 's memoir , Cut to the Chase , studio directors knew to shoot Wayne 's scenes before noon , because by afternoon he `` was a mean drunk '' . He had been a chain smoker of cigarettes since young adulthood and was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1964 . He underwent successful surgery to remove his entire left lung and four ribs . Despite efforts by his business associates to prevent him from going public with his illness for fear that it would cost him work , Wayne announced he had cancer and called on the public to get preventive examinations . Five years later , Wayne was declared cancer-free . Wayne has been credited with coining the term `` The Big C '' as a euphemism for cancer . Wayne 's height has been perennially described as at least 6 ft . He was a Freemason , a Master Mason in Marion McDaniel Lodge No . 56 F & AM , in Tucson , Arizona . He became a 32nd Degree Scottish Rite Mason and later joined the Al Malaikah Shrine Temple in Los Angeles . He became a member of the York Rite . During the early 1960s , John Wayne traveled extensively to Panama , during which he purchased the island of Taborcillo off the main coast . It was sold by his estate at his death and changed hands many times before being opened as a tourist attraction . Wayne 's yacht , the Wild Goose , was one of his favorite possessions . He kept it docked in Newport Harbor and it was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2011 . Politics Wayne was a prominent Republican in Hollywood , supporting anti-communist positions . Throughout most of his life , Wayne was a vocally prominent conservative Republican . Initially a self-described socialist during his college years , he voted for Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1936 presidential election and expressed admiration for Roosevelt 's successor , fellow Democratic President Harry S. Truman . He took part in creating the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals in February 1944 , and was elected president of that organization in 1949 . An ardent anti-communist and vocal supporter of the House Un-American Activities Committee , in 1952 he made Big Jim McLain to show his support for the anti-communist cause . Recently declassified Soviet documents reveal that , despite being a fan of Wayne 's movies , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin contemplated Wayne 's assassination as a result of his frequently espoused anti-communist politics . Wayne supported Vice President Richard Nixon in the presidential election of 1960 , but expressed his vision of patriotism when John F. Kennedy won the election : `` I did n't vote for him but he 's my president , and I hope he does a good job . '' He used his iconic star power to support conservative causes , including rallying support for the Vietnam War by producing , codirecting , and starring in the critically panned The Green Berets in 1968 . Due to his enormous popularity and his status as the most famous Republican star in Hollywood , wealthy Texas Republican Party backers asked Wayne to run for national office in 1968 , as had his friend and fellow actor Senator George Murphy . He declined , joking that he did not believe the public would seriously consider an actor in the White House . Instead , he supported his friend Ronald Reagan 's runs for Governor of California in 1966 and 1970 . He was asked to be the running mate for Democratic Alabama Governor George Wallace in 1968 , but he rejected the offer and actively campaigned for Richard Nixon ; Wayne addressed the Republican National Convention on its opening day in August 1968 . For a while , he was also a member of the anti-communist John Birch Society . Wayne openly differed with the Republican Party over the issue of the Panama Canal , as he supported the Panama Canal Treaty in the mid-1970s ; conservatives had wanted the U.S. to retain full control of the canal , but Wayne believed that the Panamanians had the right to the canal and sided with President Jimmy Carter and the Democrats . Wayne was a close friend of the late Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos Herrera , and Wayne 's first wife , Josephine , was a native of Panama . His support of the treaty brought him hate mail for the first time in his life . In May 1971 , Playboy magazine published an interview with Wayne which resulted in a firestorm of controversy . Wayne expressed his support for the Vietnam War , and made headlines for his resolute opinions about social issues and race relations in the United States : In the same Playboy interview , Wayne also responded to questions about whether social programs were good for the country : Death Although he enrolled in a cancer vaccine study in an attempt to ward off the disease , Wayne died of stomach cancer on June 11 , 1979 , at the UCLA Medical Center , and was interred in the Pacific View Memorial Park cemetery in Corona del Mar , Newport Beach . According to his son Patrick and his grandson Matthew Muñoz , a priest in the California Diocese of Orange , he converted to Roman Catholicism shortly before his death . He requested that his tombstone read `` Feo , Fuerte y Formal '' , a Spanish epitaph Wayne described as meaning `` ugly , strong , and dignified '' . The grave , which went unmarked for 20 years , is now marked with a quotation from his controversial 1971 Playboy interview : `` Tomorrow is the most important thing in life . Comes into us at midnight very clean . It 's perfect when it arrives and it puts itself in our hands . It hopes we 've learned something from yesterday . '' Among the cast and crew who filmed the 1956 film The Conqueror on location near St. George , Utah , 91 developed some form of cancer at various times , including stars Wayne , Susan Hayward , and Agnes Moorehead , and director Dick Powell . The film was shot in southwestern Utah , east of and generally downwind from the site of recent U.S. Government nuclear weapons tests in southeastern Nevada . Many contend that radioactive fallout from these tests contaminated the film location and poisoned the film crew working there . Despite the suggestion that Wayne 's 1964 lung cancer and his 1979 stomach cancer resulted from nuclear contamination , he believed his lung cancer to have been a result of his six-packs-a-day cigarette habit . Legacy Awards , celebrations , and landmarks Wayne 's enduring status as an iconic American was formally recognized by the U.S. government in the form of the two highest civilian decorations . On May 26 , 1979 , he was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal . Hollywood figures and American leaders from across the political spectrum , including Maureen O'Hara , Elizabeth Taylor , Frank Sinatra , Mike Frankovich , Katharine Hepburn , General and Mrs. Omar Bradley , Gregory Peck , Robert Stack , James Arness , and Kirk Douglas , testified to Congress in support of the award . Robert Aldrich , president of the Directors Guild of America , made a particularly notable statement : Wayne was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on June 9 , 1980 , by President Jimmy Carter . He had attended Carter 's inaugural ball `` as a member of the loyal opposition '' , as he described it . In 1998 , he was awarded the Naval Heritage Award by the US Navy Memorial Foundation for his support of the Navy and military during his film career . In 1999 , the American Film Institute ( AFI ) named Wayne 13th among the Greatest Male Screen Legends of Classic Hollywood cinema . Various public locations are named in honor of Wayne , including the John Wayne Airport in Orange County , California , where a nine-foot bronze statue of him stands at the entrance ; the John Wayne Marina for which Wayne bequeathed the land , near Sequim , Washington ; John Wayne Elementary School ( P.S . 380 ) in Brooklyn , New York , which boasts a 38-foot mosaic mural commission by New York artist Knox Martin entitled

qb_4710--John_Wayne.txt

What was the only film directed by Cecil B DeMille in which actor John Wayne appeared?

Horology ( via Latin horologium from Greek , from hṓra `` hour ; time '' and -o- interfix and suffix -logy ; literally `` the study of time '' ) is the art or science of measuring time . Clocks , watches , clockwork , sundials , hourglasses , clepsydras , timers , time recorders , marine chronometers and atomic clocks are all examples of instruments used to measure time . In current usage , horology refers mainly to the study of mechanical time-keeping devices , while chronometry more broadly includes electronic devices that have largely supplanted mechanical clocks for the best accuracy and precision in time-keeping . People interested in horology are called horologists . That term is used both by people who deal professionally with timekeeping apparatus ( watchmakers , clockmakers ) , as well as aficionados and scholars of horology . Horology and horologists have numerous organizations , both professional associations and more scholarly societies . Museums and libraries There are many horology museums and several specialized libraries devoted to the subject . One example is the Royal Greenwich Observatory , which is also the source of the Prime Meridian ( longitude 0° 0 ' 0 '' ) , and the home of the first marine timekeepers accurate enough to determine longitude ( made by John Harrison ) . Other horological museums in the London area include the Clockmakers ' Museum , which re-opened at the Science Museum in October 2015 , and the horological collections at the British Museum , the Science Museum ( London ) and at the Wallace Collection . One of the more comprehensive museums dedicated to horology is the Musée international d'horlogerie in La Chaux-de-Fonds ( Switzerland ) . The Musée d'Horlogerie du Locle is smaller but located nearby . One of the better horological museums in Germany is the Deutsches Uhrenmuseum in Furtwangen im Schwarzwald , in the Black Forest . The two leading specialised horological museums in North America are the National Watch and Clock Museum in Columbia , Pennsylvania , and the American Clock and Watch Museum in Bristol , Connecticut . The eastern French city of Besançon has the Musée du Temps ( Museum of Time ) in the historic Palais Grenvelle . An example of a museum devoted to one particular type of clock is the Cuckooland Museum in the U.K. , which hosts the world 's largest collection of antique cuckoo clocks . One of the most comprehensive horological libraries open to the public is the National Watch and Clock Library in Columbia , Pennsylvania . Other good horological libraries providing public access are at the Musée international d'horlogerie in Switzerland , at the Deutsches Uhrenmuseum in Germany , and at the Guildhall Library in London . Another museum dedicated to clocks is the Willard House and Clock Museum in Grafton , Massachusetts . Organizations Notable scholarly horological organizations include : * American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute – AWCI ( United States of America ) * Antiquarian Horological Society – AHS ( United Kingdom ) * British Horological Institute – BHI ( United Kingdom ) * Chronometrophilia ( Switzerland ) * Deutsche Gesellschaft für Chronometrie – DGC ( Germany ) * National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors – NAWCC ( United States of America ) World exhibitions * BaselWorld * Geneva Time Exhibition * Salon International de la Haute Horlogerie ( SIHH ) Glossary

wh_432--Horology.txt

What items would be collected by a horologist?

The Lord of the Rings is an epic high-fantasy novel written by English author J. R. R. Tolkien . The story began as a sequel to Tolkien 's 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit , but eventually developed into a much larger work . Written in stages between 1937 and 1949 , The Lord of the Rings is one of the best-selling novels ever written , with over 150 million copies sold . The title of the novel refers to the story 's main antagonist , the Dark Lord Sauron , who had in an earlier age created the One Ring to rule the other Rings of Power as the ultimate weapon in his campaign to conquer and rule all of Middle-earth . From quiet beginnings in the Shire , a hobbit land not unlike the English countryside , the story ranges across Middle-earth , following the course of the War of the Ring through the eyes of its characters , not only the hobbits Frodo Baggins , Samwise `` Sam '' Gamgee , Meriadoc `` Merry '' Brandybuck and Peregrin `` Pippin '' Took , but also the hobbits ' chief allies and travelling companions : the Men Aragorn son of Arathorn , a Ranger of the North , and Boromir , a Captain of Gondor ; Gimli son of Glóin , a Dwarf warrior ; Legolas Greenleaf , an Elven prince ; and Gandalf , a Wizard . The work was initially intended by Tolkien to be one volume of a two-volume set , the other to be The Silmarillion , but this idea was dismissed by his publisher . For economic reasons The Lord of the Rings was published in three volumes over the course of a year from 29 July 1954 to 20 October 1955 . The three volumes were titled The Fellowship of the Ring , The Two Towers , and The Return of the King . Structurally , the novel is divided internally into six books , two per volume , with several appendices of background material included at the end of the third volume . Some editions combine the entire work into a single volume . The Lord of the Rings has since been reprinted numerous times and translated into 38 languages . Tolkien 's work has been the subject of extensive analysis of its themes and origins . Although a major work in itself , the story was only the last movement of a larger epic Tolkien had worked on since 1917 , in a process he described as mythopoeia . Influences on this earlier work , and on the story of The Lord of the Rings , include philology , mythology , religion and the author 's distaste for the effects of industrialization , as well as earlier fantasy works and Tolkien 's experiences in World War I . These inspirations and themes have often been denied by Tolkien himself . The Lord of the Rings in its turn is considered to have had a great effect on modern fantasy ; the impact of Tolkien 's works is such that the use of the words `` Tolkienian '' and `` Tolkienesque '' have been recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary . The enduring popularity of The Lord of the Rings has led to numerous references in popular culture , the founding of many societies by fans of Tolkien 's works , and the publication of many books about Tolkien and his works . The Lord of the Rings has inspired , and continues to inspire , artwork , music , films and television , video games , and subsequent literature . Award-winning adaptations of The Lord of the Rings have been made for radio , theatre , and film . In 2003 , it was named Britain 's best-loved novel of all time in the BBC 's The Big Read . Plot summary Prologue Thousands of years before the events of the novel , the Dark Lord Sauron had forged the One Ring to rule the other Rings of Power and corrupt those who wore them : the leaders of Men , Elves and Dwarves . Sauron was later vanquished in battle by an alliance of Elves and Men led by Elendil and Gil-galad . Isildur , a ruler of Men , cut the One Ring from Sauron 's finger , claiming it as an heirloom for his line , and Sauron lost his physical form . When Isildur was later ambushed and killed by the Orcs , the Ring was lost in the River Anduin at Gladden Fields . Over two thousand years later , the Ring was found by one of the river-folk called Déagol . His friend Sméagol immediately fell under the Ring 's influence and strangled Déagol to acquire it . Sméagol was banished and hid under the Misty Mountains , where the Ring extended his lifespan and transformed him over the course of hundreds of years into a twisted , corrupted creature called Gollum . He lost the Ring , his `` precious '' , and , as recounted in The Hobbit , Bilbo Baggins found it . Meanwhile , Sauron re-assumed physical form and took back his old realm of Mordor . Gollum set out in search of the Ring , but was captured by Sauron , who learnt from him that `` Baggins '' in the Shire had taken it . Gollum was set loose , and Sauron , who needed the Ring to regain his full power , sent forth his powerful servants , the Nazgûl , to seize it . The Fellowship of the Ring The story begins in the Shire , where the Hobbit Frodo Baggins inherits the Ring from Bilbo Baggins , his cousinAlthough Frodo referred to Bilbo as his `` uncle '' , they were in fact first and second cousins , once removed either way ( his paternal great-great-uncle 's son 's son and his maternal great-aunt 's son ) . and guardian . Neither hobbit is aware of its origin and nature , but Gandalf the Grey , a wizard and old friend of Bilbo , suspects the Ring 's identity . When he becomes certain , he strongly advises Frodo to take it away from the Shire . Frodo leaves , accompanied by his gardener and friend , Samwise ( `` Sam '' ) Gamgee , and two cousins , Meriadoc ( `` Merry '' ) Brandybuck and Peregrin ( `` Pippin '' ) Took . They nearly encounter the Nazgûl while still in the Shire , but shake off pursuit by cutting through the Old Forest , where they are aided by the enigmatic Tom Bombadil , who alone is unaffected by the Ring 's corrupting influence . After leaving the forest , they stop in the town of Bree where they meet Strider , who is later revealed to be Aragorn , Isildur 's heir . He persuades them to take him on as guide and protector . They flee from Bree after narrowly escaping another assault , but the Nazgûl follow and attack them on the hill of Weathertop , wounding Frodo with a Morgul blade . Aragorn leads the hobbits toward the Elven refuge of Rivendell , while Frodo gradually succumbs to the wound . The Ringwraiths nearly overtake Frodo at the Ford of Bruinen , but flood waters summoned by Elrond , master of Rivendell , rise up and overwhelm them . Frodo recovers in Rivendell under the care of Elrond . The Council of Elrond reveals much significant history about Sauron and the Ring , as well as the news that Sauron has corrupted Gandalf 's fellow wizard , Saruman . The Council decides that the Ring must be destroyed , but that can only be done by returning it to the flames of Mount Doom in Mordor , where it was forged . Frodo volunteers to take on this daunting task , and a `` Fellowship of the Ring '' is formed to aid him : Sam , Merry , Pippin , Aragorn , Gandalf , Gimli the Dwarf , Legolas the Elf , and the Man Boromir , son of the Ruling Steward Denethor of the realm of Gondor . After a failed attempt to cross the Misty Mountains via the Redhorn Pass across the flank of Caradhras , the company are forced to try a more perilous path through the Mines of Moria , where they are attacked by the Watcher in the Water before the gate . Inside , they discover the fate of Balin and his colony of Dwarves . After repulsing an attack , they are pursued by orcs and an ancient and powerful demonic creature called a Balrog . Gandalf confronts the Balrog , but in their struggle , both fall into a deep chasm . The others escape and take refuge in the Elven forest of Lothlórien , where they are counselled by Galadriel and Celeborn . With boats and gifts from Galadriel , the company travel down the River Anduin to the hill of Amon Hen . Boromir succumbs to the lure of the Ring and attempts to take it from Frodo . Frodo escapes and determines to continue the quest alone , though Sam guesses his intent and comes along . The Two Towers Orcs sent by Saruman and Sauron kill Boromir and kidnap Merry and Pippin . After agonizing over which pair of hobbits to follow , Aragorn , Gimli and Legolas pursue the orcs bearing Merry and Pippin to Saruman . In the kingdom of Rohan , the orcs are slain by a company of the Rohirrim . Merry and Pippin escape into Fangorn Forest , where they are befriended by Treebeard , the oldest of the tree-like Ents . Aragorn , Gimli and Legolas track the hobbits to Fangorn , and encounter Gandalf , resurrected as the significantly more powerful `` Gandalf the White '' after his mutually fatal duel with the Balrog . Gandalf assures them that Merry and Pippin are safe . They then ride to Edoras , the capital of Rohan , where they free Théoden , King of Rohan , from the influence of Saruman 's henchman Gríma Wormtongue . Théoden musters his fighting strength and rides to the ancient fortress of Helm 's Deep , but en route Gandalf leaves to seek help from Treebeard . Meanwhile , the Ents , roused from their customarily peaceful ways by Merry and Pippin , attack Isengard , Saruman 's stronghold , and trap the wizard in the tower of Orthanc . Gandalf convinces Treebeard to send an army of Huorns to Théoden 's aid . Gandalf and Rohirrim reinforcements arrive at Helm 's Deep just in time to defeat and scatter Saruman 's army . The Huorns dispose of the fleeing orcs . Gandalf then parleys with Saruman at Orthanc . When Saruman rejects his offer of redemption , Gandalf strips him of his rank and most of his powers . Pippin looks into a palantír , a seeing-stone that Saruman had used to communicate with Sauron and through which he was ensnared . Gandalf rides for Minas Tirith , chief city of Gondor , taking Pippin with him . Frodo and Sam capture Gollum , who had been following them from Moria , and force him to guide them to Mordor . Finding Mordor 's Black Gate too well guarded to attempt , they travel instead to a secret passage Gollum knows . On the way , they fall in with Faramir , who , unlike his brother Boromir , resists the temptation to seize the Ring and instead helps Frodo on his way . Torn between his loyalty to Frodo and his desire for the Ring , Gollum eventually betrays Frodo by leading him to the great spider Shelob in the tunnels of Cirith Ungol . Frodo is felled by Shelob 's sting , but Sam fights her off . Sam takes the Ring and leaves Frodo , believing him to be dead . When orcs find Frodo , Sam overhears them say that Frodo is only unconscious , and chases after them . The Return of the King Sauron unleashes a heavy assault upon Gondor . Gandalf arrives at Minas Tirith to alert Denethor of the impending attack . The city is besieged , and Denethor , deceived by Sauron , gives up hope and commits suicide , nearly taking his remaining son Faramir with him . Aragorn feels he has no choice but to take the Paths of the Dead in order to reach Gondor in time , accompanied by Legolas , Gimli and the Dúnedain Rangers from the North . During this perilous journey , Aragorn raises an undead army of oath-breakers bound by an ancient curse that denies them rest until they fulfill their vow to the king of Gondor . The ghostly army helps defeat the Corsairs of Umbar invading southern Gondor . Commandeering the ships of the Corsairs , Aragorn leads reinforcements up the Anduin to relieve the siege of Minas Tirith , and between them , the forces of Gondor and Rohan defeat Sauron 's army in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields . Meanwhile , Sam rescues Frodo from the tower of Cirith Ungol , and they set out across Mordor . In order to distract Sauron from his true danger , Aragorn leads the armies of Gondor and Rohan in a march on the Black Gate of Mordor . His vastly outnumbered troops fight desperately against Sauron 's forces . Reaching the edge of the Cracks of Doom , Frodo is unable to resist the Ring any longer and claims it for himself . But Gollum suddenly reappears . In the ensuing struggle , he seizes the Ring by biting off the finger on which Frodo wears it . Celebrating wildly , Gollum accidentally falls into the fire , taking the Ring with him ; and so Frodo 's mission is completed . With the destruction of the One Ring , Sauron is permanently shorn of his power , the Nazgûl perish , and his armies are thrown into such disarray that Aragorn 's forces emerge victorious . With the end of the War of the Ring , Aragorn is crowned Elessar , King of Arnor and Gondor , and marries his long-time love , Arwen , daughter of Elrond . Saruman escapes from Isengard and , seeking vengeance on the hobbits , enslaves the Shire . The four hobbits , upon returning home , raise a rebellion and overthrow him . Gríma turns on Saruman and kills him in front of Frodo 's house , and is slain in turn by hobbit archers . The War of the Ring thus comes to its true end on Frodo 's very doorstep . Merry and Pippin are acclaimed heroes , while Sam marries Rosie Cotton and uses his gifts from Galadriel to help heal the Shire . Frodo , however , remains wounded in body and spirit after having borne the oppressive weight of the One Ring so long . Several years later , accompanied by Bilbo and Gandalf , he sails from the Grey Havens west over the Sea to the Undying Lands to find peace . After Rosie 's death , Sam gives his daughter the Red Book of Westmarch , containing the account of Bilbo 's adventures and the War of the Ring as witnessed by the hobbits . Sam is then said to have crossed west over the Sea himself , the last of the Ring-bearers . Main characters Protagonists : * Frodo Baggins , bearer of the One Ring , given to him by Bilbo Baggins * Samwise Gamgee , gardener and friend of the Bagginses * Meriadoc Brandybuck ( Merry ) , Frodo 's cousin * Peregrin Took ( Pippin or Pip ) , Frodo 's cousin * Gandalf the Grey , a wizard , leads the Fellowship until his fall in Moria , returns from death as Gandalf the White to lead the armies of the West against Sauron * Aragorn , descendant of Isildur and rightful heir to the thrones of Arnor and Gondor * Legolas Greenleaf , an Elf prince and son of King Thranduil of the Silvan Elves of Northern Mirkwood * Gimli , son of Glóin , a dwarf * Denethor , ruling Steward of Gondor and Lord of Minas Tirith * Boromir , the eldest son and heir of Denethor * Faramir , younger brother of Boromir * Galadriel , Elf co-ruler of Lothlórien , and grandmother of Arwen * Celeborn , Elf co-ruler of Lothlórien , husband of Galadriel , and grandfather of Arwen * Elrond Half-Elven , Half-elven Lord of Rivendell and father of Arwen * Arwen Undómiel , daughter of Elrond , love interest of Aragorn * Bilbo Baggins , Frodo 's cousin * Théoden , King of Rohan , ally of Gondor * Éomer , the 3rd Marshal of the Mark and Théoden 's nephew . Later King of Rohan after Théoden 's death . * Éowyn , sister of Éomer , who disguises herself as a male warrior named Dernhelm to fight beside Théoden * Treebeard , oldest of the Ents Antagonists : * Sauron , the Dark Lord and titular Lord of the Rings , a fallen Maia who helped the Elves forge the Rings of Power in the Second Age . * The Nazgûl or Ringwraiths , men enslaved by Sauron when they accepted his treacherous gifts of Rings of Power * * The Witch-king of Angmar , the Lord of the Nazgûl , and Sauron 's most powerful servant , who commands Sauron 's army * Saruman the White , a wizard who seeks the One Ring for himself . Originally the chief of the order of wizards of which Gandalf is also a member ; corrupted by Sauron through the palantír . * Gríma Wormtongue , a secret servant of Saruman and traitor to Rohan , who poisons Théoden 's perceptions with well placed `` advice '' * Gollum , a river hobbit originally named Sméagol * Shelob , a giant spider who dwells in the passes above Minas Morgul * Durin 's Bane , a Balrog dwelling beneath the Mines of Moria Concept and creation Background The Lord of the Rings started as a sequel to J. R. R. Tolkien 's work The Hobbit , published in 1937 . The popularity of The Hobbit had led George Allen & Unwin , the publishers , to request a sequel . Tolkien warned them that he wrote quite slowly , and responded with several stories he had already developed . Having rejected his contemporary drafts for The Silmarillion , putting on hold Roverandom , and accepting Farmer Giles of Ham , Allen & Unwin thought more stories about hobbits would be popular . So at the age of 45 , Tolkien began writing the story that would become The Lord of the Rings . The story would not be finished until 12 years later , in 1949 , and would not be fully published until 1955 , when Tolkien was 63 years old . Writing Persuaded by his publishers , he started `` a new Hobbit '' in December 1937 . After several false starts , the story of the One Ring emerged . The idea for the first chapter ( `` A Long-Expected Party '' ) arrived fully formed , although the reasons behind Bilbo 's disappearance , the significance of the Ring , and the title The Lord of the Rings did not arrive until the spring of 1938 . Originally , he planned to write a story in which Bilbo had used up all his treasure and was looking for another adventure to gain more ; however , he remembered the Ring and its powers and thought that would be a better focus for the new work . As the story progressed , he also brought in elements from 'The Silmarillion ' mythology . Writing was slow , because Tolkien had a full-time academic position , and needed to earn further money as a university examiner . Tolkien abandoned The Lord of the Rings during most of 1943 and only restarted it in April 1944 , as a serial for his son Christopher Tolkien , who was sent chapters as they were written while he was serving in South Africa with the Royal Air Force . Tolkien made another concerted effort in 1946 , and showed the manuscript to his publishers in 1947 . The story was effectively finished the next year , but Tolkien did not complete the revision of earlier parts of the work until 1949 . The original manuscripts , which total 9,250 pages , now reside in the J.R.R . Tolkien Collection at Marquette University . Influences The influence of the Welsh language , which Tolkien had learnt , is summarized in his essay English and Welsh : `` If I may once more refer to my work . The Lord of the Rings , in evidence : the names of persons and places in this story were mainly composed on patterns deliberately modelled on those of Welsh ( closely similar but not identical ) . This element in the tale has given perhaps more pleasure to more readers than anything else in it . '' The Lord of the Rings developed as a personal exploration by Tolkien of his interests in philology , religion ( particularly Roman Catholicism ) , fairy tales , Norse and general Germanic mythology , and also Celtic , Slavic , Persian , Greek , and Finnish mythology . Tolkien acknowledged , and external critics have verified , the influences of George MacDonald and William Morris and the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf . The question of a direct influence of Wagner 's The Nibelung 's Ring on Tolkien 's work is debated by critics . Tolkien included neither any explicit religion nor cult in his work . Rather the themes , moral philosophy , and cosmology of The Lord of the Rings reflect his Catholic worldview . In one of his letters Tolkien states , `` The Lord of the Rings is of course a fundamentally religious and Catholic work ; unconsciously so at first , but consciously in the revision . That is why I have not put in , or have cut out , practically all references to anything like 'religion ' , to cults or practices , in the imaginary world . For the religious element is absorbed into the story and the symbolism . '' Some locations and characters were inspired by Tolkien 's childhood in Birmingham , where he first lived near Sarehole Mill , and later near Edgbaston Reservoir . There are also hints of the Black Country , which is within easy reach of north west Edgbaston . This shows in such names as `` Underhill '' , and the description of Saruman 's industrialisation of Isengard and The Shire . It has also been suggested that The Shire and its surroundings were based on the countryside around Stonyhurst College in Lancashire where Tolkien frequently stayed during the 1940s . The work was influenced by the effects of his military service during World War I , to the point that Frodo has been `` diagnosed '' as suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , or `` shell-shock '' , which was first diagnosed at the Battle of the Somme , at which Tolkien served . Publication history A dispute with his publisher , George Allen & Unwin , led to the book being offered to Collins in 1950 . Tolkien intended The Silmarillion ( itself largely unrevised at this point ) to be published along with The Lord of the Rings , but A & U were unwilling to do this . After Milton Waldman , his contact at Collins , expressed the belief that The Lord of the Rings itself `` urgently wanted cutting '' , Tolkien eventually demanded that they publish the book in 1952 . Collins did not ; and so Tolkien wrote to Allen and Unwin , saying , `` I would gladly consider the publication of any part of the stuff . '' For publication , the book was divided into three volumes : The Fellowship of the Ring ( Books I , The Ring Sets Out , and II , The Ring Goes South ) , The Two Towers ( Books III , The Treason of Isengard , and IV , The Ring Goes East ) , and The Return of the King ( Books V , The War of the Ring , and VI , The End of the Third Age , plus six appendices ) . This was due largely to post-war paper shortages , as well as being a way to keep down the price of the book . Delays in producing appendices , maps and especially indices led to the volumes being published later than originally hoped — on 29 July 1954 , on 11 November 1954 and on 20 October 1955 respectively in the United Kingdom , and slightly later in the United States . The Return of the King was especially delayed . Tolkien did not like the title The Return of the King , believing it gave away too much of the storyline . Nor , moreover , was he happy with the title The Two Towers , as he felt that books III and IV were not really related , and as such the eponymous towers could be either Orthanc and Barad-dûr , or Minas Tirith and Barad-dûr , or Orthanc and Cirith Ungol . Tolkien was , in fact , opposed from the outset to titles being given to each volume , preferring instead the use of the book titles : i.e . The Lord of the Rings : Vol . 1 The Ring Sets Out and The Ring goes South ; Vol . II The Treason of Isengard and The Ring Goes East ; Vol . III The War of the Ring and The End of the Third Age . However , due to pressure from his publishers , Tolkien considered the titles : Vol . 1 The Shadow Grows ; Vol . 2 The Ring in the Shadow ; Vol . 3 The War of the Ring or The Return of the King . In a letter to his publishers , Tolkien later suggested : Vol . 1 The Shadow Grows ; Vol . 2 The Ring in the Shadow ; Vol . 3 The War of the Ring or The Return of the King . The books were published under a profit-sharing arrangement , whereby Tolkien would not receive an advance or royalties until the books had broken even , after which he would take a large share of the profits . It has ultimately become one of the best-selling novels ever written , with over 150 million copies sold . Editions and revisions In the early 1960s Donald A. Wollheim , science fiction editor of the paperback publisher Ace Books , claimed that The Lord of the Rings was not protected in the United States under American copyright law because Houghton Mifflin , the U.S. hardcover publisher , had neglected to copyright the work in the United States . Ace Books then proceeded to publish an edition , unauthorized by Tolkien and without paying royalties to him . Tolkien took issue with this and quickly notified his fans of this objection . Grass-roots pressure from these fans became so great that Ace Books withdrew their edition and made a nominal payment to Tolkien . Authorized editions followed from Ballantine Books and Houghton Mifflin to tremendous commercial success . By the mid-1960s the novel had become a cultural phenomenon . Tolkien undertook various textual revisions to produce a version of the book that would be published with his consent and establish an unquestioned US copyright . This text became the Second Edition of The Lord of the Rings , published in 1965 . Houghton Mifflin editions after 1994 consolidate variant revisions by Tolkien , and corrections supervised by Christopher Tolkien , which resulted , after some initial glitches , in a computer-based unified text . Posthumous publication of drafts From 1988 to 1992 Christopher Tolkien published the surviving drafts of The Lord of The Rings , chronicling and illuminating with commentary the stages of the text 's development , in volumes 6–9 of his History of Middle-earth series . The four volumes carry the titles The Return of the Shadow , The Treason of Isengard , The War of the Ring , and Sauron Defeated . Translations The novel has been translated , with various degrees of success , into at least 38 languages . Tolkien , an expert in philology , examined many of these translations , and made comments on each that reflect both the translation process and his work . As he was unhappy with some choices made by early translators , such as the

odql_7977--The_Lord_of_the_Rings.txt

At the beginning of 'Two Towers', the second book in 'The Lord Of The Rings' trilogy, who was apparently killed in the 'Mines of Moria'?

The Moon is Earth 's only permanent natural satellite . It is one of the largest natural satellites in the Solar System , and the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits ( its primary ) . It is the second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known ( after Jupiter 's satellite Io ) . The Moon is thought to have formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago , not long after Earth . There are several hypotheses for its origin ; the most widely accepted explanation is that the Moon formed from the debris left over after a giant impact between Earth and a Mars-sized body called Theia . The Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth , always showing the same face , with its near side marked by dark volcanic maria that fill the spaces between the bright ancient crustal highlands and the prominent impact craters . It is the second-brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earth 's sky after the Sun , as measured by illuminance on Earth 's surface . Its surface is actually dark ( although it can appear a very bright white ) with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt . Its prominence in the sky and its regular cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language , calendars , art , and mythology . The Moon 's gravitational influence produces the ocean tides , body tides , and the slight lengthening of the day . The Moon 's current orbital distance is about thirty times the diameter of Earth , with its apparent size in the sky almost the same as that of the Sun , resulting in the Moon covering the Sun nearly precisely in total solar eclipse . This matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future . The Moon 's linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of per year , but this rate is not constant . The Soviet Union 's Luna programme was the first to reach the Moon with unmanned spacecraft in 1959 ; the United States ' NASA Apollo program achieved the only manned missions to date , beginning with the first manned lunar orbiting mission by Apollo 8 in 1968 , and six manned lunar landings between 1969 and 1972 , with the first being Apollo 11 . These missions returned over 380 kg of lunar rocks , which have been used to develop a geological understanding of the Moon 's origin , the formation of its internal structure , and its subsequent history . After the Apollo 17 mission in 1972 , the Moon has been visited only by unmanned spacecraft . Name and etymology The usual English proper name for Earth 's natural satellite is `` the Moon '' . The noun moon is derived from moone ( around 1380 ) , which developed from mone ( 1135 ) , which is derived from Old English mōna ( dating from before 725 ) , which ultimately stems from Proto-Germanic * mǣnōn , like all Germanic language cognates . Occasionally , the name `` Luna '' is used , in poetry for a personified Moon , or in science fiction to distinguish it from other moons . The principal modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar , derived from the Latin Luna . A less common adjective is selenic , derived from the Ancient Greek Selene ( ) , from which is derived the prefix `` seleno- '' ( as in selenography ) . Both the Greek Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia . The names Luna , Cynthia , and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such as apolune , pericynthion , and selenocentric . The name Diana is connected to dies meaning 'day ' . Formation Several mechanisms have been proposed for the Moon 's formation years ago , some 30–50 million years after the origin of the Solar System . Recent research presented by Rick Carlson indicates a slightly lower age of between 4.40 and 4.45 billion years . These mechanisms included the fission of the Moon from Earth 's crust through centrifugal force ( which would require too great an initial spin of Earth ) , the gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon ( which would require an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon ) , and the co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk ( which does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon ) . These hypotheses also can not account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system . The prevailing hypothesis today is that the Earth–Moon system formed as a result of a giant impact , where a Mars-sized body ( named Theia ) collided with the newly formed proto-Earth , blasting material into orbit around it that accreted to form the Moon . This hypothesis perhaps best explains the evidence , although not perfectly . Eighteen months prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins , Bill Hartmann , Roger Phillips , and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists : `` You have eighteen months . Go back to your Apollo data , go back to your computer , do whatever you have to , but make up your mind . Do n't come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moon 's birth . '' At the 1984 conference at Kona , Hawaii , the giant impact hypothesis emerged as the most popular . Before the conference , there were partisans of the three `` traditional '' theories , plus a few people who were starting to take the giant impact seriously , and there was a huge apathetic middle who didn ’ t think the debate would ever be resolved . Afterward there were essentially only two groups : the giant impact camp and the agnostics . Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System . Computer simulations modelling a giant impact are consistent with measurements of the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system and the small size of the lunar core . These simulations also show that most of the Moon came from the impactor , not from the proto-Earth . However , more-recent tests suggest more of the Moon coalesced from Earth and not the impactor . Meteorites show that other inner Solar System bodies such as Mars and Vesta have very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions to Earth , whereas Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions . Post-impact mixing of the vaporized material between the forming Earth and Moon could have equalized their isotopic compositions , although this is debated . The large amount of energy released in the giant impact event and the subsequent re-accretion of material in Earth orbit would have melted the outer shell of Earth , forming a magma ocean . The newly formed Moon would also have had its own lunar magma ocean ; estimates for its depth range from about to the entire radius of the Moon ( ) . Despite its accuracy in explaining many lines of evidence , there are still some difficulties that are not fully explained by the giant impact hypothesis , most of them involving the Moon 's composition . In 2001 , a team at the Carnegie Institute of Washington reported the most precise measurement of the isotopic signatures of lunar rocks . To their surprise , the team found that the rocks from the Apollo program carried an isotopic signature that was identical with rocks from Earth , and were different from almost all other bodies in the Solar System . Because most of the material that went into orbit to form the Moon was thought to come from Theia , this observation was unexpected . In 2007 , researchers from the California Institute of Technology announced that there was less than a 1 % chance that Theia and Earth had identical isotopic signatures . Published in 2012 , an analysis of titanium isotopes in Apollo lunar samples showed that the Moon has the same composition as Earth , which conflicts with what is expected if the Moon formed far from Earth 's orbit or from Theia . Variations on the giant impact hypothesis may explain this data . Physical characteristics Internal structure The Moon is a differentiated body : it has a geochemically distinct crust , mantle , and core . The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius of and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly . Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about . This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon 's formation 4.5 billion years ago . Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine , clinopyroxene , and orthopyroxene ; after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallised , lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust on top . The final liquids to crystallise would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle , with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing elements . Consistent with this , geochemical mapping from orbit shows the crust is mostly anorthosite , and moon rock samples of the flood lavas erupted on the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition , which is more iron rich than that of Earth . Geophysical techniques suggest that the crust is on average circa thick . The Moon is the second densest satellite in the Solar System after Io . However , the inner core of the Moon is small , with a radius of about or less , around 20 % of the radius of the Moon . Its composition is not well constrained , but it is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel ; analyses of the Moon 's time-variable rotation indicate that it is at least partly molten . Surface geology The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis . The most visible topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin , some in diameter , the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System . At deep , its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon . The highest elevations on the surface of the Moon are located directly to the northeast , and it has been suggested that this area might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin . Other large impact basins , such as Imbrium , Serenitatis , Crisium , Smythii , and Orientale , also possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims . The lunar far side is on average about higher than the near side . Volcanic features The dark and relatively featureless lunar plains that can clearly be seen with the naked eye are called maria ( Latin for `` seas '' ; singular mare ) , because they were believed by ancient astronomers to be filled with water . They are now known to be vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava . Although similar to terrestrial basalts , lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water . The majority of these lavas erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins . Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side maria . Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon , covering 31 % of the surface on the near side , compared with a few scattered patches on the far side covering only 2 % . This is thought to be due to a concentration of heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side , seen on geochemical maps obtained by Lunar Prospectors gamma-ray spectrometer , which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up , partially melt , rise to the surface and erupt . Most of the Moon 's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period , 3.0–3.5 billion years ago , although some radiometrically dated samples are as old as 4.2 billion years . Until recently , the youngest eruptions , dated by crater counting , appeared to have been only 1.2 billion years ago . In 2006 , a study of Ina , a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis , found jagged , relatively dust-free features that , due to the lack of erosion by infalling debris , appeared to be only 2 million years old . Moonquakes and releases of gas also indicate some continued lunar activity . In 2014 NASA announced `` widespread evidence of young lunar volcanism '' at 70 irregular mare patches identified by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , some less than 50 million years old . This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed , at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer due to the greater concentration of radioactive elements . Just prior to this , evidence has been presented for 2–10 million years younger basaltic volcanism inside Lowell crater , Orientale basin , located in the transition zone between the near and far sides of the Moon . An initially hotter mantle and/or local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities also on the far side in the Orientale basin . The lighter-coloured regions of the Moon are called terrae , or more commonly highlands , because they are higher than most maria . They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago , and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean . In contrast to Earth , no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events . The concentration of maria on the Near Side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side , which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after their formation . Impact craters The other major geologic process that has affected the Moon 's surface is impact cratering , with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface . There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than on the Moon 's near side alone . Some of these are named for scholars , scientists , artists and explorers . The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact events , including Nectaris , Imbrium , and Orientale , structures characterized by multiple rings of uplifted material , typically hundreds to thousands of kilometres in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon . The lack of an atmosphere , weather and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved . Although only a few multi-ring basins have been definitively dated , they are useful for assigning relative ages . Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate , counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface . The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old : this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment of impacts . Blanketed on top of the Moon 's crust is a highly comminuted ( broken into ever smaller particles ) and impact gardened surface layer called regolith , formed by impact processes . The finer regolith , the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass , has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder . The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces : it varies in thickness from in the highlands and in the maria . Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith , a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometres thick . Lunar swirls Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon ’ s surface , which are characterized by having a high albedo , appearing optically immature ( i.e . having the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith ) , and ( often ) having a sinuous shape . Their curvilinear shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls . Presence of water Liquid water can not persist on the lunar surface . When exposed to solar radiation , water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space . However , since the 1960s , scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks , and hydrogen from solar wind , leaving traces of water which could possibly survive in cold , permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon . Computer simulations suggest that up to of the surface may be in permanent shadow . The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost-effective plan ; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive . In years since , signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface . In 1994 , the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft , indicated the existence of small , frozen pockets of water close to the surface . However , later radar observations by Arecibo , suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters . In 1998 , the neutron spectrometer located on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft , indicated that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions . In 2008 , an analysis of volcanic lava beads , brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15 , showed small amounts of water to exist in the interior of the beads . The 2008 Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice , using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper . The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl , in reflected sunlight , providing evidence of large quantities of water ice , on the lunar surface . The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm . In 2009 , LCROSS sent a impactor into a permanently shadowed polar crater , and detected at least of water in a plume of ejected material . Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to . In May 2011 , Erik Hauri et al . reported 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 , the famous high-titanium `` orange glass soil '' of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972 . The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago . This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth 's upper mantle . Although of considerable selenological interest , Hauri 's announcement affords little comfort to would-be lunar colonists—the sample originated many kilometers below the surface , and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument . Gravitational field The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft . The main lunar gravity features are mascons , large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins , partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill these basins . These anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon . There are some puzzles : lava flows by themselves can not explain all of the gravitational signature , and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism . Magnetic field The Moon has an external magnetic field of about 1–100 nanoteslas , less than one-hundredth that of Earth . It does not currently have a global dipolar magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization , probably acquired early in lunar history when a dynamo was still operating . Alternatively , some of the remnant magnetization may be from transient magnetic fields generated during large impact events , through the expansion of an impact-generated plasma cloud in the presence of an ambient magnetic field—this is supported by the apparent location of the largest crustal magnetizations near the antipodes of the giant impact basins . Atmosphere The Moon has an atmosphere so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum , with a total mass of less than . The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10−15 atm ( 0.3 nPa ) ; it varies with the lunar day . Its sources include outgassing and sputtering , the release of atoms from the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions . Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium , produced by sputtering , which are also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io ; helium-4 and neon from the solar wind ; and argon-40 , radon-222 , and polonium-210 , outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle . The absence of such neutral species ( atoms or molecules ) as oxygen , nitrogen , carbon , hydrogen and magnesium , which are present in the regolith , is not understood . Water vapour has been detected by Chandrayaan-1 and found to vary with latitude , with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees ; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith . These gases can either return into the regolith due to the Moon 's gravity or be lost to space , either through solar radiation pressure or , if they are ionized , by being swept away by the solar wind 's magnetic field . Dust A permanent asymmetric moon dust cloud exists around the Moon , created by small particles from comets . Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon 's surface each 24 hours . The particles strike the Moon 's surface ejecting moon dust above the Moon . The dust stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes , taking 5 minutes to rise , and 5 minutes to fall . On average , 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon , rising to 100 kilometers above the surface . The dust measurements were made by LADEE 's Lunar Dust EXperiment ( LDEX ) , between 20 and 100 kilometers above the surface , during a six-month period . LDEX detected an average of one 0.3 micrometer moon dust particle each minute . Dust particle counts peaked during the Geminid , Quadrantid , Northern Taurid , and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers , when the Earth , and Moon , pass through comet debris . The cloud is asymmetric , more dense near the boundary between the Moon 's dayside and nightside . Seasons The Moon 's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5424° , much less than the 23.44° of Earth . Because of this , the Moon 's solar illumination varies much less with season , and topographical details play a crucial role in seasonal effects . From images taken by Clementine in 1994 , it appears that four mountainous regions on the rim of Peary Crater at the Moon 's north pole may remain illuminated for the entire lunar day , creating peaks of eternal light . No such regions exist at the south pole . Similarly , there are places that remain in permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters , and these dark craters are extremely cold : Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at and just close to the winter solstice in north polar Hermite Crater . This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft , colder even than the surface of Pluto . Average temperatures of the Moon 's surface are reported , but temperatures of different areas will vary greatly depending upon whether a spot is in sunlight or in shadow . Relationship to Earth Orbit The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars about once every 27.3 days ( its sidereal period ) . However , because Earth is moving in its orbit around the Sun at the same time , it takes slightly longer for the Moon to show the same phase to Earth , which is about 29.5 days ( its synodic period ) . Unlike most satellites of other planets , the Moon orbits closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet 's equatorial plane . The Moon 's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small , complex and interacting ways . For example , the plane of the Moon 's orbital motion gradually rotates , which affects other aspects of lunar motion . These follow-on effects are mathematically described by Cassini 's laws . Relative size The Moon is exceptionally large relative to Earth : a quarter its diameter and 1/81 its mass . It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet , though Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto , at 1/9 Pluto 's mass . Earth and the Moon are nevertheless still considered a planet–satellite system , rather than a double planet , because their barycentre , the common centre of mass , is located ( about a quarter of Earth 's radius ) beneath Earth 's surface . Appearance from Earth The Moon is in synchronous rotation : it rotates about its axis in about the same time it takes to orbit Earth . This results in it nearly always keeping the same face turned towards Earth . The Moon used to rotate at a faster rate , but early in its history , its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth . The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side , and the opposite side the far side . The far side is often inaccurately called the `` dark side '' , but in fact , it is illuminated as often as the near side : once per lunar day , during the new moon phase we observe on Earth when the near side is dark . In 2016 , planetary scientists , using data collected on the much earlier Nasa Lunar Prospector mission , found two hydrogen-rich areas on opposite sides of the Moon , probably in the form of water ice . It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago , before it was tidally locked to Earth . The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo , giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt . Despite this , it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun . This is partly due to the brightness enhancement of the opposition effect ; at quarter phase , the Moon is only one-tenth as bright , rather than half as bright , as at full moon . Additionally , colour constancy in the visual system recalibrates the relations between the colours of an object and its surroundings , and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark , the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object . The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the centre , with no limb darkening , due to the reflective properties of lunar soil , which reflects more light back towards the Sun than in other directions . The Moon does appear larger when close to the horizon , but this is a purely psychological effect , known as the Moon illusion , first described in the 7th century BC . The full moon subtends an arc of about 0.52° ( on average ) in the sky , roughly the same apparent size as the Sun ( see ) . The highest altitude of the Moon in the sky varies with the lunar phase and the season of the year . The full moon is highest during winter . The 18.6-year nodes cycle also has an influence : when the ascending node of the lunar orbit is in the

qg_2312--Moon.txt

Which Apollo mission, which was launched on July 16, 1969, was the first to put a human on the moon?

New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe that was launched as a part of NASA 's New Frontiers program . Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory ( APL ) and the Southwest Research Institute ( SwRI ) , with a team led by S. Alan Stern , the spacecraft was launched with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system , and a secondary mission to fly by and study one or more other Kuiper belt objects ( KBOs ) . On January 19 , 2006 , New Horizons was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station directly into an Earth-and-solar escape trajectory with a speed of about . After a brief encounter with asteroid 132524 APL , New Horizons proceeded to Jupiter , making its closest approach on February 28 , 2007 , at a distance of . The Jupiter flyby provided a gravity assist that increased New Horizons speed ; the flyby also enabled a general test of New Horizons scientific capabilities , returning data about the planet 's atmosphere , moons , and magnetosphere . Most of the post-Jupiter voyage was spent in hibernation mode to preserve on-board systems , except for brief annual checkouts . On December 6 , 2014 , New Horizons was brought back online for the Pluto encounter , and instrument check-out began . On January 15 , 2015 , the New Horizons spacecraft began its approach phase to Pluto . On July 14 , 2015 , at 11:49 UTC , it flew 12500 km above the surface of Pluto , making it the first spacecraft to explore the dwarf planet . Having completed its flyby of Pluto , New Horizons has maneuvered for a flyby of Kuiper belt object , expected to take place on January 1 , 2019 , when it is 43.4 AU from the Sun . History Stamatios `` Tom '' Krimigis , head of the Applied Physics Laboratory 's space division , one of many entrants in the New Frontiers Program competition , formed the New Horizons team with Alan Stern in December 2000 . Appointed as the project 's principal investigator , Stern was described by Krimigis as `` the personification of the Pluto mission '' . New Horizons was based largely on Stern 's work since Pluto 350 and involved most of the team from Pluto Kuiper Express . The New Horizons proposal was one of five that were officially submitted to NASA . It was later selected as one of two finalists to be subject to a three-month concept study , in June 2001 . The other finalist , POSSE ( Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer ) , was a separate , but similar Pluto mission concept by the University of Colorado Boulder , led by principal investigator Larry W. Esposito , and supported by the JPL , Lockheed Martin and the University of California . However , the APL , in addition to being supported by Pluto Kuiper Express developers at the Goddard Space Flight Center and Stanford University , were at an advantage ; they had recently developed NEAR Shoemaker for NASA , which had successfully entered orbit around 433 Eros earlier in the year , and would later land on the asteroid to scientific and engineering fanfare . In November 2001 , New Horizons was officially selected for funding as part of the New Frontiers program . However , the new NASA Administrator appointed by the Bush Administration , Sean O'Keefe , was not supportive of New Horizons , and effectively cancelled it by not including it in NASA 's budget for 2003 . NASA 's Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate Ed Weiler prompted Stern to lobby for the funding of New Horizons in hopes of the mission appearing in the Planetary Science Decadal Survey ; a prioritized `` wish list '' , compiled by the United States National Research Council , that reflects the opinions of the scientific community . After an intense campaign to gain support for New Horizons , the Planetary Science Decadal Survey of 2003-2013 was published in the summer of 2002 . New Horizons topped the list of projects considered the highest priority among the scientific community in the medium-size category ; ahead of missions to the Moon , and even Jupiter . Weiler stated that it was a result that `` [ his ] administration was not going to fight '' . Funding for the mission was finally secured following the publication of the report , and Stern 's team were finally able to start building the spacecraft and its instruments , with a planned launch in January 2006 and arrival at Pluto in 2015 . Alice Bowman became Mission Operations Manager . Mission profile New Horizons is the first mission in NASA 's New Frontiers mission category , larger and more expensive than the Discovery missions but smaller than the Flagship Program . The cost of the mission ( including spacecraft and instrument development , launch vehicle , mission operations , data analysis , and education/public outreach ) is approximately $ 700 million over 15 years ( 2001–2016 ) . The spacecraft was built primarily by Southwest Research Institute ( SwRI ) and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory . The mission 's principal investigator is Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute ( formerly NASA Associate Administrator ) . After separation from the launch vehicle , overall control was taken by Mission Operations Center ( MOC ) at the Applied Physics Laboratory in Howard County , Maryland . The science instruments are operated at Clyde Tombaugh Science Operations Center ( T-SOC ) in Boulder , Colorado . Navigation is performed at various contractor facilities , whereas the navigational positional data and related celestial reference frames are provided by the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station through Headquarters NASA and JPL ; KinetX is the lead on the New Horizons navigation team and is responsible for planning trajectory adjustments as the spacecraft speeds toward the outer Solar System . Coincidentally the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station was where the photographic plates were taken for the discovery of Pluto 's moon Charon ; and the Naval Observatory is itself not far from the Lowell Observatory where Pluto was discovered . New Horizons was originally planned as a voyage to the only unexplored planet in the SolarSystem . When the spacecraft was launched , Pluto was still classified as a planet , later to be reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . Some members of the New Horizons team , including Alan Stern , disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet . Pluto 's satellites Nix and Hydra also have a connection with the spacecraft : the first letters of their names ( N and H ) are the initials of New Horizons . The moons ' discoverers chose these names for this reason , plus Nix and Hydra 's relationship to the mythological Pluto . In addition to the science equipment , there are several cultural artifacts traveling with the spacecraft . These include a collection of 434,738 names stored on a compact disc , a piece of Scaled Composites 's SpaceShipOne , a `` Not Yet Explored '' USPS stamp , and a Flag of the United States , along with other mementos . About 1 oz of Clyde Tombaugh 's ashes are aboard the spacecraft , to commemorate his discovery of Pluto in 1930 . A Florida-state quarter coin , whose design commemorates human exploration , is included , officially as a trim weight . One of the science packages ( a dust counter ) is named after Venetia Burney , who , as a child , suggested the name `` Pluto '' after its discovery . Goal The goal of the mission is to understand the formation of the Pluto system , the Kuiper belt , and the transformation of the early Solar System . The spacecraft collected data on the atmospheres , surfaces , interiors and environments of Pluto and its moons . It will also study other objects in the Kuiper belt . `` By way of comparison , New Horizons gathered 5,000 times as much data at Pluto as Mariner did at the Red Planet . '' Some of the questions the mission attempts to answer are : What is Pluto 's atmosphere made of and how does it behave ? What does its surface look like ? Are there large geological structures ? How do solar wind particles interact with Pluto 's atmosphere ? Specifically , the mission 's science objectives are to : * map the surface composition of Pluto and Charon * characterize the geology and morphology of Pluto and Charon * characterize the neutral atmosphere of Pluto and its escape rate * search for an atmosphere around Charon * map surface temperatures on Pluto and Charon * search for rings and additional satellites around Pluto * conduct similar investigations of one or more Kuiper belt objects Design and construction Spacecraft subsystems The spacecraft is comparable in size and general shape to a grand piano and has been compared to a piano glued to a cocktail bar-sized satellite dish . As a point of departure , the team took inspiration from the Ulysses spacecraft , which also carried a radioisotope thermoelectric generator ( RTG ) and dish on a box-in-box structure through the outer Solar System . Many subsystems and components have flight heritage from APL 's CONTOUR spacecraft , which in turn had heritage from APL 's TIMED spacecraft . New Horizons body forms a triangle , almost thick . ( The Pioneers have hexagonal bodies , whereas the Voyagers , Galileo , and Cassini–Huygens have decagonal , hollow bodies . ) A 7075 aluminium alloy tube forms the main structural column , between the launch vehicle adapter ring at the `` rear , '' and the radio dish antenna affixed to the `` front '' flat side . The titanium fuel tank is in this tube . The RTG attaches with a 4-sided titanium mount resembling a gray pyramid or stepstool . Titanium provides strength and thermal isolation . The rest of the triangle is primarily sandwich panels of thin aluminium facesheet ( less than ) bonded to aluminium honeycomb core . The structure is larger than strictly necessary , with empty space inside . The structure is designed to act as shielding , reducing electronics errors caused by radiation from the RTG . Also , the mass distribution required for a spinning spacecraft demands a wider triangle . The interior structure is painted black to equalize temperature by radiative heat transfer . Overall , the spacecraft is thoroughly blanketed to retain heat . Unlike the Pioneers and Voyagers , the radio dish is also enclosed in blankets that extend to the body . The heat from the RTG adds warmth to the spacecraft while it is in the outer Solar System . While in the inner Solar System , the spacecraft must prevent overheating , hence electronic activity is limited , power is diverted to shunts with attached radiators , and louvers are opened to radiate excess heat . While the spacecraft is cruising inactively in the cold outer Solar System , the louvers are closed , and the shunt regulator reroutes power to electric heaters . Propulsion and attitude control New Horizons has both spin-stabilized ( cruise ) and three-axis stabilized ( science ) modes controlled entirely with hydrazine monopropellant . Additional post launch delta-v of over 290 m/s is provided by a 77 kg internal tank . Helium is used as a pressurant , with an elastomeric diaphragm assisting expulsion . The spacecraft 's on-orbit mass including fuel is over 470 kg on the Jupiter flyby trajectory , but would have been only 445 kg for the backup direct flight option to Pluto . Significantly , had the backup option been taken , this would have meant less fuel for later Kuiper belt operations . There are 16 thrusters on New Horizons : four and twelve plumbed into redundant branches . The larger thrusters are used primarily for trajectory corrections , and the small ones ( previously used on Cassini and the Voyager spacecraft ) are used primarily for attitude control and spinup/spindown maneuvers . Two star cameras are used to measure the spacecraft attitude . They are mounted on the face of the spacecraft and provide attitude information while in spin-stabilized or 3-axis mode . In between the time of star camera readings , spacecraft orientation is provided by dual redundant miniature inertial measurement units . Each unit contains three solid-state gyroscopes and three accelerometers . Two Adcole Sun sensors provide attitude determination . One detects the angle to the Sun , whereas the other measures spin rate and clocking . Power A cylindrical radioisotope thermoelectric generator ( RTG ) protrudes in the plane of the triangle from one vertex of the triangle . The RTG provided of power at launch , and was predicted to drop approximately 5 % every 4years , decaying to by the time of its encounter with the Plutonian system in 2015 and will decay too far to power the transmitters in the 2030s . There are no onboard batteries . RTG output is relatively predictable ; load transients are handled by a capacitor bank and fast circuit breakers . The RTG , model `` GPHS-RTG , '' was originally a spare from the Cassini mission . The RTG contains of plutonium-238 oxide pellets . Each pellet is clad in iridium , then encased in a graphite shell . It was developed by the U.S. Department of Energy at the Materials and Fuels Complex , a part of the Idaho National Laboratory . The original RTG design called for of plutonium , but a unit less powerful than the original design goal was produced because of delays at the United States Department of Energy , including security activities , that delayed plutonium production . The mission parameters and observation sequence had to be modified for the reduced wattage ; still , not all instruments can operate simultaneously . The Department of Energy transferred the space battery program from Ohio to Argonne in 2002 because of security concerns . The amount of radioactive plutonium in the RTG is about one-third the amount on board the Cassini–Huygens probe when it launched in 1997 . That Cassini launch was protested by some . The United States Department of Energy estimated the chances of a New Horizons launch accident that would release radiation into the atmosphere at 1 in 350 , and monitored the launch as it always does when RTGs are involved . It was estimated that a worst-case scenario of total dispersal of on-board plutonium would spread the equivalent radiation of 80 % the average annual dosage in North America from background radiation over an area with a radius of 105 km . Flight computer The spacecraft carries two computer systems : the Command and Data Handling system and the Guidance and Control processor . Each of the two systems is duplicated for redundancy , for a total of four computers . The processor used for its flight computers is the Mongoose-V , a 12 MHz radiation-hardened version of the MIPS R3000 CPU . Multiple redundant clocks and timing routines are implemented in hardware and software to help prevent faults and downtime . To conserve heat and mass , spacecraft and instrument electronics are housed together in IEMs ( integrated electronics modules ) . There are two redundant IEMs . Including other functions such as instrument and radio electronics , each IEM contains 9boards . The software of the probe runs on Nucleus RTOS operating system . There have been two `` safing '' events , that sent the spacecraft into safe mode : * On March 19 , 2007 the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself , causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode . The craft fully recovered within two days , with some data loss on Jupiter 's magnetotail . No impact on the subsequent mission was expected . * On July 4 , 2015 there was a CPU safing event caused by over assignment of commanded science operations . Telecommunications and data handling Communication with the spacecraft is via X band . The craft had a communication rate of at Jupiter ; at Pluto 's distance , a rate of approximately per transmitter is expected . Besides the low bandwidth , Pluto 's distance also causes a latency of about 4.5 hours ( one-way ) . The 70 m NASA Deep Space Network ( DSN ) dishes are used to relay commands once it is beyond Jupiter . The spacecraft uses dual modular redundancy transmitters and receivers , and either right- or left-hand circular polarization . The downlink signal is amplified by dual redundant 12-watt traveling-wave tube amplifiers ( TWTAs ) mounted on the body under the dish . The receivers are new , low-power designs . The system can be controlled to power both TWTAs at the same time , and transmit a dual-polarized downlink signal to the DSN that nearly doubles the downlink rate . DSN tests early in the mission with this dual polarization combining technique were successful , and the capability is now considered operational ( when the spacecraft power budget permits both TWTAs to be powered ) . In addition to the high-gain antenna , there are two backup low-gain antennas and a medium-gain dish . The high-gain dish has a Cassegrain reflector layout , composite construction , and a diameter providing over of gain , has a half-power beam width of about a degree . The prime-focus , medium-gain antenna , with a aperture and 10° half-power beam width , is mounted to the back of the high-gain antenna 's secondary reflector . The forward low-gain antenna is stacked atop the feed of the medium-gain antenna . The aft low-gain antenna is mounted within the launch adapter at the rear of the spacecraft . This antenna was used only for early mission phases near Earth , just after launch and for emergencies if the spacecraft had lost attitude control . New Horizons recorded scientific instrument data to its solid-state memory buffer at each encounter , then transmitted the data to Earth . Data storage is done on two low-power solid-state recorders ( one primary , one backup ) holding up to s each . Because of the extreme distance from Pluto and the Kuiper belt , only one buffer load at those encounters can be saved . This is because New Horizons will require approximately 16 months after it has left the vicinity of Pluto to transmit the buffer load back to Earth . At Pluto 's distance transmissions from the space probe back to earth took four hours 25 minutes to traverse 4.7 billion km of space . Part of the reason for the delay between the gathering of and transmission of data is that all of the New Horizons instrumentation is body-mounted . In order for the cameras to record data , the entire probe must turn , and the one-degree-wide beam of the high-gain antenna was not pointing toward Earth . Previous spacecraft , such as the Voyager program probes , had a rotatable instrumentation platform ( a `` scan platform '' ) that could take measurements from virtually any angle without losing radio contact with Earth . New Horizons elimination of excess mechanisms was implemented to save weight , shorten the schedule , and improve reliability during its 15-year lifetime . The Voyager 2 spacecraft experienced platform jamming at Saturn ; the demands of long time exposures at Uranus led to modifications of the mission such that the entire probe was rotated to make the time exposure photos at Uranus and Neptune , similar to how New Horizons rotated . Science payload New Horizons carries seven instruments : three optical instruments , two plasma instruments , a dust sensor and a radio science receiver/radiometer . The instruments are to be used to investigate the global geology , surface composition , surface temperature , atmospheric pressure , atmospheric temperature and escape rate of Pluto and its moons . The rated power is , though not all instruments operate simultaneously . In addition , New Horizons has an Ultrastable Oscillator subsystem , which may be used to study and test the Pioneer anomaly towards the end of the spacecraft 's life . Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager ( LORRI ) The Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager ( LORRI ) is a long-focal-length imager designed for high resolution and responsivity at visible wavelengths . The instrument is equipped with a 1024×1024 pixel by 12-bits-per-pixel monochromatic CCD imager with a aperture giving a resolution of 5μrad ( ~1arcsec ) . The CCD is chilled far below freezing by a passive radiator on the antisolar face of the spacecraft . This temperature differential requires insulation , and isolation from the rest of the structure . The Ritchey–Chretien mirrors and metering structure are made of silicon carbide , to boost stiffness , reduce weight , and prevent warping at low temperatures . The optical elements sit in a composite light shield , and mount with titanium and fiberglass for thermal isolation . Overall mass is , with the optical tube assembly ( OTA ) weighing about , for one of the largest silicon-carbide telescopes flown at the time ( now surpassed by Herschel ) . For viewing on public web sites the 12-bit per pixel LORRI images are converted to 8-bit per pixel JPEG images . These public images do not contain the full dynamic range of brightness information available from the raw LORRI images files . , Solar Wind At Pluto ( SWAP ) Solar Wind At Pluto ( SWAP ) is a toroidal electrostatic analyzer and retarding potential analyzer ( RPA ) , that makes up one of the two instruments comprising New Horizons Plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite ( PAM ) , the other being PEPSSI . SWAP measures particles of up to 6.5keV and , because of the tenuous solar wind at Pluto 's distance , the instrument is designed with the largest aperture of any such instrument ever flown . Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation ( PEPSSI ) Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation ( PEPSSI ) is a time of flight ion and electron sensor that makes up one of the two instruments comprising New Horizons plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite ( PAM ) , the other being SWAP . Unlike SWAP , which measures particles of up to 6.5keV , PEPSSI goes up to 1MeV . Alice Alice is an ultraviolet imaging spectrometer that is one of two photographic instruments comprising New Horizons Pluto Exploration Remote Sensing Investigation ( PERSI ) ; the other being the Ralph telescope . It resolves 1,024wavelength bands in the far and extreme ultraviolet ( from 50– ) , over 32view fields . Its goal is to determine the composition of Pluto 's atmosphere . This Alice instrument is derived from another Alice aboard ESA 's Rosetta spacecraft . Ralph telescope The Ralph telescope , 6 cm in aperture , is one of two photographic instruments that make up New Horizons Pluto Exploration Remote Sensing Investigation ( PERSI ) , with the other being the Alice instrument . Ralph has two separate channels : a visible-light CCD imager ( MVIC- Multispectral Visible Imaging Camera ) with broadband and color channels , and a near-infrared imaging spectrometer , LEISA ( Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array ) . LEISA is derived from a similar instrument on the EO-1 mission . Ralph was named after Alice 's husband on The Honeymooners , and was designed after Alice . Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter ( VBSDC ) The Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter ( VBSDC ) , built by students at the University of Colorado Boulder , is operating continuously to make dust measurements . It consists of a detector panel , about 18 x , mounted on the anti-solar face of the spacecraft ( the ram direction ) , and an electronics box within the spacecraft . The detector contains fourteen polyvinylidene difluoride ( PVDF ) panels , twelve science and two reference , which generate voltage when impacted . Effective collecting area is . No dust counter has operated past the orbit of Uranus ; models of dust in the outer Solar System , especially the Kuiper belt , are speculative . The VBSDC is always turned on measuring the masses of the interplanetary and interstellar dust particles ( in the range of nano- and picograms ) as they collide with the PVDF panels mounted on the New Horizons spacecraft . The measured data is expected to greatly contribute to the understanding of the dust spectra of the Solar System . The dust spectra can then be compared with those from observations of other stars , giving new clues as to where Earth-like planets can be found in the universe . The dust counter is named for Venetia Burney , who first suggested the name `` Pluto '' at the age of 11 . A thirteen-minute short film about the VBSDC garnered an Emmy Award for student achievement in 2006 . Radio Science Experiment ( REX ) The Radio Science Experiment ( REX ) used an ultrastable crystal oscillator ( essentially a calibrated crystal in a miniature oven ) and some additional electronics to conduct radio science investigations using the communications channels . These are small enough to fit on a single card . Because there are two redundant communications subsystems , there are two , identical REX circuit boards . Journey to Pluto Launch On September 24 , 2005 the spacecraft arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on board a C-17 Globemaster III for launch preparations . The launch of New Horizons was originally scheduled for January 11 , 2006 , but was initially delayed until January 17 , 2006 to allow for borescope inspections of the Atlas V 's kerosene tank . Further delays related to low cloud ceiling conditions downrange , and high winds and technical difficulties—unrelated to the rocket itself—prevented launch for a further two days . Although there were backup launch opportunities in February 2006 and February 2007 , only the first twenty-three days of the 2006 window permitted the Jupiter flyby . Any launch outside that period would have forced the spacecraft to fly a slower trajectory directly to Pluto , delaying its encounter by 2–4 years . The probe finally lifted off from Pad 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , Florida , directly south of Space Shuttle Launch Complex 39 , at 19:00 UTC on January 19 , 2006 . The Centaur second stage reignited at 19:30 UTC , followed by the ATK Star 48B third stage , successfully sending the probe on a solar-escape trajectory . New Horizons took only nine hours to pass the Moon 's orbit . The probe was launched by a Lockheed Martin Atlas V 551 rocket , with a third stage added to increase the heliocentric ( escape ) speed . This was the first launch of the Atlas V 551 configuration , which uses five solid rocket boosters , and the first Atlas V with a third stage . Previous flights had used zero , two , or three solid boosters , but never five . The vehicle , AV-010 , weighed at lift-off , and had earlier been slightly damaged when Hurricane Wilma swept across Florida on October 24 , 2005 . One of the solid rocket boosters was hit by a door . The booster was replaced with an identical unit , rather than inspecting and requalifying the original . New Horizons has been called `` the fastest spacecraft ever launched '' because it left Earth at 36000 mph , faster than any other spacecraft to date . It is also the first spacecraft launched directly into a solar escape trajectory , which requires an approximate speed while near Earth of , To escape the sun the spacecraft needs a speed relative to the sun of the square root of 2 times the speed of the earth ( 29.78 km/s ) , or 42.1 km/s . Relative to the earth this is just 12.3 km/s . But the kinetic energy when near the surface of the earth must include the energy to exit the gravity well of the earth , which requires a speed of about 11 km/s . The total speed needed is the square root of the sum of the squares of these two speeds . and additional delta-v to cover air and gravity drag , all to be provided by the launcher . But it is not the fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System . , this record is held by Voyager 1 , traveling at relative to the Sun . Voyager 1 attained greater hyperbolic

qw_15815--New_Horizons.txt

Where did the space probe New Horizons launched by NASA in 2006 aim to investigate?

Anaphylaxis is a serious allergic reaction that is rapid in onset and may cause death . It typically causes more than one of the following : an itchy rash , throat or tongue swelling , shortness of breath , vomiting , lightheadedness , and low blood pressure . These symptoms typically come on over minutes to hours . Common causes include insect bites and stings , foods , and medications . Other causes include latex exposure and exercise . Additionally cases may occur without an obvious reason . The mechanism involves the release of mediators from certain types of white blood cells triggered by either immunologic or non-immunologic mechanisms . Diagnosis is based on the presenting symptoms and signs after exposure to a potential allergen . The primary treatment of anaphylaxis is epinephrine injection into a muscle , intravenous fluids , and positioning the person flat . Additional doses of epinephrine may be required . Other measures , such as antihistamines and steroids , are complementary . Carrying an epinephrine autoinjector and identification regarding the condition is recommended in people with a history of anaphylaxis . Worldwide , 0.05–2 % of the population is estimated to experience anaphylaxis at some point in life . Rates appear to be increasing . It occurs most often in young people and females . Of people who go to a hospital with anaphylaxis in the United States about 0.3 % die . The term comes from the , and the . Signs and symptoms Anaphylaxis typically presents many different symptoms over minutes or hours with an average onset of 5 to 30 minutes if exposure is intravenous and 2 hours if from eating food . The most common areas affected include : skin ( 80–90 % ) , respiratory ( 70 % ) , gastrointestinal ( 30–45 % ) , heart and vasculature ( 10–45 % ) , and central nervous system ( 10–15 % ) with usually two or more being involved . Skin Symptoms typically include generalized hives , itchiness , flushing , or swelling ( angioedema ) of the afflicted tissues . Those with angioedema may describe a burning sensation of the skin rather than itchiness . Swelling of the tongue or throat occurs in up to about 20 % of cases . Other features may include a runny nose and swelling of the conjunctiva . The skin may also be blue tinged because of lack of oxygen . Respiratory Respiratory symptoms and signs that may be present include shortness of breath , wheezes , or stridor . The wheezing is typically caused by spasms of the bronchial muscles while stridor is related to upper airway obstruction secondary to swelling . Hoarseness , pain with swallowing , or a cough may also occur . Cardiovascular Coronary artery spasm may occur with subsequent myocardial infarction , dysrhythmia , or cardiac arrest . Those with underlying coronary disease are at greater risk of cardiac effects from anaphylaxis . The coronary spasm is related to the presence of histamine-releasing cells in the heart . While a fast heart rate caused by low blood pressure is more common , a Bezold–Jarisch reflex has been described in 10 % of cases where a slow heart rate is associated with low blood pressure . A drop in blood pressure or shock ( either distributive or cardiogenic ) may cause the feeling of lightheadedness or loss of consciousness . Rarely very low blood pressure may be the only sign of anaphylaxis . Other Gastrointestinal symptoms may include crampy abdominal pain , diarrhea , and vomiting . There may be confusion , a loss of bladder control or pelvic pain similar to that of uterine cramps . Dilation of blood vessels around the brain may cause headaches . A feeling of anxiety or of `` impending doom '' has also been described . Causes Anaphylaxis can occur in response to almost any foreign substance . Common triggers include venom from insect bites or stings , foods , and medication . Foods are the most common trigger in children and young adults while medications and insect bites and stings are more common in older adults . Less common causes include : physical factors , biological agents such as semen , latex , hormonal changes , food additives such as monosodium glutamate and food colors , and topical medications . Physical factors such as exercise ( known as exercise-induced anaphylaxis ) or temperature ( either hot or cold ) may also act as triggers through their direct effects on mast cells . Events caused by exercise are frequently associated with the ingestion of certain foods . During anesthesia , neuromuscular blocking agents , antibiotics , and latex are the most common causes . The cause remains unknown in 32–50 % of cases , referred to as `` idiopathic anaphylaxis . '' Six vaccines ( MMR , varicella , influenza , hepatitis B , tetanus , meningococcal ) are recognized as a cause for anaphylaxis , and HPV may cause anaphylaxis as well . Food Many foods can trigger anaphylaxis ; this may occur upon the first known ingestion . Common triggering foods vary around the world . In Western cultures , ingestion of or exposure to peanuts , wheat , nuts , certain types of seafood like shellfish , milk , and eggs are the most prevalent causes . Sesame is common in the Middle East , while rice and chickpeas are frequently encountered as sources of anaphylaxis in Asia . Severe cases are usually caused by ingesting the allergen , but some people experience a severe reaction upon contact . Children can outgrow their allergies . By age 16 , 80 % of children with anaphylaxis to milk or eggs and 20 % who experience isolated anaphylaxis to peanuts can tolerate these foods . Medication Any medication may potentially trigger anaphylaxis . The most common are β-lactam antibiotics ( such as penicillin ) followed by aspirin and NSAIDs . Other antibiotics are implicated less frequently , and the reactions to NSAIDs are agent specific meaning that those who are allergic to one NSAID can typically tolerate a different one . Other relatively common causes include chemotherapy , vaccines , protamine and herbal preparations . Some medications ( vancomycin , morphine , x-ray contrast among others ) cause anaphylaxis by directly triggering mast cell degranulation . The frequency of a reaction to an agent partly depends on the frequency of its use and partly on its intrinsic properties . Anaphylaxis to penicillin or cephalosporins occurs only after it binds to proteins inside the body with some agents binding more easily than others . Anaphylaxis to penicillin occurs once in every 2,000 to 10,000 courses of treatment , with death occurring in fewer than one in every 50,000 courses of treatment . Anaphylaxis to aspirin and NSAIDs occurs in about one in every 50,000 persons . If someone has a reaction to penicillins , his or her risk of a reaction to cephalosporins is greater but still less than one in 1,000 . The old radiocontrast agents caused reactions in 1 % of cases , while the newer lower osmolar agents cause reactions in 0.04 % of cases . Venom Venom from stinging or biting insects such as Hymenoptera ( ants , bees and wasps ) or Triatominae ( kissing bugs ) may cause anaphylaxis in susceptible people . Previous systemic reactions , which are anything more than a local reaction around the site of the sting , are a risk factor for future anaphylaxis ; however , half of fatalities have had no previous systemic reaction . Risk factors People with atopic diseases such as asthma , eczema , or allergic rhinitis are at high risk of anaphylaxis from food , latex , and radiocontrast agents but not from injectable medications or stings . One study in children found that 60 % had a history of previous atopic diseases , and of children who die from anaphylaxis , more than 90 % have asthma . Those with mastocytosis or of a higher socioeconomic status are at increased risk . The longer the time since the last exposure to the agent in question , the lower the risk . Pathophysiology Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction of rapid onset affecting many body systems . It is due to the release of inflammatory mediators and cytokines from mast cells and basophils , typically due to an immunologic reaction but sometimes non-immunologic mechanism . Immunologic In the immunologic mechanism , immunoglobulin E ( IgE ) binds to the antigen ( the foreign material that provokes the allergic reaction ) . Antigen-bound IgE then activates FcεRI receptors on mast cells and basophils . This leads to the release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine . These mediators subsequently increase the contraction of bronchial smooth muscles , trigger vasodilation , increase the leakage of fluid from blood vessels , and cause heart muscle depression . There is also an immunologic mechanism that does not rely on IgE , but it is not known if this occurs in humans . Non-immunologic Non-immunologic mechanisms involve substances that directly cause the degranulation of mast cells and basophils . These include agents such as contrast medium , opioids , temperature ( hot or cold ) , and vibration . Sulfites may cause reactions by both immunologic and non-immunologic mechanisms . Diagnosis Anaphylaxis is diagnosed on the basis of a person 's signs and symptoms . When any one of the following three occurs within minutes or hours of exposure to an allergen there is a high likelihood of anaphylaxis : # Involvement of the skin or mucosal tissue plus either respiratory difficulty or a low blood pressure causing symptoms # Two or more of the following symptoms after a likely contact with an allergen : # : a . Involvement of the skin or mucosa # : b . Respiratory difficulties # : c. Low blood pressure # : d. Gastrointestinal symptoms # Low blood pressure after exposure to a known allergen Skin involvement may include : hives , itchiness or a swollen tongue among others . Respiratory difficulties may include : shortness of breath , stridor , or low oxygen levels among others . Low blood pressure is defined as a greater than 30 % decrease from a person 's usual blood pressure . In adults a systolic blood pressure of less than 90 mmHg is often used . During an attack , blood tests for tryptase or histamine ( released from mast cells ) might be useful in diagnosing anaphylaxis due to insect stings or medications . However these tests are of limited use if the cause is food or if the person has a normal blood pressure , and they are not specific for the diagnosis . Classification There are three main classifications of anaphylaxis . Anaphylactic shock is associated with systemic vasodilation that causes low blood pressure which is by definition 30 % lower than the person 's baseline or below standard values . Biphasic anaphylaxis is the recurrence of symptoms within 1–72 hours with no further exposure to the allergen . Reports of incidence vary , with some studies claiming as many as 20 % of cases . The recurrence typically occurs within 8 hours . It is managed in the same manner as anaphylaxis . Pseudoanaphylaxis or anaphylactoid reactions are a type of anaphylaxis that does not involve an allergic reaction but is due to direct mast cell degranulation . Non-immune anaphylaxis is the current term used by the World Allergy Organization with some recommending that the old terminology no longer be used . Allergy testing Allergy testing may help in determining the trigger . Skin allergy testing ( such as patch testing ) is available for certain foods and venoms . Blood testing for specific IgE can be useful to confirm milk , egg , peanut , tree nut and fish allergies . Skin testing is available to confirm penicillin allergies , but is not available for other medications . Non-immune forms of anaphylaxis can only be determined by history or exposure to the allergen in question , and not by skin or blood testing . Differential diagnosis It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish anaphylaxis from asthma , syncope , and panic attacks . Asthma however typically does not entail itching or gastrointestinal symptoms , syncope presents with pallor rather than a rash , and a panic attack may have flushing but does not have hives . Other conditions that may present similarly include : scrombroidosis and anisakiasis . Post-mortem findings In a person who died from anaphylaxis , autopsy may show an `` empty heart '' attributed to reduced venous return from vasodilation and redistribution of intravascular volume from the central to the peripheral compartment . Other signs are laryngeal edema , eosinophilia in lungs , heart and tissues , and evidence of myocardial hypoperfusion . Laboratory findings could detect increased levels of serum tryptase , increase in total and specific IgE serum levels . Prevention Avoidance of the trigger of anaphylaxis is recommended . In cases where this may not be possible , desensitization may be an option . Immunotherapy with Hymenoptera venoms is effective at desensitizing 80–90 % of adults and 98 % of children against allergies to bees , wasps , hornets , yellowjackets , and fire ants . Oral immunotherapy may be effective at desensitizing some people to certain food including milk , eggs , nuts and peanuts ; however , adverse effects are common . Desensitization is also possible for many medications , however it is advised that most people simply avoid the agent in question . In those who react to latex it may be important to avoid cross-reactive foods such as avocados , bananas , and potatoes among others . Management Anaphylaxis is a medical emergency that may require resuscitation measures such as airway management , supplemental oxygen , large volumes of intravenous fluids , and close monitoring . Administration of epinephrine is the treatment of choice with antihistamines and steroids ( for example , dexamethasone ) often used as adjuncts . A period of in-hospital observation for between 2 and 24 hours is recommended for people once they have returned to normal due to concerns of biphasic anaphylaxis . Epinephrine Epinephrine ( adrenaline ) is the primary treatment for anaphylaxis with no absolute contraindication to its use . It is recommended that an epinephrine solution be given intramuscularly into the mid anterolateral thigh as soon as the diagnosis is suspected . The injection may be repeated every 5 to 15 minutes if there is insufficient response . A second dose is needed in 16-35 % of episodes with more than two doses rarely required . The intramuscular route is preferred over subcutaneous administration because the latter may have delayed absorption . Minor adverse effects from epinephrine include tremors , anxiety , headaches , and palpitations . People on β-blockers may be resistant to the effects of epinephrine . In this situation if epinephrine is not effective intravenous glucagon can be administered which has a mechanism of action independent of β-receptors . If necessary , it can also be given intravenously using a dilute epinephrine solution . Intravenous epinephrine however has been associated both with dysrhythmia and myocardial infarction . Epinephrine autoinjectors used for self-administration typically come in two doses , one for adults or children who weigh more than 25 kg and one for children who weigh 10 to 25 kg . Adjuncts Antihistamines ( both H1 and H2 ) , while commonly used and assumed effective based on theoretical reasoning , are poorly supported by evidence . A 2007 Cochrane review did not find any good-quality studies upon which to base recommendations and they are not believed to have an effect on airway edema or spasm . Corticosteroids are unlikely to make a difference in the current episode of anaphylaxis , but may be used in the hope of decreasing the risk of biphasic anaphylaxis . Their prophylactic effectiveness in these situations is uncertain . Nebulized salbutamol may be effective for bronchospasm that does not resolve with epinephrine . Methylene blue has been used in those not responsive to other measures due to its presumed effect of relaxing smooth muscle . Preparedness People prone to anaphylaxis are advised to have an `` allergy action plan . '' Parents are advised to inform schools of their children 's allergies and what to do in case of an anaphylactic emergency . The action plan usually includes use of epinephrine autoinjectors , the recommendation to wear a medical alert bracelet , and counseling on avoidance of triggers . Immunotherapy is available for certain triggers to prevent future episodes of anaphylaxis . A multi-year course of subcutaneous desensitization has been found effective against stinging insects , while oral desensitization is effective for many foods . Prognosis In those in whom the cause is known and prompt treatment is available , the prognosis is good . Even if the cause is unknown , if appropriate preventative medication is available , the prognosis is generally good . If death occurs , it is usually due to either respiratory ( typically asphyxia ) or cardiovascular causes ( shock ) , with 0.7–20 % of cases causing death . There have been cases of death occurring within minutes . Outcomes in those with exercise-induced anaphylaxis are typically good , with fewer and less severe episodes as people get older . Epidemiology The number of people who get anaphylaxis is 4–100 per 100,000 persons per year , with a lifetime risk of 0.05–2 % . About 30 % of people get more than one attack . Rates appear to be increasing : with the numbers in the 1980s being approximately 20 per 100,000 per year , while in the 1990s it was 50 per 100,000 per year . The increase appears to be primarily for food-induced anaphylaxis . The risk is greatest in young people and females . Currently , anaphylaxis leads to 500–1,000 deaths per year ( 2.4 per million ) in the United States , 20 deaths per year in the United Kingdom ( 0.33 per million ) , and 15 deaths per year in Australia ( 0.64 per million ) . Mortality rates have decreased between the 1970s and 2000s . In Australia , death from food-induced anaphylaxis occur primarily in women while deaths due to insect bites primarily occur in males . Death from anaphylaxis is most commonly triggered by medications . History The term aphylaxis was coined by Charles Richet in 1902 and later changed to anaphylaxis due to its nicer quality of speech . In his experiments , Richet injected a dog with sea anemone ( Actinia ) toxin in an attempt to protect it . Although the dog had previously tolerated the toxin , on re-exposure with the same dose three weeks later it developed fatal anaphylaxis . Thus instead of inducing tolerance ( prophylaxis ) , when lethal responses resulted from previously tolerated doses , he coined the word a ( without ) phylaxis ( protection ) . Ana means `` against '' in Ancient Greek , but ( as stated above ) the word was changed for sound . He was subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on anaphylaxis in 1913 . The phenomenon itself however has been described since ancient times . The term comes from the Greek words ἀνά , ana , `` against '' , and φύλαξις , phylaxis , `` protection '' . Research There are ongoing efforts to develop sublingual epinephrine to treat anaphylaxis . Subcutaneous injection of the anti-IgE antibody omalizumab is being studied as a method of preventing recurrence , but it is not yet recommended .

bb_4028--Anaphylaxis.txt

Anaphylaxis is what sort of life-threatening illness?

Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore , a granite batholith formation in the Black Hills in Keystone , South Dakota , United States . Sculpted by Danish-American Gutzon Borglum and his son , Lincoln Borglum , Mount Rushmore features 60 ft sculptures of the heads of four United States presidents : George Washington ( 1732–1799 ) , Thomas Jefferson ( 1743–1826 ) , Theodore Roosevelt ( 1858–1919 ) , and Abraham Lincoln ( 1809–1865 ) . The entire memorial covers and is 5725 ft above sea level . [ http : //www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx ? pid 6234 Mount Rushmore , South Dakota ] ( November 1 , 2004 ) . Peakbagger.com . Retrieved March 13 , 2006 . South Dakota historian Doane Robinson is credited with conceiving the idea of carving the likenesses of famous people into the Black Hills region of South Dakota in order to promote tourism in the region . Robinson 's initial idea was to sculpt the Needles ; however , Gutzon Borglum rejected the Needles site because of the poor quality of the granite and strong opposition from Native American groups . They settled on the Mount Rushmore location , which also has the advantage of facing southeast for maximum sun exposure . Robinson wanted it to feature western heroes like Lewis and Clark , Red Cloud , and Buffalo Bill Cody , but Borglum decided the sculpture should have a more national focus and chose the four presidents whose likenesses would be carved into the mountain . After securing federal funding through the enthusiastic sponsorship of `` Mount Rushmore 's great political patron '' , U.S . Senator Peter Norbeck , construction on the memorial began in 1927 , and the presidents ' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939 . Upon Gutzon Borglum 's death in March 1941 , his son Lincoln Borglum took over construction . Although the initial concept called for each president to be depicted from head to waist , lack of funding forced construction to end in late October 1941 . Mount Rushmore has become an iconic symbol of the United States , and has appeared in works of fiction , and has been discussed or depicted in other popular works . It attracts over two million people annually . History Originally known to the Lakota Sioux as `` The Six Grandfathers '' , the mountain was renamed after Charles E. Rushmore , a prominent New York lawyer , during an expedition in 1885 . At first , the project of carving Rushmore was undertaken to increase tourism in the Black Hills region of South Dakota . After long negotiations involving a Congressional delegation and President Calvin Coolidge , the project received Congressional approval . The carving started in 1927 , and ended in 1941 with no fatalities . As Six Grandfathers , the mountain was part of the route that Lakota leader Black Elk took in a spiritual journey that culminated at Harney Peak . Following a series of military campaigns from 1876 to 1878 , the United States asserted control over the area , a claim that is still disputed on the basis of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie ( see section `` Controversy '' below ) . Among American settlers , the peak was known variously as Cougar Mountain , Sugarloaf Mountain , Slaughterhouse Mountain , and Keystone Cliffs . It was named Mount Rushmore during a prospecting expedition by Charles Rushmore , David Swanzey ( husband of Carrie Ingalls ) , and Bill Challis.Keystone Area Historical Society [ http : //www.keystonechamber.com/kahs/characters.html Keystone Characters ] . Retrieved October 3 , 2006 . Historian Doane Robinson conceived the idea for Mount Rushmore in 1923 to promote tourism in South Dakota . In 1924 , Robinson persuaded sculptor Gutzon Borglum to travel to the Black Hills region to ensure the carving could be accomplished . Borglum had been involved in sculpting the Confederate Memorial Carving , a massive bas-relief memorial to Confederate leaders on Stone Mountain in Georgia , but was in disagreement with the officials there . The original plan was to perform the carvings in granite pillars known as the Needles . However , Borglum realized that the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting . He chose Mount Rushmore , a grander location , partly because it faced southeast and enjoyed maximum exposure to the sun . Borglum said upon seeing Mount Rushmore , `` America will march along that skyline . '' Congress authorized the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission on March 3 , 1925 . President Coolidge insisted that , along with Washington , two Republicans and one Democrat be portrayed.Fite , Gilbert C. Mount Rushmore ( May 2003 ) . ISBN 0-9646798-5-X , the standard scholarly study . Between October 4 , 1927 , and October 31 , 1941 , Gutzon Borglum and 400 workers sculpted the colossal 60 foot ( 18 m ) high carvings of U.S. presidents George Washington , Thomas Jefferson , Theodore Roosevelt , and Abraham Lincoln to represent the first 130 years of American history . These presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory . The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite , followed by the process of `` honeycombing '' , a process where workers drill holes close together , allowing small pieces to be removed by hand . In total , about of rock were blasted off the mountainside . The image of Thomas Jefferson was originally intended to appear in the area at Washington 's right , but after the work there was begun , the rock was found to be unsuitable , so the work on the Jefferson figure was dynamited , and a new figure was sculpted to Washington 's left . In 1933 , the National Park Service took Mount Rushmore under its jurisdiction . Julian Spotts helped with the project by improving its infrastructure . For example , he had the tram upgraded so it could reach the top of Mount Rushmore for the ease of workers . By July 4 , 1934 , Washington 's face had been completed and was dedicated . The face of Thomas Jefferson was dedicated in 1936 , and the face of Abraham Lincoln was dedicated on September 17 , 1937 . In 1937 , a bill was introduced in Congress to add the head of civil-rights leader Susan B. Anthony , but a rider was passed on an appropriations bill requiring federal funds be used to finish only those heads that had already been started at that time . [ http : //www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rushmore/timeline/timeline2.html American Experience ] `` Timeline : Mount Rushmore '' ( 2002 ) . Retrieved March 20 , 2006 . In 1939 , the face of Theodore Roosevelt was dedicated . The Sculptor 's Studio — a display of unique plaster models and tools related to the sculpting — was built in 1939 under the direction of Borglum . Borglum died from an embolism in March 1941 . His son , Lincoln Borglum , continued the project . Originally , it was planned that the figures would be carved from head to waist , but insufficient funding forced the carving to end . Borglum had also planned a massive panel in the shape of the Louisiana Purchase commemorating in eight-foot-tall gilded letters the Declaration of Independence , U.S. Constitution , Louisiana Purchase , and seven other territorial acquisitions from Alaska to Texas to the Panama Canal Zone . In total , the entire project cost US $ 989,992.32 . [ http : //iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/students/Ahmann/rushmore.html Mount Rushmore National Memorial ] . Tourism in South Dakota . Laura R. Ahmann . Retrieved March 19 , 2006 . Unusually for a project of such size , no workers died during the carving . On October 15 , 1966 , Mount Rushmore was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . A 500-word essay giving the history of the United States by Nebraska student William Andrew Burkett was selected as the college-age group winner in a 1934 competition , and that essay was placed on the Entablature on a bronze plate in 1973 . In 1991 , President George H. W. Bush officially dedicated Mount Rushmore . In a canyon behind the carved faces is a chamber , cut only 70 feet ( 21 m ) into the rock , containing a vault with sixteen porcelain enamel panels . The panels include the text of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution , biographies of the four presidents and Borglum , and the history of the U.S . The chamber was created as the entrance-way to a planned `` Hall of Records '' ; the vault was installed in 1998 . Ten years of redevelopment work culminated with the completion of extensive visitor facilities and sidewalks in 1998 , such as a Visitor Center , the Lincoln Borglum Museum , and the Presidential Trail . Maintenance of the memorial requires mountain climbers to monitor and seal cracks annually . Due to budget constraints , the memorial is not regularly cleaned to remove lichens . However , on July 8 , 2005 , Alfred Kärcher GmbH , a German manufacturer of pressure washing and steam cleaning machines , conducted a free cleanup operation which lasted several weeks , using pressurized water at over 200 F . Ecology The flora and fauna of Mount Rushmore are similar to those of the rest of the Black Hills region of South Dakota . Birds including the turkey vulture , bald eagle , hawk , and meadowlark fly around Mount Rushmore , occasionally making nesting spots in the ledges of the mountain . Smaller birds , including songbirds , nuthatches , and woodpeckers , inhabit the surrounding pine forests . Terrestrial mammals include the mouse , least chipmunk , red squirrel , skunk , porcupine , raccoon , beaver , badger , coyote , bighorn sheep , bobcat , elk , mule deer , yellow-bellied marmot , and American bison . The striped chorus frog , western chorus frog , and northern leopard frog also inhabit the area , along with several species of snake . Grizzly Bear Brook and Starling Basin Brook , the two streams in the memorial , support fish such as the longnose dace and the brook trout . Mountain goats are not indigenous to the region . Those living near Mount Rushmore are descendents of a tribe that Canada gifted to Custer State Park in 1924 , which later escaped . At lower elevations , coniferous trees , mainly the ponderosa pine , surround most of the monument , providing shade from the sun . Other trees include the bur oak , the Black Hills spruce , and the cottonwood . Nine species of shrubs grow near Mount Rushmore . There is also a wide variety of wildflowers , including especially the snapdragon , sunflower , and violet . Towards higher elevations , plant life becomes sparser . However , only approximately five percent of the plant species found in the Black Hills are indigenous to the region . The area receives about 18 in of precipitation on average per year , enough to support abundant animal and plant life . Trees and other plants help to control surface runoff . Dikes , seeps , and springs help to dam up water that is flowing downhill , providing watering spots for animals . In addition , stones like sandstone and limestone help to hold groundwater , creating aquifers . A study of the fire scars present in tree ring samples indicates that forest fires occur in the ponderosa forests surrounding Mount Rushmore around every 27 years . Large fires are not common . Most events have been ground fires that serve to clear forest debris . The area is a climax community . Recent pine beetle infestations have threatened the forest . Geography Geology Mount Rushmore is largely composed of granite . The memorial is carved on the northwest margin of the Harney Peak granite batholith in the Black Hills of South Dakota , so the geologic formations of the heart of the Black Hills region are also evident at Mount Rushmore . The batholith magma intruded into the pre-existing mica schist rocks during the Proterozoic , 1.6 billion years ago . Coarse grained pegmatite dikes are associated with the granite intrusion of Harney Peak and are visibly lighter in color , thus explaining the light-colored streaks on the foreheads of the presidents . The Black Hills granites were exposed to erosion during the Neoproterozoic , but were later buried by sandstone and other sediments during the Cambrian . Remaining buried throughout the Paleozoic , they were re-exposed again during the Laramide orogeny around 70 million years ago . The Black Hills area was uplifted as an elongated geologic dome . Subsequent erosion stripped the granite of the overlying sediments and the softer adjacent schist . Some schist does remain and can be seen as the darker material just below the sculpture of Washington . The tallest mountain in the region is Harney Peak ( ) . Borglum selected Mount Rushmore as the site for several reasons . The rock of the mountain is composed of smooth , fine-grained granite . The durable granite erodes only 1 in every 10,000 years , thus was more than sturdy enough to support the sculpture and its long-term exposure . The mountain 's height of 5725 ft above sea level made it suitable , and because it faces the southeast , the workers also had the advantage of sunlight for most of the day . Soils The Mount Rushmore area is underlain by brown to dark grayish brown , well drained alfisol soils of very gravelly loam ( Mocmount ) to silt loam ( Buska ) texture . Climate Mount Rushmore has a humid continental climate ( Dwb in the Koeppen climate classification ) . It is inside a USDA Plant Hardiness Zone of 5a , meaning certain plant life in the area can withstand a low temperature of no less than . The two wettest months of the year are May and June . Orographic lift causes brief but strong afternoon thunderstorms during the summer . Tourism Tourism is South Dakota 's second-largest industry , and Mount Rushmore is the state 's top tourist attraction . In 2012 , 2,185,447 people visited the park . In the 1950s and 1960s , Siouxan Benjamin Black Elk was the `` Fifth Face of Mount Rushmore '' , posing for photographs with thousands of tourists . He became one of the most photographed people in the world . Conservation The ongoing conservation of the site is overseen by the US National Park Service . Physical efforts to conserve the monument have included replacement of the sealant applied originally by Gutzon Borglum , which had proved ineffective at providing water resistance ( components include linseed oil , granite dust and white lead ) . A modern silicone replacement was used , disguised with granite dust . In 1998 , electronic monitoring devices were installed to track movement in the topology of the sculpture to an accuracy of 3 mm . The site has been subsequently digitally recorded using a terrestrial laser scanning methodology in 2009 as part of the international Scottish Ten project , providing a record of unprecedented resolution and accuracy to inform the conservation of the site . This data was made accessible online to be freely used by the wider community to aid further interpretation and public access . Controversy Mount Rushmore is controversial among Native Americans because the United States seized the area from the Lakota tribe after the Great Sioux War of 1876 . The Treaty of Fort Laramie from 1868 had previously granted the Black Hills to the Lakota in perpetuity . Members of the American Indian Movement led an occupation of the monument in 1971 , naming it `` Mount Crazy Horse '' . Among the participants were young activists , grandparents , children and Lakota holy man John Fire Lame Deer , who planted a prayer staff atop the mountain . Lame Deer said the staff formed a symbolic shroud over the presidents ' faces `` which shall remain dirty until the treaties concerning the Black Hills are fulfilled . `` Matthew Glass , `` Producing Patriotic Inspiration at Mount Rushmore , '' Journal of the American Academy of Religion , Vol . 62 , No . 2 . ( Summer , 1994 ) , pp . 265–283 . In 2004 , the first Native American superintendent of the park , Gerard Baker , was appointed . Baker has stated that he will open up more `` avenues of interpretation '' , and that the four presidents are `` only one avenue and only one focus . '' The Crazy Horse Memorial is being constructed elsewhere in the Black Hills to commemorate the famous Native American leader as a response to Mount Rushmore . It is intended to be larger than Mount Rushmore and has the support of Lakota chiefs ; the Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation has rejected offers of federal funds . However , this memorial is likewise the subject of controversy , even within the Native American community . In popular culture Because of its fame as a monument , Mount Rushmore has been depicted in multiple places in popular culture . It is often depicted as a cover for a secret location ; shown with faces removed , modified , or added ; or parodied . The memorial was also famously used as the location of the climactic chase scene in Alfred Hitchcock 's 1959 movie North by Northwest . Legacy and commemoration On August 11 , 1952 , the U.S. Post Office issued the Mount Rushmore Memorial commemorative stamp on the 25th anniversary of the dedication of the Mt . Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota . On January 2 , 1974 , a 26-cents airmail stamp depicting the monument was also issued .

odql_1135--Mount_Rushmore.txt

In what US state is Mount Rushmore?

The Free Officers ( ' ) were a group of nationalist officers in the armed forces of Egypt and Sudan that instigated the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 . Originally established in 1945 as a cell within the Muslim Brotherhood under Abdel Moneim Abdel Raouf , which included Gamal Abdel Nasser , Hussein Hamouda , Khaled Mohieddin , Kamal el-Din Hussein , Salah Naṣr , Abdel Hakim Amer , and Sa ’ ad Tawfiq , it operated as a clandestine movement of junior officers during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . Muhammad Naguib joined the Free Officers in 1949 , after the war , and became their official leader during the turmoil leading up the revolution because of the hero status he had earned during the war , and his influence in the army . Background Economic challenges that emerged following the First World War , namely the Great Depression , affected national economies around the globe , including those of Egypt and Sudan . During this time , the Great Powers in the Arab World and Middle East began removing institutions for economic development after some positive advancement became evident . This encouraged many political groups to organize against the politicians who dominated the parliamentary politics of the time . Workers had become accustomed to development efforts which were meant to stabilize the economies of the region . These state-led initiatives set the standard for what the people expected of their government , including the regulation of imports , industrial investment , commodity distribution , production supervision . Formation Politicians and government bodies were forced to respond to the demands of groups who were directly affected by the initiative changes and withdrawals . Some of these groups included military officers . While the first military coups began in Syria in the late 1940s , it was the Free Officers coup in Egypt and the revolution of 1952 that would have the greatest impact , and encourage later movements . The members were not of the wealthy elite , but rather the middle class , young workers , government officials and junior officers . The movement , which began and spread throughout the 1940s , came to fruition with the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser . Nasser , who commanded the loyalty and respect of the other members , formed a coordinating committee ( 1949 ) , of which he was acclaimed head ( 1950 ) . Coming from a modest background , he signified the group 's majority : the hard working middle class . The Free Officers consisted of urban dwellers and educated militants with a lower middle class upbringing . Nasser was a war hero who rose quickly in military rank to colonel . He , like many others , dedicated his time and energy to reverse the corruption seen on the part of the government throughout the 1948 Palestine war by restoring a democracy . He saw the problem of domestic passive reaction to imperialism as much a problem as imperialism itself . They strengthened a `` new '' middle class . Due to this dedication toward change , the Free Officers referred to their group and its entirety as simply a `` movement . '' Later however , it would become a revolution . The Free Officers Committee enlisted General Muhammad Naguib as a public figurehead in preparation for the successful coup of 23 July 1952 . The men who had constituted themselves as the Committee of the Free Officers Movement and led the 1952 Revolution were Lieutenant Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser ( 1917–70 ) , Major Abdel Hakim Amer ( 1919–67 ) , Lieutenant Colonel Anwar El-Sadat ( 1918–81 ) , Major Salah Salem ( 1920–62 ) , Major Kamal el-Din Hussein ( 1921–99 ) , Wing Commander Gamal Salem ( 1918–2001 ) , Squadron Leader Hassan Ibrahim ( 1917–90 ) , Major Khalid Mohieddin ( 1922– ) , and Wing Commander Abdel Latif Boghdadi ( 1917–99 ) ; Major Hussein el-Shafei ( 1918–2005 ) and Lieutenant Colonel Zakaria Mohieddin ( 1918–2012 ) joined the committee later . The continued agitation within Egypt as a result of British control led to a series of revolts where British military outposts were attacked . From 1950–52 , workers in the Suez Canal Zone went on strike but were blockaded by British tanks . The government in Cairo warned nationalists not to interfere in public spaces that are associated with imperialism . Contrarily , attacks were made against the British and the Egyptian elites who worked with them . At this point , Egyptian nationalist groups were divided and unorganised . The military was the only area that still held some sort of organised mission , which led to the Revolution of 1952 . The revolutionaries publicised the need for reform and social justice , marched on Cairo and forced King Farouk to abdicate his throne . The Revolution proved crucial in ending the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan , which had commenced in 1882 . Legacy Similar movements were organised by other groups of junior officers seeking to mimic the Free Officers ' ascent to power . In Iraq , a faction of Arab and Iraqi nationalist officers , who referred to themselves as the `` Free Officers '' , toppled the pro-British Hashemite government of Nuri al-Said and Faisal II in 1958 . Said and Faisal , Nasser 's chief regional rivals at the time , were both killed during the coup . In 1963 some of the same officers aligned themselves with the Ba'ath Party and overthrew the government of Abd al-Karim Qasim , who was killed by the organizers of the coup . In Syria a coalition of Arab nationalist officers , including Nasserists , Ba'athists and independents , toppled the secessionist government of Nazim al-Qudsi in 1963 and vowed to restore the union with Egypt in the United Arab Republic ( 1958–1961 ) . In Saudi Arabia during the 1960s the Prince Talal invoked a similar idea , the Free Princes Movement , in an unsuccessful effort to overthrow his country 's conservative monarchy . He was exiled to Egypt as a result and was given asylum by Nasser . Then Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi used a similar group to overthrow the Libyan King Idris in 1969 . The anniversary of the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 led by the Free Officers is commemorated as Revolution Day , an annual public holiday in Egypt on 23 July . The name was consciously assumed by the Free Officers and Civilians Movement , led by Brigadier-General Najib al-Salihi who opposed Saddam Hussein . Members This is a list of some of the major officers of the movement : * Major General Muhammad Naguib ( Border Guards ) * Brigadier General Youssef Seddik ( Infantry ) * Lieutenant Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser ( Infantry ) * Lieutenant Colonel Anwar El-Sadat ( Military Communication ) * Lieutenant Colonel Zakaria Mohieddin ( Infantry ) * Major Abdel Hakim Amer ( Infantry ) * Major Salah Salem ( Artillery ) * Major Kamal el-Din Hussein ( Artillery ) * Major Khalid Mohieddin ( Armoured Corps ) * Major Hussein Al Shafei ( Armoured Corps ) * General Ali Elbana * Major Hamdy Ebeid * Captain Abdel Moneim Abdel Raouf ( Air force ) * Wing Commander Gamal Salem ( Air force ) * Wing Commander Abd al-Latif al-Boghdadi ( Air force ) * Squadron Leader Hassan Ibrahim ( Air force ) * Amin Shaker ( Military Communication ) * Mashhour Ahmed Mashhour * Aly Mansour ( Air Force )

qb_1172--Free_Officers_Movement_(Egypt).txt

The Free Officers Movement was composed of young junior army officers committed to unseating the monarchy of which African country?

New Zealand ( ) is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean . The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the North Island , or Te Ika-a-Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu – and numerous smaller islands . New Zealand is situated some 1500 km east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1000 km south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia , Fiji , and Tonga . Because of its remoteness , it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans . During its long period of isolation , New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of animal , fungal and plant life . The country 's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks , such as the Southern Alps , owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions . New Zealand 's capital city is Wellington , while its most populous city is Auckland . Sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE , Polynesians settled in the islands that would later become New Zealand , and developed a distinctive Māori culture . In 1642 , Abel Tasman , a Dutch explorer , became the first European to sight New Zealand . In 1840 , representatives of the British Crown and Māori Chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi , making New Zealand a British colony . Today , the majority of New Zealand 's population of 4.7 million is of European descent ; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority , followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders . Reflecting this , New Zealand 's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers , with recent broadening arising from increased immigration . The official languages are English , Māori and New Zealand Sign Language , with English predominant . New Zealand is a developed country with a market economy . New Zealand is a World Bank high-income economy and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance , such as health , education , economic freedom and quality of life . Nationally , legislative authority is vested in an elected , unicameral Parliament , while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet , led by the Prime Minister , who is currently John Key . Queen Elizabeth II is the country 's head of state and is represented by a Governor-General . In addition , New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes . The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau ( a dependent territory ) ; the Cook Islands and Niue ( self-governing states in free association with New Zealand ) ; and the Ross Dependency , which is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica . New Zealand is a member of the United Nations , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Pacific Islands Forum , and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . Etymology Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt , supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America . In 1645 , Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland . British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand . Aotearoa ( often translated as `` land of the long white cloud '' ) is the current Māori name for New Zealand . It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans , with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island . Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands , including Te Ika-a-Māui ( the fish of Māui ) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ( the waters of greenstone ) or Te Waka o Aoraki ( the canoe of Aoraki ) for the South Island . Early European maps labelled the islands North ( North Island ) , Middle ( South Island ) and South ( Stewart Island / Rakiura ) . In 1830 , maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 , this was the accepted norm . The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised , and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013 . This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui , and South Island or Te Waipounamu . Note that for each island , either its English or Māori name can be used , or both can be used together . History New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans . Radiocarbon dating , evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300 , concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands . Over the centuries that followed , these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori . The population was divided into iwi ( tribes ) and hapū ( subtribes ) who would sometimes cooperate , sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other . At some point , a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands ( which they named Rēkohu ) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture . The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862 , largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s , although European diseases also contributed . In 1862 , only 101 survived and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933 . The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642 . In a hostile encounter , four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot . Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline . Following Cook , New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling , sealing and trading ships . They traded European food , metal tools , weapons and other goods for timber , Māori food , artifacts and water . The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare . Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus , which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns . The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840 , killing 30,000–40,000 Māori . From the early 19th century , Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand , eventually converting most of the Māori population . The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre-contact level during the 19th century ; introduced diseases were the major factor . In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand . The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori . In 1835 , following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry , the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection . Ongoing unrest , the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company ( which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori ) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori . The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840 . In response to the New Zealand Company 's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa , Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840 , even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign . With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants , particularly from the United Kingdom , began to increase . New Zealand , still part of the colony of New South Wales , became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841 . The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854 . In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing , gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy . ( Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s . ) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony , premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait . Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location , with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865 . As immigrant numbers increased , conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s , resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land . In 1891 the Liberal Party led by John Ballance came to power as the first organised political party . The Liberal Government , later led by Richard Seddon , passed many important social and economic measures . In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions . In 1898 Seddon 's government passed the Old-age Pensions Act of 1898 , the first general pensions scheme in the British Empire . In 1907 , at the request of the New Zealand Parliament , King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire , reflecting its self-governing status . Accordingly , the title `` Dominion of New Zealand '' dates from 1907 . In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster , confirming that the British parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand . New Zealand was involved in world affairs , fighting , as part of the British Empire , in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression . The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy . New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work . A Māori protest movement developed , which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi . In 1975 , a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty , and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985 . The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi , although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s . Politics Government New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy , although its constitution is not codified . Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state . The Queen is represented by the Governor-General , whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister . The Governor-General can exercise the Crown 's prerogative powers , such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers , ambassadors and other key public officials , and in rare situations , the reserve powers ( e.g . the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law ) . The powers of the Queen and the Governor-General are limited by constitutional constraints and they can not normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet . The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives . It also included an upper house , the Legislative Council , until this was abolished in 1950 . The supremacy of Parliament , over the Crown and other government institutions , was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand . The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats . If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured . The Governor-General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister , who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition . Cabinet , formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister , is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions . By convention , members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet . Almost all parliamentary general elections between and were held under the first-past-the-post voting system . The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties , National and Labour . Since the , a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional ( MMP ) has been used . Under the MMP system each person has two votes ; one is for electoral seats ( including some reserved for Māori ) , and the other is for a party . Since the , there have been 71 electorate seats ( which includes 7 Māori electorates ) , and the remaining 49 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote , although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats . Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land ( Head of State , Governor-General , Prime Minister , Speaker and Chief Justice ) were occupied simultaneously by women . Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government . This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions . The Privy Council in London was the country 's final court of appeal until 2004 , when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand . The judiciary , headed by the Chief Justice , includes the Court of Appeal , the High Court , and subordinate courts . New Zealand is identified as one of the world 's most stable and well-governed nations . , the country was ranked fifth in the strength of its democratic institutions and first in government transparency and lack of corruption . New Zealand has a high level of civic participation , with 79 % voter turnout during the most recent elections , compared to an OECD average of 72 % . Furthermore , 67 % of New Zealanders say they trust their political institutions , far higher than the OECD average of 56 % . Foreign relations and the military Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy . The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan . On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming , `` Where she goes , we go ; where she stands , we stand . '' In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests , while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty . The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War , the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior , disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand 's nuclear-free policy . Despite the US 's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia , whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend . Close political contact is maintained between the two countries , with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit , live and work in both countries without restrictions . In 2013 , there are about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia , which is about 15 percent of the population of New Zealand . 65,000 Australians live in New Zealand . New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries . A large proportion of New Zealand 's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment . Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category , which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year . A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it . New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum ( including the East Asia Summit ) . New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Five Power Defence Arrangements . The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches : the Royal New Zealand Navy , the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand Air Force . New Zealand 's national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack , although it does have a global presence . The country fought in both world wars , with notable campaigns in Gallipoli , Crete , El Alamein and Cassino . The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand 's national identity and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia . According to Mary Edmond-Paul , `` World War I had left scars on New Zealand society , with nearly 18,500 in total dying as a result of the war , more than 41,000 wounded , and others affected emotionally , out of an overseas fighting force of about 103,000 and a population of just over a million . '' New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate and the Battle of Britain air campaign . During World War II , the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand . In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars , New Zealand fought in the Korean War , the Second Boer War , the Malayan Emergency , the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War . It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions , such as those in Cyprus , Somalia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Sinai , Angola , Cambodia , the Iran–Iraq border , Bougainville , East Timor , and the Solomon Islands . New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War . New Zealand ranks 8th in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index , which ranks the world 's most developed countries on their dedication to policies that benefit poorer nations . New Zealand is considered the fourth most peaceful country in the world according to the 2014 Global Peace Index . Local government and external territories Officially , New Zealand is divided into 16 regions . The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces , which had a degree of autonomy . Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways , education , land sales and other policies , government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876 . As a result , New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities . The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries . Since 1876 , various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government . In 1989 , the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities . The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils . The regional councils ' role is to regulate `` the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management '' , while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage , water , local roads , building consents and other local matters . Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils . The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils , 53 district councils , and the Chatham Islands Council . While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority , it undertakes many functions of a regional council . New Zealand is one of 16 realms within the Commonwealth . The Realm of New Zealand is the territory over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand , Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue . The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand . The New Zealand Parliament can not pass legislation for these countries , but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence . Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem , but is administered by a council of three elders ( one from each Tokelauan atoll ) . The Ross Dependency is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica , where it operates the Scott Base research facility . New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally , so most people born in New Zealand , the Cook Islands , Niue , Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens . Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards . Environment Geography See also : Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands . The two main islands ( the North Island , or Te Ika-a-Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu ) are separated by the Cook Strait , 22 km wide at its narrowest point . Besides the North and South Islands , the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island , the Chatham Islands , Great Barrier Island ( in the Hauraki Gulf ) , d'Urville Island ( in the Marlborough Sounds ) and Waiheke Island ( about 22 km from central Auckland ) . The country 's islands lie between latitudes 29° and 53°S , and longitudes 165° and 179°E . New Zealand is long and narrow ( over 1600 km along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 km ) , with about 15000 km of coastline and a total land area of 268000 km2 . Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline , the country has extensive marine resources . Its Exclusive Economic Zone is one of the largest in the world , covering more than 15 times its land area . The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand , and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps . There are 18 peaks over 3000 m , the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3754 m. Fiordland 's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south-western corner of the South Island . The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism . The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau , punctuated by the North Island 's highest mountain , Mount Ruapehu ( 2797 m ) . The plateau also hosts the country 's largest lake , Lake Taupo , nestled in the caldera of one of the world 's most active supervolcanoes . The country owes its varied topography , and perhaps even its emergence above the waves , to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates . New Zealand is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent . About 25 million years ago , a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region . This is now most evident in the Southern Alps , formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault . Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other , producing the Puysegur Trench to the south , the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island , and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north . New Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as Australasia and Oceania . The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent , New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model . File : NZ Landscape.jpg|Rural scene File : Emerald Lakes , New Zealand.jpg|The Emerald Lakes , Mt Tongariro . File : Lake Gunn.jpg|Lake Gunn File : Pencarrow Head , Wellington , New Zealand from Santa Regina , 24 Feb. 2007.jpg|Pencarrow Head , Wellington Climate New Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C in the south to 16 °C in the north . Historical maxima and minima are in Rangiora , Canterbury and in Ranfurly , Otago . Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland . Of the seven largest cities , Christchurch is the driest , receiving on average only 640 mm of rain per year and Wellington the wettest , receiving almost twice that amount . Auckland , Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine . The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate , with around 1,400–1,600 hours ; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours . The general snow season is about early June until early October in the South Island . Snowfall is less common on the North Island , although it does occur . File : Autumn in New Zealand.jpg|Autumn in Wellington File : New Zealand snow.jpg|Central Plateau in winter . Much of this region has a cool continental climate with regular snowfall . File : Scorching Bay.jpg|Scorching Bay beach in summer The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest month in the six largest cities of New Zealand . The North Island cities are generally slightly warmer in February , but the South Island cities are warmest in January . Biodiversity New Zealand 's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country 's species of animals , fungi and plants . Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation , and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species . About 82 percent of New Zealand 's indigenous vascular plants are endemic , covering 1,944 species across 65 genera and includes a single endemic family . The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand , including lichen-forming species , is not known , nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic , but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand and 40 percent of these are endemic . The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps , or by southern beech in cooler climates . The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands , the majority of which are tussock . Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest , with only high alpine , wet , infertile and volcanic areas without trees . Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived , with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement . Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement , being logged or cleared to make room

bb_3823--New_Zealand.txt

Which country since the late 1900s has governed/overseen the increasing independence of the New Caledonia archipelago, east of Australia?

French fries ( American English ) , chips ( British English ) , fries , finger chips ( Indian English ) , or French-fried potatoes are batonnet or allumette cut potato that are deep-fried . In the United States and most of Canada , the term fries refers to any fried elongated pieces of potatoes , while in the United Kingdom , Australia , South Africa , Ireland and New Zealand , allumette cut fried potatoes are sometimes called shoestring fries to distinguish them from the batonnet cut chips . French fries are typically served hot , either soft or crispy , and they are generally eaten as part of lunch or dinner , or by themselves as a snack , and they commonly appear on the menus of fast food restaurants . French fries are generally salted and are often served with ketchup ; in many countries they are topped instead with other condiments or toppings , including vinegar , mayonnaise , or other local specialties . Fries can also be topped more elaborately , as in the dishes of poutine and chili cheese fries . French fries can be made from sweet potatoes instead of potatoes . A baked variant of the french fry is also made , usually with less or even no oil . Etymology Thomas Jefferson had `` potatoes served in the French manner '' at a White House dinner in 1802 . The expression `` French Fried Potatoes '' first occurred in print in English in the 1856 work Cookery for Maids of All Work by E Warren : French Fried Potatoes . – Cut new potatoes in thin slices , put them in boiling fat , and a little salt ; fry both sides of a light golden brown colour ; drain . In the early 20th century , the term `` French fried '' was being used in the sense of `` deep-fried '' , for other foods such as onion rings or chicken . It is unlikely that `` French fried '' refers to frenching in the sense of julienning , which is not attested until after French fried potatoes . Previously , frenching referred only to trimming meat off the shanks of chops . Culinary origin Belgium Some claim that fries originated in Belgium , and that the ongoing dispute between the French and Belgians about where they were invented is highly contentious , with both countries claiming ownership . From the Belgian standpoint the popularity of the term `` French fries '' is explained as a `` French gastronomic hegemony '' into which the cuisine of Belgium was assimilated because of a lack of understanding coupled with a shared language and geographic proximity between the two countries . Belgian journalist Jo Gérard claims that a 1781 family manuscript recounts that potatoes were deep-fried prior to 1680 in the Meuse valley , in what was then the Spanish Netherlands ( present-day Belgium ) : `` The inhabitants of Namur , Andenne , and Dinant had the custom of fishing in the Meuse for small fish and frying , especially among the poor , but when the river was frozen and fishing became hazardous , they cut potatoes in the form of small fish and put them in a fryer like those here . '' Gérard has not produced the manuscript that supports this claim , which , even if true , is unrelated to the later history of the French fry , as the potato did not arrive in the region until around 1735 . Also , given 18th century economic conditions : `` It is absolutely unthinkable that a peasant could have dedicated large quantities of fat for cooking potatoes . At most they were sautéed in a pan ... '' . Some people believe that the term `` French '' was introduced when British and American soldiers arrived in Belgium during World War I and consequently tasted Belgian fries . They supposedly called them `` French '' , as it was the local language and the official language of the Belgian Army at that time , believing themselves to be in France . At that time , the term `` French fries '' was growing popular . But in fact the term was already used in America as early as 1899 , in an item in Good Housekeeping which specifically references `` Kitchen Economy in France '' : `` The perfection of French fries is due chiefly to the fact that plenty of fat is used '' . `` Pommes frites '' , `` frites '' ( French ) , or `` frieten '' ( Dutch ) became the national snack and a substantial part of several national dishes , such as Moules-frites or Steak-frites . France In France and other French-speaking countries , fried potatoes are formally pommes de terre frites , but more commonly pommes frites , patates frites , or simply frites . The word `` aiguillettes '' or allumettes is used when the French fries are very small and thin . One enduring origin story holds that French fries were invented by street vendors on the Pont Neuf bridge in Paris in 1789 , just before the outbreak of the French revolution . However , a reference exists in France from 1775 to `` a few pieces of fried potato '' and to `` fried potatoes '' . Eating potatoes was promoted in France by Parmentier , but he did not mention fried potatoes in particular . Many Americans attribute the dish to France and offer as evidence a notation by U.S. President Thomas Jefferson . `` Pommes de terre frites à cru , en petites tranches '' ( `` Potatoes deep-fried while raw , in small slices '' ) in a manuscript in Thomas Jefferson 's hand ( circa 1801–1809 ) and the recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef , Honoré Julien . In addition , from 1813 on , recipes for what can be described as French fries occur in popular American cookbooks . By the late 1850s , one of these uses the term French fried potatoes . Frites are the main ingredient in the Canadian dish of Québécois descent known in both Canadian English and French as poutine , consisting of fried potatoes covered with cheese curds and gravy , a dish with a growing number of variations ; this dish is generally considered to have been developed in rural Québec sometime in the 1950s , although precisely where in the province it first appeared is a matter of contention . Spain In Spain , fried potatoes are called patatas fritas or papas fritas . Another common form , in which the potatoes are cut into different shapes and seasoned with a spicy tomato sauce , is called patatas bravas . Some speculate that the dish may have been invented in Spain , the first European country in which the potato appeared via the New World colonies , and assume the first appearance to have been as an accompaniment to fish dishes in Galicia , from which it spread to the rest of the country and further to the Spanish Netherlands , which became Belgium more than a century later . Professor Paul Ilegems , curator of the Frietmuseum in Bruges , Belgium , believes that Saint Teresa of Ávila fried the first French fries , referring also to the tradition of frying in Mediterranean cuisine . Subsequent history The J. R. Simplot Company is credited with successfully commercializing French fries in frozen form during the 1940s . Subsequently , in 1967 , Ray Kroc of McDonald 's contracted the Simplot company to supply them with frozen fries , replacing fresh-cut potatoes . In 2004 , 29 % of the United States ' potato crop were used to make frozen fries – 90 % consumed by the food services sector and 10 % by retail . It is estimated that 80 % of households in the UK buy frozen fries each year . By country Belgium and the Netherlands Fries are very popular in Belgium , where they are known as frieten ( in Dutch ) or frites ( in French ) , and the Netherlands , where they are known as patat in the north and , in the south , friet . In Belgium , fries are sold in shops called friteries ( French ) , frietkot/frituur ( Dutch ) , or Fritüre/Frittüre ( German ) . They are served with a large variety of Belgian sauces and eaten either on their own or with other snacks such as fricandelle or burgers . Traditionally , fries are served in a cornet de frites ( French ) , patatzak /frietzak/fritzak ( Dutch/Flemish ) , or Frittentüte ( German ) , a white cardboard cone , then wrapped in paper , with a spoonful of sauce ( mayonnaise and many others ) on top . They may also be served with other traditional fast-food items , such as frikandel/fricadelle , fishsticks gehaktbal/boulet ( meatballs ) or kroket/croquette . In the Netherlands , fries are sold at snack bars , often served with the sauce Fritessaus or curry ketchup .. Friteries and other fast-food establishments tend to offer a number of different sauces for the fries and meats . In addition to ketchup and mayonnaise , popular options include : aioli , sauce andalouse , sauce Americaine , Bicky Dressing ( Gele Bicky-sauce ) , curry mayonnaise , mammoet-sauce , peanut sauce , samurai-sauce , sauce `` Pickles '' , pepper-sauce , tartar sauce , zigeuner sauce , and À la zingara . These sauces are generally also available in supermarkets . In addition to this , hot sauces are sometimes offered by friteries , including hollandaise sauce , sauce provençale , Béarnaise sauce , or a splash carbonade flamande stew from a constantly simmering pot , in the spirit of British chips and gravy . Canada The town of Florenceville-Bristol , New Brunswick , headquarters of McCain Foods , calls itself `` The French fry capital of the world '' and also hosts a museum about potatoes called Potato World . It is also one of the world 's largest manufacturer of frozen French fries and other potato specialties . France In France , the thick-cut fries are called Pommes Pont-Neuf or simply pommes frites , about 10 mm ; thinner variants are pommes allumettes ( matchstick potatoes ) , about 7 mm , and pommes paille ( potato straws ) , 3–4 mm ( roughly 0.4 , 0.3 and 0.15 inch respectively ) . The two-bath technique is standard ( Bocuse ) . Pommes gaufrettes are waffle fries . Germany , Austria , Switzerland French fries migrated to the German-speaking countries during the 19th century . In Germany , where they are usually known by the French words pommes frites , or ( derived from the French words , but pronounced as German words ) only Pommes or Fritten , they are often served with mayonnaise , and are a popular walking snack offered by Schnellimbiss ( `` quick bite '' ) kiosks . Since the advent of Currywurst in the 1950s , a paper tray of sausage ( bratwurst or bockwurst ) anointed with curry ketchup and laced with additional curry powder , and a side of french fries , has become an immensely popular fast-food meal . Scandinavia In Denmark , Sweden and Norway the French name pommes frites is used . They are the most common form of potatoes when served together with breaded plaice ( or certain other low fat fishes ) . When served with fish , remoulade and a lemon slice this represents the typical Danish version of fish and chips . Pommes frites are also served across Scandinavia as a small stand-alone dish , together with ketchup or mayonnaise . Fried sausage ( same kind as for hot dogs ) , hamburgers or schnitzels may be the meat portion of a dish which includes french fries . Some traditional restaurants ( as contrast to `` fast-food '' ) may serve french fries . This may be as an accompaniment to an entrecote or other beef steak together with bearnaise . Better restaurants tend to avoid serving french fries , with the possible exception of fish 'n chips . United Kingdom and Ireland The usual deep-fried potatoes in the United Kingdom are called `` chips '' , and are between 10 and wide . They are occasionally made from unpeeled potatoes . Chips are often less crisp than the continental European French fry , owing to their relatively high water content . British chips are not potato chips , which are called `` crisps '' in Britain . Like other deep-fried potatoes , they are cooked twice , once at a relatively low temperature ( blanching ) to cook the potato , and then at a higher temperature to crisp the surface , making them crunchy on the outside and fluffier on the inside . In the UK , chips are part of the popular fast food dish fish and chips . The first chips fried in the UK were sold by a Mrs 'Granny ' Duce , in one of the West Riding towns beginning in 1854 . A blue plaque in Oldham marks the origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries in Britain . In Scotland , chips were first sold in Dundee , `` ... in the 1870s , that glory of British gastronomy – the chip – was first sold by Belgian immigrant Edward De Gernier in the city 's Greenmarket '' . United States Although French fries were already a popular dish in most British commonwealth countries , the thin style of French fries has been popularized worldwide in part by the large American fast-food chains , such as McDonald 's , Burger King , and Wendy 's . Pre-made French fries have been available for home cooking since the 1960s , usually having been pre-fried ( or sometimes baked ) , frozen and placed in a sealed plastic bag . Some later varieties of French fries are battered and breaded , and many fast-food chains in the U.S. dust the potatoes with kashi , dextrin , and other flavor coatings for crispier fries with particular tastes . Results with batterings and breadings , followed by microwaving , have not achieved widespread critical acceptance . Oven frying delivers a dish different from deep-fried potatoes . Variants There are several variants of French fries . They include : * Animal fries – fries covered with cheese , grilled onions , and In-N-Out 's secret spread * Carne asada fries – fries covered with carne asada , guacamole , sour cream and cheese * Cheese fries – fries covered with cheese * Chili fries – fries covered with chili * Crinkle-cut fries – also known as `` wavy fries , they 're cut in a corrugated fashion * Curly fries – characterized by their spring-like shape , cut from whole potatoes using a specialized spiral slicer . * Curry Chips – fries covered in curry sauce , a popular item served by chip shops in Ireland * French fries sandwich * Home fries – fries cut into rough cubes instead of sticks * Oven fries – fries that are cooked in the oven as a final step in the preparation ( having been coated with oil during preparation at the factory ) , often sold frozen * Potato wedges – Thick-cut fries with the skin * Poutine – a dish consisting of fries topped with cheese curds and light brown gravy and principally associated with the Canadian province of Québec * Seasoned fries – coated with spices , or other ingredients , which include garlic powder , onion powder , black pepper , paprika , and salt * Shoestring fries – fries cut `` as thin as a shoestring '' * Steak fries – thick-cut fries without the skin * Sweet potato fries – fries made with sweet potatoes instead of traditional white potatoes * Triple Cooked Chips * Tornado fries * Waffle fries – obtained by quarter-turning the potato before each next slide over a grater and deep-frying just once File : AnimalFries.JPG|Animal fries ( covered with cheese , grilled onions , and In-N-Out 's secret spread ) from In-N-Out Burger 's secret menu File : The Hat , chili cheese fries.jpg|Chili cheese fries File : Bartley's.jpg|Sweet potato fries served in a restaurant in Harvard Square . File : SupermaketFries.jpg|Wavy French fries sold in a Canadian supermarket File : Fast food 01 ebru.jpg|Curly fries Accompaniments Fries tend to be served with a variety of accompaniments , such as salt and vinegar ( malt , balsamic or white ) , pepper , Cajun seasoning , grated cheese , melted cheese , mushy peas , heated curry sauce , curry ketchup ( mildly spiced mix of the former ) , hot sauce , relish , mustard , mayonnaise , bearnaise sauce , tartar sauce , chili , tzatziki , feta cheese , garlic sauce , fry sauce , butter , sour cream , ranch dressing , barbecue sauce , gravy , honey , aioli , brown sauce , ketchup , lemon juice , piccalilli , pickled cucumber , pickled gherkins , pickled onions or pickled eggs . Health aspects French fries contain primarily carbohydrates from the potato ( mostly in the form of starch ) and fat absorbed during the deep-frying process . For example : a large serving of French fries at McDonald 's in the United States is ( 154 grams ) ; nearly all of the 500 calories per serving derive from the 63 g of carbohydrates and the 25 g of fat ; a serving also contains 6 g of protein , plus 350 mg of sodium . According to Jonathan Bonnet , MD , writing in a TIME magazine article , `` ... fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud '' , as they `` ... involve frying , salting , and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato : the skin , where many of the nutrients and fiber are found . `` [ http : //time.com/3896083/french-fries-potato/ Fried Potatoes and Acrylamide : Are French Fries Bad For You ? ] Kristin Kirkpatrick , RD , calls French fries `` ... an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat , and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all . '' David Katz , MD states that `` ... French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often used as vehicles for things like sugar-laced ketchup and fatty mayo . '' Frying French fries in beef tallow , lard , or other animal fats adds saturated fat to the diet . Replacing animal fats with tropical vegetable oils , such as palm oil , simply substitutes one saturated fat for another . Replacing animal fats with partially hydrogenated oil reduces cholesterol but adds trans fat , which has been shown to both raise LDL cholesterol and lower HDL cholesterol . Canola/Rapeseed oil , or sunflower-seed oil are also used , as are mixes of vegetable oils , but beef tallow is generally more popular , especially amongst fast-food outlets that use communal oil baths . Accordingly , many restaurants now advertise their use of unsaturated oils ; for example , both Five Guys and Chick-fil-A advertise that their fries are prepared with peanut oil . French fries contain some of the highest levels of acrylamides of any foodstuff , and concerns have been raised about the impact of acrylamides on human health . According to the American Cancer Society it is not clear , , whether acrylamide consumption affects people 's risk of getting cancer . A lower fat method for producing a french fry-like product is to coat frenched or wedge potatoes in oil and spices/flavoring , then baking them . The heat will not be as great as deep frying , thus also reducing acrylamides . Legal issues In June 2004 , the United States Department of Agriculture , with the advisement of a federal district judge from Beaumont , Texas , classified batter-coated French fries as a vegetable under the Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act . This was primarily for trade reasons . French fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a processed food . This classification , referred to as the `` French fry rule '' , was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit case Fleming Companies , Inc. v. USDA . In the United States in 2002 , the McDonald 's Corporation agreed to donate to Hindu and other groups to settle lawsuits filed against the chain for mislabeling French fries and hash browns as vegetarian , because their French fries and hash browns were found to contain beef extract added during production . Techniques * Blanching ( cooking ) * Deep fryer * Deep frying * Vacuum fryer * Chip pan

qz_438--French_fries.txt

From which country do French fries originate? France, Belgium or Switzerland?

Ceefax ( near-homophonous with `` See Facts '' ) was the world 's first teletext information service . It was started by the BBC in 1974 and ended at 23:32:19 BST on 23 October 2012 , in line with the digital switchover being completed in Northern Ireland . The service then ceased after 38 years of broadcasting . History Early electro-mechanical system During the late 1960s , engineers Geoff Larkby and Barry Pyatt , at the Designs Department ( Television Group ) of the BBC , worked on an experimental analogue text transmission system . Its object was to transmit a printable page of text during the nocturnal `` close-down '' period of normal television transmission . Sir Hugh Carleton Greene , then Director General of the BBC , was interested in making farming and stock-market prices available as hard copy via the dormant TV transmitters . The remit received by BBC Designs Department was `` the equivalent of one page of The Times newspaper to be transmitted during shut-down '' . Their system employed a modified , Alexander Muirhead designed , rotating drum , facsimile transmitter , and Larkby & Pyatt 's own , unique , design of hard-copy printer . This printer used pressure-sensitive `` till-roll '' paper passing over a drum with a raised helix of steel wire . The drum was synchronised with the transmission drum by means of the `` Start of Page '' , and `` Start of Line '' information inherent in the Muirhead system . Printing was effected by a hardened steel blade driven by , initially , a loudspeaker-type moving coil , then by a printed-circuit coil , and finally by a special ceramic piezo element manufactured by Brush-Clevite . The combination of rotating helix and oscillating moving blade , with the till-roll paper moving linearly between them , enabled a raster to be drawn on the paper . This early electro-mechanical system was nicknamed BEEBFAX – `` Beeb '' was the contemporary popular name for the BBC , and `` fax '' from the facsimile machine . Initial tests were conducted by sending scans of Christmas Cards over the internal telephone system from London to Bristol in 1969 . The system was less than popular in the Designs Department laboratory , due to the clatter of the Muirhead facsimile , and the whining of the printer , so the project was shelved . Messrs Larkby & Pyatt went on to propose several improvements using digital technology , but the electro-mechanical system was finally scrapped in 1970 . Fully-electronic version The idea was later taken up again , this time in digital and on-screen form , under the new name of CEEFAX , and the new system was announced in October 1972 , and following test transmissions in 1972–74 , the Ceefax system went live on 23 September 1974 with thirty pages of information . Developed by BBC engineers who were working on ways of providing televisual subtitles for the deaf , it was the first teletext system in the world . James Redmond , the BBC 's Director of Engineering at the time , was a particular enthusiast . Other broadcasters soon took up the idea , including the Independent Broadcasting Authority ( IBA ) , who had developed the incompatible ORACLE teletext system , at around the same time . Before the Internet and the World Wide Web become popular , Ceefax pages were often the first location to report a breaking story or headline . After technical negotiations , the two broadcasters settled in 1976 on a single standard , different from both Ceefax and ORACLE , which ultimately developed into World System Teletext , and which remained in use for analogue broadcasts until 2012 . The display format of 24 rows by 40 columns of characters was also adopted for the Prestel system . The technology became the standard European teletext system and replaced other standards , including the Antiope system formerly used in France . In 1983 , Ceefax started to broadcast computer programs , known as telesoftware , for the BBC Micro ( a home computer available in the United Kingdom ) . The telesoftware broadcasts stopped in 1989 . A similar idea was the French C Plus Direct satellite channel which used different , higher speed technology to broadcast PC software . The basic technology of Ceefax has remained compatible with the 1976 unified rollout ; system elaborations since then have been made such that earlier receivers are still able to do a basic decode of pages , but will simply ignore enhanced information rather than showing corrupted data . For example , early receivers can not process the FasText coloured-button hyperlinking data , but are able to ignore it . Modern day Until 2012 , the BBC 's Ceefax service was still providing information on topics covering News , Sport , Weather , TV Listings and Businesses . The pages were kept up to date until the UK digital switchover was completed on Tuesday 23 October 2012 . In 2002 , the BBC stopped broadcasting Ceefax on the digital satellite Sky Digital service , but later brought back a limited service including a TV schedule for BBC One and BBC Two ; and subtitles . The BBC has tried to reuse the old Ceefax page numbers where possible on the Freeview and digital satellite BBC Red Button Ceefax-replacement services . It was announced that Ceefax would not be replaced when the analogue signal was switched off in October 2012 . The BBC Red Button service is seen as an alternative to Ceefax and since 2007 the number of regions with a Ceefax supported analogue signal had declined as digital switchover progressed across the UK . As of the end of 2011 , three quarters of the UK TV regions had completed or were in the process of being switched over . Ceefax was the last remaining text service available via analogue TV transmissions in the UK , as ITV and Channel 4 's Teletext service closed in December 2009 . Channel 5 's `` Five Text '' ancillary service closed in 2011 . A limited analogue teletext service through ITV and Channel 4 was still available through terrestrial until the digital switchover was completed on 23 October 2012 . At 23:32:19 BST on 23 October 2012 , Ceefax was switched off after 38 years of providing news , weather and sport information when the Olympic Games champion Dame Mary Peters turned off the last analogue TV signal in Northern Ireland . A series of graphics on Ceefax 's front page marked its 38 years on the BBC . BBC News ' website also has memories of Ceefax . BBC Red Button service The analogue switch-off in the UK saw the closure of Ceefax in October 2012 . Its replacement , BBC Red Button , is available on most digital services including Freeview , Virgin Media , Sky and Freesat . BBC Red Button is accessed by pressing the red button or the text button on any BBC channel . As well as being able to display plain text , BBC Red Button offers richer graphics than Ceefax and a number of interactive video streams . Pages can be navigated to by scrolling with the remote or entering the correct page number ; most of the page numbers previously used on Ceefax are the same on BBC Red Button , such as sports being on page number 301 with football on 302 and football results on 316 . The new BBC Red Button Service is used as much as Ceefax and is especially popular among football fans . Technology The Ceefax/ORACLE standard was internationalised in the 1980s as World System Teletext , which was adopted into the international standard CCIR 653 ( now ITU-R BT.653 ) of 1986 as CCIR Teletext System B . As with other teletext systems , text and simple graphics are transmitted in-band with the picture signal , and decoded by controller circuitry . Pages and Content Pages were retrieved using a three-digit number . From the 1996 relaunch onwards , the main sections were organised as follows : * 100s - News * 200s - Business News * 300s - Sport * 400s - Weather and Travel * 500s - Entertainment ( including 555 - National Lottery results and 570 - Newsround ) * 600s - TV and Radio Listings * 888 - Subtitles Pages from Ceefax Pages from Ceefax was a selection of content from the Ceefax service and normally only shown in the absence of any other programming . It consisted of selected Ceefax pages ( typically news ) transmitted as an ordinary TV picture . As a result , although Pages from Ceefax could be viewed on any receiver , the interactive nature of the service was lost . Audio accompaniment typically consisted of stock music or sometimes a discontinuous tone . First shown in 1980 in 30-minute slots , by 1983 it was a common filler during daytime ( where it was originally billed on-air as Ceefax in Vision or , in the case of the pre-Breakfast Time slot during the 1980s , as Ceefax AM ) . From the late 1980s onwards , it was increasingly marginalised by the BBC 's move towards a near-continuous service . However , when the BBC launched The Learning Zone in 1995 it was shown during overnight downtime although latterly BBC News filled many of the late night/early morning gaps in the schedules . The last Pages from Ceefax slot was shown in the early hours of Monday 22 October 2012 and featured special continuity announcements and a specially-created end caption featuring various Ceefax graphics from over the years . The music chosen for the final minutes was `` BART '' by Ruby , which had been frequently used for `` Pages from Ceefax '' and other continuity . Since then , overnight downtime has been filled with a rolling loop of previews of forthcoming BBC Two programmes . The limited set of rolling pages shown on Pages from Ceefax ( referred to as a `` newsreel '' ) had been accessible at any time of day via Ceefax page 152 ( BBC Two only ) on any traditional Teletext television . In a similar manner , Channel 4 showed pages from Oracle until 1989 and 4-Tel On View until 1997 and in the late 1980s and early 1990s some ITV companies broadcast a programme called Jobfinder which consisted of teletext pages showing job vacancies and related information . ITV Nightscreen also used teletext pages in its first few years on air .

qb_8569--Ceefax.txt

What was the World’s first teletext information service?

Our Town is a 1938 metatheatrical three-act play by American playwright Thornton Wilder . It tells the story of the fictional American small town of Grover 's Corners between 1901 and 1913 through the everyday lives of its citizens . Throughout Wilder uses metatheatrical devices setting the play in the actual theatre where it is being performed . The main character is the stage manager of the theatre who directly addresses the audience , brings in guest lecturers , fields questions from the audience , and fills in playing some of the roles . The play is performed without a set on a mostly bare stage . With a few exceptions , the actors mime actions without the use of props . Our Town was first performed at McCarter Theatre in Princeton , New Jersey in 1938 . It later went on to success on Broadway and won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama . It remains popular today and revivals are frequent . Synopsis Act I : Daily Life The Stage Manager introduces the audience to the small town of Grover 's Corners , New Hampshire , and the people living there as a morning begins in the year 1901 . Professor Willard speaks to the audience about the history of the town . Joe Crowell delivers the paper to Doc Gibbs , Howie Newsome delivers the milk , and the Webb and Gibbs households send their children ( Emily and George , respectively ) off to school on this beautifully simple morning . Act II : Love and Marriage Three years have passed , and George and Emily prepare to wed . The day is filled with stress . Howie Newsome is delivering milk in the pouring rain while Si Crowell , younger brother of Joe , laments how George 's baseball talents will be squandered . George pays an awkward visit to his soon-to-be in-laws . Here , the Stage Manager interrupts the scene and takes the audience back a year , to the end of Emily and George 's junior year . Emily confronts George about his pride , and over an ice cream soda , they discuss the future and their love for each other . George resolves not to go to college , as he had planned , but to work and eventually take over his uncle 's farm . In the present , George and Emily say that they are not ready to marry—George to his mother , Emily to her father—but they both calm down and happily go through with the wedding . Act III : Death and Dying Nine years have passed . The Stage Manager opens the act with a lengthy monologue emphasizing eternity , bringing the audience 's attention to the cemetery outside of town and the characters who have died since the wedding , including Mrs. Gibbs ( pneumonia , while traveling ) , Wally Webb ( burst appendix , while camping ) , Mrs. Soames , and Simon Stimson ( suicide by hanging ) . Town undertaker Joe Stoddard is introduced , as is a young man named Sam Craig who has returned to Grover 's Corners for his cousin 's funeral . That cousin is Emily , who died giving birth to her and George 's second child . Once the funeral ends , Emily emerges to join the dead ; Mrs. Gibbs urges her to forget her life , but she refuses . Ignoring the warnings of Simon , Mrs. Soames , and Mrs. Gibbs , Emily returns to Earth to relive one day , her 12th birthday . The memory proves too painful for her , and she realizes that every moment of life should be treasured . When she asks the Stage Manager if anyone truly understands the value of life while they live it , he responds , `` No . The saints and poets , maybe—they do some . '' Emily returns to her grave next to Mrs. Gibbs and watches impassively as George kneels weeping over her . The Stage Manager concludes the play and wishes the audience a good night . Characters ; : * Stage Manager – a narrator , commentator , and guide through Grover 's Corners . He joins in the action of the play periodically , as the minister at the wedding , the soda shop owner , a local townsmen , etc. , and speaks directly to Emily after her death . * Emily Webb – one of the main characters ; we follow her from a precocious young girl through her wedding to George Gibbs and her early death . * George Gibbs – the other main character ; the boy next door , a kind but irresponsible teenager who matures over time and becomes a responsible husband , father and farmer . * Frank Gibbs – George 's father , the town doctor * Julia ( Hersey ) Gibbs – George 's mother . She dreams of going to Paris , but does n't get there . She saved $ 350 for the trip from the sale of an antique furniture piece , but ultimately willed it to George and Emily . Dies while visiting her daughter in Ohio . * Charles Webb – Emily 's father , editor of the Grover 's Corners Sentinel * Myrtle Webb – Emily 's mother Secondary characters * Joe and Si Crowell – local paperboys . Joe 's intelligence earns him a full scholarship to MIT where he graduates at the top of his class . His promise will be cut short on the fields of France during World War I , according to the Stage Manager . Both he and his brother Si hold marriage in high disdain . * Simon Stimson – the choir director and church organist . We never learn the specific cause of his alcoholism and suicide , although Dr. Gibbs observes that `` He 's seen a pick of troubles . '' He remains bitter and cynical even beyond the grave . * Howie Newsome – the milkman , a fixture of Grover 's Corners . * Rebecca Gibbs – George 's younger sister . Later elopes with a traveling salesman and settles in Ohio . * Wally Webb – Emily 's younger brother . Dies of a burst appendix on a Boy Scout camping trip . * Professor Willard – a rather long-winded lecturer * Woman in Auditorium – concerned with temperance * Man in Auditorium – concerned with social justice * Another Woman in Auditorium – concerned with culture and beauty * Mrs. Louella Soames – a gossipy townswoman and member of the choir * Constable Bill Warren – the policeman * Two Baseball Players – who mock George at the wedding * Joe Stoddard – the undertaker * Sam Craig – a nephew of Mrs Gibbs who left town to seek his fortune . He came back after 12 years in Buffalo for Emily 's funeral . * Dead Man * Dead Woman * Mr. Carter * Farmer McCarty * Bessie – Howie Newsome 's horse ( visible to the characters , but not the audience ) Composition Wilder wrote the play while in his 30s . In June 1937 , he lived in the MacDowell Colony in Peterborough , New Hampshire , one of the many locations where he worked on the play . During a visit to Zürich in September 1937 , it is believed he drafted the entire third act in one day after a long evening walk in the rain with a friend , author Samuel Morris Steward . Setting The play is set in the actual theatre where the play is being performed , but the year is always 1938 . The Stage Manager of the 1938 production introduces the play-within-the-play which is set in the fictional community of Grover 's Corners , New Hampshire . The Stage Manager gives the coordinates of Grover 's Corners as 42°40′ north latitude and 70°37′ west longitude ( those coordinates are actually in Massachusetts , about a thousand feet off the coast of Rockport ) . Style Wilder was dissatisfied with the theatre of his time : `` I felt that something had gone wrong .... I began to feel that the theatre was not only inadequate , it was evasive . '' His response was to use a metatheatrical style . Our Town 's narrator , the Stage Manager , is completely aware of his relationship with the audience , leaving him free to break the fourth wall and address them directly . According to the script , the play is to be performed with little scenery , no set and minimal props . The characters mime the objects with which they interact . Their surroundings are created only with chairs , tables , staircases , and ladders . For example , the scene in which Emily helps George with his evening homework , conversing through upstairs windows , is performed with the two actors standing atop separate ladders to represent their neighboring houses . Wilder once said : `` Our claim , our hope , our despair are in the mind—not in things , not in 'scenery . ' `` Wilder called Our Town his favorite out of all his works , but complained that it was rarely done right , insisting that it `` should be performed without sentimentality or ponderousness -- simply , dryly , and sincerely . '' Production history Our Town was first performed at McCarter Theater in Princeton , New Jersey on January 22 , 1938 . It next opened at the Wilbur Theatre in Boston , Massachusetts on January 25 , 1938 . Its New York City debut was on February 4 , 1938 at Henry Miller 's Theatre , and later moved to the Morosco Theatre ; this production was produced and directed by Jed Harris . Wilder received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1938 for the work . In 1946 , the Soviet Union prevented a production of Our Town in the Russian sector of occupied Berlin `` on the grounds that the drama is too depressing and could inspire a German suicide wave . '' Awards * 1938 Pulitzer Prize for Drama * 1989 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival * 1989 Tony Award for Best Revival Adaptations The play has been adapted numerous times : * Our Town was first performed on radio May 12 , 1939 , on The Campbell Playhouse . The cast included Orson Welles as the Stage Manager , John Craven of the original stage production as George Gibbs , and Patricia Newton as Emily Webb . * Our Town ( 1940 film ) , adaptation starring Martha Scott as Emily and William Holden as George Gibbs , with an original music score composed by Aaron Copland . Many members of the original cast repeated their roles in this film , although the ending was changed so that Emily lived . * Our Town ( 1940 radio ) , on May 6 , 1940 , a radio version was performed by many of the same film actors for Lux Radio Theater . * Our Town ( television ) , a live musical 1955 television adaptation on Producers ' Showcase starring Frank Sinatra as the Stage Manager , Paul Newman as George Gibbs , and Eva Marie Saint as Emily . The first and only musical version of the play to be telecast ( so far ) . * Our Town , a 1977 television adaptation of the play , starring Hal Holbrook as the Stage Manager , Robby Benson as George Gibbs and Glynnis O'Connor as Emily Webb . * Grover 's Corners , a 1987 musical adaptation performed at the Marriott Theatre . * Our Town , a 1989 telecast of a Lincoln Center stage production starring Spalding Gray , Frances Conroy , Penelope Ann Miller , and Eric Stoltz * OT : Our Town , a 2002 documentary by Scott Hamilton Kennedy about a production of the play by Dominguez High School in Compton , California * Our Town ( 2003 film ) , a television adaptation of a 2002 Broadway revival starring Paul Newman , this time as the Stage Manager * Our Town ( opera ) , an operatic version of the play with music by Ned Rorem * An award-winning revival of Our Town opened at the Barrow Street Theatre , in New York City , on February 26 , 2009 . The production was directed by David Cromer , who also performed the role of Stage Manager for much of the show 's run . Upon closing , the production had played four preview and 644 regular performances , making it the longest-running production of the play in its history . In addition to Cromer , other notable actors who performed in the role of Stage Manager included Helen Hunt , Michael McKean , Jason Butler Harner , Stephen Kunken and Michael Shannon . * In 1994 , Philip Jerry choreographed a balletic adaptation set to the music of Aaron Copland and has been performed by the American Repertory Ballet in Princeton , New Jersey in the decades since its premiere .

sfq_24520--Our_Town.txt

"The fictional setting Grover's Corner, New Hampshire, for the 1938 Broadway play ""Our Town"" was created by which Pulitzer Prize winning playwright?"

John Marwood Cleese ( ; born 27 October 1939 ) is an English actor , comedian , writer , and film producer . He achieved success at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe and as a scriptwriter and performer on The Frost Report . In the late 1960s , he co-founded Monty Python , the comedy troupe responsible for the sketch show Monty Python 's Flying Circus and the four Monty Python films : And Now for Something Completely Different , Monty Python and the Holy Grail , Life of Brian and The Meaning of Life . In the mid-1970s , Cleese and his first wife , Connie Booth , co-wrote and starred in the British sitcom Fawlty Towers . Later , he co-starred with Kevin Kline , Jamie Lee Curtis and former Python colleague Michael Palin in A Fish Called Wanda and Fierce Creatures , both of which he also wrote . He also starred in Clockwise , and has appeared in many other films , including two James Bond films as R and Q , two Harry Potter films , and the last three Shrek films . With Yes Minister writer Antony Jay he co-founded Video Arts , a production company making entertaining training films . In 1976 , Cleese co-founded The Secret Policeman 's Ball benefit shows to raise funds for the human rights organisation Amnesty International . Biography Early life and education Cleese was born in Weston-super-Mare , Somerset , England , the only child of Reginald Francis Cleese ( 1893-1972 ) , an insurance salesman , and his wife Muriel Evelyn ( née Cross ) ( 1899-2000 ) . His family 's surname was originally Cheese , but his father had thought it was embarrassing and changed it when he enlisted in the Army during World War I . As a child , Cleese supported Bristol City Football Club and Somerset County Cricket Club . Cleese was educated at St Peter 's Preparatory School , where he received a prize for English studies and did well at cricket and boxing . When he was 13 , he was awarded an exhibition at Clifton College , an English public school in Bristol . He was already more than 6 feet ( 1.83 m ) tall by then . He allegedly defaced the school grounds , as a prank , by painting footprints to suggest that the statue of Field Marshal Earl Haig had got down from his plinth and gone to the toilet . Cleese played cricket in the First XI and did well academically , passing 8 O-Levels and 3 A-Levels in mathematics , physics , and chemistry . In his autobiography So , Anyway he says that discovering , aged 17 , he had not been made a house prefect by his housemaster , Billy Williams , affected his outlook . 'It was not fair and therefore it was unworthy of my respect ... I believe that this moment changed my perspective on the world . ’ He could not go straight to Cambridge University as the ending of conscription in the United Kingdom meant there were twice the usual number of applicants for places , so he returned to his prep school for two years to teach science , English , geography , history and Latin ( he drew on his Latin teaching experience later for a scene in Life of Brian , in which he corrects Brian 's badly written Latin graffiti ) . He then took up a place he had won at Downing College , Cambridge to read Law . He also joined the Cambridge Footlights . He recalled that he went to the Cambridge Guildhall , where each university society had a stall , and went up to the Footlights stall where he was asked if he could sing or dance . He replied `` no '' as he was not allowed to sing at his school because he was so bad , and if there was anything worse than his singing it was his dancing . He was then asked `` Well , what do you do ? `` , to which he replied , `` I make people laugh '' . At the Footlights theatrical club he spent a lot of time with Tim Brooke-Taylor and Bill Oddie and met his future writing partner Graham Chapman . Cleese wrote extra material for the 1961 Footlights Revue I Thought I Saw It Move , and was Registrar for the Footlights Club during 1962 . He was also in the cast of the 1962 Footlights Revue Double Take ! Cleese graduated from Cambridge in 1963 with a 2:1 . Despite his successes on The Frost Report , his father would send him cuttings from The Daily Telegraph offering management jobs in places like Marks and Spencer . Career Pre-Python Cleese was a scriptwriter , as well as a cast member , for the 1963 Footlights Revue A Clump of Plinths . The revue was so successful at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe that it was renamed Cambridge Circus and taken to the West End in London and then on a tour of New Zealand and Broadway , with the cast also appearing in some of the revue 's sketches on The Ed Sullivan Show in October 1964 . After Cambridge Circus , Cleese briefly stayed in America , performing on and Off-Broadway . While performing in the musical Half a Sixpence , Cleese met future Python Terry Gilliam , as well as American actress Connie Booth , whom he married on 20 February 1968 . At their wedding at a Unitarian Church in Manhattan , the couple attempted to ensure an absence of any theistic language . “ The only moment of disappointment , '' Cleese recalled , `` came at the very end of the service when I discovered that I ’ d failed to excise one particular mention of the word ‘ God. ’ ” Later Booth would become a writing partner . He was soon offered work as a writer with BBC Radio , where he worked on several programmes , most notably as a sketch writer for The Dick Emery Show . The success of the Footlights Revue led to the recording of a short series of half-hour radio programmes , called I 'm Sorry , I 'll Read That Again , which were so popular that the BBC commissioned a regular series with the same title that ran from 1965 to 1974 . Cleese returned to Britain and joined the cast . In many episodes , he is credited as `` John Otto Cleese '' ( according to Jem Roberts , this may have been due to the embarrassment of his actual middle name Marwood ) . Also in 1965 , Cleese and Chapman began writing on The Frost Report . The writing staff chosen for The Frost Report consisted of a number of writers and performers who would go on to make names for themselves in comedy . They included co-performers from I 'm Sorry , I 'll Read That Again and future Goodies Bill Oddie and Tim Brooke-Taylor , and also Frank Muir , Barry Cryer , Marty Feldman , Ronnie Barker , Ronnie Corbett , Dick Vosburgh and future Python members Eric Idle , Terry Jones and Michael Palin . While working on The Frost Report , the future Pythons developed the writing styles that would make their collaboration significant . Cleese 's and Chapman 's sketches often involved authority figures , some of whom were performed by Cleese , while Jones and Palin were both infatuated with filmed scenes that opened with idyllic countryside panoramas . Idle was one of those charged with writing David Frost 's monologue . During this period Cleese met and befriended influential British comedian Peter Cook . It was as a performer on The Frost Report that Cleese achieved his breakthrough on British television as a comedy actor , appearing as the tall , patrician figure in the classic class sketch , contrasting comically in a line-up with the shorter , middle class Ronnie Barker and the even shorter , working class Ronnie Corbett . This series was so popular that in 1966 Cleese and Chapman were invited to work as writers and performers with Brooke-Taylor and Feldman on At Last the 1948 Show , during which time the Four Yorkshiremen sketch was written by all four writers/performers ( the Four Yorkshiremen sketch is now better known as a Monty Python sketch ) . Cleese and Chapman also wrote episodes for the first series of Doctor in the House ( and later Cleese wrote six episodes of Doctor at Large on his own in 1971 ) . These series were successful , and in 1969 Cleese and Chapman were offered their very own series . However , owing to Chapman 's alcoholism , Cleese found himself bearing an increasing workload in the partnership and was therefore unenthusiastic about doing a series with just the two of them . He had found working with Palin on The Frost Report an enjoyable experience and invited him to join the series . Palin had previously been working on Do Not Adjust Your Set with Idle and Jones , with Terry Gilliam creating the animations . The four of them had , on the back of the success of Do Not Adjust Your Set , been offered a series for Thames Television , which they were waiting to begin when Cleese 's offer arrived . Palin agreed to work with Cleese and Chapman in the meantime , bringing with him Gilliam , Jones , and Idle . Monty Python Monty Python 's Flying Circus ran for four seasons from October 1969 to December 1974 on BBC Television , though Cleese quit the show after the third . Cleese 's two primary characterisations were as a sophisticate and a stressed-out loony . He portrayed the former as a series of announcers , TV show hosts , and government officials ( for example , `` The Ministry of Silly Walks '' ) . The latter is perhaps best represented in the `` Cheese Shop '' and by Cleese 's Mr Praline character , the man with a dead Norwegian Blue parrot and a menagerie of other animals all named `` Eric '' . He was also known for his working class `` Sergeant Major '' character , who worked as a Police Sergeant , Roman Centurion , etc . He is also seen as the opening announcer with the now famous line `` And now for something completely different '' , although in its premiere in the sketch `` Man with Three Buttocks '' , the phrase was spoken by Eric Idle . Partnership with Graham Chapman Along with Gilliam 's animations , Cleese 's work with Graham Chapman provided Python with its darkest and angriest moments , and many of his characters display the seething suppressed rage that later characterised his portrayal of Basil Fawlty . Unlike Palin and Jones , Cleese and Chapman actually wrote together—in the same room ; Cleese claims that their writing partnership involved his sitting with pen and paper , doing most of the work , while Chapman sat back , not speaking for long periods , then suddenly coming out with an idea that often elevated the sketch to a different level . A classic example of this is the `` Dead Parrot sketch '' , envisaged by Cleese as a satire on poor customer service , which was originally to have involved a broken toaster and later a broken car ( this version was actually performed and broadcast on the pre-Python special How to Irritate People ) . It was Chapman 's suggestion to change the faulty item into a dead parrot , and he also suggested that the parrot be specifically a Norwegian Blue , giving the sketch a surreal air which made it far more memorable . Their humour often involved ordinary people in ordinary situations behaving absurdly for no obvious reason . Like Chapman , Cleese 's poker face , clipped middle class accent , and intimidating height allowed him to appear convincingly as a variety of authority figures , such as policemen , detectives , Nazi officers or government officials—which he would then proceed to undermine . Most famously , in the `` Ministry of Silly Walks '' sketch ( actually written by Palin and Jones ) , Cleese exploits his stature as the crane-legged civil servant performing a grotesquely elaborate walk to his office . Chapman and Cleese also specialised in sketches where two characters would conduct highly articulate arguments over completely arbitrary subjects , such as in the `` cheese shop '' , the `` dead parrot '' sketch and `` Argument Clinic '' , where Cleese plays a stone-faced bureaucrat employed to sit behind a desk and engage people in pointless , trivial bickering . All of these roles were opposite Palin ( who Cleese often claims is his favourite Python to work with ) —the comic contrast between the towering Cleese 's crazed aggression and the shorter Palin 's shuffling inoffensiveness is a common feature in the series . Occasionally , the typical Cleese–Palin dynamic is reversed , as in `` Fish Licence '' , wherein Palin plays the bureaucrat with whom Cleese is trying to work . Though the programme lasted four series , by the start of series 3 , Cleese was growing tired of dealing with Chapman 's alcoholism . He felt , too , that the show 's scripts had declined in quality . For these reasons , he became restless and decided to move on . Though he stayed for the third series , he officially left the group before the fourth season . Despite this , he remained friendly with the group , and all six began writing Monty Python and the Holy Grail ; Cleese received a credit on three episodes of the fourth series which used material from these sessions , though he was officially unconnected with the fourth series . Cleese returned to the troupe to co-write and co-star in the Monty Python films Monty Python and the Holy Grail , Monty Python 's Life of Brian and Monty Python 's The Meaning of Life , and participated in various live performances over the years . Post-Python From 1970 to 1973 , Cleese served as rector of the University of St Andrews . His election proved a milestone for the university , revolutionising and modernising the post . For instance , the rector was traditionally entitled to appoint an `` Assessor '' , a deputy to sit in his place at important meetings in his absence . Cleese changed this into a position for a student , elected across campus by the student body , resulting in direct access and representation for the student body . Around this time , Cleese worked with comedian Les Dawson on his sketch/stand-up show Sez Les . The differences between the two physically ( the tall , lean Cleese and the short , stout Dawson ) and socially ( the public school , and then Cambridge-educated Cleese and the working class , self-educated Mancunian Dawson ) were marked , but both worked well together from series 8 onwards until the series ended in 1976 . Fawlty Towers Cleese achieved greater prominence in the United Kingdom as the neurotic hotel manager Basil Fawlty in Fawlty Towers , which he co-wrote with his wife Connie Booth . The series won three BAFTA awards when produced and in 2000 , it topped the British Film Institute 's list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes . The series also featured Prunella Scales as Basil 's acerbic wife Sybil , Andrew Sachs as the much abused Spanish waiter Manuel ( `` ... he 's from Barcelona '' ) , and Booth as waitress Polly , the series ' voice of sanity . Cleese based Basil Fawlty on a real person , Donald Sinclair , whom he had encountered in 1970 while the Monty Python team were staying at the Gleneagles Hotel in Torquay while filming inserts for their television series . Reportedly , Cleese was inspired by Sinclair 's mantra , `` I could run this hotel just fine , if it were n't for the guests . '' He later described Sinclair as `` the most wonderfully rude man I have ever met , '' although Sinclair 's widow has said her husband was totally misrepresented in the series . During the Pythons ' stay , Sinclair allegedly threw Idle 's briefcase out of the hotel `` in case it contained a bomb , '' complained about Gilliam 's `` American '' table manners , and threw a bus timetable at another guest after they dared to ask the time of the next bus to town . The first series was screened from 19 September 1975 on BBC 2 , initially to poor reviews , but gained momentum when repeated on BBC 1 the following year . Despite this , a second series did not air until 1979 , by which time Cleese 's marriage to Booth had ended , but they revived their collaboration for the second series . Fawlty Towers consisted of only twelve episodes ; Cleese and Booth both maintain that this was to avoid compromising the quality of the series . In December 1977 , Cleese appeared as a guest star on The Muppet Show . Cleese was a fan of the show , and co-wrote much of the episode . Cleese also made a cameo appearance in their 1981 film The Great Muppet Caper . Cleese won the TV Times award for Funniest Man on TV – 1978–79 . 1980s and 1990s During the 1980s and 1990s , Cleese focused on film , though he did work with Peter Cook in his one-off TV special Peter Cook and Co. in 1980 . In the same year Cleese played Petruchio , in Shakespeare 's The Taming of the Shrew in the BBC Television Shakespeare series . In 1981 he starred with Sean Connery and Michael Palin in the Terry Gilliam-directed Time Bandits as Robin Hood . He also participated in Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl ( 1982 ) , and starred in The Secret Policeman 's Ball for Amnesty International . In 1985 , Cleese had a small dramatic role as a sheriff in Silverado , which had an all-star cast that included Kevin Kline , with whom he would star with in A Fish Called Wanda three years later . In 1986 , he starred in Clockwise as an uptight school headmaster obsessed with punctuality and constantly getting into trouble during a journey to a headmasters ' conference . Timed with the 1987 UK elections , he appeared in a video promoting proportional representation . In 1988 , he wrote and starred in A Fish Called Wanda , as the lead , Archie Leach , along with Jamie Lee Curtis , Kevin Kline , and Michael Palin . Wanda was a commercial and critical success , and Cleese was nominated for an Academy Award for his script . Cynthia Cleese starred as Leach 's daughter . Graham Chapman was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1989 ; Cleese , Michael Palin , Peter Cook , and Chapman 's partner David Sherlock , witnessed Chapman 's death . Chapman 's death occurred a day before the 20th anniversary of the first broadcast of Flying Circus , with Jones commenting , `` the worst case of party-pooping in all history . '' Cleese 's eulogy at Chapman 's memorial service—in which he `` became the first person ever at a British memorial service to say 'fuck ' '' —has since become legendary . Cleese would later play a supporting role in Kenneth Branagh 's adaptation of Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein alongside Branagh himself and Robert De Niro . He also produced and acted in a number of successful business training films , including Meetings , Bloody Meetings and More Bloody Meetings . These were produced by his company Video Arts . With Robin Skynner , the group analyst and family therapist , Cleese wrote two books on relationships : Families and How to Survive Them , and Life and How to Survive It . The books are presented as a dialogue between Skynner and Cleese . In 1996 , Cleese declined the British honour of Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) . The follow-up to A Fish Called Wanda , Fierce Creatures—which again starred Cleese alongside Kevin Kline , Jamie Lee Curtis , and Michael Palin—was also released that year , but was greeted with mixed reception by critics and audiences . Cleese has since often stated that making the second film had been a mistake . When asked by his friend , director and restaurant critic Michael Winner , what he would do differently if he could live his life again , Cleese responded , `` I would n't have married Alyce Faye Eichelberger and I would n't have made Fierce Creatures . '' In 1999 , Cleese appeared in the James Bond film , The World Is Not Enough as Q 's assistant , referred to by Bond as `` R '' . In 2002 , when Cleese reprised his role in Die Another Day , the character was promoted , making Cleese the new quartermaster ( Q ) of MI6 . In 2004 , Cleese was featured as Q in the video game James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , featuring his likeness and voice . Cleese did not appear in the subsequent Bond films , Casino Royale , Quantum of Solace and Skyfall ; in the latter film , Ben Whishaw was cast in the role of Q . 2000–present Cleese is Provost 's Visiting Professor at Cornell University , after having been Andrew D. White Professor-at-Large from 1999 to 2006 . He makes occasional , well-received appearances on the Cornell campus . In 2001 , Cleese was cast in the comedy Rat Race as the eccentric hotel owner Donald P. Sinclair , the name of the Torquay hotel owner on whom he had based the character of Basil Fawlty . [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0250687/fullcredits # cast Rat Race ( 2001 ) – Full cast and crew ] In 2002 , Cleese made a cameo appearance in the film The Adventures of Pluto Nash in which he played `` James '' , a computerised chauffeur of a hover car stolen by the title character ( played by Eddie Murphy ) . The vehicle is subsequently destroyed in a chase , leaving the chauffeur stranded in a remote place on the moon . In 2003 , Cleese appeared as Lyle Finster on the US sitcom Will & Grace . His character 's daughter , Lorraine , was played by Minnie Driver . In the series , Lyle Finster briefly marries Karen Walker ( Megan Mullally ) . In 2004 , Cleese was credited as co-writer of a DC Comics graphic novel titled Superman : True Brit . Part of DC 's `` Elseworlds '' line of imaginary stories , True Brit , mostly written by Kim Howard Johnson , suggests what might have happened had Superman 's rocket ship landed in Britain , not America . From 10 November to 9 December 2005 , Cleese toured New Zealand with his stage show , John Cleese—His Life , Times and Current Medical Problems . Cleese described it as `` a one-man show with several people in it , which pushes the envelope of acceptable behaviour in new and disgusting ways . '' The show was developed in New York City with William Goldman , and includes Cleese 's daughter Camilla as a writer and actor ( the shows were directed by Australian Bille Brown ) . His assistant of many years , Garry Scott-Irvine , also appeared , and was listed as a co-producer . The show then played in universities in California and Arizona from 10 January to 25 March 2006 under the title `` Seven Ways to Skin an Ocelot '' . His voice can be downloaded for directional guidance purposes as a downloadable option on some personal GPS-navigation device models by company TomTom . In a 2005 poll of comedians and comedy insiders , The Comedians ' Comedian , Cleese was voted second only to Peter Cook . Also in 2005 , a long-standing piece of Internet humour , `` The Revocation of Independence of the United States '' , was wrongly attributed to Cleese . In 2006 , Cleese hosted a television special of football 's greatest kicks , goals , saves , bloopers , plays , and penalties , as well as football 's influence on culture ( including the famous Monty Python sketch `` Philosophy Football '' ) , featuring interviews with pop culture icons Dave Stewart , Dennis Hopper , and Henry Kissinger , as well as football greats including Pelé , Mia Hamm , and Thierry Henry . The Art of Soccer with John Cleese was released in North America on DVD in January 2009 by BFS Entertainment & Multimedia . Also in 2006 , Cleese released the song `` Do n't Mention the World Cup '' . Cleese lent his voice to the BioWare video game Jade Empire . His role was that of an `` outlander '' named Sir Roderick Ponce von Fontlebottom the Magnificent Bastard , stranded in the Imperial City of the Jade Empire . His character is essentially a British colonialist stereotype who refers to the people of the Jade Empire as `` savages in need of enlightenment '' . His armour has the design of a fork stuck in a piece of cheese . He also had a cameo appearance in the computer game Starship Titanic as `` The Bomb '' ( credited as `` Kim Bread '' ) , designed by Douglas Adams . In 2007 , Cleese appeared in ads for Titleist as a golf course designer named `` Ian MacCallister '' , who represents `` Golf Designers Against Distance '' . Also in 2007 , he started filming the sequel to The Pink Panther , titled The Pink Panther 2 , with Steve Martin and Aishwarya Rai . On 27 September 2007 Cleese announced he was to produce a series of video podcasts called HEADCAST . Cleese released the first episode of this series in April 2008 on his own website , headcast.co.uk . Cleese collaborated with Los Angeles Guitar Quartet member William Kanengiser in 2008 on the text to the performance piece `` The Ingenious Gentleman of La Mancha '' . Cleese , as narrator , and the LAGQ premiered the work in Santa Barbara . 2008 also saw reports of Cleese working on a musical version of A Fish Called Wanda with his daughter Camilla . At the end of March 2009 , Cleese published his first article as 'Contributing Editor ' to The Spectator : `` The real reason I had to join The Spectator '' . Cleese has also hosted comedy galas at the Montreal Just for Laughs comedy festival in 2006 , and again in 2009 . Towards the end of 2009 and into 2010 , Cleese appeared in a series of television adverts for the Norwegian electric goods shop chain , Elkjøp . In March 2010 it was announced that Cleese would be playing Jasper in the video game Fable III . In 2009 and 2010 , Cleese toured Scandinavia and the US with his Alimony Tour Year One and Year Two . In May 2010 , it was announced that this tour would extend to the UK ( his first tour in UK ) , set for May 2011 . The show is dubbed the `` Alimony Tour '' in reference to the financial implications of Cleese 's divorce . The UK tour started in Cambridge on 3 May , visiting Birmingham , Nottingham , Salford , York , Liverpool , Leeds , Glasgow , Edinburgh , Oxford , Bristol and Bath ( the Alimony Tour DVD was recorded on 2 July , the final Bath date ) . Later in 2011 John took his Alimony Tour to South Africa . He played Cape Town on the 21 & 22 October before moving over to Johannesburg where he played from 25th to 30 October . In January 2012 he took his one-man show to Australia , starting in Perth on 22 Jan and throughout the next 4 months visited Adelaide , Brisbane , Gold Coast , Newcastle , New South Wales , Melbourne , Sydney , and finished up during April in Canberra . In October 2010 , Cleese was featured in the launch of an advertising campaign by The Automobile Association for a new home emergency response product . He appeared as a man who believed the AA could not help him during a series of disasters , including water pouring through his ceiling , with the line `` The AA ? For faulty showers ? '' During 2010 , Cleese appeared in a

qw_1098--John_Cleese.txt

"""Fawlty Towers"" was written by John Cleese and Connie Booth, who played main characters. Which character did Connie Booth play?"

Capital : Critique of Political Economy ( , ; 1867–1883 ) by Karl Marx is a foundational theoretical text in communist philosophy , economics and politics . Marx aimed to reveal the economic patterns underpinning the capitalist mode of production , in contrast to classical political economists such as Adam Smith , David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill . Themes In Capital : Critique of Political Economy ( 1867 ) , Karl Marx proposes that the motivating force of capitalism is in the exploitation of labour , whose unpaid work is the ultimate source of surplus value and then profit both of which concepts have a specific meaning for Marx . The employer is able to claim the right to profits because he or she owns the productive capital assets ( means of production ) , which are legally protected by the capitalist state through property rights ( the historical section shows how this right was acquired in the first place chiefly through plunder and conquest and the activity of the merchant and 'middle-man ' ) . In producing capital ( money ) as well as commodities ( goods and services ) , the workers continually reproduce the economic conditions by which they labour . Capital proposes an explanation of the `` laws of motion '' of the capitalist economic system , from its origins throughout its future , by describing the dynamics of the accumulation of capital , the growth of wage labour , the transformation of the workplace , the concentration of capital , commercial competition , the banking system , the decline of the profit rate , land-rents , et cetera . The critique of the political economy of capitalism proposes that : * The commodity is the basic `` cell-form '' ( trade unit ) of a capitalist society , but capitalism is distinguished from other forms of production based on commodities in that here labour power becomes a commodity like any other . Moreover , because commerce , as a human activity , implied no morality beyond that required to buy and sell goods and services , the growth of the market system made discrete entities of the economic , the moral , and the legal spheres of human activity in society ; hence , subjective moral value is separate from objective economic value . Subsequently , political economy — the just distribution of wealth and `` political arithmetick '' about taxes — became three discrete fields of human activity : Economics , Law , and Ethics , politics and economics divorced . * `` The economic formation of society [ is ] a process of natural history '' , thus it is possible for a political economist to objectively study the scientific laws of capitalism , given that its expansion of the market system of commerce had objectified human economic relations ; the use of money ( cash nexus ) voided religious and political illusions about its economic value , and replaced them with commodity fetishism , the belief that an object ( commodity ) has inherent economic value . Because societal economic formation is a historical process , no one person could control or direct it , thereby creating a global complex of social connections among capitalists ; thus , the economic formation ( individual commerce ) of a society precedes the human administration of an economy ( organised commerce ) . * The structural contradictions of a capitalist economy , the gegensätzliche Bewegung , describe the contradictory movement originating from the two-fold character of labour , and so the class struggle between labour and capital , the wage labourer and the owner of the means of production . These capitalist economic contradictions operate `` behind the backs '' of the capitalists and the workers , as a result of their activities , and yet remain beyond their immediate perceptions as men and women and as social classes . * The economic crises ( recession , depression , etc . ) that are rooted in the contradictory character of the economic value of the commodity ( cell-unit ) of a capitalist society , are the conditions that propitiate proletarian revolution ; which the Communist Manifesto ( 1848 ) collectively identified as a weapon , forged by the capitalists , which the working class `` turned against the bourgeoisie , itself '' . * In a capitalist economy , technological improvement and its consequent increased production augment the amount of material wealth ( use value ) in society , whilst simultaneously diminishing the economic value of the same wealth , thereby diminishing the rate of profit — a paradox characteristic of economic crisis in a capitalist economy ; `` poverty in the midst of plenty '' consequent to over-production and under-consumption . After two decades of economic study and preparatory work ( especially regarding the theory of surplus value ) the first volume appeared in 1867 : The production process of capital . After Marx 's death in 1883 , Friedrich Engels introduced , from manuscripts and the first volume ; Volume II : The circulation process of capital in 1885 ; and Volume III : The overall process of capitalist production in 1894 . These three volumes are collectively known as Das Kapital . Capital : Critique of Political Economy Capital , Volume I Capital , Volume I ( 1867 ) is a critical analysis of political economy , meant to reveal the contradictions of the capitalist mode of production , how it was the precursor of the socialist mode of production , and of the class struggle rooted in the capitalist social relations of production . The first of three volumes of Das Kapital , Kritik der politischen Ökonomie ( Capital : Critique of Political Economy ) was published on 14 September 1867 , dedicated to Wilhelm Wolff , and was the sole volume published in Marx ’ s lifetime . Capital , Volume II Capital , Volume II , subtitled The Process of Circulation of Capital , was prepared by Friedrich Engels from notes left by Karl Marx and published in 1885 . It is divided into three parts : The Metamorphoses of Capital and Their Circuits , The Turnover of Capital , and The Reproduction and Circulation of the Aggregate Social Capital . In Volume II , the main ideas behind the marketplace are to be found : how value and surplus-value are realized . Its dramatis personae , not so much the worker and the industrialist ( as in Volume I ) , but rather the money owner ( and money lender ) , the wholesale merchant , the trader and the entrepreneur or 'functioning capitalist . ' Moreover , workers appear in Volume II , essentially as buyers of consumer goods and , therefore , as sellers of the commodity labour power , rather than producers of value and surplus-value ( although , this latter quality , established in Volume I , remains the solid foundation on which the whole of the unfolding analysis is based ) . Reading Volume II is of monumental significance to understanding the theoretical construction of Marx 's whole argument . Marx himself quite precisely clarified this place , in a letter sent to Engels on 30 April 1868 : : In Book 1 ... we content ourselves with the assumption that if in the self-expansion process £100 becomes £110 , the latter will find already in existence in the market the elements into which it will change once more . But now we investigate the conditions under which these elements are found at hand , namely the social intertwining of the different capitals , of the component parts of capital and of revenue ( = s ) . '' This intertwining , conceived as a movement of commodities and of money , enabled Marx to work out at least the essential elements , if not the definitive form of a coherent theory of the trade cycle , based upon the inevitability of periodic disequilibrium between supply and demand under the capitalist mode of production ( Mandel , 1978 , Intro to Vol . II of Capital ) . Volume II of Capital has indeed been not only a 'sealed book ' , but also a forgotten one . To a large extent , it remains so to this very day . Part 3 is the point of departure for a topic given its Marxist treatment later in detail by , among others , Rosa Luxemburg . Capital , Volume III Capital , Volume III , subtitled The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole , was prepared by Friedrich Engels from notes left by Karl Marx and published in 1894 . It is in seven parts : # The conversion of Surplus Value into Profit and the rate of Surplus Value into the rate of Profit # Conversion of Profit into Average Profit # The Law of the Tendency of the Rate of Profit to Fall # Conversion of Commodity Capital and Money Capital into Commercial Capital and Money-Dealing Capital ( Merchant 's Capital ) # Division of Profit Into Interest and Profit of Enterprise , Interest Bearing Capital . # Transformation of Surplus-Profit into Ground Rent . # Revenues and Their Sources The work is best known today for part 3 , which in summary says that as the organic fixed capital requirements of production rise as a result of advancements in production generally , the rate of profit tends to fall . This result , which orthodox Marxists believe is a principal contradictory characteristic leading to an inevitable collapse of the capitalist order , was held by Marx and Engels too , as a result of various contradictions in the capitalist mode of production , result in crises whose resolution necessitates the emergence of an entirely new mode of production as the culmination of the same historical dialectic that led to the emergence of capitalism from prior forms . Intellectual influences The purpose of Capital : Critique of Political Economy ( 1867 ) was a scientific foundation for the politics of the modern labour movement ; the analyses were meant `` to bring a science , by criticism , to the point where it can be dialectically represented '' and so `` reveal the law of motion of modern society '' to describe how the capitalist mode of production was the precursor of the socialist mode of production . The argument is a critique of the classical economics of Adam Smith , David Ricardo , John Stuart Mill , and Benjamin Franklin , drawing on the dialectical method that G. W. F. Hegel developed in Science of Logic and The Phenomenology of Spirit ; other intellectual influences on Capital were the French socialists Charles Fourier , Comte de Saint-Simon , Sismondi , and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ; and the Greek philosophers , especially Aristotle . At university , Marx wrote a dissertation comparing the philosophy of nature in the works of the philosophers Democritus ( ca . 460–370 BC ) and Epicurus ( 341–270 BC ) . The logical architecture of Capital : Critique of Political Economy is derived in part from the Politics and the Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle , including the fundamental distinction between use value and exchange value , the `` syllogisms '' ( C-M-C ' and M-C-M ' ) for simple commodity circulation , and the circulation of value as capital . Moreover , the description of machinery , under capitalist relations of production , as `` self-acting automata '' derives from Aristotle ’ s speculations about inanimate instruments capable of obeying commands as the condition for the abolition of slavery . In the nineteenth century , Karl Marx ’ s research of the available politico-economic literature required twelve years , usually in the British Library , London . Capital , Volume IV At the time of his death ( 1883 ) Karl Marx had prepared the manuscript for Capital , Volume IV , a critical history of theories of surplus value of his time , the nineteenth century . The philosopher Karl Kautsky ( 1854–1938 ) published a partial edition of Marx 's surplus-value critique , and later published a full , three-volume edition as Theorien über den Mehrwert ( Theories of Surplus Value , 1905–1910 ) ; the first volume was published in English as A History of Economic Theories ( 1952 ) . Publication Capital , Volume I ( 1867 ) was published in Marx ’ s lifetime , but he died , in 1883 , before completing the manuscripts for Capital , Volume II ( 1885 ) and Capital , Volume III ( 1894 ) , which friend and collaborator Friedrich Engels edited and published as the work of Karl Marx . The first translated publication of Capital : Critique of Political Economy was in Imperial Russia , in March 1872 . It was the first foreign publication ; the English edition appeared in 1887 . Despite Tsarist censorship proscribing `` the harmful doctrines of socialism and communism '' , the Russian censors considered Capital as a `` strictly scientific work '' of political economy the content of which did not apply to monarchic Russia , where `` capitalist exploitation '' had never occurred , and was officially dismissed , given `` that very few people in Russia will read it , and even fewer will understand it '' ; nonetheless , Karl Marx acknowledged that Russia was the country where Capital `` was read and valued more than anywhere '' . The Russian edition was the fastest selling . 3,000 copies were sold in 1 year while the German edition took 5 years to sell 1,000 , the Russian translation thus selling 15 times as fast as the German . In the wake of the global economic collapse of 2008–09 , Marx 's Capital was reportedly in high demand in Germany . In 2012 , Red Quill Books released `` Capital : In Manga ! `` , a comic book version of Volume I which is an expanded English translation of the wildly successful 2008 Japanese pocket version Das Kapital Manga de Dokuha . Translations The foreign editions of Capital : Critique of Political Economy ( 1867 ) , by Karl Marx , include a Russian translation by the revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin ( 1814–1876 ) . Eventually Marx 's work was translated into all major languages . An English translation by Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling was reissued in the 1970s by Progress Publishers in Moscow ; a more recent English translation was made by Ben Fowkes and David Fernbach ( the Penguin edition ) . The definitive critical edition of Marx 's works , `` MEGA II '' ( Marx-Engels Gesamtausgabe ) , includes Das Kapital in German ( and French , for the first volume ) and shows all the versions and alterations made to the text , plus a very extensive apparatus of footnotes and ( cross- ) references .

qw_3519--Capital:_Critique_of_Political_Economy.txt

"Which German social economist of Jewish descent, expelled from Germany and France, co-wrote in London ""The Communist Manifesto"" and ""Das Kapital""?"

Test cricket is the longest form of the sport of cricket and is considered its highest standard . Test matches are played between national representative teams with `` Test status '' , as determined by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) . The two teams of 11 players play a four-innings match , which may last up to five days ( or longer in some historical cases ) . It is generally considered the most complete examination of teams ' playing ability and endurance . The origin of the name Test stems from the long , gruelling match being a `` test '' of the relative strength of the two sides . The first officially recognised Test match began on 15 March 1877 , between England and Australia at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) , where Australia won by 45 runs . A Test match to celebrate 100 years of Test cricket was held in Melbourne from 12 to 17 March 1977 , in which Australia beat England by 45 runs—the same margin as that first Test . In October 2012 , the International Cricket Council recast the playing conditions for Test matches , permitting day/night Test matches . The first day/night game took place between Australia and New Zealand at the Adelaide Oval , Adelaide , on 27 November 2015 . Test status Test matches are the highest level of cricket although , statistically , their data forms part of first-class cricket . Matches are played between national representative teams with `` Test status '' , as determined by the International Cricket Council . , ten national teams have Test status , the most recently promoted being Bangladesh in 2000 . Zimbabwe 's Test status was voluntarily suspended , because of poor performances between 2006 and 2011 ; it returned to competition in August 2011 . In January 2014 , during the historic ICC meeting in Dubai , the pathway for new potential test nations was laid out with the winners of the next round of the ICC Intercontinental Cup playing a 5-day match against the bottom rank test nation . If the Associate team defeats the test nation , then they could be added as the new test country and be given full membership . A list of matches , defined as `` Tests '' , was first drawn up by Australian Clarence Moody in the mid-1890s . Representative matches played by simultaneous England touring sides of 1891–92 ( in Australia and South Africa ) and 1929–30 ( in the West Indies and New Zealand ) are deemed to have `` Test status '' . In 1970 , a series of five `` Test matches '' was played in England between England and a Rest of the World XI . These matches , originally scheduled between England and South Africa , were amended after South Africa was suspended from international cricket because of their government 's policy of apartheid . Although initially given Test status ( and included as Test matches in some record books , including Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack ) , this was later withdrawn and a principle was established that official Test matches can only be between nations ( although the geographically and demographically small countries of the West Indies have since 1928 been permitted to field a coalition side ) . Despite this , in 2005 , the ICC ruled that the six-day Super Series match that took place in October 2005 , between Australia and a World XI , was an official Test match . Some cricket writers and statisticians , including Bill Frindall , ignored the ICC 's ruling and excluded the 2005 match from their records . The series of `` Test matches '' played in Australia between Australia and a World XI in 1971/72 do not have Test status . The commercial `` Supertests '' organised by Kerry Packer as part of his World Series Cricket enterprise and played between `` WSC Australia '' , `` WSC World XI '' and `` WSC West Indies '' from 1977 to 1979 have never been regarded as official Test matches . Test cricket playing teams There are currently ten Test-playing teams , representing individual nations except for England and the West Indies . Test status is conferred upon a country or group of countries by the International Cricket Council . Teams that do not have Test status can play in the ICC Intercontinental Cup , specifically designed to allow non-Test teams to play under conditions similar to Tests . The teams are listed below with the date of each team 's Test debut : In 2009 , Ireland stated its intention to apply for Full Membership of the ICC with the aim of achieving Test status , and restated its intention in 2012 , but the 2012 plan aims to achieve Test status by 2020 . In 2014 , the ICC announced the introduction of the ICC Test Challenge , which will see the holder of the Intercontinental Cup play a pair of two five-day match series against the lowest ranked test-playing nation every four years , starting in 2018 . Conduct of the game Playing time A standard day of test cricket consists of 3 sessions of 2 hours each , the breaks between sessions being 40 minutes for lunch , and 20 minutes for tea . However the times of sessions and intervals may be altered in certain circumstances : if bad weather or a change of innings occurs close to a scheduled break , the break may be taken immediately ; if there has been a loss of playing time , for example because of bad weather , the session times may be adjusted to make up the lost time ; if the batting side is nine wickets down at the scheduled tea break , then the interval may be delayed until either 30 minutes has elapsed or the team is all out ; the final session may be extended by up to 30 minutes if 90 or more overs have not been bowled in that day 's play ( subject to any reduction for adverse weather ) ; the final session may be extended by 30 minutes ( except on the 5th day ) if the umpires believe the result can be decided within that time . In the early days of Test cricket , matches were played for four days . Until the 1980s , it was usual to include a 'rest day , ' often a Sunday . There have also been 'Timeless Tests ' , which did not end after a predetermined maximum time . In 2005 , Australia played a six-day match against a World XI , which the ICC sanctioned as an official Test match even though the match reached a conclusion on the fourth day . There have been attempts by the ICC , the sport 's governing body , to introduce day-night Test matches . In 2012 , The International Cricket Council passed playing conditions that allowed for the staging of day-night Test matches . The first day-night Test took place during New Zealand 's tour to Australia in November 2015 . Play Test cricket is played in innings ( the word denotes both the singular and the plural ) . In each innings , one team bats and the other bowls ( or fields ) . Ordinarily four innings are played in a Test match , and each team bats twice and bowls twice . Before the start of play on the first day , the two team captains and the match referee toss a coin ; the captain who wins the toss decides whether his team will bat or bowl first . In the following scenarios , the team that bats first is referred to as Team A and their opponents as Team B . Usually the teams will alternate at the completion of each innings . Thus , Team A will bat ( and Team B will bowl ) until its innings ends , and then Team B will bat and Team A will bowl . When Team B 's innings ends , Team A begin their second innings , and this is followed by Team B 's second innings . The winning team is the one that scores more runs in their two innings . A team 's innings ends in one of the following ways : * The team is `` all out '' . This typically occurs when a team has lost ten wickets ( ten of the eleven batsmen having been dismissed ) and are `` bowled out '' . It may occasionally occur with the loss of fewer wickets if one or more batsmen are unavailable to bat ( through injury , for example ) . * The team 's captain declares the innings closed , usually because they believe they have enough runs . A declaration before the innings starts is called an innings forfeiture . * The team batting fourth score the required number of runs to win . * The prescribed time for the match expires . If , at the completion of its first innings , Team B 's first innings total is 200 or more fewer than Team A 's , the captain of Team A may ( but is not required to ) order Team B to have their second innings next . This is called enforcing the follow on . In this case , the usual order of the third and fourth innings is reversed : Team A will bat in the fourth innings . It is rare for a team forced to follow on to win the match . In Test cricket it has only happened three times , although over 285 follow-ons have been enforced : Australia was the losing team on each occasion , twice to England , in 1894 and in 1981 , and once to India in 2001 . If the whole of the first day 's play of a test match has been lost because of bad weather or other reasons like bad light , then Team A may enforce the follow on if Team B 's first innings total is 150 or more fewer than Team A 's . During the 2nd test between England and New Zealand at Headingley , Leeds , 24–28 May 2013 , England batted first after the first day was lost because of rain . New Zealand , batting second , scored 180 runs fewer than England , meaning England could have enforced the follow on , though chose not to . This is similar to four-day first class cricket , where the follow on can be enforced if the difference is 150 runs or fewer . If the Test is 2 days or fewer then the `` follow-on '' value is 100 runs . After 80 overs , the captain of the bowling side may take a new ball , although this is not required . The captain will usually take the new ball : being harder and smoother than an old ball , a new ball generally favours faster bowlers who can make it bounce more variably . The roughened , softer surface of an old ball can be more conducive to spin bowlers , or those using reverse swing . The captain may delay the decision to take the new ball if he wishes to continue with his spinners ( because the pitch favours spin ) . After a new ball has been taken , should an innings last a further 80 overs , then the captain will have the option to take another new ball . A Test match may end in one of six results : * All four innings are complete . The team batting fourth are all out before overtaking the other team , usually before matching the other team 's score . The team that batted third are the winners by a margin equal to the difference in the aggregate runs scored by the two teams ( for example , `` Team A won by 95 runs '' ) . Very rarely ( in over 2,000 Test matches played , it has only happened twice ) the scores can end level , resulting in a tie . * The team batting in the fourth innings overtakes the opposing team 's run total . The match ends , and the team batting fourth is the winner by a margin equal to the number of wickets still to fall in the innings ( for example , `` Team B won by five wickets '' ) . * The third innings concludes with the team that batted twice still trailing the team that batted once . The match ends without playing a fourth innings . The team that batted only once is the winner by a margin equal to `` an innings '' plus the difference in aggregate run totals of the teams ( for example , `` Team B won by an innings and 26 runs '' ) . * Time for the match expires without a result being reached . This usually occurs at the end of the last day of the match . The result is a draw : there is no winner , no matter how superior the position of one of the sides . Rain causing a loss of playing time is a common factor in drawn matches , although matches may be drawn even without interference from the weather : usually as a result of poor time management or an intentional effort on the part of one team to avoid losing . * The match is abandoned because the ground is declared unfit for play . This has occurred three times , resulting each time in a draw being declared : England v Australia at Headingley , Leeds , 1975 ( vandalism ) ; West Indies v England at Sabina Park , Kingston , Jamaica , 1998 ( dangerous ground ) ; West Indies v England at Sir Vivian Richards Stadium , Antigua , 2009 ( dangerous ground ) . * The match is awarded through a forfeiture . If a team refuses to take the field of play , the umpires may award the match to the opposing team . This has only happened once in Test cricket , in the 2006 Fourth Test between England and Pakistan . Competitions Test cricket is almost always played as a series of matches between two countries , with all matches in the series taking place in the same country ( the host ) . Often there is a perpetual trophy that is awarded to the winner , the most famous of which is the Ashes contested between England and Australia . There have been two exceptions to the bilateral nature of Test cricket : the 1912 Triangular Tournament , a three-way competition between England , Australia and South Africa ( hosted by England ) , and the Asian Test Championship , an event held in 1998–99 and 2001–02 . The number of matches in Test series has varied from one to seven . Up until the early 1990s , Test series between international teams were organised between the two national cricket organisations with umpires provided by the home team . With the entry of more countries into Test cricket , and a wish by the ICC to maintain public interest in Tests in the face of the popularity of one-day cricket , a rotation system was introduced that sees all ten Test teams playing each other over a six-year cycle , and an official ranking system ( with a trophy held by the highest-ranked team ) . In this system , umpires are provided by the ICC . An elite panel of eleven umpires has been established , and the panel is supplemented by an additional International Panel that includes three umpires named by each Test-playing country . The elite umpires officiate almost all Test matches ( usually not a Test involving their home country ) ; the International Panel is only employed when the cricketing calendar is filled with activity , or for one-day internationals ( ODIs ) . Early history Sides designated as `` England '' began to play in the late 18th century , but these teams were not truly representative . Early international cricket was disrupted by the French Revolution and the American Civil War . The earliest international cricket match was between USA and Canada , on 24 and 25 September 1844 . This has never been officially considered a `` Test match '' . Tours of national English sides abroad took place , particularly to the USA , Australia and New Zealand . The Australian Aborigines team became the first organised overseas cricketers to tour England in 1868 . Two rival English tours of Australia were proposed in the early months of 1877 , with James Lillywhite campaigning for a professional tour and Fred Grace for an amateur one . Grace 's tour fell through and it was Lillywhite 's team that toured New Zealand and Australia in 1876–77 . Two matches against a combined Australian XI were later classified as the first official Test matches . The first match was won by Australia , by 45 runs , and the second by England . After reciprocal tours established a pattern of international cricket , The Ashes was established as an ongoing competition during the Australian tour of England in 1882 . Surprisingly beaten , a mock obituary of English cricket was published in the Sporting Times the following day : the phrase `` The body shall be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia '' prompted the subsequent creation of the Ashes urn . The series of 1884–85 was the first to be held over five matches : Shaw , writing in 1901 , considered the side to be `` the best ever to have left England '' . The first Test series not to involve Australia occurred in 1888–89 , as an understrength England side toured South Africa . Perpetual trophies The following are the perpetual trophies in Test Cricket .

dpql_3659--Test_cricket.txt

Which international cricket side had its best year ever in 2014 with five Test wins?

Joseph Alberic Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes ( ; born 27 May 1970 ) is an English film and stage actor known for his portrayals of William Shakespeare in Shakespeare in Love ( 1998 ) , for which he was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role , Sir Robert Dudley in Elizabeth ( 1998 ) , Commisar Danilov in Enemy at the Gates ( 2001 ) , and Monsignor Timothy Howard in the second season of the TV series American Horror Story ( 2012-2013 ) . Early life and family Fiennes was born in 1970 in Salisbury , Wiltshire , England , the son of Mark Fiennes ( 1933–2004 ) , a farmer and photographer , and Jennifer Lash ( 1938–1993 ) , a writer . He has English , Irish , and Scottish ancestry . [ http : //www.imdb.com/name/nm0000146/bio ? ref_=nm_ov_bio_sm Ralph Fiennes – Biography – IMDb ] His surname comes from the French village of Fiennes , Pas-de-Calais . His grandfathers were industrialist Sir Maurice Fiennes ( 1907–1994 ) and Brigadier Henry Alleyne Lash . Fiennes is an eighth cousin of Charles , Prince of Wales , and a third cousin of adventurer Ranulph Fiennes and author William Fiennes . His siblings are actor Ralph Fiennes ; Martha Fiennes , a director ; Magnus Fiennes , a composer ; Sophie Fiennes , a filmmaker ; and Jacob Fiennes , a conservationist , who is Joseph 's twin brother . His foster brother , Michael Emery , is an archaeologist . His nephew Hero Fiennes-Tiffin played Tom Riddle , young Lord Voldemort , in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince . Education Fiennes was briefly educated in the Republic of Ireland , then at Swan School For Boys ( now known as Leehurst Swan School , following a merger with another school ) , an independent school in Salisbury , before passing his 11+ exam and continuing to Bishop Wordsworth 's School , a voluntary-aided state day grammar school , in the Cathedral Close of the city . He then attended art school in Suffolk for a year , before joining the Young Vic Youth Theatre . Fiennes subsequently trained for three years at London 's Guildhall School of Music and Drama , graduating in 1993 . Career Stage and film His first professional stage appearance was in the West End in The Woman in Black , followed by A Month in the Country opposite Helen Mirren . Fiennes then became a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company for two seasons . He made his television debut as Willy in The Vacillations of Poppy Carew . His first feature film was 1996 's Stealing Beauty , co-starring Liv Tyler . In 1998 , Fiennes appeared in two films that were nominated at the Academy Awards : he played Robert Dudley opposite Cate Blanchett in Elizabeth and he portrayed William Shakespeare opposite Gwyneth Paltrow in Shakespeare in Love , receiving nominations for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role , which won the Academy Award for Best Picture . He and Paltrow were reunited onscreen in Running with Scissors ( 2006 ) . In 2001 he appeared in the film Enemy at the Gates . In 2002 he starred in the independent film , Killing Me Softly . In 2003 he lent his voice as Proteus in the DreamWorks animated film Sinbad : Legend of the Seven Seas opposite Brad Pitt . The same year he starred in the limited-release film Luther , playing Martin Luther , and he also appeared in The Merchant of Venice , in which he portrayed Bassanio . Fiennes returned to the theatre in 2006 to perform in the one-man play Unicorns , Almost about World War II poet Keith Douglas at the Old Vic . In 2006 , he appeared in the films The Darwin Awards and Goodbye Bafana . Goodbye Bafana was filmed by director Bille August in South Africa , and released in 2007 . Fiennes portrayed James Gregory , author of the book Goodbye Bafana : Nelson Mandela , My Prisoner , My Friend . Television Fiennes starred in the ABC science fiction series FlashForward , which debuted on 24 September 2009 and ran through 27 May 2010 , as Mark Benford . Fiennes stars in Starz 's 10-part series , Camelot , as the wizard Merlin . In the second season of American Horror Story , which premiered in October 2012 , Fiennes began playing the role of Monsignor Timothy Howard . Personal life Fiennes married María Dolores Diéguez , a Swiss model , in a Roman Catholic ceremony in Tuscany in August 2009 . They have two daughters . Fiennes was one of the celebrities , including Tom Hiddleston , Jo Brand , E. L. James and Rachel Riley , to design and sign his own card for the UK-based charity Thomas Coram Foundation for Children . The cards were auctioned off on eBay during May 2014 . Filmography Films Television Plays * The Woman in Black , Fortune Theatre London ( 1993 ) * A Month in the Country , Belyaev , Guildford , Richmond and the Albery Theatre London ( 1994 ) * A View from the Bridge , Rodolpho , Guildford , Bristol Old Vic , Strand Theatre London ( 1995 ) * Son Of Man , Jesus Christ , Royal Shakespeare Company , London ( 1996 ) || ( 1997 ) * Les Enfants du Paradis , Lacenaire , Royal Shakespeare Company , London ( 1996 ) * Troilus and Cressida , Troilus , Royal Shakespeare Company , Stratford Upon Avon and London ( 1996 ) || ( 1997 ) * The Herbal Bed , Rafe Smith , Royal Shakespeare Company , Stratford Upon Avon and London ( 1996 ) || ( 1997 ) * As You Like It , Silvius , Royal Shakespeare Company , London ( 1997 ) * Real Classy Affair , Billy , Royal Court Theatre Company , London ( 1998 ) * Christopher Marlowe 's Edward II , Edward II , Crucible Theatre , Sheffield ( 2001 ) * War Poet 's Reading , Apollo Theatre ( 2001 ) * Othello , Iago , West End , London ( 2002 ) * Love 's Labour 's Lost , Berowne , Royal National Theatre , London ( 2003 ) * Epitaph for George Dillon , George Dillon , Royal National Theatre , London ( 2005 ) || ( 2006 ) * 2,000 Feet Away , Deputy , Bush Theatre , London ( 2008 ) * Cyrano de Bergerac , Cyrano , Chichester Festival Theatre ( 2009 ) * Ross , T. E. Lawrence , Chichester Festival Theatre ( 2016 ) Other projects and contributions * 2002 – contributed to the compilation album , When Love Speaks , which consists of Shakespearean sonnets and play excerpts – `` Be not afeard , the isle is full of noises '' and `` Our revels are now ended '' ( both from The Tempest ) * 2010 – starred in a series of readings of literary love scenes for The Carte Noire Readers . * [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20100324112129/http : //www.cartenoire.co.uk:80/cartenoire/page/readers/joseph-fiennes/joseph-fiennes-reads-presumed-innocent-by-scott-turow/676 Joseph Fiennes reads Presumed Innocent by Scott Turow ] * [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20100322195723/http : //www.cartenoire.co.uk:80/cartenoire/page/readers/joseph-fiennes/joseph-fiennes-reads-the-brightest-star-in-the-sky-by-marian-keyes/677 Joseph Fiennes reads The Brightest Star in the Sky by Marian Keyes ] Awards and nominations

odql_880--Joseph_Fiennes.txt

Which 2001 film starring Joseph Fiennes and Ed Harris is about two opposing snipers facing each other during the Battle of Stalingrad?

A novel is a long narrative , normally in prose , which describes fictional characters and events , usually in the form of a sequential story . The genre has also been described as possessing `` a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand years '' . This view sees the novel 's origins in Classical Greece and Rome , medieval , early modern romance , and the tradition of the novella . The latter , an Italian word used to describe short stories , supplied the present generic English term in the 18th century . Ian Watt , however , in The Rise of the Novel ( 1957 ) suggests that the novel first came into being in the early 18th century , Miguel de Cervantes , author of Don Quixote , is frequently cited as the first significant European novelist of the modern era ; the first part of Don Quixote was published in 1605 . The romance is a closely related long prose narrative . Walter Scott defined it as `` a fictitious narrative in prose or verse ; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents '' , whereas in the novel `` the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society '' . However , many romances , including the historical romances of Scott , Emily Brontë 's Wuthering Heights and Herman Melville 's Moby-Dick , are also frequently called novels , and Scott describes romance as a `` kindred term '' . Romance , as defined here , should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel . Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel : `` a novel is le roman , der Roman , il romanzo . '' Defining the genre A novel is a long , fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences . The novel in the modern era usually makes use of a literary prose style , and the development of the prose novel at this time was encouraged by innovations in printing , and the introduction of cheap paper , in the 15th century . The present English ( and Spanish ) word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the Italian novella for `` new '' , `` news '' , or `` short story of something new '' , itself from the Latin novella , a singular noun use of the neuter plural of novellus , diminutive of novus , meaning `` new '' . Most European languages use the word `` romance '' ( as in French , Dutch , Russian , Serbo-Croatian , Romanian , Danish , Swedish and Norwegian `` roman '' ; German `` Roman '' ; Portuguese `` romance '' and Italian `` romanzo '' ) for extended narratives . A fictional narrative Fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography . However this can be a problematic criterion . Throughout the early modern period authors of historical narratives would often include inventions rooted in traditional beliefs in order to embellish a passage of text or add credibility to an opinion . Historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes . Novels can , on the other hand , depict the social , political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity and detail not found in works of history . Literary prose While prose rather than verse became the standard of the modern novel , the ancestors of the modern European novel include verse epics in the Romance language of southern France , especially those by Chrétien de Troyes ( late 12th century ) , and in Middle English ( Geoffrey Chaucer 's ( c. 1343 – 1400 ) The Canterbury Tales ) . Even in the 19th century , fictional narratives in verse , such as Lord Byron 's Don Juan ( 1824 ) , Alexander Pushkin 's Yevgeniy Onegin ( 1833 ) , and Elizabeth Barrett Browning 's Aurora Leigh ( 1856 ) , competed with prose novels . Vikram Seth 's The Golden Gate ( 1986 ) , composed of 590 Onegin stanzas , is a more recent example of the verse novel . Content : intimate experience Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe , prose fiction created intimate reading situations . On the other hand , verse epics , including the Odyssey and Aeneid , had been recited to a select audiences , though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters . A new world of Individualistic fashion , personal views , intimate feelings , secret anxieties , `` conduct '' and `` gallantry '' spread with novels and the associated prose-romance . Length The novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction , followed by the novella , short story , and flash fiction . However , in the 17th century critics saw the romance as of epic length and the novel as its short rival . A precise definition of the differences in length between these types of fiction , is , however , not possible.The requirement of length has been traditionally connected with the notion that a novel should encompass the `` totality of life . '' The length of a novel can still be important because most literary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking system.The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America Nebula Award [ http : //www.sfwa.org/nebula-awards/rules/ ] gives the following guidelines : Novel – 40,000 words or more ; Novella – 17,500–39,999 words ; Novelette – 7,500–17,499 words ; Short Story – 7,499 words or fewer . For this purpose , `` word '' is understood to be five characters plus one space , so , a novel must have at least 240,000 characters-with-spaces , which , in practice , does make about one hundred printed pages , a reasonable length for a novel.The Booker Prize in 2007 created a serious debate with its short-listing of Ian McEwan 's 152-page work On Chesil Beach , with some critics stating that McEwan had at best written a novella.Cf . a rather unfavourable review in the [ http : //www.independent.ie/unsorted/features/love-in-england-before-the-60s-started-to-swing-43482.html Irish Independent ] : `` Ian McEwan 's new novel has been greeted with unqualified , sometimes ecstatic , praise from every reviewer in Britain , which may strike some readers here as a bit odd when they read the book . For a start , it 's not a novel . It 's barely even a novella . In some ways it 's more a long short story , built around a single event and involving just two characters—if it was a play it would be a one-act two-hander . '' Early novels See also : Ancient Greek novel and the Byzantine novel Although early forms of the novel are to be found in a number of places , including classical Rome , 10th– and 11th-century Japan , and Elizabethan England , the European novel is often said to have begun with Don Quixote in 1605 . Early works of extended fictional prose , or novels , include works in Latin like the Satyricon by Petronius ( c. 50 AD ) , and The Golden Ass by Apuleius ( c. 150 AD ) , works in Sanskrit such as the 6th– or 7th-century Daśakumāracarita by Daṇḍin , and in the 7th-century Kadambari by Banabhatta , the 11th-century Japanese Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu , the 12th-century Hayy ibn Yaqdhan ( or Philosophus Autodidactus , the 17th-century Latin title ) by Ibn Tufail , who wrote in Arabic , the 13th-century Theologus Autodidactus by Ibn al-Nafis , another Arabic novelist , and in Chinese in the 14th-century Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong . Murasaki Shikibu 's Tale of Genji ( 1010 ) has been described as the world 's first novelThe Tale of Genji . Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition . Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. , 2014 . Web . 06 Apr . 2014. and shows essentially all the qualities for which Marie de La Fayette 's novel La Princesse de Clèves ( 1678 ) has been praised : individuality of perception , an interest in character development , and psychological observation . Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty ( 960-1279 ) China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty ( 1368–1644 ) . Parallel European developments did not occur for centuries , and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities . By contrast , Ibn Tufail 's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis ' Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy and theology . In this sense , Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel , Jon Mcginnis , Classical Arabic Philosophy : An Anthology of Sources , p. 284 , Hackett Publishing Company , ISBN .Samar Attar , The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment : Ibn Tufayl 's Influence on Modern Western Thought , Lexington Books , ISBN . while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel.Muhsin Mahdi ( 1974 ) , `` The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis by Max Meyerhof , Joseph Schacht '' , Journal of the American Oriental Society 94 ( 2 ) , pp . 232–234 . Hayy ibn Yaqdhan , with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island , is also likely to have influenced Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe ( 1719 ) , because the work was available in an English edition in 1711 . Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel , and the Western tradition of the novel reaches back into the field of verse epics , though again not in an unbroken tradition . The epics of Asia , such as the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh ( 1300–1000 BC ) , and Indian epics such as the Ramayana ( 400 BCE and 200 CE ) , and Mahabharata ( 4th century BC ) were as unknown in early modern Europe as was the Anglo-Saxon epic of Beowulf ( c.750–1000 AD ) , which was rediscovered in the late 18th century and early 19th century . Other non-European works , such as the Torah , the Koran , and the Bible , are full of stories , and thus have also had a significant influence on the development of prose narratives , and therefore the novel . Then at the beginning of the 18th century , French prose translations brought Homer 's works to a wider public , who accepted them as forerunners of the novel . Anne Dacier 's translations , 1699 and 1708 , turned Homer 's verses into prose and generated an uproar among European intellectuals , who were surprised by their archaic tone . Classical Greek and Roman prose narratives Good surveys are : John Robert Morgan , Richard Stoneman , Greek fiction : the Greek novel in context ( Routledge , 1994 ) , Niklas Holzberg , The ancient novel : an introduction ( Routledge , 1995 ) , Gareth L. Schmeling , The Novel in the Ancient World ( Leiden and Boston : Brill , 1996 ) and Tim Whitmarsh ( hrsg . ) The Cambridge companion to the Greek and Roman novel ( Cambridge University Press 2008 ) . included a didactic strand , with the philosopher Plato 's ( c.425-c.348 BC ) dialogues ; a satirical dimension with Petronius ' Satyricon ; the incredible stories of Lucian of Samosata ; and Lucius Apuleius ' proto-picaresque The Golden Ass , as well as the heroic romances of the Greeks Heliodorus and Longus . Longus is the author of the famous Greek novel , Daphnis and Chloe ( 2nd century A.D. ) . Medieval period 1100–1500 Chivalric Romances Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe . They were marvel-filled adventures , often of a knight-errant with heroic qualities , who undertakes a quest , yet it is `` the emphasis on heterosexual love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic , which involve heroism . '' In later romances , particularly those of French origin , there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love . Originally , romance literature was written in Old French , Anglo-Norman and Occitan , later , in English , in Italian and German . During the early 13th century , romances were increasingly written as prose . The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century . The Prose Lancelot or Vulgate Cycle includes passages from that period . This collection indirectly led to Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur of the early 1470s . Prose became increasingly attractive , because It enabled writers to associate popular stories with serious histories traditionally composed in prose , and could also be more easily translated . Popular literature also drew on themes of romance , but with ironic , satiric or burlesque intent . Romances reworked legends , fairy tales , and history , but by about 1600 they were out of fashion , and Miguel de Cervantes famously burlesqued them in Don Quixote ( 1605 ) . Still , the modern image of medieval is more influenced by the romance than by any other medieval genre , and the word `` medieval '' evokes knights , distressed damsels , dragons , and such tropes . Around 1800 , the connotations of `` romance '' was modified with the development Gothic fiction . The novella The term novel refers back to the production of short stories that remained part of a European oral culture of storytelling into the late 19th century . Fairy tales , jokes , and humorous stories designed to make a point in a conversation , and the exemplum a priest would insert in a sermon belong into this tradition . Written collections of such stories circulated in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples designed for the use of clerics to compilations of various stories such as Boccaccio 's Decameron ( 1354 ) and Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales ( 1386–1400 ) . The Decameron ( 1354 ) one hundred novelle told by ten people , seven women and three men , fleeing the Black Death by escaping from Florence to the Fiesole hills , in 1348 . Renaissance period : 1500-1700 The modern distinction between history and fiction did not exist at this time and the grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern print market . William Caxton 's 1485 edition of Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d'Arthur ( 1471 ) was sold as a true history , though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and historical improbabilities . Sir John Mandeville 's Voyages , written in the 14th century , but circulated in printed editions throughout the 18th century , was filled with natural wonders , which were accepted as fact , like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as an umbrella against the desert sun . Both works eventually came to be viewed as works of fiction . In the 16th and 17th centuries two factors led to the separation of history and fiction . The invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap entertainment and knowledge in the form of chapbooks . The more elegant production of this genre by 17th- and 18th-century authors were belles lettres ; that is a market that would be neither low nor academic . The second major development was the first best-seller of modern fiction , the Spanish Amadis de Gaula , by García Montalvo . However , it was not accepted as an example of belles lettres . The Amadis eventually became the archetypical romance , in contrast with the modern novel which began to be developed in the 17th century . Chapbooks A chapbook is an early type of popular literature printed in early modern Europe . Produced cheaply , chapbooks were commonly small , paper-covered booklets , usually printed on a single sheet folded into books of 8 , 12 , 16 and 24 pages . They were often illustrated with crude woodcuts , which sometimes bore no relation to the text . When illustrations were included in chapbooks , they were considered popular prints . The tradition arose in the 16th century , as soon as printed books became affordable , and rose to its height during the 17th and 18th centuries and Many different kinds of ephemera and popular or folk literature were published as chapbooks , such as almanacs , children 's literature , folk tales , nursery rhymes , pamphlets , poetry , and political and religious tracts . The term `` chapbook '' for this type of literature was coined in the 19th century . The corresponding French and German terms are bibliothèque bleue ( blue book ) and Volksbuch , respectively . The principal historical subject matter of chapbooks was abridgements of ancient historians , popular medieval histories of knights , stories of comical heroes , religious legends , and collections of jests and fables . The new printed books reached the households of urban citizens and country merchants who visited the cities as traders . Cheap printed histories were , in the 17th and 18th centuries , especially popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes . The early modern market , from the 1530s and 1540s , divided into low chapbooks and high market expensive , fashionable , elegant belles lettres . The Amadis and Rabelais ' Gargantua and Pantagruel were important publications with respect to this divide . Both books specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories , rather than readers of belles lettres . The Amadis was a multi–volume fictional history of style , that aroused a debate about style and elegance as it became the first best-seller of popular fiction . On the other hand , Gargantua and Pantagruel , while it adopted the form of modern popular history , in fact satirized that genre 's stylistic achievements . The division , between low and high literature , became especially visible with books that appeared on both the popular and belles lettres markets in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries : low chapbooks included abridgments of books such as Miguel Cervantes ' Don Quixote ( 1605/1615 ) The history of the ever-renowned knight Don Quixote de la Mancha containing his many wonderful and admirable achievements and adventures ( London : W.O./ H. ) is an example here , Wing : 1522:14 , today in the possession of the British Library . The term `` chapbook '' is also in use for present-day publications , commonly short , inexpensive booklets . Heroic romances Heroic Romance is a genre of imaginative literature , which flourished in the 17th century , principally in France . The beginnings of modern fiction in France took a pseudo-bucolic form , and the celebrated L'Astrée , ( 1610 ) of Honore d'Urfe ( 1568-1625 ) , which is the earliest French novel , is properly styled a pastoral . But this ingenious and diffuse production , in which all is artificial , was the source of a vast literature , which took many and diverse ms . Although its action was , in the main , languid and sentimental , there was a side of the Astree which encouraged that extravagant love of glory , that spirit of `` panache , '' which was now rising to its height in France . That spirit it was which animated Marin le Roy de Gomberville ( 1603-1674 ) , who was the inventor of what have since been known as the Heroical Romances . In these there was experienced a violent recrudescence of the old medieval elements of romance , the impossible valour devoted to a pursuit of the impossible beauty , but the whole clothed in the language and feeling and atmosphere of the age in which the books were written . In order to give point to the chivalrous actions of the heroes , it was always hinted that they were well-known public characters of the day in a romantic disguise . : :Chisholm , Hugh , ed . ( 1911 ) . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press . A publication now in the public domain . Satirical romances Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella with its tradition of fabliaux . Significant examples include Till Eulenspiegel ( 1510 ) , Lazarillo de Tormes ( 1554 ) , Grimmelshausen 's Simplicissimus Teutsch ( 1666–1668 ) and in England Richard Head 's The English Rogue ( 1665 ) . The tradition that developed with these titles focused on a hero and his life . The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited the vices of those he met . A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to Heinrich Wittenwiler 's Ring ( c. 1410 ) and to François Rabelais ' Gargantua and Pantagruel ( 1532–1564 ) , which parodied and satirized heroic romances , and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque . Cervantes ' Don Quixote ( 1606/1615 ) modified the satire of romances : its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition . Other important works of the tradition are Paul Scarron 's Roman Comique ( 1651–57 ) , the anonymous French Rozelli with its satire on Europe 's religions , Alain-René Lesage 's Gil Blas ( 1715–1735 ) , Henry Fielding 's Joseph Andrews ( 1742 ) and Tom Jones ( 1749 ) , and Denis Diderot 's Jacques the Fatalist ( 1773 , printed posthumously in 1796 ) . Histories A market of literature in the modern sense of the word , that is a separate market for fiction and poetry , did not exist until the late seventeenth century . All books were sold under the rubric of `` History and politicks '' in the early 18th century , including pamphlets , memoirs , travel literature , political analysis , serious histories , romances , poetry , and novels . That fictional histories shared the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages : fictions were `` lies '' and therefore hardly justifiable at all . The climate , however , changed in the 1670s . The romance format of the quasi–historical works of Madame d'Aulnoy , César Vichard de Saint-Réal , Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras , and Anne-Marguerite Petit du Noyer , allowed the publication of histories that dared not risk an unambiguous assertion of their truth . The literary market-place of the late 17th and early 18th century employed a simple pattern of options whereby fictions could reach out into the sphere of true histories . This permitted its authors to claim they had published fiction , not truth , if they ever faced allegations of libel . Prefaces and title pages of 17th– and early 18th-century fiction acknowledged this pattern : histories could claim to be romances , but threaten to relate true events , as in the Roman à clef . Other works could , conversely , claim to be factual histories , yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented . A further differentiation was made between private and public history : Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe was , within this pattern , neither a `` romance '' nor a `` novel '' . It smelled of romance , yet the preface stated that it should most certainly be read as a true private history . Cervantes and the modern novel The rise of the novel as an alternative to the romance began with the publication of Cervantes Novelas Exemplares ( 1613 ) . It continued with Scarron 's Roman Comique ( the first part of which appeared in 1651 ) , whose heroes noted the rivalry between French romances and the new Spanish genre . Late 17th-century critics looked back on the history of prose fiction , proud of the generic shift that had taken place , leading towards the modern novel/novella . The first perfect works in French were those of Scarron and Madame de La Fayette 's `` Spanish history '' Zayde ( 1670 ) . The development finally led to her Princesse de Clèves ( 1678 ) , the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter . Europe witnessed the generic shift in the titles of works in French published in Holland , which supplied the international market and English publishers exploited the novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s . Contemporary critics listed the advantages of the new genre : brevity , a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in prose ; the style was fresh and plain ; the focus was on modern life , and on heroes who were neither good nor bad . The novel 's potential to become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fuelled the rise of the novel/novella . Stories were offered as allegedly true recent histories , not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral lessons they gave . To prove this , fictionalized names were used with the true names in a separate key . The Mercure Gallant set the fashion in the 1670s . Collections of letters and memoirs appeared , and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter and the epistolary novel grew from this and led to the first full blown example of scandalous fiction in Aphra Behn 's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister ( 1684/ 1685/ 1687 ) . Before the rise of the literary novel , reading novels had only been a form of entertainment . However , one of the earliest English novels , Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe ( 1719 ) , has elements of the romance , unlike these novels , because of its exotic setting and story of survival in isolation . Crusoe lacks almost all of the elements found in these new novels : wit , a fast narration evolving around a group of young fashionable urban heroes , along with their intrigues , a scandalous moral , gallant talk to be imitated , and a brief , conciseness plot . The new developments did , however , lead to Eliza Haywood 's epic length novel , Love in Excess ( 1719/20 ) and to Samuel Richardson 's Pamela , or Virtue Rewarded ( 1741 ) . Some literary historians date the beginning of the English novel with Richardson 's Pamela , rather than Crusoe 18th century novel The idea of the `` rise of the novel '' in the 18th century is especially associated with Ian Watt 's important study The Rise of the Novel ( 1957 ) .Ian Watt 's , The Rise of the Novel : Studies in Defoe , Richardson and Fielding ( London , 1957 ) set the phrase and inspired a number of ensuing publications . Major titles are here John J. Richetti , Popular Fiction before Richardson . Narrative Patterns 1700–1739 ( 1969 ) , Lennard J. Davis , Factual Fictions : The Origins of the English Novel ( New York : Columbia University Press , 1983 ) , J. Paul Hunter , Before Novels : The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction ( New York : Norton , 1990 ) , and a volume of the journal Eighteenth Century Fiction brought out under the title [ http : //digitalcommons.mcmaster.ca/ecf/vol12/iss2/ `` Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel '' ] ( which appeared in January–April 2000 ) . Research in Aphra Behn , Delarivier Manley , and Eliza Haywood has changed the picture since the 1970s with a focus on the two generations of female authors who dominated the stage into the 1720s . Major studies and text editions have been provided here by Patricia Köster , Ros Ballaster , Janet Todd and Patrick Spedding . A compound story is here Josephine Donovan , Women and the Rise of the Novel , 1405–1726 revised edition ( Palgrave Macmillan , 2000 ) . Ian Watt puts forward the idea that novel was a `` new form '' and associates this with the importance placed on realism by novelists such as Daniel Defoe , Samuel Richardson , and Henry Fielding . This theory about the novel in the 18th century led to the suggestion that the earlier Romance forms of long prose narrative were either not novels or were at least inferior . However , others including Margaret Anne Doody disagree that the

dpql_5441--Novel.txt

In which classic novel does the character Queequeg appear?

Andrew Edward `` Andy '' Coulson ( born 21 January 1968 ) is an English journalist and political strategist . Coulson was the editor of the News of the World from 2003 until his resignation in 2007 , following the conviction of one of the newspaper 's reporters in relation to illegal phone-hacking . He subsequently joined David Cameron 's personnel as communications director , until announcing his departure on 21 January 2011 because of continued media coverage of the phone-hacking affair . Coulson was arrested by the Metropolitan Police Service on 8 July 2011 in connection with allegations of corruption and phone hacking . He was detained and charged with perjury by Strathclyde Police on 30 May 2012 in relation to evidence he had given in the trial of Scottish politician Tommy Sheridan in 2010 , and cleared on 3 June 2015 . In June 2014 at the Old Bailey , Coulson was found guilty of a charge of conspiracy to intercept voicemails ( phone-hacking ) . He was sentenced on 4 July 2014 to 18 months in prison . On 30 June 2014 , it was announced that he would face a retrial over two counts of conspiring to cause misconduct in public office in relation to the alleged purchase of confidential royal phone directories in 2005 from a palace police officer , after the jury in the original trial was unable to reach a verdict on them . On 21 November 2014 , Coulson was released from prison having served less than five months of his 18-month prison sentence . Coulson was also tried over charges that he committed perjury in the evidence he gave in HM Advocate v Sheridan and Sheridan in 2010 . This trial started on 11 May 2015 because of the general election . On 3 June 2015 , he was cleared of these perjury charges , since , if he had lied , it would n't have been relevant to the outcome . Early life Coulson grew up in Wickford , Essex . He attended Beauchamps High School , a secondary school and sixth form college , from 1979 to 1986 . Coulson 's parents moved from their Basildon council house to nearby Wickford during his childhood . Career Coulson started work at 18 as a junior reporter on the Basildon Echo in 1986 . In 1988 , he moved to The Sun , working with Piers Morgan on the showbiz column Bizarre . In 1994 , he briefly moved to the Daily Mail , but after nine weeks moved back to The Sun to edit Bizarre . He hired Dominic Mohan , who was later promoted to editor . He set up the website page3.com , which was the first of News International 's websites to make a profit . News of the World He became deputy editor of the News of the World , the Sunday sister paper of The Sun , in 2000 . In 2001 , in the run up to the general election , he asked Tony and Cherie Blair whether they were members of the mile high club . Coulson replaced Rebekah Wade as editor in 2003 . In an interview with the Press Gazette in 2005 , he said that `` Tabloid newspapers in this country do more for its people than any other newspapers in the world '' . Coulson resigned on 26 January 2007 over the News of the World phone hacking affair which would several weeks later see the jailing for four months of the paper 's Royal correspondent Clive Goodman . Private investigator Glenn Mulcaire , remunerated by the newspaper , was given a custodial sentence of six months . On 21 July 2009 Coulson appeared in front of the House of Commons Culture , Media and Sport Select Committee and denied any knowledge of the phone hacking scandal , saying `` my instructions to the staff were clear – we did not use subterfuge of any kind unless there was a clear public interest in doing so . They were to work within the PCC code at all times '' . In 2008 an employment tribunal upheld a claim of bullying by Coulson whilst he was at the News of The World . A Stratford employment tribunal upheld a claim of unfair dismissal claimed by senior sports writer Matt Driscoll , and stated `` We find the behaviour to have been a consistent pattern of bullying behaviour '' . The judgement singled out Coulson for making `` bullying '' remarks in an email to Driscoll . The paper was told to pay Driscoll £800,000 . Conservative Party communications director Coulson became the Conservative Party 's director of communications on 9 July 2007 . Various media stories estimated his salary at between £275,000 and £475,000 ; the party indicated the latter figure was `` inaccurate '' and that his salary was `` substantially less '' but refused to provide an exact figure . In July 2011 the Mail on Sunday alleged that Cameron had been about to appoint the BBC 's Guto Harri , but was persuaded by Rebekah Wade to appoint Coulson . The paper quoted `` an individual intimately involved in Mr Coulson 's recruitment '' as saying `` Rebekah indicated the job should go to Andy . Cameron was told it should be someone acceptable to News International . The company was also desperate to find something for Andy after he took the rap when the phone hacking first became an issue . The approach was along the lines of , 'If you find something for Andy we will return the favour ' . '' Director of Communications for the Prime Minister After David Cameron became Prime Minister in May 2010 , he appointed Coulson as Director of Communications for the government at 10 Downing Street . His pay was £140,000 , the highest paid special advisor . Coulson announced his resignation on 21 January 2011 . He commented about the News of the World allegations `` I stand by what I 've said about those events but when the spokesman needs a spokesman it 's time to move on . '' In July 2011 questions were raised about Coulson 's security vetting at Number Ten . He had not been subjected to the highest level of vetting , `` developed vetting '' , allowing unrestricted access to top secret material . His predecessors had had the highest level of vetting , as did his successor and ( after his departure ) his deputy . The Guardian said that the disclosure `` is understood to have 'absolutely shocked ' some Whitehall information staff . '' According to Chris Bryant MP , senior officials working with Coulson believed that he had the same clearance level as his predecessor . It later emerged that he was still being paid by News International while working for the then opposition leader . Prior to the jury handing down their verdict after Coulson 's trial , Cameron issued a `` full and frank '' apology for hiring Coulson , saying `` I am extremely sorry that I employed him . It was the wrong decision and I am very clear about that . '' The judge hearing Coulson 's trial was critical of the prime minister , pondering whether the intervention was out of ignorance or deliberate , and demanded an explanation . Private Consultancy On 7 February 2011 , Coulson and his wife established 'Elbrus Consultants Ltd ' . The purpose of the company is not recorded by Companies House , but is reportedly a PR agency . Clients include 'One Young World ' . Kate Robertson of One Young World told the Guardian `` He ca n't do One Young World work at the moment , that is absolutely clear '' . Renewed allegations on phone hacking As the Conservative Party 's director of communications , Coulson continued to be subjected to allegations that he was aware of the hacking of phones while serving as the editor of News of the World . On 7 July 2009 , John Prescott called on leader of the Conservative Party David Cameron to remove Coulson from his position , after The Guardian revealed further details about phone-hacking by the News of the World . Cameron , though , defended Coulson on the morning of 9 July : `` I believe in giving people a second chance . As director of communications for the Conservatives he does an excellent job in a proper , upright way at all times . '' On 1 September 2010 The New York Times printed new allegations from former News of the World reporters alleging that Coulson had `` actively encouraged '' reporters to illegally intercept voicemail messages , and that he `` was present during discussions about phone hacking '' . Coulson has denied these latest claims . Sean Hoare , – showbusiness reporter at News of the World during Coulson 's reign – speaking on Five Live , who accused Coulson of lying , has said that indeed Coulson did not ask him to phone hack but veiled his request in `` metaphorical language '' and asked him to practise his `` dark arts '' . And Clive Goodman , in a letter from 2007 : `` The practice was widely discussed in the daily editorial conference , until explicit reference to it was banned by the editor . '' A report aired on Channel 4 's Dispatches in October included remarks made by an unnamed source , said to have been a former senior journalist at the News of the World who worked alongside Coulson . The source alleged that Coulson had personally listened to messages obtained through phone hacking . He was a witness in HM Advocate v Sheridan and Sheridan , where he denied under oath that he had any knowledge of phone hacking at the News of the World , or that he knew Glenn Mulcaire , the private detective at the centre of controversy . However , the Crown Prosecution Service said in December 2010 that it had determined that there was insufficient evidence to charge Coulson over allegations that he was aware of phone-hacking at the publication . The CPS said that witnesses interviewed by Metropolitan Police – including those who had previously made allegations through media outlets – had not been willing to provide admissible evidence . The Guardian reported on 7 July 2011 that Coulson was to be arrested the following day , along with a senior journalist whom the paper refused to name . Coulson was arrested at Scotland Yard at 10:30 am on 8 July 2011 . He was questioned under caution , and later that day released on police bail until October , but made no comment on his release . On 24 July 2012 , Coulson was charged along with seven others for `` conspiring to intercept communications without lawful authority from 3rd October 2000 to 9th August 2006 . '' These charges were made about 1 year after the Metropolitan Police Service reopened its dormant investigation into phone hacking , about 3 years after the then Assistant Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Service told the Commons Culture , Media and Sport Committee that `` no additional evidence has come to light , '' 5 years after Coulson and News International executives began claiming that phone hacking was the work of a single `` rogue reporter , '' 10 years after The Guardian began reporting that the Met had evidence of widespread illegal acquisition of confidential information , and 13 years after the Met began accumulating `` boxloads '' of that evidence , including sources for News of the World journalists while Coulson was editor , but kept it unexamined in trash bags at Scotland Yard . Since police renewed investigations in 2011 , 90 people have been arrested and 16 formally charged with crimes , including Coulson , in conjunction with illegal acquisition of confidential information . Many of the people arrested and charged were employees or agents of News of the World during the period that Coulson was editor . Coulson 's trial over the phone-hacking claims started in October 2013 . In June 2014 , Coulson was found guilty of one charge of conspiracy to intercept voicemails and he was sentenced to 18 months in prison on 4 July 2014 . On 21 November 2014 , Coulson was released from prison having served less than five months of his 18-month prison sentence . It was reported that as a condition of his early release on home detention curfew ( HDC ) Coulson would have to wear an electronic tag until he had served half of his full sentence . Coulson was to face a retrial , together with the News of the World 's former royal editor Clive Goodman , after the jury failed to agree a verdict on two other charges of conspiring to cause misconduct in public office in relation to the alleged purchase of confidential royal phone directories in 2005 from a palace police officer . Other defendants were cleared . On 17 April 2015 , the Crown Prosecution Service announced that Coulson ’ s retrial was to be scrapped , along with that of Goodman and the trials of seven other journalists . Perjury trial Coulson was charged with having committed perjury during the trial in 2010 of Tommy and Gail Sheridan . He was scheduled to stand trial in April 2015 but the trial was postponed to 11 May 2015 because of the general election . On 1 June 2015 , the judge , Lord Burns , acquitted Coulson . However , the acquittal was suspended while the Crown considered whether to appeal the decision and was therefore not announced until 3 June . Explaining his ruling , Lord Burns said that for Coulson to be found guilty it was necessary for the Crown to prove that the allegedly untrue evidence he had given at the 2010 Sheridan trial had been relevant to the issues in it . The judge added that it was for him , and not the jury , to decide on this aspect of the case and that the Crown ’ s legal submissions had failed to satisfy him that Coulson ’ s evidence had been sufficiently relevant to the Sheridan trial . Speaking outside the court , Coulson said : `` I 'm just delighted that after four pretty testing years my family and myself have finally had a good day '' . He added that the case against him had been a `` waste of money '' . Personal life Coulson married his wife , Eloise , in 2000 . They have two children . He follows Tottenham Hotspur . In October 2013 , it was revealed that Coulson had had an affair with Rebekah Brooks that lasted from 1998 to 2007 .

qb_4727--Andy_Coulson.txt

Andy Coulson resigned as editor of which British newspaper in 2007?

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus , bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as `` humps '' on its back . The two surviving species of camel are the dromedary , or one-humped camel ( C. dromedarius ) , which inhabits the Middle East and the Horn of Africa ; and the Bactrian , or two-humped camel ( C. bactrianus ) , which inhabits Central Asia . Both species have been domesticated ; they provide milk , meat , hair for textiles or goods such as felted pouches , and are working animals with tasks ranging from human transport to bearing loads . The term camel is derived via Latin and Greek ( camelus and κάμηλος kamēlos respectively ) from Hebrew or Phoenician gāmāl . `` Camel '' is also used more broadly to describe any of the six camel-like mammals in the family Camelidae : the two true camels and the four New World camelids : the llama , alpaca , guanaco , and vicuña of South America . Biology The average life expectancy of a camel is 40 to 50 years . A full-grown adult camel stands at the shoulder and at the hump . Camels can run at up to 65 km/h in short bursts and sustain speeds of up to 40 km/h . Bactrian camels weigh 300 to and dromedaries 300 to . The male dromedary camel has in its throat an organ called a dulla , a large , inflatable sac he extrudes from his mouth when in rut to assert dominance and attract females . It resembles a long , swollen , pink tongue hanging out of the side of its mouth . Camels mate by having both male and female sitting on the ground , with the male mounting from behind . The male usually ejaculates three or four times within a single mating session . Camelids are the only ungulates to mate in a sitting position . Ecological and behavioral adaptations Camels do not directly store water in their humps as was once commonly believed . The humps are actually reservoirs of fatty tissue : concentrating body fat in their humps minimizes the insulating effect fat would have if distributed over the rest of their bodies , helping camels survive in hot climates . When this tissue is metabolized , it yields more than one gram of water for every gram of fat processed . This fat metabolization , while releasing energy , causes water to evaporate from the lungs during respiration ( as oxygen is required for the metabolic process ) : overall , there is a net decrease in water . Camels have a series of physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand long periods of time without any external source of water . Unlike other mammals , their red blood cells are oval rather than circular in shape . This facilitates the flow of red blood cells during dehydration and makes them better at withstanding high osmotic variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water : a 600 kg camel can drink 200 L of water in three minutes . Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water consumption that would kill most other animals . Their temperature ranges from 34 °C at dawn and steadily increases to 40 °C by sunset , before they cool off at night again . Maintaining the brain temperature within certain limits is critical for animals ; to assist this , camels have a rete mirabile , a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other which utilizes countercurrent blood flow to cool blood flowing to the brain . Camels rarely sweat , even when ambient temperatures reach 49 °C . Any sweat that does occur evaporates at the skin level rather than at the surface of their coat ; the heat of vaporization therefore comes from body heat rather than ambient heat . Camels can withstand losing 25 % of their body weight to sweating , whereas most other mammals can withstand only about 12–14 % dehydration before cardiac failure results from circulatory disturbance . When the camel exhales , water vapor becomes trapped in their nostrils and is reabsorbed into the body as a means to conserve water . Camels eating green herbage can ingest sufficient moisture in milder conditions to maintain their bodies ' hydrated state without the need for drinking . The camels ' thick coats insulate them from the intense heat radiated from desert sand ; a shorn camel must sweat 50 % more to avoid overheating . During the summer the coat becomes lighter in color , reflecting light as well as helping avoid sunburn . The camel 's long legs help by keeping its body farther from the ground , which can heat up to 70 °C . Dromedaries have a pad of thick tissue over the sternum called the pedestal . When the animal lies down in a sternal recumbent position , the pedestal raises the body from the hot surface and allows cooling air to pass under the body . Camels ' mouths have a thick leathery lining , allowing them to chew thorny desert plants . Long eyelashes and ear hairs , together with nostrils that can close , form a barrier against sand . If sand gets lodged in their eyes , they can dislodge it using their transparent third eyelid . The camels ' gait and widened feet help them move without sinking into the sand . The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water . Camel urine comes out as a thick syrup , and camel feces are so dry that they do not require drying when the Bedouins use them to fuel fires . Camels ' immune system differs from those of other mammals . Normally , the Y-shaped antibody molecules consist of two heavy ( or long ) chains along the length of the Y , and two light ( or short ) chains at each tip of the Y. Camels , in addition to these , also have antibodies made of only two heavy chains , a trait that makes them smaller and more durable . These `` heavy-chain-only '' antibodies , discovered in 1993 , are thought to have developed 50 million years ago , after camelids split from ruminants and pigs . Genetics The karyotypes of different camelid species have been studied earlier by many groups , but no agreement on chromosome nomenclature of camelids has been reached . A 2007 study flow sorted camel chromosomes , building on the fact that camels have 37 pairs of chromosomes ( 2n=74 ) , and found that the karyotime consisted of one metacentric , three submetacentric , and 32 acrocentric autosomes . The Y is a small metacentric chromosome , while the X is a large metacentric chromosome . The hybrid camel , a hybrid between Bactrian and dromedary camels , has one hump , though it has an indentation 4 – deep that divides the front from the back . The hybrid is at the shoulder and tall at the hump . It weighs an average of 650 kg and can carry around 400 to , which is more than either the dromedary or Bactrian can . According to molecular data , the New World and Old World camelids diverged 11 million years ago . In spite of this , these species can still hybridize and produce fertile offspring . The cama is a camel–llama hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were . Scientists collected semen from a camel via an artificial vagina and inseminated a llama after stimulating ovulation with gonadotrophin injections . The cama has ears halfway between the length of camel and llama ears , no hump , longer legs than the llama , and partially cloven hooves . According to cama breeder Lulu Skidmore , cama have `` the fleece of the llamas '' and `` the strength and patience of the camel '' . Like the mule , camas are sterile , despite both parents having the same number of chromosomes . Evolution The earliest known camel , called Protylopus , lived in North America 40 to 50 million years ago ( during the Eocene ) . It was about the size of a rabbit and lived in the open woodlands of what is now South Dakota . By 35 million years ago , the Poebrotherium was the size of a goat and had many more traits similar to camels and llamas . The hoofed Stenomylus , which walked on the tips of its toes , also existed around this time , and the long-necked Aepycamelus evolved in the Miocene . The direct ancestor of all modern camels , Procamelus , existed in the upper Miocene and lower Pliocene . Around 3–5 million years ago , the North American Camelidae spread to South America via the Isthmus of Panama , where they gave rise to guanacos and related animals , and to Asia via the Bering land bridge . Surprising finds of fossil Paracamelus on Ellesmere Island beginning in 2006 in the high Canadian Arctic indicate the dromedary is descended from a larger , boreal browser whose hump may have evolved as an adaptation in a cold climate . This creature is estimated to have stood around nine feet tall . The last camel native to North America was Camelops hesternus , which vanished along with horses , short-faced bears , mammoths and mastodons , ground sloths , sabertooth cats , and many other megafauna , coinciding with the migration of humans from Asia . Domestication Most camels surviving today are domesticated . Along with many other megafauna in North America , the original wild camels were wiped out during the spread of Native Americans from Asia into North America , 12,000 to 10,000 years ago . The only wild camels left are the Bactrian camels of the Gobi Desert . Like the horse , before their extinction in their native land , camels spread across the Bering land bridge , moving the opposite direction from the Asian immigration to America , to survive in the Old World and eventually be domesticated and spread globally by humans . Dromedaries may have first been domesticated by humans in Somalia and southern Arabia , around 3,000 BC , the Bactrian in central Asia around 2,500 BC , as at Shar-i Sokhta ( also known as the Burnt City ) , Iran . Discussions concerning camel domestication in Mesopotamia are often related to mentions of camels in the Hebrew Bible . The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia : E-J for instance mentions that `` In accord with patriarchal traditions , cylinder seals from Middle Bronze Age Mesopotamia showed riders seated upon camels . '' Martin Heide 's 2010 work on the domestication of the camel tentatively concludes that the bactrian camel was domesticated by at least the middle of the third millennium somewhere east of the Zagros Mountains , then moving into Mesopotamia , and suggests that mentions of camels `` in the patriarchal narratives may refer , at least in some places , to the Bactrian camel . '' while noting that the camel is not mentioned in relationship to Canaan . Recent excavations in the Timna Valley by Lidar Sapir-Hen and Erez Ben-Yosef discovered what may be the earliest domestic camel bones found in Israel or even outside the Arabian peninsula , dating to around 930 BCE . This garnered considerable media coverage as it was described as evidence that the stories of Abraham , Joseph , Jacob and Esau were written after this time . The existence of camels in Mesopotamia but not in Israel is not a new idea . According to an article in Time Magazine , the historian Richard Bulliet wrote in his 1975 book `` The Camel and the Wheel '' that `` the occasional mention of camels in patriarchal narratives does not mean that the domestic camels were common in the Holy Land at that period . '' The archaeologist William F. Albright writing even earlier saw camels in the Bible as an anachronism . The official report by Sapir-Hen and Ben-Joseph notes that `` The introduction of the dromedary camel ( Camelus dromedarius ) as a pack animal to the southern Levant signifies a crucial juncture in the history of the region ; it substantially facilitated trade across the vast deserts of Arabia , promoting both economic and social change ( e.g. , Kohler 1984 ; Borowski 1998 : 112-116 ; Jasmin 2005 ) . This , together with the depiction of camels in the Patriarchal narrative , has generated extensive discussion regarding the date of the earliest domestic camel in the southern Levant ( and beyond ) ( e.g. , Albright 1949 : 207 ; Epstein 1971 : 558-584 ; Bulliet 1975 ; Zarins 1989 ; Köhler-Rollefson 1993 ; Uerpmann and Uerpmann 2002 ; Jasmin 2005 ; 2006 ; Heide 2010 ; Rosen and Saidel 2010 ; Grigson 2012 ) . Most scholars today agree that the dromedary was exploited as a pack animal sometime in the early Iron Age ( not before the 12th century BCE ) '' and concludes that `` Current data from copper smelting sites of the Aravah Valley enable us to pinpoint the introduction of domestic camels to the southern Levant more precisely based on stratigraphic contexts associated with an extensive suite of radiocarbon dates . The data indicate that this event occurred not earlier than the last third of the 10th century BCE and most probably during this time . The coincidence of this event with a major reorganization of the copper industry of the region—attributed to the results of the campaign of Pharaoh Shoshenq I—raises the possibility that the two were connected , and that camels were introduced as part of the efforts to improve efficiency by facilitating trade . '' Military uses By at least 1200 BC , the first camel saddles had appeared , and Bactrian camels could be ridden . The first saddle was positioned to the back of the camel , and control of the Bactrian camel was exercised by means of a stick . However , between 500–100 BC , Bactrian camels attained military use . New saddles , which were inflexible and bent , were put over the humps and divided the rider 's weight over the animal . In the seventh century BC , the military Arabian saddle appeared , which improved the saddle design again slightly . Camel cavalries have been used in wars throughout Africa , the Middle East , and into modern-day Border Security Force of India ( though as of July 2012 , the BSF has planned the replacement of camels with ATVs ) . The first use of camel cavalries was in the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC . Armies have also used camels as freight animals instead of horses and mules . In the East Roman Empire , the Romans used auxiliary forces known as dromedarii , whom they recruited in desert provinces . The camels were used mostly in combat because of their ability to scare off horses at close ranges ( horses are afraid of the camels ' scent ) , a quality famously employed by the Achaemenid Persians when fighting Lydia in the Battle of Thymbra . 19th and 20th centuries * The United States Army established the U.S. Camel Corps , which was stationed in California in the late 19th century . One may still see stables at the Benicia Arsenal in Benicia , California , where they nowadays serve as the Benicia Historical Museum . Though the experimental use of camels was seen as a success ( John B. Floyd , Secretary of War in 1858 , recommended that funds be allocated towards obtaining a thousand more camels ) , the outbreak of the American Civil War saw the end of the Camel Corps : Texas became part of the Confederacy , and most of the camels were left to wander away into the desert . * France created a méhariste camel corps in 1912 as part of the Armée d'Afrique in the Sahara in order to exercise greater control over the camel-riding Tuareg and Arab insurgents , as previous efforts to defeat them on foot had failed . The camel-mounted units remained in service until the end of French rule over Algeria in 1962 . * In 1916 , the British created the Imperial Camel Corps . It was originally used to fight the Senussi , but was later used in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in World War I . The Imperial Camel Corps comprised infantrymen mounted on camels for movement across desert , though they dismounted at battle sites and fought on foot . After July 1918 , the Corps began to become run down , receiving no new reinforcements , and was formally disbanded in 1919 . * In World War I , the British Army also created the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps , which consisted of a group of Egyptian camel drivers and their camels . The Corps supported British war operations in Sinai , Palestine , and Syria by transporting supplies to the troops . * The Somaliland Camel Corps was created by colonial authorities in British Somaliland in 1912 ; it was disbanded in 1944 . * Bactrian camels were used by Romanian forces during World War II in the Caucasian region . * The Bikaner Camel Corps of British India fought alongside the British Indian Army in World Wars I and II . * The Tropas Nómadas ( Nomad Troops ) were an auxiliary regiment of Sahrawi tribesmen serving in the colonial army in Spanish Sahara ( today Western Sahara ) . Operational from the 1930s until the end of the Spanish presence in the territory in 1975 , the Tropas Nómadas were equipped with small arms and led by Spanish officers . The unit guarded outposts and sometimes conducted patrols on camelback . Food uses Dairy Camel milk is a staple food of desert nomad tribes and is sometimes considered a meal in and of itself ; a nomad can live on only camel milk for almost a month . Camel milk is rich in vitamins , minerals , proteins , and immunoglobulins ; compared to cow 's milk , it is lower in fat and lactose , and higher in potassium , iron , and vitamin C. Bedouins believe the curative powers of camel milk are enhanced if the camel 's diet consists of certain desert plants . Camel milk can readily be made into a drinkable yogurt , as well as butter or cheese , though the yields for cheese tend to be low . Camel milk can not be made into butter by the traditional churning method . It can be made if it is soured first , churned , and a clarifying agent is then added . Until recently , camel milk could not be made into camel cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds . Developing less wasteful uses of the milk , the FAO commissioned Professor J.P. Ramet of the École Nationale Supérieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires , who was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet . The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and is easy to digest , even for the lactose intolerant . The sale of camel cheese is limited owing to the small output of the few dairies producing camel cheese and the absence of camel cheese in local ( West African ) markets . Cheese imports from countries that traditionally breed camels are difficult to obtain due to restrictions on dairy imports from these regions . Additionally , camel milk has been made into ice cream in a Netherlands camel farm . Meat A camel carcass can provide a substantial amount of meat . The male dromedary carcass can weigh 300 – , while the carcass of a male Bactrian can weigh up to 650 kg . The carcass of a female dromedary weighs less than the male , ranging between 250 and . The brisket , ribs and loin are among the preferred parts , and the hump is considered a delicacy . The hump contains `` white and sickly fat '' , which can be used to make the khli ( preserved meat ) of mutton , beef , or camel . Camel meat is reported to taste like coarse beef , but older camels can prove to be very tough , although camel meat becomes more tender the more it is cooked . The Abu Dhabi Officers ' Club serves a camel burger mixed with beef or lamb fat in order to improve the texture and taste . In Karachi , Pakistan , some restaurants prepare nihari from camel meat . In Syria and Egypt , there are specialist camel butchers . Camel meat has been eaten for centuries . It has been recorded by ancient Greek writers as an available dish at banquets in ancient Persia , usually roasted whole . The ancient Roman emperor Heliogabalus enjoyed camel 's heel . Camel meat is still eaten in certain regions , including Eritrea , Somalia , Djibouti , Saudi Arabia , Egypt , Syria , Libya , Sudan , Ethiopia , Kazakhstan , and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history . Camel blood is also consumable , as is the case among pastoralists in northern Kenya , where camel blood is drunk with milk and acts as a key source of iron , vitamin D , salts and minerals . Camel meat is also occasionally found in Australian cuisine : for example , a camel lasagna is available in Alice Springs . A 2005 report issued jointly by the Saudi Ministry of Health and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention details cases of human bubonic plague resulting from the ingestion of raw camel liver . Religion Islam Camel meat is halal for Muslims . However , according to some Islamic schools of thought , a state of impurity is brought on by the consumption of it . Consequently , these schools hold that Muslims must perform wudhu ( ablution ) before the next time they pray after eating camel meat . Also , some Islamic schools of thought consider it haraam for a Muslim to perform salat in places where camels lie , as it is said to be a dwelling place of shaytan . According to Suni ahadith collected by Bukhari and Muslim , Muhammad ordered a certain group of people to drink camel milk and urine as a medicine . However , according to Abū Ḥanīfa , the drinking of camel urine , while not forbidden ( ḥaram ) , is disliked ( makrūh ) in Islam . Camel urine is sold as traditional medicine in shops in Saudi Arabia . The Sunni scholar Muhammad Al-Munajjid 's IslamQA.info recommends camel urine as beneficial to curing certain diseases and to human health and cited Ahadith and scientific studies as justification . King Abdulaziz University researcher Dr. Faten Abdel-Rajman Khorshid has claimed that cancer and other diseases could be treated with camel urine as recommended by the Prophet . It is believed to combat cancer by King Abdulaziz University staff and serves as medicine and shampoo . The United Arab Emirates `` Arab Science and Technology Foundation '' reported that cancer could be treated with camel urine . Camel urine was also prescribed as a treatment by Zaghloul El-Naggar , a religious scholar . Camel urine is the only urine which is permitted to be drunk according to the Hanbali madhhab of Sunni Islam . The World Health Organization said that camel urine consumption may be a factor in the spread of the MERS virus in Saudi Arabia . The Gulf Times writer Ahmad al-Sayyed wrote that various afflictions are dealt with camel urine by people . Camel urine was used to clean hair by Bedouin . Dandruff , scalp ailments , hair , sores , and wounds were recommended to be treated with camel urine by Ibn Sina . Arab American University Professor of Cell Biology and Immunology Bashar Saad ( PhD ) along with Omar Said ( PhD ) wrote that medicinal use of camel urine is approved of and promoted by Islam since it was recommended by the prophet . A test on mice found that cytotoxic effects similar to cyclophosphamide were induced on bone marrow by camel urine . Besides for consumption as a medicinal drink , camel urine is believed to help treat hair . Bites from insects were warded off with camel urine , which also served as a shampoo . Camel urine is also used to help treat asthma , infections , treat hair , sores , hair growth and boost libido . Several Sunni Ahadith mention camel urine : Some Shia criticized Wahhabis for camel urine treatment . Shia scholars also recommend the medicinal use of camel urine . Shia Hadith on Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq reported that shortness of breath ( asthma ) was treated with camel urine . Shia Marja Ayatollah Sistani said that for medicinal purposes only , sheep , cow , and camel urine can be drunk . Judaism According to Jewish tradition , camel meat and milk are not kosher . Camels possess only one of the two kosher criteria ; although they chew their cud , they do not possess cloven hooves : Distribution and numbers There are around 14 million camels alive , with 90 % being dromedaries . Dromedaries alive today are domesticated animals ( mostly living in the Horn of Africa , the Sahel , Maghreb , Middle East and South Asia ) . The Horn region alone has the largest concentration of camels in the world , where the dromedaries constitute an important part of local nomadic life . They provide nomadic people in Somalia ( which has the largest camel herd in the world ) and Ethiopia with milk , food , and transportation . [ http : //www.mbali.info/doc265.htm Plain text version . ] The Bactrian camel is , , reduced to an estimated 1.4 million animals , most of which are domesticated . The only truly wild Bactrian camels , of which there are less than one thousand , are thought to inhabit the Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia . The largest population of feral camels is in Australia . There are around 700,000 feral dromedary camels in central parts of Australia , descended from those introduced as a method of transport in the 19th and early 20th centuries . This population is growing about 8 % per year . Representatives of the Australian government have culled more than 100,000 of the animals in part because the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers . A small population of introduced camels , dromedaries and Bactrians , wandered through Southwest United States after having been imported in the 1800s as part of the U.S. Camel Corps experiment . When the project ended , they were used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released . Twenty-five U.S. camels were bought and imported to Canada during the Cariboo Gold Rush .

qb_3775--Camel.txt

What type of camel has two humps?

Troy ( , Troia and , Ilion , or , Ilios ; and ; Trōia is the typical Latin name for the city . Ilium is a more poetic term : Hittite : Wilusa or Truwisa ; ) was a city situated in the far northwest of the region known in late Classical antiquity as Asia Minor , now known as Anatolia in modern Turkey , near ( just south of ) the southwest mouth of the Dardanelles straits and northwest of Mount Ida . The present-day location is known as Hisarlık . It was the setting of the Trojan War described in the Greek Epic Cycle , in particular in the Iliad , one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer . Metrical evidence from the Iliad and the Odyssey suggests that the name ( Ilion ) formerly began with a digamma : ( Wilion ) ; this is also supported by the Hittite name for what is thought to be the same city , Wilusa . A new capital called Ilium was founded on the site in the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus . It flourished until the establishment of Constantinople and declined gradually in the Byzantine era . In 1865 , English archaeologist Frank Calvert excavated trial trenches in a field he had bought from a local farmer at Hisarlık , and in 1868 , Heinrich Schliemann , a wealthy German businessman and archaeologist , also began excavating in the area after a chance meeting with Calvert in Çanakkale . These excavations revealed several cities built in succession . Schliemann was at first skeptical about the identification of Hisarlik with Troy , but was persuaded by Calvert and took over Calvert 's excavations on the eastern half of the Hisarlik site , which was on Calvert 's property . Troy VII has been identified with the Hittite city Wilusa , the probable origin of the Greek Ἴλιον , and is generally ( but not conclusively ) identified with Homeric Troy . Today , the hill at Hisarlık has given its name to a small village near the ruins , which supports the tourist trade visiting the Troia archaeological site . It lies within the province of Çanakkale , some 30 km south-west of the provincial capital , also called Çanakkale . The nearest village is Tevfikiye . The map here shows the adapted Scamander estuary with Ilium a little way inland across the Homeric plain . Troy was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1998 . Homeric Troy Ancient Greek historians variously placed the Trojan War in the 12th , 13th , or 14th centuries BC : Eratosthenes to 1184 BC , Herodotus to 1250 BC , Duris of Samos to 1334 BC . Modern archaeologists associate Homeric Troy with archaeological Troy VII . In the Iliad , the Achaeans set up their camp near the mouth of the River Scamander ( presumably modern Karamenderes ) , where they had beached their ships . The city of Troy itself stood on a hill , across the plain of Scamander , where the battles of the Trojan War took place . The site of the ancient city is some 5 km from the coast today , but 3,000 years ago the mouths of Scamander were much closer to the city , discharging into a large bay that formed a natural harbour and which has since been filled with alluvial material . Recent geological findings have permitted the identification of the ancient Trojan coastline , and the results largely confirm the accuracy of the Homeric geography of Troy . In November 2001 , the geologist John C. Kraft from the University of Delaware and the classicist John V. Luce from Trinity College , Dublin , presented the results of investigations , begun in 1977 , into the geology of the region . They compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the Iliad and other classical sources , notably Strabo 's Geographia , and concluded that there is a regular consistency between the location of Schliemann 's Troy and other locations such as the Greek camp , the geological evidence , descriptions of the topography and accounts of the battle in the Iliad . Besides the Iliad , there are references to Troy in the other major work attributed to Homer , the Odyssey , as well as in other ancient Greek literature ( such as Aeschylus ' Oresteia ) . The Homeric legend of Troy was elaborated by the Roman poet Virgil in his Aeneid . The Greeks and Romans took for a fact the historicity of the Trojan War and the identity of Homeric Troy with the site in Anatolia . Alexander the Great , for example , visited the site in 334 BC and there made sacrifices at tombs associated with the Homeric heroes Achilles and Patroclus . After the 1995 find of a Luwian biconvex seal at Troy VII , there has been a heated discussion over the language that was spoken in Homeric Troy . Frank Starke of the University of Tübingen recently demonstrated that the name of Priam , king of Troy at the time of the Trojan War , is connected to the Luwian compound Priimuua , which means `` exceptionally courageous '' . `` The certainty is growing that Wilusa/Troy belonged to the greater Luwian-speaking community , '' although it is not entirely clear whether Luwian was primarily the official language or in daily colloquial use . The search for Troy With the rise of critical history , Troy and the Trojan War were , for a long time , consigned to the realms of legend . However , the true location of ancient Troy had from classical times remained the subject of interest and speculation . The Troad peninsula was anticipated to be the location . Early modern travellers in the 16th and 17th centuries , including Pierre Belon and Pietro Della Valle , had identified Troy with Alexandria Troas , a ruined town approximately 20 km south of the currently accepted location . In the late 18th century , Jean Baptiste LeChevalier had identified a location near the village of Pınarbaşı , Ezine as the site of Troy , a mound approximately 5 km south of the currently accepted location . LeChavalier 's location , published in his Voyage de la Troade , was the most commonly accepted theory for almost a century . In 1822 , the Scottish journalist Charles Maclaren was the first to identify with confidence the position of the city as it is now known . In 1866 , Frank Calvert , the brother of the United States ' consular agent in the region , made extensive surveys and published in scholarly journals his identification of the hill of New Ilium ( which was on farmland owned by his family ) on the same site . The hill , near the city of Çanakkale , was known as Hisarlık . Schliemann In 1868 , Heinrich Schliemann visited Calvert and secured permission to excavate Hisarlık . In 1871–73 and 1878–79 , he excavated the hill and discovered the ruins of a series of ancient cities dating from the Bronze Age to the Roman period . Schliemann declared one of these cities — at first Troy I , later Troy II — to be the city of Troy , and this identification was widely accepted at that time . Schliemann 's finds at Hisarlık have become known as Priam 's Treasure . They were acquired from him by the Berlin museums , but significant doubts about their authenticity persist . Schliemann became interested in digging at the mound of Hisarlık at the persuasion of Frank Calvert . The British diplomat , considered a pioneer for the contributions he made to the archaeology of Troy , spent more than 60 years in the Troad ( modern day Biga peninsula , Turkey ) conducting field work . As Calvert was a principal authority on field archaeology in the region , his findings supplied evidence that Homeric Troy might exist in the hill , and played a major role in directing Heinrich Schliemann to dig at the Hisarlık . However , Schliemann downplayed this collaboration when taking credit for the findings , such that Susan Heck Allen recently described Schliemann as a `` relentlessly self-promoting amateur archaeologist '' . Schliemann 's excavations were condemned by later archaeologists as having destroyed the main layers of the real Troy . Kenneth W. Harl in the Teaching Company 's Great Ancient Civilizations of Asia Minor lecture series sarcastically claims that Schliemann 's excavations were carried out with such rough methods that he did to Troy what the Greeks could n't do in their times , destroying and levelling down the entire city walls to the ground . Other scholars agree that the damage caused to the site is irreparable . Dörpfeld and Blegen After Schliemann , the site was further excavated under the direction of Wilhelm Dörpfeld and later Carl Blegen ( 1932–38 ) . These excavations have shown that there were at least nine cities built , one on top of each other , at this site . In his research , Blegen came to a conclusion that Troy 's nine levels could be further divided into forty-six sublevels . Korfmann In 1988 , excavations were resumed by a team from the University of Tübingen and the University of Cincinnati under the direction of Professor Manfred Korfmann , with Professor Brian Rose overseeing Post-Bronze Age ( Greek , Roman , Byzantine ) excavation along the coast of the Aegean Sea at the Bay of Troy . Possible evidence of a battle was found in the form of bronze arrowheads and fire-damaged human remains buried in layers dated to the early 12th century BC . The question of Troy 's status in the Bronze-Age world has been the subject of a sometimes acerbic debate between Korfmann and the Tübingen historian Frank Kolb in 2001–2002 . In August 1993 , following a magnetic imaging survey of the fields below the fort , a deep ditch was located and excavated among the ruins of a later Greek and Roman city . Remains found in the ditch were dated to the late Bronze Age , the alleged time of Homeric Troy . It is claimed by Korfmann that the ditch may have once marked the outer defences of a much larger city than had previously been suspected . The latter city has been dated by his team to about 1250 BC , and it has been also suggested — based on recent archeological evidence uncovered by Professor Manfred Korfmann 's team — that this was indeed the Homeric city of Troy . Recent developments The archaeological site of Troy was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1998 . In summer 2006 , the excavations continued under the direction of Korfmann 's colleague Ernst Pernicka , with a new digging permit . In 2013 , an international team made up of cross-disciplinary experts led by William Aylward , an archaeologist at the University of Wisconsin , was to carry out new excavations . This activity was to be conducted under the auspices of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University and was to use the new technique of `` molecular archaeology '' . A few days before the Wisconsin team was to leave , Turkey cancelled about 100 excavation permits , including Wisconsin 's . In March 2014 , it was announced that a new excavation would take place to be sponsored by a private company and carried out by Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University . This will be the first Turkish team to excavate and is planned as a 12-month excavation led by associate professor Rüstem Aslan . The University 's rector stated that `` Pieces unearthed in Troy will contribute to Çanakkale ’ s culture and tourism . Maybe it will become one of Turkey ’ s most important frequented historical places . ” Historical Troy uncovered The layers of ruins in the citadel at Hisarlık are numbered Troy I - Troy IX , with various subdivisions : For the new chronological boundaries of Troy VIII-IX which differ from those used by Blegen see C. B . Rose , ‘ The 1991 Post-Bronze Age excavations at Troia ’ Studia Troica 2 ( 1992 ) 44 n. 16 . * Troy I 3000–2600 BC ( Western Anatolian EB 1 ) * Troy II 2600–2250 BC ( Western Anatolian EB 2 ) * Troy III 2250–2100 BC ( Western Anatolian EB 3 [ early ] ) * Troy IV 2100–1950 BC ( Western Anatolian EB 3 [ middle ] ) * Troy V : 20th–18th centuries BC ( Western Anatolian EB 3 [ late ] ) * Troy VI : 17th–15th centuries BC * Troy VIh : late Bronze Age , 14th century BC * Troy VIIa : c. 1300–1190 BC , most likely setting for Homer 's story * Troy VIIb1 : 12th century BC * Troy VIIb2 : 11th century BC * Troy VIIb3 : until c. 950 BC * Troy VIII : c. 700–85 BC * Troy IX : 85 BC–c . AD 500 Troy I–V The first city on the site was founded in the 3rd millennium BC . During the Bronze Age , the site seems to have been a flourishing mercantile city , since its location allowed for complete control of the Dardanelles , through which every merchant ship from the Aegean Sea heading for the Black Sea had to pass . Around 1900 BC a mass migration was set off by the Hittites to the east . Cities to the east of Troy were destroyed , and although Troy was not burned , the next period shows a change of culture indicating a new people had taken over Troy . Schliemann 's Troy II When Schliemann came across Troy II , in 1871 , he believed he had found Homer 's city . Schliemann and his team unearthed a large feature he dubbed the Scaean Gate , a western gate unlike the three previously found leading to the Pergamos . This gate , as he describes , was the gate that Homer had featured . As Schliemann states in his publication Troja : `` I have proved that in a remote antiquity there was in the plain of Troy a large city , destroyed of old by a fearful catastrophe , which had on the hill of Hisarlık only its Acropolis with its temples and a few other large edifices , southerly , and westerly direction on the site of the later Ilium ; and that , consequently , this city answers perfectly to the Homeric description of the sacred site of Ilios . '' Troy VI & VII Troy VI was destroyed around 1250 BC , probably by an earthquake . Only a single arrowhead was found in this layer , and no remains of bodies . However the town quickly recovered and was rebuilt in a layout that was more orderly . Troy VIIa , which has been dated to the mid-to-late-13th century BC , is the most often cited candidate for the Troy of Homer . Troy VIIa appears to have been destroyed by war . The evidence of fire and slaughter around 1184 BC , which brought Troy VIIa to a close , led to this phase being identified with the city besieged by the Greeks during the Trojan War . This was immortalized in the Iliad written by Homer . Calvert 's Thousand-Year Gap Initially , the layers of Troy VI and VII were overlooked entirely , because Schliemann favoured the burnt city of Troy II . It was not until the need to close `` Calvert 's Thousand Year Gap '' arose — from Dörpfeld 's discovery of Troy VI — that archaeology turned away from Schliemann 's Troy and began working towards finding Homeric Troy once more . `` Calvert 's Thousand Year Gap '' ( 1800-800 BC ) was a period not accounted for by Schliemann 's archaeology and thus constituting a hole in the Trojan timeline . In Homer 's description of the city , a section of one side of the wall is said to be weaker than the rest . During his excavation of more than three hundred yards of the wall , Dörpfeld came across a section very closely resembling the Homeric description of the weaker section . Dörpfeld was convinced he had found the walls of Homer 's city , and now he would excavate the city itself . Within the walls of this stratum ( Troy VI ) , much Mycenaean pottery dating from LH III A and III B was uncovered , suggesting a relation between the Trojans and Mycenaeans . The great tower along the walls seemed likely to be the `` Great Tower of Ilios '' . The evidence seemed to indicate that Dörpfeld had stumbled upon Ilios , the city of Homer 's epics . Schliemann himself had conceded that Troy VI was more likely to be the Homeric city , but he never published anything stating so . The only counter-argument , confirmed initially by Dörpfeld ( who was as passionate as Schliemann about finding Troy ) , was that the city appeared to have been destroyed by an earthquake , not by men . There was little doubt that this was the Troy of which the Mycenaeans would have known . Troy VIII In 480 BC , the Persian king Xerxes sacrificed 1,000 cattle at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias while marching through the Hellespontine region towards Greece . Following the Persian defeat in 480/79 , Ilion and its territory became part of the continental possessions of Mytilene and remained under Mytilenaean control until the unsuccessful Mytilenean revolt in 428/7 . Athens liberated the so-called Actaean cities including Ilion and enrolled these communities in the Delian League . Athenian influence in the Hellespont waned following the oligarchic coup of 411 , and in that year the Spartan general Mindaros emulated Xerxes by likewise sacrificing to Athena Ilias . From c. 410-399 , Ilion was within the sphere of influence of the local dynasts at Lampsacus ( Zenis , his wife Mania , and the usurper Meidias ) who administered the region on behalf of the Persian satrap Pharnabazus . In 399 , the Spartan general Dercylidas expelled the Greek garrison at Ilion who were controlling the city on behalf of the Lampsacene dynasts during a campaign which rolled back Persian influence throughout the Troad . Ilion remained outside the control of the Persian satrapal administration at Dascylium until the Peace of Antalcidas in 387/6 . In this period of renewed Persian control c. 387-367 , a statue of Ariobarzanes , the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia , was erected in front of the temple of Athena Ilias . In 360/59 the city was briefly controlled by Charidemus of Oreus , a Euboean mercenary leader who occasionally worked for the Athenians . In 359 , he was expelled by the Athenian Menelaos son of Arrabaios , whom the Ilians honoured with a grant of proxeny - this is recorded in the earliest civic decree to survive from Ilion . In May 334 Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont and came to the city , where he visited the temple of Athena Ilias , made sacrifices at the tombs of the Homeric heroes , and made the city free and exempt from taxes . According to the so-called 'Last Plans ' of Alexander which became known after his death in June 323 , he had planned to rebuild the temple of Athena Ilias on a scale that would have surpassed every other temple in the known world . Antigonus Monophthalmus took control of the Troad in 311 and created the new city of Antigoneia Troas which was a synoikism of the cities of Skepsis , Kebren , Neandreia , Hamaxitos , Larisa , and Kolonai . In c. 311-306 the koinon of Athena Ilias was founded from the remaining cities in the Troad and along the Asian coast of the Dardanelles and soon after succeeded in securing a guarantee from Antigonus that he would respect their autonomy and freedom ( he had not respected the autonomy of the cities which were synoikized to create Antigoneia ) . The koinon continued to function until at least the 1st century AD and primarily consisted of cities from the Troad , although for a time in the second half of the 3rd century it also included Myrlea and Chalcedon from the eastern Propontis . The governing body of the koinon was the synedrion on which each city was represented by two delegates . The day-to-day running of the synedrion , especially in relation to its finances , was left to a college of five agonothetai , on which no city ever had more than one representative . This system of equal ( rather than proportional ) representation ensured that no one city could politically dominate the koinon . The primary purpose of the koinon was to organize the annual Panathenaia festival which was held at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias . The festival brought huge numbers of pilgrims to Ilion for the duration of the festival as well as creating an enormous market ( the panegyris ) which attracted traders from across the region . In addition , the koinon financed new building projects at Ilion , for example a new theatre c. 306 and the expansion of the sanctuary and temple of Athena Ilias in the 3rd century , in order to make the city a suitable venue for such a large festival . In the period 302-281 , Ilion and the Troad were part of the kingdom of Lysimachus , who during this time helped Ilion synoikize several nearby communities , thus expanding the city 's population and territory.Strabo 13.1.26 : [ Λυσίμαχος ] συνῴκισέ τε εἰς αὐτὴν τὰς κύκλῳ πόλεις ἀρχαίας ἤδη κεκακωμένας . These probably included Birytis , Gentinos , and Sigeion : J. M. Cook , The Troad ( Oxford 1973 ) 364 . Birytis and Gentinos are not securely located , but recent excavations at Sigeion appear to independently confirm Strabo ’ s account by indicating an abandonment date soon after c. 300 : Th . Schäfer , Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı 32.2 ( 2009 ) 410-12 , 33.2 ( 2012 ) 248-9 . This may have been punishment for Sigeion resisting Lysimachus in 302 : Diodorus 20.107.4 . Lysimachus was defeated at the Battle of Corupedium in February 281 by Seleucus I Nikator , thus handing the Seleucid kingdom control of Asia Minor , and in August or September of 281 when Seleucus passed through the Troad on his way to Lysimachia in the nearby Thracian Chersonese Ilion passed a decree in honour of him , indicating the city 's new loyalties . In September Seleucus was assassinated at Lysimachia by Ptolemy Keraunos , making his successor , Antiochus I Soter , the new king . In 280 or soon after Ilion passed a long decree lavishly honouring Antiochus in order to cement their relationship with him.Inschriften von Ilion 32 . A minority of scholars instead attempt to date this inscription to the reign of Antiochus III ( 222-187 BC ) . During this period Ilion still lacked proper city walls except for the crumbling Troy VI fortifications around the citadel , and in 278 during the Gallic invasion the city was easily sacked . Ilion enjoyed a close relationship with Antiochus for the rest of his reign : for example , in 274 Antiochus granted land to his friend Aristodikides of Assos which for tax purposes was to be attached to the territory of Ilion , and c. 275-269 Ilion passed a decree in honour of Metrodoros of Amphipolis who had successfully treated the king for a wound he received in battle . Troy IX The city was destroyed by Sulla 's rival , the Roman general Fimbria , in 85 BC following an eleven-day siege . Later that year when Sulla had defeated Fimbria he bestowed benefactions on Ilion for its loyalty which helped with the city 's rebuilding . Ilion reciprocated this act of generosity by instituting a new civic calendar which took 85 BC as its first year . However , the city remained in financial distress for several decades , despite its favoured status with Rome . In the 80s BC , Roman publicani illegally levied taxes on the sacred estates of Athena Ilias and the city was required to call on L. Julius Caesar for restitution ; while in 80 BC , the city suffered an attack by pirates . In 77 BC the costs of running the annual festival of the koinon of Athena Ilias became too pressing for both Ilion and the other members of the koinon and L. Julius Caesar was once again required to arbitrate , this time reforming the festival so that it would be less of a financial burden . In 74 BC the Ilians once again demonstrated their loyalty to Rome by siding with the Roman general Lucullus against Mithridates VI . Following the final defeat of Mithridates in 63/2 , Pompey rewarded the city 's loyalty by becoming the benefactor of Ilion and patron of Athena Ilias . In 48 BC , Julius Caesar likewise bestowed benefactions on the city , recalling the city 's loyalty during the Mithridatic Wars , the city 's connection with his cousin L. Julius Caesar , and the family 's claim that they were ultimately descended from Venus through the Trojan prince Aeneas and therefore shared kinship with the Ilians . In 20 BC , the Emperor Augustus visited Ilion and stayed in the house of a leading citizen , Melanippides son of Euthydikos . As a result of his visit , he also financed the restoration and rebuilding of the sanctuary of Athena Ilias , the bouleuterion , and the theatre . Soon after work on the theatre was completed in 12/11 BC , Melanippides dedicated a statue of Augustus in the theatre to record this benefaction . Hittite and Egyptian evidence In the 1920s , the Swiss scholar Emil Forrer claimed that the placenames Wilusa and Taruisa found in Hittite texts should be identified with Ilion and Troia , respectively . He further noted that the name of Alaksandu , a king of Wilusa mentioned in a Hittite treaty , is quite similar to Homer 's Paris , whose birthname was Alexandros . Subsequent to this , the Tawagalawa letter ( CTH 181 ) was found to document an unnamed Hittite king 's correspondence to the king of the Ahhiyawa , referring to an earlier `` Wilusa episode '' involving hostility on the part of the Ahhiyawa . The Hittite king was long held to be Mursili II ( c. 1321—1296 ) , but , since the 1980s , his son Hattusili III ( 1265—1240 ) is commonly preferred , although his other son Muwatalli ( c. 1296—1272 ) remains a possibility . Inscriptions of the New Kingdom of Egypt also record a nation T-R-S as one of the Sea Peoples who attacked Egypt during the XIX and XX Dynasties . An inscription at Deir el-Medina records a victory of Ramesses III over the Sea Peoples , including one named `` Tursha '' ( Egyptian : [ twrš3 ] ) . It is probably the same as the earlier `` Teresh '' ( Egyptian : [ trš.w ] ) on the stele commemorating Merneptah 's victory in a Libyan campaign around 1220 BC . These identifications were rejected by many scholars as being improbable or at least unprovable . However , Trevor Bryce championed them in his 1998 book The Kingdom of the Hittites , citing a piece of the Manapa-Tarhunda letter referring to the kingdom of Wilusa as beyond the land of the Seha River ( the classical Caicus and modern Bakırçay ) and near the land of `` Lazpa '' ( Lesbos ) . Recent evidence also adds weight to the theory that Wilusa is identical to archaeological Troy . Hittite texts mention a water tunnel at Wilusa , and a water tunnel excavated by Korfmann , previously thought to be Roman , has been dated to around 2600 BC . The identifications of Wilusa with Troy and of the Ahhiyawa with Homer 's Achaeans remain somewhat controversial but gained enough popularity during the 1990s to be considered majority opinion . That agrees with metrical evidence in the Iliad that the name ᾽Ιλιον ( Ilion ) for Troy was formerly Ϝιλιον ( Wilion ) with a digamma . In later legend Such was the fame of the Epic Cycle in Roman and Medieval times that it was built upon to provide a starting point for various founding myths of national origins . The most influential , Virgil 's Aeneid , traces the journeys of the Trojan prince Aeneas , supposed ancestor of the

bb_9380--Troy.txt

The archaeological site of the ancient city of Troy is in which country?

In biology , a species ( abbreviated sp. , with the plural form species abbreviated spp . ) is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank . A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals are capable of reproducing fertile offspring , typically using sexual reproduction . While in many cases this definition is adequate , the difficulty of defining species is known as the species problem . For example , a species complex is a group of closely related species that are very similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often unclear . Differentiating measures include similarity of DNA , morphology , or ecological niche . Presence of specific locally adapted traits may further subdivide species into `` infraspecific taxa '' such as subspecies ( and in botany other taxa are used , such as varieties , subvarieties , and formae ) . Species hypothesized to have the same ancestors are placed in one genus , based on similarities . The similarity of species is judged based on comparison of physical attributes , and where available , their DNA sequences . All species are given a two-part name , a `` binomial name '' , or just `` binomial '' . The first part of a binomial is the generic name , the genus to which the species belongs . The second part is either called the specific name ( a term used only in zoology ) or the specific epithet ( the term used in botany , which can also be used in zoology ) . For example , Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus . While the genus gets capitalized , the specific epithet does not . The binomial is written in italics when printed and underlined when handwritten . A usable definition of the word `` species '' and reliable methods of identifying particular species are essential for stating and testing biological theories and for measuring biodiversity , though other taxonomic levels such as families may be considered in broad-scale studies . Extinct species known only from fossils are generally difficult to assign precise taxonomic rankings , which is why higher taxonomic levels such as families are often used for fossil-based studies . The total number of non-bacterial and non-archaeal species in the world has been estimated at 8.7 million , with previous estimates ranging from two million to 100 million . History and development of the concept In the earliest works of science , a species was simply an individual organism that represented a group of similar or nearly identical organisms . No other relationships beyond that group were implied . Aristotle used the words genus and species to mean generic and specific categories . Aristotle and other pre-Darwinian scientists took the species to be distinct and unchanging , with an `` essence '' , like the chemical elements . When early observers began to develop systems of organization for living things , they began to place formerly isolated species into a context . Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical and these included consanguinity based on color ( all plants with yellow flowers ) or behavior ( snakes , scorpions and certain biting ants ) . John Ray ( 1686 ) , an English naturalist , was the first to give a biological definition of the term `` species , '' as follows : `` ... no surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me than the distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in propagation from seed . Thus , no matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species , if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant , they are accidental variations and not such as to distinguish a species ... Animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently ; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa '' . In the 18th century Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics , and not simply based upon differences . He also established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships . At the time , however , it was still widely believed that there was no organic connection between species , no matter how similar they appeared . This view was influenced by European scholarly and religious education at the time , which held that the categories of life are dictated by God , in a hierarchical scheme . Although there are always differences ( although sometimes minute ) between individual organisms , Linnaeus strove to identify individual organisms that were exemplary of the species , and considered other non-exemplary organisms to be deviant and imperfect . By the 19th century most naturalists understood that species could change form over time , and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes . Jean-Baptiste Lamarck , in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy , offered one of the first logical arguments against creationism . The new emphasis was on determining how a species could change over time . Lamarck suggested that an organism could pass on an acquired trait to its offspring ( i.e . he attributed the giraffe 's long neck to generations of giraffes stretching to reach the leaves of higher treetops ) . With the acceptance of the natural selection idea of Charles Darwin in the 1860s , however , Lamarck 's view of goal-oriented evolution , also known as a teleological process , was eclipsed . Recent interest in inheritance of acquired characteristics centers around epigenetic processes ( e.g . methylation ) that do not affect DNA sequences , but instead alter expression in an inheritable manner . Thus , Neo-Lamarckism , as it is sometimes termed , is not a challenge to the theory of evolution by natural selection . Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace provided what scientists now consider as the most powerful and compelling theory of evolution . Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved , not individuals . His argument relied on a radical shift in perspective from that of Linnaeus : rather than defining species in ideal terms ( and searching for an ideal representative and rejecting deviations ) , Darwin considered variation among individuals to be natural . He further argued that variation , far from being problematic , actually provides the explanation for the existence of distinct species . Darwin 's work drew on Thomas Malthus ' insight that the rate of growth of a biological population will always outpace the rate of growth of the resources in the environment , such as the food supply . As a result , Darwin argued , not all the members of a population will be able to survive and reproduce . Those that did will , on average , be the ones possessing variations—however slight—that make them slightly better adapted to the environment . If these variable traits are heritable , then the offspring of the survivors will also possess them . Thus , over many generations , adaptive variations will accumulate in the population , while counter-adaptive traits will tend to be eliminated . Whether a variation is adaptive or non-adaptive depends on the environment : different environments favor different traits . Since the environment effectively selects which organisms live to reproduce , it is the environment ( the `` fight for existence '' ) that selects the traits to be passed on . This is the theory of evolution by natural selection . In this model , the length of a giraffe 's neck would be explained by positing that proto-giraffes with longer necks would have had a significant reproductive advantage to those with shorter necks . Over many generations , the entire population would be a species of long-necked animals . In 1859 , when Darwin published his theory of natural selection , the mechanism behind the inheritance of individual traits was unknown . Although Darwin made some speculations on how traits are inherited ( pangenesis ) , his theory relies only on the fact that inheritable traits exist , and are variable ( which makes his accomplishment even more remarkable . ) Although Gregor Mendel 's paper on genetics was published in 1866 , its significance was not recognized . It was not until 1900 that his work was rediscovered by Hugo de Vries , Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak , who realised that the `` inheritable traits '' in Darwin 's theory are genes . The theory of the evolution of species through natural selection has two important implications for discussions of species—consequences that fundamentally challenge the assumptions behind Linnaeus ' taxonomy . First , it suggests that species are not just similar , they may actually be related . Some students of Darwin argue that all species are descended from a common ancestor . Second , it supposes that `` species '' are not homogeneous , fixed , permanent things ; members of a species are all different , and over time species change . This suggests that species do not have any clear boundaries but are rather momentary statistical effects of constantly changing gene-frequencies . One may still use Linnaeus ' taxonomy to identify individual plants and animals , but one can no longer think of species as independent and immutable . The rise of a new species from a parental line is called speciation . There is no clear line demarcating the ancestral species from the descendant species . Although the current scientific understanding of species suggests that there is no rigorous and comprehensive way to distinguish between different species in all cases , biologists continue to seek concrete ways to operationalize the idea . One of the most popular biological definitions of species is in terms of reproductive isolation ; if two creatures can not reproduce to produce fertile offspring of both sexes , then they are in different species . This definition captures a number of intuitive species boundaries , but it remains imperfect . It has nothing to say about species that reproduce asexually , for example , and it is very difficult to apply to extinct species . Moreover , boundaries between species are often fuzzy : there are examples where members of one population can produce fertile offspring of both sexes with a second population , and members of the second population can produce fertile offspring of both sexes with members of a third population , but members of the first and third population can not produce fertile offspring , or can only produce fertile offspring of the homozygous sex . Consequently , some people reject this definition of a species . Richard Dawkins defines two organisms as conspecific if and only if they have the same number of chromosomes and , for each chromosome , both organisms have the same number of nucleotides ( The Blind Watchmaker , p. 118 ) . However , most taxonomists would disagree . For example , in many amphibians , most notably in New Zealand 's Leiopelma frogs , the genome consists of `` core '' chromosomes that are mostly invariable and accessory chromosomes , of which exist a number of possible combinations . Even though the chromosome numbers are highly variable between populations , these can interbreed successfully and form a single evolutionary unit . In plants , polyploidy is extremely commonplace with few restrictions on interbreeding ; as individuals with an odd number of chromosome sets are usually sterile , depending on the actual number of chromosome sets present , this results in the odd situation where some individuals of the same evolutionary unit can interbreed with certain others and some can not , with all populations being eventually linked as to form a common gene pool . Nikolai Vavilov developed the concept of about a Linnaean species as a definite system . N.I.Vavilov showed the absence of monotypic species , i.e . species represented by various forms . Vavilov formulated a polytypic species concept at the 5th INTERNATIONAL BOTANICAL CONGRESS in Cambridge in August , 1930 ; put forward the ideas of multiformity of species , relativity of taxonomic criteria and the theory of peripheral accumulation of recessive characters . From the evolutionary point of view he considered species as knots in evolutionary chains . Vavilov sought an aphoristic definition of the kind given by the then also well-known botanist V.L . Komarov : a species is a morphological system plus geographic distinctness . Elaborating on this , Vavilov defined a `` Linnaean species '' as `` an isolated complex dynamic morph-physiological system bound in its origin to a certain environment and area '' ( Vavilov,1931 , p. 215 ) . This led to the understanding of the Linnaean species concept , an integral entity consisting of closely interlinked components where the whole and the parts are merged . The classification of species has been profoundly affected by technological advances that have allowed researchers to determine relatedness based on molecular markers , starting with the comparatively crude blood plasma precipitation assays in the mid-20th century to Charles Sibley 's DNA-DNA hybridization studies in the 1970s leading to DNA sequencing techniques . The results of these techniques caused revolutionary changes in the higher taxonomic categories ( such as phyla and classes ) , resulting in the reordering of many branches of the phylogenetic tree ( see also : molecular phylogeny ) . For taxonomic categories below genera , the results have been mixed so far ; the pace of evolutionary change on the molecular level is rather slow , yielding clear differences only after considerable periods of reproductive separation . DNA-DNA hybridization results have led to misleading conclusions , the pomarine skua – great skua phenomenon being a famous example . Turtles have been determined to evolve with just one-eighth of the speed of other reptiles on the molecular level , and the rate of molecular evolution in albatrosses is half of what is found in the rather closely related storm-petrels , both being within the Procellariiformes . The hybridization technique is now obsolete and is replaced by more reliable computational approaches for sequence comparison . Molecular taxonomy is not directly based on the evolutionary processes , but rather on the overall change brought upon by these processes . The processes that lead to the generation and maintenance of variation such as mutation , crossover and selection are not uniform ( see also molecular clock ) . DNA is only extremely rarely a direct target of natural selection rather than changes in the DNA sequence enduring over generations being a result of the latter ; for example , silent transition-transversion combinations would alter the melting point of the DNA sequence , but not the sequence of the encoded proteins and thus are a possible example where , for example in microorganisms , a mutation confers a change in fitness all by itself . Biologists ' working definition A usable definition of the word `` species '' and reliable methods of identifying particular species is essential for stating and testing biological theories and for measuring biodiversity . Traditionally , multiple examples of a proposed species must be studied for unifying characters before it can be regarded as a species . Some biologists may view species as statistical phenomena , as opposed to the traditional idea , with a species seen as a class of organisms . In that case , a species is defined as a separately evolving lineage that forms a single gene pool . Although properties such as DNA-sequences and morphology are used to help separate closely related lineages , this definition has fuzzy boundaries . However , the exact definition of the term `` species '' is still controversial , particularly in prokaryotes , and this is called the species problem . Biologists have proposed a range of more precise definitions , but the definition used is a pragmatic choice that depends on the particularities of the species of concern . Common names and species The commonly used names for plant and animal taxa sometimes correspond to species : for example , `` lion '' , `` walrus '' , and `` camphor tree '' – each refers to a species . In other cases common names do not : for example , `` deer '' refers to a family of 34 species , including Eld 's deer , red deer and elk ( as the use in American English meaning wapiti , not the use in British English meaning moose ) . The last two species were once considered a single species , illustrating how species boundaries may change with increased scientific knowledge . Placement within genera Ideally , a species is given a formal , scientific name , although in practice there are very many unnamed species ( which have only been described , not named ) . When a species is named , it is placed within a genus . From a scientific point of view this can be regarded as a hypothesis that the species is more closely related to other species within its genus ( if any ) than to species of other genera . Species and genus are usually defined as part of a larger taxonomic hierarchy . The best-known taxonomic ranks are , in order : life , domain , kingdom , phylum , class , order , family , genus , and species . This assignment to a genus is not immutable ; later a different ( or the same ) taxonomist may assign it to a different genus , in which case the name will also change . In biological nomenclature , the name for a species is a two-part name ( a binomial name ) , treated as Latin , although roots from any language can be used as well as names of locales or individuals . The generic name is listed first ( with its leading letter capitalized ) , followed by a second term . The terminology used for the second term differs between zoological and botanical nomenclature . * In zoological nomenclature , the second part of the name can be called the specific name or the specific epithet . For example , gray wolves belong to the species Canis lupus , coyotes to Canis latrans , golden jackals to Canis aureus , etc. , and all of those belong to the genus Canis ( which also contains many other species ) . For the gray wolf , the genus name is Canis , the specific name or specific epithet is lupus , and the binomen , the name of the species , is Canis lupus . * In botanical nomenclature , the second part of the name can only be called the specific epithet . The 'specific name ' in botany is always the combination of genus name and specific epithet . For example , the species commonly known as the longleaf pine is Pinus palustris ; the genus name is Pinus , the specific epithet is palustris , the specific name is Pinus palustris . This binomial naming convention , later formalized in the biological codes of nomenclature , was first used by Leonhart Fuchs and introduced as the standard by Carolus Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum ( followed by his 1758 Systema Naturae , 10th edition ) . Abbreviated names Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully and use the abbreviation `` sp . '' in the singular or `` spp . '' ( species pluralis , Latin abbreviation for multiple species ) in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet ( e.g . Canis sp . ) This commonly occurs in the following situations : * The authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong . This is particularly common in paleontology . * The authors use `` spp . '' as a short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus , but do not wish to say that it applies to all species within that genus . If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus , they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet . Sometimes , the aforementioned plural is rendered as `` sps . `` , which may lead to confusion with `` ssp . `` , this one standing for subspecies instead . In books and articles , the names of genera and species are usually printed in italics . Abbreviations such as `` sp . `` , `` spp . `` , `` sps . `` , `` ssp . `` , `` subsp . `` , etc . should not be italicized . Identification codes Various codes have been devised for identifying particular species . For example : * National Center for Biotechnology Information ( NCBI ) employs a numeric 'taxid ' or Taxonomy identifier , a `` stable unique identifier '' , e.g . the taxid of H. sapiens is 9606 . * Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes ( KEGG ) employs a three- or four-letter code for a limited number of organisms ; in this code , for example , H. sapiens is simply hsa . * UniProt employs an `` organism mnemonic '' of not more than five alphanumeric characters , e.g . HUMAN for H. sapiens . * Integrated Taxonomic Information System ( ITIS ) provides a unique number for each species . Difficulty defining or identifying species It is surprisingly difficult to define the word `` species '' in a way that applies to all naturally occurring organisms , and the debate among biologists about how to define `` species '' and how to identify actual species is called the species problem . Over two dozen distinct definitions of `` species '' are in use amongst biologists . This problem dates as early as to the writings of Charles Darwin . While Darwin wrote the following in On the Origin of Species , Chapter II : No one definition has satisfied all naturalists ; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species . Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation . He readdressed the question in The Descent of Man , specifically discussing the `` question whether mankind consists of one or several species , '' where he revised his opinion , writing : it is a hopeless endeavour to decide this point on sound grounds , until some definition of the term `` species '' is generally accepted ; and the definition must not include an element that can not possibly be ascertained , such as an act of creation . Most modern textbooks follow Ernst Mayr 's definition , known as the Biological Species Concept ( BSC ) of a species as `` groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations , which are reproductively isolated from other such groups '' . It has been argued that this definition of species is not only a useful formulation , but is also a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection . ( Also see Speciation . ) Various parts of this definition serve to exclude some unusual or artificial matings : * Those that as a result of deliberate human action , or occur only in captivity ( when the animal 's normal mating partners may not be available ) * Those that involve animals that may be physically and physiologically capable of mating but , for various reasons , do not normally do so in the wild The typical textbook definition above works well for most multi-celled organisms , but there are several types of situations in which it breaks down : * By definition it applies only to organisms that reproduce sexually . So it does not work for asexually reproducing single-celled organisms and for the relatively few parthenogenetic or apomictic multi-celled organisms . The term `` phylotype '' is often applied to such organisms . * Biologists frequently do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are `` potentially '' capable of interbreeding . * There is considerable variation in the degree to which hybridization may succeed under natural conditions , or even in the degree to which some organisms use sexual reproduction between individuals to breed . * In ring species , members of adjacent populations interbreed successfully but members of some non-adjacent populations do not . Among microorganisms , in particular , the problem of species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations ; these can be categorized as two types : ( i ) one morphology , multiple lineages ( e.g . morphological convergence , cryptic species ) and ( ii ) one lineage , multiple morphologies ( e.g . phenotypic plasticity , multiple life-cycle stages ) . In addition , in these and other organisms , horizontal gene transfer ( HGT ) makes it difficult to define the term species . All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the `` daughter '' organism , but HGT makes that assumption false . There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of prokaryotes , and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of eukaryotes , [ http : //bioinfosu.okstate.edu/MG/MGW3/MG334.html Ulrich Melcher ( 2001 ) `` Molecular genetics : Horizontal gene transfer , '' Oklahoma State University ( Stillwater , Oklahoma USA ) ] including some crustaceans and echinoderms . Definitions of species Prior to Darwin , naturalists viewed species as ideal or general types , which could be exemplified by an ideal specimen bearing all the traits general to the species . Darwin 's theories shifted attention from uniformity to variation and from the general to the particular . According to intellectual historian Louis Menand , Once our attention is redirected to the individual , we need another way of making generalizations . We are no longer interested in the conformity of an individual to an ideal type ; we are now interested in the relation of an individual to the other individuals with which it interacts . To generalize about groups of interacting individuals , we need to drop the language of types and essences , which is prescriptive ( telling us what finches should be ) , and adopt the language of statistics and probability , which is predictive ( telling us what the average finch , under specified conditions , is likely to do ) . Relations will be more important than categories ; functions , which are variable , will be more important than purposes ; transitions will be more important than boundaries ; sequences will be more important than hierarchies . This shift results in a new approach to `` species '' ; Darwin concluded that species are what they appear to be : ideas , which are provisionally useful for naming groups of interacting individuals . `` I look at the term species '' , he wrote , `` as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other ... It does not essentially differ from the word variety , which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms . The term variety , again , in comparison with mere individual differences , is also applied arbitrarily , and for convenience sake . '' Practically , biologists define species as populations of organisms that have a high level of genetic similarity . This may reflect an adaptation to the same niche , and the transfer of genetic material from one individual to others , through a variety of possible means . The exact level of similarity used in such a definition is arbitrary , but this is the most common definition used for organisms that reproduce asexually ( asexual reproduction ) , such as some plants and microorganisms . This lack of any clear species concept in microbiology has led to some authors arguing that the term `` species '' is not useful when studying bacterial evolution . Instead they see genes as moving freely between even distantly related bacteria , with the entire bacterial domain being a single gene pool . Nevertheless , a kind of rule of thumb has been established , saying that species of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S rRNA gene sequences more similar than 97 % to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA Hybridization if they belong to the same species or not . This concept has been updated recently , saying that the border of 97 % was too low and can be raised to 98.7 % . In the study of sexually reproducing organisms , where genetic material is shared through the process of reproduction , the ability of two organisms to interbreed and produce fertile offspring of both sexes is

jp_3307--Species.txt

What taxonomic rank comes between Family and Species?

Manitoba is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada . It is one of the three prairie provinces ( with Alberta and Saskatchewan ) and Canada 's fifth-most populous province with its estimated population of about 1.3 million people . Manitoba covers 649950 km2 with a widely varied landscape . The province is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west , the territories of Nunavut to the north , and Northwest Territories to the northwest , and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south . Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years . In the late 17th century , fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Rupert 's Land and owned by the Hudson 's Bay Company . In 1867 , negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an armed uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada , a conflict known as the Red River Rebellion . The resolution of the rebellion led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 , officially creating the province of Manitoba . Manitoba 's capital and largest city , Winnipeg , is Canada 's eighth-largest Census Metropolitan Area . Winnipeg is the seat of government , home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba and the Provincial Court . Four of the province 's five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg . Other cities in the province are Brandon , Portage la Prairie , Steinbach , Thompson , Winkler , Selkirk , Dauphin , Morden , and Flin Flon . Etymology The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree , Ojibwe or Assiniboine languages . The name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa , both meaning `` straits of Manitou , the Great Spirit '' , a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba . It may also be from the Assiniboine for `` Lake of the Prairie '' . The lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies . Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the area south of the lake . Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name , and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 . Geography Manitoba is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west , the territories of Nunavut to the north , and Northwest Territories to the northwest , and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south . It adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast , and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline . The Port of Churchill is the only arctic deep-water port in Canada and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia . Lake Winnipeg is the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world . Hudson Bay is the second-largest bay in the world . Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed , once known as Rupert 's Land . It was a vital area of the Hudson 's Bay Company , with many rivers and lakes that provided excellent opportunities for the lucrative fur trade . Hydrography and terrain The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and contains over 110,000 lakes , covering approximately 15.6 percent or 101593 km2 of its surface area . Manitoba 's major lakes are Lake Manitoba , Lake Winnipegosis , and Lake Winnipeg , the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world . Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on the east side of Lake Winnipeg are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site . Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin , with a high volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg and then north down the Nelson River into Hudson Bay . This basin 's rivers reach far west to the mountains , far south into the United States , and east into Ontario . Major watercourses include the Red , Assiniboine , Nelson , Winnipeg , Hayes , Whiteshell and Churchill rivers . Most of Manitoba 's inhabited south has developed in the prehistoric bed of Glacial Lake Agassiz . This region , particularly the Red River Valley , is flat and fertile ; there are hilly and rocky areas throughout the province left by receding glaciers . Baldy Mountain is the province 's highest point at 832 m above sea level , and the Hudson Bay coast is the lowest at sea level . Riding Mountain , the Pembina Hills , Sandilands Provincial Forest , and the Canadian Shield are also upland regions . Much of the province 's sparsely inhabited north and east lie on the irregular granite Canadian Shield , including Whiteshell , Atikaki , and Nopiming Provincial Parks . Extensive agriculture is found only in the province 's southern areas , although there is grain farming in the Carrot Valley Region ( near The Pas ) . The most common agricultural activity is cattle husbandry ( 34.6 % ) , followed by assorted grains ( 19.0 % ) and oilseed ( 7.9 % ) . Around 12 percent of Canada 's farmland is in Manitoba . Climate Manitoba has an extreme continental climate . Temperatures and precipitation generally decrease from south to north and increase from east to west . Manitoba is far from the moderating influences of mountain ranges or large bodies of water . Because of the generally flat landscape , it is exposed to cold Arctic high-pressure air masses from the northwest during January and February . In the summer , air masses sometimes come out of the Southern United States , as warm humid air is drawn northward from the Gulf of Mexico . Temperatures exceed 30 C numerous times each summer , and the combination of heat and humidity can bring the humidex value to the mid-40s . Carman , Manitoba recorded the second-highest humidex ever in Canada in 2007 , with 53.0 . According to Environment Canada , Manitoba ranked first for clearest skies year round , and ranked second for clearest skies in the summer and for the sunniest province in the winter and spring . Southern Manitoba ( including the city of Winnipeg ) , falls into the humid continental climate zone ( Köppen Dfb ) . This area is cold and windy in the winter and has frequent blizzards because of the open landscape . Summers are warm with a moderate length . This region is the most humid area in the prairie provinces , with moderate precipitation . Southwestern Manitoba , though under the same climate classification as the rest of Southern Manitoba , is closer to the semi-arid interior of Palliser 's Triangle . The area is drier and more prone to droughts than other parts of southern Manitoba . This area is cold and windy in the winter and has frequent blizzards due to the openness of the prairie landscape . Summers are generally warm to hot , with low to moderate humidity . Southern parts of the province just north of Tornado Alley , experience tornadoes , with 15 confirmed touchdowns in 2006 . In 2007 , on 22 and 23 June , numerous tornadoes touched down , the largest an F5 tornado that devastated parts of Elie ( the strongest recorded tornado in Canada ) . The province 's northern sections ( including the city of Thompson ) fall in the subarctic climate zone ( Köppen climate classification Dfc ) . This region features long and extremely cold winters and brief , warm summers with little precipitation . Overnight temperatures as low as occur on several days each winter . Flora and fauna Manitoba natural communities may be grouped within five ecozones : boreal plains , prairie , taiga shield , boreal shield and Hudson plains . Three of these—taiga shield , boreal shield and Hudson plain—contain part of the Boreal forest of Canada which covers the province 's eastern , southeastern , and northern reaches . Forests make up about 263000 km2 , or 48 percent , of the province 's land area . The forests consist of pines ( Jack Pine , Red Pine , Eastern White Pine ) , spruces ( White Spruce , Black Spruce ) , Balsam Fir , Tamarack ( larch ) , poplars ( Trembling Aspen , Balsam Poplar ) , birches ( White Birch , Swamp Birch ) and small pockets of Eastern White Cedar . Two sections of the province are not dominated by forest . The northeast corner of the province bordering Hudson Bay is above the treeline and is considered tundra . The tallgrass prairie once dominated the south central and southeastern parts including the Red River Valley . Mixed grass prairie is found in the southwestern region . Agriculture has replaced much of the original natural prairie but prairie still can be found in parks and protected areas ; some are notable for the presence of the endangered western prairie fringed orchid , . Manitoba is especially noted for its northern polar bear population ; Churchill is commonly referred to as the `` Polar Bear Capital '' . Other large animals , including moose , white-tailed deer , black bears , cougars , lynx , and wolves , are common throughout the province , especially in the provincial and national parks . There is a large population of red sided garter snakes near Narcisse ; the dens there are home to the world 's largest concentration of snakes . Manitoba 's bird diversity is enhanced by its position on two major migration routes , with 392 confirmed identified species ; 287 of these nesting within the province . These include the great grey owl , the province 's official bird , and the endangered peregrine falcon . Manitoba 's lakes host 18 species of game fish , particularly species of trout , pike , and goldeye , as well as many smaller fish . History First Nations and European settlement Modern-day Manitoba was inhabited by the First Nations people shortly after the last ice age glaciers retreated in the southwest about 10,000 years ago ; the first exposed land was the Turtle Mountain area . The Ojibwe , Cree , Dene , Sioux , Mandan , and Assiniboine peoples founded settlements , and other tribes entered the area to trade . In Northern Manitoba , quartz was mined to make arrowheads . The first farming in Manitoba was along the Red River , where corn and other seed crops were planted before contact with Europeans . In 1611 , Henry Hudson was one of the first Europeans to sail into what is now known as Hudson Bay , where he was abandoned by his crew . The first European to reach present-day central and southern Manitoba was Sir Thomas Button , who travelled upstream along the Nelson River to Lake Winnipeg in 1612 in an unsuccessful attempt to find and rescue Hudson . When the British ship Nonsuch sailed into Hudson Bay in 1668–1669 , she became the first trading vessel to reach the area ; that voyage led to the formation of the Hudson 's Bay Company , to which the British government gave absolute control of the entire Hudson Bay watershed . This watershed was named Rupert 's Land , after Prince Rupert , who helped to subsidize the Hudson 's Bay Company . York Factory was founded in 1684 after the original fort of the Hudson 's Bay Company , Fort Nelson ( built in 1682 ) , was destroyed by rival French traders . Pierre Gaultier de Varennes , sieur de La Vérendrye , visited the Red River Valley in the 1730s to help open the area for French exploration and trade . As French explorers entered the area , a Montreal-based company , the North West Company , began trading with the Métis . Both the North West Company and the Hudson 's Bay Company built fur-trading forts ; the two companies competed in southern Manitoba , occasionally resulting in violence , until they merged in 1821 ( the Hudson 's Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg preserve the history of this era ) . Great Britain secured the territory in 1763 after their victory over France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years ' War , better known as the French and Indian War in North America ; lasting from 1754 to 1763 . The founding of the first agricultural community and settlements in 1812 by Lord Selkirk , north of the area which is now downtown Winnipeg , led to conflict between British colonists and the Métis . Twenty colonists , including the governor , and one Métis were killed in the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816 . Thomas Spence attempted to be President of the Republic of Manitobah in 1867 , that he and his council named . Confederation Rupert 's Land was ceded to Canada by the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1869 and incorporated into the Northwest Territories ; a lack of attention to Métis concerns caused Métis leader Louis Riel to establish a local provisional government as part of the Red River Rebellion . In response , Prime Minister John A. Macdonald introduced the Manitoba Act in the Canadian House of Commons , the bill was given Royal Assent and Manitoba was brought into Canada as a province in 1870 . Louis Riel was pursued by British army officer Garnet Wolseley because of the rebellion , and Riel fled into exile . The Canadian government blocked the Métis ' attempts to obtain land promised to them as part of Manitoba 's entry into confederation . Facing racism from the new flood of white settlers from Ontario , large numbers of Métis moved to what would become Saskatchewan and Alberta . Numbered Treaties were signed in the late 19th century with the chiefs of various First Nations that lived in the area . These treaties made specific promises of land for every family . As a result , a reserve system was established under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government . The prescribed amount of land promised to the native peoples was not always given ; this led aboriginal groups to assert rights to the land through aboriginal land claims , many of which are still ongoing . The original province of Manitoba was a square one-eighteenth of its current size , and was known colloquially as the `` postage stamp province '' . Its borders were expanded in 1881 , taking land from the Northwest Territories and the District of Keewatin , but Ontario claimed a large portion of the land ; the disputed portion was awarded to Ontario in 1889 . Manitoba grew to its current size in 1912 , absorbing land from the Northwest Territories to reach 60°N , uniform with the northern reach of its western neighbours Saskatchewan , Alberta and British Columbia . The Manitoba Schools Question showed the deep divergence of cultural values in the territory . The Catholic Franco-Manitobans had been guaranteed a state-supported separate school system in the original constitution of Manitoba , but a grassroots political movement among English Protestants from 1888 to 1890 demanded the end of French schools . In 1890 , the Manitoba legislature passed a law removing funding for French Catholic schools . The French Catholic minority asked the federal government for support ; however , the Orange Order and other anti-Catholic forces mobilized nationwide to oppose them . The federal Conservatives proposed remedial legislation to override Manitoba , but they were blocked by the Liberals , led by Wilfrid Laurier , who opposed the remedial legislation because of his belief in provincial rights . Once elected Prime Minister in 1896 , Laurier implemented a compromise stating Catholics in Manitoba could have their own religious instruction for 30 minutes at the end of the day if there were enough students to warrant it , implemented on a school-by-school basis . Modern era By 1911 , Winnipeg was the third largest city in Canada , and remained so until overtaken by Vancouver in the 1920s . A boomtown , it grew quickly around the start of the 20th century , with outside investors and immigrants contributing to its success . The drop in growth in the second half of the decade was a result of the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 , which reduced reliance on transcontinental railways for trade , as well as a decrease in immigration due to the outbreak of the First World War . Over 18,000 Manitoba residents enlisted in the first year of the war ; by the end of the war , 14 Manitobans had received the Victoria Cross . After the First World War ended , severe discontent among farmers ( over wheat prices ) and union members ( over wage rates ) resulted in an upsurge of radicalism , coupled with a polarization over the rise of Bolshevism in Russia . The most dramatic result was the Winnipeg general strike of 1919 . It began on 15 May and collapsed on 25 June 1919 ; as the workers gradually returned to their jobs , the Central Strike Committee decided to end the movement . Government efforts to violently crush the strike , including a Royal Northwest Mounted Police charge into a crowd of protesters that resulted in multiple casualties and one death , had led to the arrest of the movement 's leaders . In the aftermath , eight leaders went on trial , and most were convicted on charges of seditious conspiracy , illegal combinations , and seditious libel ; four were aliens who were deported under the Canadian Immigration Act . The Great Depression ( 1929–c . 1939 ) hit especially hard in Western Canada , including Manitoba . The collapse of the world market combined with a steep drop in agricultural production due to drought led to economic diversification , moving away from a reliance on wheat production . The Manitoba Co-operative Commonwealth Federation , forerunner to the New Democratic Party of Manitoba ( NDP ) , was founded in 1932 . Canada entered the Second World War in 1939 . Winnipeg was one of the major commands for the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan to train fighter pilots , and there were air training schools throughout Manitoba . Several Manitoba-based regiments were deployed overseas , including Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry . In an effort to raise money for the war effort , the Victory Loan campaign organized `` If Day '' in 1942 . The event featured a simulated Nazi invasion and occupation of Manitoba , and eventually raised over C $ 65 million . Winnipeg was inundated during the 1950 Red River Flood and had to be partially evacuated . In that year , the Red River reached its highest level since 1861 and flooded most of the Red River Valley . The damage caused by the flood led then-Premier Duff Roblin to advocate for the construction of the Red River Floodway ; it was completed in 1968 after six years of excavation . Permanent dikes were erected in eight towns south of Winnipeg , and clay dikes and diversion dams were built in the Winnipeg area . In 1997 , the `` Flood of the Century '' caused over in damages in Manitoba , but the floodway prevented Winnipeg from flooding . In 1990 , Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to pass the Meech Lake Accord , a series of constitutional amendments to persuade Quebec to endorse the Canada Act 1982 . Unanimous support in the legislature was needed to bypass public consultation . Manitoba politician Elijah Harper , a Cree , opposed because he did not believe First Nations had been adequately involved in the Accord 's process , and thus the Accord failed . In 2013 , Manitoba was the second province to make accessibility legislation law , protecting the rights of persons with disabilities . Demography At the 2011 census , Manitoba had a population of 1,208,268 , more than half of which is in the Winnipeg Capital Region ; Winnipeg is Canada 's eighth-largest Census Metropolitan Area , with a population of 730,018 ( 2011 Census ) . Although initial colonization of the province revolved mostly around homesteading , the last century has seen a shift towards urbanization ; Manitoba is the only Canadian province with over fifty-five percent of its population located in a single city . According to the 2006 Canadian census , the largest ethnic group in Manitoba is English ( 22.9 % ) , followed by German ( 19.1 % ) , Scottish ( 18.5 % ) , Ukrainian ( 14.7 % ) , Irish ( 13.4 % ) , North American Indian ( 10.6 % ) , Polish ( 7.3 % ) , Métis ( 6.4 % ) , French ( 5.6 % ) , Dutch ( 4.9 % ) , and Russian ( 4.0 % ) . Almost one-fifth of respondents also identified their ethnicity as `` Canadian '' . There is a significant indigenous community : aboriginals ( including Métis ) are Manitoba 's fastest-growing ethnic group , representing 13.6 percent of Manitoba 's population as of 2001 ( some reserves refused to allow census-takers to enumerate their populations ) . There is a significant Franco-Manitoban minority ( 148,370 ) and a growing aboriginal population ( 192,865 , including the Métis ) . Gimli , Manitoba is home to the largest Icelandic community outside of Iceland . Most Manitobans belong to a Christian denomination : on the 2001 census , 758,760 Manitobans ( 68.7 % ) reported being Christian , followed by 13,040 ( 1.2 % ) Jewish , 5,745 ( 0.5 % ) Buddhist , 5,485 ( 0.5 % ) Sikh , 5,095 ( 0.5 % ) Muslim , 3,840 ( 0.3 % ) Hindu , 3,415 ( 0.3 % ) Aboriginal spirituality and 995 ( 0.1 % ) pagan . 201,825 Manitobans ( 18.3 % ) reported no religious affiliation . The largest Christian denominations by number of adherents were the Roman Catholic Church with 292,970 ( 27 % ) ; the United Church of Canada with 176,820 ( 16 % ) ; and the Anglican Church of Canada with 85,890 ( 8 % ) . Economy Manitoba has a moderately strong economy based largely on natural resources . Its Gross Domestic Product was C $ 50.834 billion in 2008 . The province 's economy grew 2.4 percent in 2008 , the third consecutive year of growth ; in 2009 , it neither increased nor decreased . The average individual income in Manitoba in 2006 was C $ 25,100 ( compared to a national average of C $ 26,500 ) , ranking fifth-highest among the provinces . As of October 2009 , Manitoba 's unemployment rate was 5.8 percent . Manitoba 's economy relies heavily on agriculture , tourism , energy , oil , mining , and forestry . Agriculture is vital and is found mostly in the southern half of the province , although grain farming occurs as far north as The Pas . Around 12 percent of Canadian farmland is in Manitoba . The most common type of farm found in rural areas is cattle farming ( 34.6 % ) , followed by assorted grains ( 19.0 % ) and oilseed ( 7.9 % ) . Manitoba is the nation 's largest producer of sunflower seed and dry beans , and one of the leading sources of potatoes . Portage la Prairie is a major potato processing centre , and is home to the McCain Foods and Simplot plants , which provide French fries for McDonald 's , Wendy 's , and other commercial chains . Can-Oat Milling , one of the largest oat mills in the world , also has a plant in the municipality . Manitoba 's largest employers are government and government-funded institutions , including crown corporations and services like hospitals and universities . Major private-sector employers are The Great-West Life Assurance Company , Cargill Ltd. , and James Richardson and Sons Ltd. Manitoba also has large manufacturing and tourism sectors . Churchill 's Arctic wildlife is a major tourist attraction ; the town is a world capital for polar bear and beluga whale watchers . Manitoba is the only province with an Arctic deep-water seaport , which links to the shortest shipping route between North America , Europe and Asia . Economic history Manitoba 's early economy depended on mobility and living off the land . Aboriginal Nations ( Cree , Ojibwa , Dene , Sioux and Assiniboine ) followed herds of bison and congregated to trade among themselves at key meeting places throughout the province . After the arrival of the first European traders in the 17th century , the economy centred on the trade of beaver pelts and other furs . Diversification of the economy came when Lord Selkirk brought the first agricultural settlers in 1811 , though the triumph of the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) over its competitors ensured the primacy of the fur trade over widespread agricultural colonization . HBC control of Rupert 's Land ended in 1868 ; when Manitoba became a province in 1870 , all land became the property of the federal government , with homesteads granted to settlers for farming . Transcontinental railways were constructed to simplify trade . Manitoba 's economy depended mainly on farming , which persisted until drought and the Great Depression led to further diversification . Military bases CFB Winnipeg is a Canadian Forces Base at the Winnipeg International Airport . The base is home to flight operations support divisions and several training schools , as well as the 1 Canadian Air Division and Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters . 17 Wing of the Canadian Forces is based at CFB Winnipeg ; the Wing has three squadrons and six schools . It supports 113 units from Thunder Bay to the Saskatchewan/Alberta border , and from the 49th parallel north to the high Arctic . 17 Wing acts as a deployed operating base for CF-18 Hornet fighter–bombers assigned to the Canadian NORAD Region . The two 17 Wing squadrons based in the city are : the 402 ( `` City of Winnipeg '' Squadron ) , which flies the Canadian designed and produced de Havilland Canada CT-142 Dash 8 navigation trainer in support of the 1 Canadian Forces Flight Training School 's Air Combat Systems Officer and Airborne Electronic Sensor Operator training programs ( which trains all Canadian Air Combat Systems Officer ) ; and the 435 ( `` Chinthe '' Transport and Rescue Squadron ) , which flies the Lockheed C-130 Hercules tanker/transport in airlift search and rescue roles , and is the only Air Force squadron equipped and trained to conduct air-to-air refuelling of fighter aircraft . Canadian Forces Base Shilo ( CFB Shilo ) is an Operations and Training base of the Canadian Forces located 35 km east of Brandon . During the 1990s , Canadian Forces Base Shilo was designated as an Area Support Unit , acting as a local base of operations for Southwest Manitoba in times of military and civil emergency . CFB Shilo is the home of the 1st Regiment , Royal Canadian Horse Artillery , both battalions of the 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group , and the Royal Canadian Artillery . The Second Battalion of Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( 2 PPCLI ) , which was originally stationed in Winnipeg ( first at Fort Osborne , then in Kapyong Barracks ) , has operated out of CFB Shilo since 2004 . CFB Shilo hosts a training unit , 3rd Canadian Division Training Centre . It serves as a base for support units of 3rd Canadian Division , also including 3 CDSG Signals Squadron , Shared Services Unit ( West ) , 11 CF Health Services Centre , 1 Dental Unit , 1 Military Police Regiment , and an Integrated Personnel Support Centre . The base currently houses 1,700 soldiers . Government and politics After the control of Rupert 's Land was passed from Great Britain to the Government of Canada in 1869 , Manitoba attained full-fledged rights and responsibilities of self-government as the first Canadian province carved out of the Northwest Territories . The Legislative Assembly of Manitoba was established on 14 July 1870 . Political parties first emerged between 1878 and 1883 , with a two-party system ( Liberals and Conservatives ) . The United Farmers of Manitoba appeared in 1922 , and later merged with the Liberals in 1932 . Other parties , including the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) , appeared during the Great Depression ; in the 1950s , Manitoban politics became a three-party system , and the Liberals gradually

qw_3390--Manitoba.txt

What is the capital of the province of Manitoba, Canada?

The Soham murders occurred in Soham , Cambridgeshire , England , on 4 August 2002 . The victims were two 10-year-old girls , Holly Marie Wells and Jessica Aimee Chapman . Their bodies were found near RAF Lakenheath , Suffolk , on 17 August 2002 , by a local farm worker . Ian Kevin Huntley , a caretaker at local secondary school Soham Village College , was convicted on 17 December 2003 of the girls ' murder and sentenced to two terms of life imprisonment , with the High Court later setting a minimum term of 40 years . His girlfriend , Maxine Ann Carr , was the girls ' teaching assistant at St Andrew 's Primary School . Carr had provided Huntley with a false alibi and received a three-and-a-half year prison sentence for perverting the course of justice . Murders On Sunday , 4 August 2002 , Wells and Chapman had attended a barbecue at Wells ' home in Redhouse Gardens , Soham . At around 6:15 pm , they went out to buy some sweets . On their way back they walked past the home of Ian Huntley , a secondary school caretaker , in College Close . Huntley saw the girls and asked them to come into his house . He said that his girlfriend , Maxine Carr , their teaching assistant at St Andrew 's Primary School , was in the house too . She had in fact gone to visit family in Grimsby , Lincolnshire . Shortly after the girls entered his house , Huntley murdered them . Huntley 's motive for killing Wells and Chapman may never be known , but minutes before seeing them he had reportedly slammed the telephone down on Carr following a furious argument ; Huntley had allegedly suspected Carr of cheating on him . The police suspected that Huntley killed the girls in a fit of jealous rage . Huntley 's mother also said that she suspected this . The police found no evidence of premeditation . Investigation After the girls were reported missing , the police released photographs – taken only hours before their disappearance – of them wearing Manchester United replica football shirts and a physical description of each of them , describing them as `` white , about 4 ft 6 in tall and slim '' . Meanwhile , over the next two weeks , Huntley appeared in several television interviews on Sky News and the BBC 's regional news programme Look East , speaking of the shock in the local community . One reporter suggested to Huntley that he may have been the last person to speak to the girls before they disappeared , to which Huntley replied : `` Yeah , that 's what it seems like . '' Huntley said their disappearance was `` absolutely '' a mystery and , during the second week of the search , he told television crews that `` while there 's no news there 's still that glimmer of hope , and that 's basically what we 're all hanging on to . '' In the early days of the investigation , a woman living in the nearby village of Little Thetford claimed to have seen two girls whose appearance and clothing matched those of Wells and Chapman walking past her home on the morning after they were reported missing . Police also seized a white van from a caravan park in Wentworth , some 10 miles from Soham , on 7 August . Police received information from a local taxi driver that the driver of a green car ( either a Peugeot 405 or Vauxhall Vectra ) was seen struggling with two children and driving `` erratically '' south of Soham and onto the Studlands Park housing estate in Newmarket on the evening the girls went missing . This sighting was made public on 13 August . That evening , a dog walker alerted police to two mounds of earth at Warren Hill , just outside Newmarket . The suggestion was that these might be the graves of the two missing girls . However , an overnight examination revealed that the mounds of earth were badger setts , and no trace of either girl was found . Around the same time , police in Staffordshire claimed that the disappearance of the girls was linked to an abduction in the county the previous year , where a six-year-old girl had survived an attack by an abductor who was still at large and whose green Ford Mondeo was identified as having numberplates which had been stolen in Peterborough . The same man was also believed to have followed a 12-year-old girl in the same area , when his car was fitted with numberplates which had been stolen in Nottinghamshire . The same vehicle had since been spotted in Glatton , also in Cambridgeshire . This information was included in an appeal on Crimewatch , but did not shed any light on what might have happened to the two missing girls . Carr was also interviewed by the press after her return from Grimsby during the first week of the search for the girls . She showed a reporter a thank-you card given to her by Wells on the last day of the school year . Carr said : `` She was just lovely , really lovely '' and urged the missing girls to `` just come home '' . The police immediately noticed that Carr was referring to Wells in the past tense ( as though she was no longer alive ) , although she had not been reported dead and police were still treating their disappearance as a missing persons case rather than a possible murder investigation . On 16 August , 12 days after the girls went missing , Huntley and Carr were first questioned by police and agreed to give witness statements during seven hours of questioning before being released . That night , with Huntley and Carr under police watch at separate locations outside Soham , police searched their home , as well as the grounds of Soham Village College , and recovered items of `` major importance '' to their investigation . Although it was not made public at the time , the items recovered from the school grounds were clothes matching those the girls were last seen wearing , including their Manchester United shirts . Huntley and Carr were arrested in the early hours of 17 August on suspicion of murder . This was the first time that the police admitted that they feared the girls were now dead . The girls ' bodies were found in a ditch near the perimeter fence of RAF Lakenheath in Suffolk , about six miles from Soham , on the afternoon of 17 August . The bodies were formally identified as those of the two missing girls on 21 August . The girls had been missing for 13 days when their bodies were found , with police stating that both corpses were `` severely decomposed and partially skeletonised '' .Their bodies were discovered by local gamekeeper Keith Pryer , who noticed an unusual and unpleasant smell which he had noticed in the area during the previous few days , and when returning to the area he had decided to investigate the cause of the smell . Within a week , by which time DNA tests confirmed that the bodies were definitely those of the two missing girls , it was established at an inquest in Cambridge that the girls had almost certainly not died at the location where their bodies were found , and had instead been murdered at another location before their bodies were placed there . Huntley later admitted in court that he had returned to the site to set the bodies alight , in what police saw as an attempt on Huntley 's part to destroy any forensic evidence . Dr. Patricia Wiltshire was however able to identify the approximate time the bodies were placed and provide evidence that proved Huntley to be the killer , based on analysis of the soil environment . The school caretaker was charged with two counts of murder on 20 August and detained under Section 48 of the Mental Health Act at Rampton Secure Hospital , Nottinghamshire , where his mental state was assessed to determine whether he suffered from mental illness and whether he was fit to stand trial . Consultant psychiatrist Dr. Christopher Clark carried out the assessment and stated : This left Huntley facing life imprisonment if a jury could be convinced of his guilt . A judge ruled on 8 October 2002 that he was therefore fit to stand trial . Huntley was subsequently moved to Woodhill prison in Milton Keynes , Buckinghamshire , where he attempted suicide on 9 June 2003 by taking 29 antidepressants which he had stashed in his cell . There were fears that Huntley could die as a result of the overdose , but within 48 hours he was back in prison and was later transferred to Belmarsh prison in London . After Huntley 's trial , it was revealed that he had refused to answer questions and dribbled throughout police attempts to question him , leaving the police with no option but to refer him to a mental hospital for assessment . Those who saw him at his first court appearance described him as a `` blank-eyed silent zombie '' who twitched and shuffled when sitting in the dock . Ian Huntley Ian Kevin Huntley was born in Grimsby , Lincolnshire , on 31 January 1974 , the first son of Kevin and Linda Huntley . He spent two months living in the village of Hopton-on-Sea , Norfolk , and also spent time living in Scunthorpe , Lincolnshire . In February 1999 , Huntley ( then aged 25 ) met 22-year-old Maxine Carr at Hollywood 's nightclub in Grimsby town centre . She later moved in with him at his flat in Barton-upon-Humber , a small town on the southern banks of the River Humber . Carr found a job packing fish at the local fish processing factory while Huntley worked as a barman . He also travelled to Cambridgeshire on his days off to help his father who was working as a school caretaker in the village of Littleport near Ely . In September 2001 , Huntley applied for the position of caretaker at Soham Village College , a secondary school in the small town between Newmarket and Ely . The job had become vacant after the previous caretaker was dismissed for having an inappropriate relationship with a female pupil . Huntley was accepted for the post and began work on 26 November 2001 . Trial and subsequent revelations Huntley 's trial opened at the Old Bailey in London on 5 November 2003 before Mr Justice Moses . He was charged with two counts of murder . The families of Wells and Chapman were present for the duration . Huntley admitted that the girls had died in his house ; he claimed that he accidentally knocked Wells into the bath while helping her control a nosebleed , and this caused her to drown . Chapman witnessed this and he claimed that he accidentally suffocated her while attempting to stifle her screaming . By the time he realised what he was doing , it was too late to save either of them . Based on this version of events , he admitted manslaughter . The jury rejected his claims that the girls had died accidentally and , on 17 December 2003 , returned a majority verdict of guilty on both counts of murder . Huntley was subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment , with a minimum term to be decided by the Lord Chief Justice at a later date . After Huntley was convicted , it was revealed that he had been investigated in the past for sexual offences and burglary , but had still been allowed to work in a school as none of these investigations had resulted in a conviction . In August 1995 , when Huntley was 21 years old , a joint investigation was launched by police and social services in Grimsby , after a 15-year-old girl stated that she had been having sex with Huntley . Police did not pursue the case against Huntley in accordance with the girl 's wishes . In March 1996 , Huntley was charged in connection with a burglary at a Grimsby house which took place on 15 November 1995 , when he and an accomplice allegedly stole electrical goods , jewellery and cash . The case reached court and was ordered to lie on file . Also in March 1996 , Huntley was once again investigated over allegations of having sex with an underage girl , but again he was not charged . A month later , Huntley was investigated once again over allegations of underage sex , but this allegation too did not result in a charge . The same outcome occurred the following month when he was investigated over allegations of having sex with a 13-year-old girl . In April 1998 , Huntley was arrested on suspicion of raping a woman . He admitted having sex with the woman but claimed it was consensual . The police decided not to charge him . A month later , Huntley was charged with rape and remanded in custody after an 18-year-old Grimsby woman claimed to have been raped by him on her way home from a nightclub in the town . The charge was dropped a week later after the Crown Prosecution Service examined CCTV images from the nightclub and determined that there was no chance of a conviction . In July 1998 , Huntley was investigated by the police on allegations that he indecently assaulted an 11-year-old girl in September 1997 . However , he was never charged , though in April 2007 he confessed that he attacked the girl . He was investigated over allegations of rape on a 17-year-old girl in February 1999 but no charges were made against him . The final allegation came in July 1999 , when a woman was raped and Huntley – by now suspected by local police as a serial sex offender – was interviewed . He supplied a DNA sample and had an alibi provided by Maxine Carr to assert his innocence . The woman subsequently said that Huntley was not the rapist . This was the only case where the victim had not identified or named Huntley as the attacker . Home Secretary David Blunkett ordered an inquiry into these revelations , chaired by Sir Michael Bichard , and later ordered the suspension of David Westwood , Chief of Humberside Police . The inquiry criticised Humberside Police for deleting information relating to previous allegations against Huntley and criticised Cambridgeshire Constabulary for not following vetting guidelines . An added complication in the vetting procedures was the fact that Huntley had applied for the caretaker 's job under the name of Ian Nixon , although he did state on the application form that he was once known as Ian Huntley . It is believed that Humberside Police either did not check under the name Huntley on the police computer – if they had then they would have discovered a burglary charge left on file – or did not check either name . Sentence Huntley was sentenced to life imprisonment and on 29 September 2005 his minimum term was decided . On this date , High Court judge Mr Justice Moses ( who had been his trial judge nearly two years earlier ) announced that Huntley must remain in prison until he has served at least 40 years ; a minimum term which will not allow him to be released until at least 2042 , by which time he will be 68 years old . In setting this minimum term , Mr. Justice Moses stated : `` The order I make offers little or no hope of the defendant 's eventual release . '' Huntley was among the last of more than 500 life sentence prisoners waiting to have minimum terms set by the Lord Chief Justice after the Home Secretary 's tariff-setting procedures were declared illegal in November 2002 following a legal challenge by convicted murderer Anthony Anderson , whose minimum term had been increased by the Home Secretary during the 1990s . Anyone convicted of murder after 18 December 2003 would have a minimum term set by the trial judge , with the final decision now resting with the High Court instead of the Home Secretary . Maxine Carr Maxine Carr initially provided a false alibi to police for Huntley , claiming to have been with him at the time of the murders when she was in fact in Grimsby . She was charged with perverting the course of justice on 21 August 2002 . On 16 January 2003 she was charged with two counts of assisting an offender . The police investigation suggested that she knew Huntley had committed the murders but had provided him with an alibi in an attempt to prevent him from being accused . She pleaded guilty to the first charge and not guilty to the second . Her failure to expose Huntley 's lies in the early stages of the investigation ( before either of them were arrested ) meant that police initially eliminated Huntley as a suspect ; due to her false statement , it took the police nearly two weeks to arrest and charge him . The court accepted that Carr had only lied to the police to protect Huntley because she believed his claims of innocence and so found her not guilty of assisting an offender , deciding that she had been unaware that Huntley had committed the murders . She was sentenced to three-and-a-half years in prison and was released on probation on 14 May 2004 after serving 21 months ( including 16 months on remand ) . She was given a new secret identity to protect her from threats of attack from members of the public that had been made during her remand , as well as during and after the trial . After release , Carr and her family were negotiating towards an autobiographical book deal , but Mirage Publishing withdrew after a feature on BBC Radio Newcastle prompted scores of objections . Post-trial The Wells and Chapman families received £11,000 in compensation for the death of their daughters . This was a statutory payment administered by a non-departmental public body , the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority . The compensation tariffs are set by the UK Parliament and administered by the Civil Service . The compensation was widely criticised in the media ; the director of the Victims of Crime Trust , Clive Elliott , described it as a `` pittance '' . The media highlighted much higher payouts that could be paid to victims of other crimes , as well as payouts which have been made in civil law , along with the fact that the maximum possible payout anyone could have received under the scheme at the time was £500,000 . Following the announcement of Huntley 's conviction , it emerged that various authorities were aware of allegations from a number of sources , that he had committed one act of indecent assault , four acts of underage sex and three rapes , although none of these had resulted in a conviction . The only one of these allegations that resulted in a charge was a rape , for which he had been remanded in custody but released when the Crown Prosecution Service decided that there was not enough evidence for a conviction . Huntley had also been charged with burgling a neighbour in Grimsby in 1996 but he was not convicted , although the charge remained on file . On the day of Huntley 's conviction , the Home Secretary David Blunkett announced an inquiry into the vetting system which allowed Huntley to get a caretaker 's job at a school despite four separate complaints about him reaching social services . One of the pertinent issues surfaced almost immediately when Humberside Police ( where all the alleged offences had taken place ) stated that they believed that it was unlawful under the Data Protection Act to hold data regarding allegations which did not lead to a conviction ; this was contradicted by other police forces who thought this too strict an interpretation of the Act . There was also considerable concern about the police investigation into the girls ' murders . It took nearly two weeks before the police became aware of previous sexual allegations against Huntley ( they were contacted by a woman who had known him in Grimsby and was aware that he had once been charged with rape ) and , although he was identified as the last person to see either of the two children , his story was not effectively checked out early during the investigation . Huntley had not been convicted of any of the criminal allegations , but his burglary charge had remained on file . Howard Gilbert , then headteacher of Soham Village College , later said that he would not have employed Huntley as a caretaker if he had been aware of the burglary charge , as one of Huntley 's key responsibilities in his role was to ensure security in the school grounds – a role unfit for a suspected burglar . The Soham murders led to tightening of procedures in the Criminal Records Bureau system which checks the criminal background of people who work with children , following criticism that the system had weaknesses and loopholes . Huntley in prison On 14 September 2005 , Huntley was scalded with boiling water at Wakefield Prison by fellow inmate and quadruple murderer Mark Hobson . A prison service spokesman said that due to the nature of high-security prisoners , `` it 's impossible to prevent incidents of this nature occasionally happening '' , but Huntley alleged that the prison authorities had failed in their duty of care towards him , and launched a claim for £15,000 compensation . Huntley was reportedly awarded £2,500 in legal aid to pursue this claim , a move strongly criticised by the Soham MP James Paice , who insisted on tight restrictions on the use of public money for compensation , and said , `` The people I represent have no sympathy for him at all '' . Huntley 's injuries meant that he did not attend the hearing later that month at which his minimum term was decided . On 5 September 2006 , Huntley was found unconscious in his prison cell , thought to have taken an overdose . He had previously taken an overdose of antidepressants in prison in June 2003 while awaiting his trial . He was under police guard in hospital for two days , before being returned to Wakefield prison , prompting much reaction from many present at the scene as well as making the front pages of many of the UK newspapers the next morning . Following this attempted suicide his cell was cleared and a tape was found which was marked with Queen on one side and Meat Loaf on the other . This tape is thought to contain confessions from Huntley on what he did and how he did it . It is believed that Huntley made the tape in return for antidepressants from a fellow prisoner , who hoped to obtain and later sell the confession to the media upon his release . On 28 March 2007 , The Sun began publishing transcripts of Huntley 's taped confession . In April 2007 , Huntley confessed to having sexually assaulted an 11-year-old girl after dragging her into an orchard in 1997 . His victim won the right to damages against Huntley . Huntley was believed to be insolvent so unlikely to pay any damages , but she claimed to feel `` a massive sense of relief '' at his confession . This followed repeated denials by Huntley that there had been a sexual element in the Soham murders , which the sentencing judge described as likely but not proven , and was given as a reason for a whole life tariff not being imposed . On 23 January 2008 , Huntley was moved to Frankland prison near Durham . On 21 March 2010 , Huntley was taken to hospital , with media reports stating that his throat had been slashed by another inmate ; his injuries were not said to be life-threatening . The prisoner who wounded Huntley was later named as fellow life sentence prisoner and convicted armed robber Damien Fowkes , who went on to kill another convicted child killer , Colin Hatch . Huntley applied for a £20,000 compensation payout for his injuries . On 11 June 2011 , the Daily Mirror reported that Fowkes may not be tried over the attack on Huntley amid concerns about his mental health . However , in October 2011 , Fowkes pleaded guilty at Hull Crown Court to the attempted murder of Huntley , as well as the manslaughter of Colin Hatch , a repeat child sex offender then imprisoned for murdering a seven-year-old boy , at Full Sutton prison in February 2011 . Fowkes received a second life sentence for the two attacks . Carr after release Maxine Carr was released from prison on 14 May 2004 , having served half of her sentence ( the first 16 months being on remand ) and immediately received police protection . She won an injunction on 24 February 2005 , granting her lifelong anonymity on the grounds that her life would otherwise be in danger . The costs of this have been reported by different tabloid newspapers as being between £1 million and £50 million , costs that would possibly have been unnecessary were it not for what former Daily Mirror editor Roy Greenslade described as tabloid newspapers `` whipping up the kind of public hysteria guaranteed to incite misguided people to take the law into their own hands '' . Carr became one of four former prisoners to be given entirely new identities , along with double-child killer Mary Bell and the two child-murderers of James Bulger . At least a dozen women have been attacked and persecuted by those `` enraged by fake stories about Carr published by red-top papers '' , as Greenslade said . Channel 4 released a documentary describing this as a modern witchhunt against unknown women of similar appearance to Carr who have recently moved into an area . In November 2011 , it was reported that Carr had given birth to her first child by her new husband . Her anonymity order extends to include the child so that he or she may never know their mother 's true identity . Bichard inquiry An inquiry was announced on 18 December 2003 , and Sir Michael Bichard was appointed as the chairman . The stated purpose was : The inquiry opened on 13 January 2004 . The findings of the Bichard inquiry were published in June that year . The Humberside and Cambridgeshire police forces were heavily criticised for their failings in maintaining intelligence records on Huntley . The inquiry also recommended a registration scheme for people working with children and vulnerable adults such as the elderly . The development of this recommendation led to the foundation of the Independent Safeguarding Authority . It also suggested a national system should be set up for police forces to share intelligence information . The report said there should also be a clear code of practice on record-keeping by all police forces . Police Reform Act 2002 Bichard 's report severely criticised the Chief Constable of Humberside Police , David Westwood , for ordering the destruction of criminal records of child abusers . Though supported by the Humberside Police Authority , he was suspended by then Home Secretary David Blunkett using powers granted under the Police Reform Act 2002 to order suspension as `` necessary for the maintenance of public confidence in the force in question '' . The suspension was later lifted , with Westwood agreeing to retire a year early in March 2005 . The Chief Constable of Cambridgeshire Constabulary , Tom Lloyd , was also criticised as his force had failed to contact Humberside Police during the vetting procedure . Lloyd was criticised by the police inspectorate for being slow to cut short a holiday after the investigation had become the largest in the force 's history . The inspectorate also criticised a `` lack of grip '' on the investigation , which included nationally-televised appeals by footballer David Beckham , and Detective Superintendent David Beck who announced that he had left a message for abductors on Chapman 's mobile phone before the case was taken from him . Another complication was that two Cambridgeshire police officers involved

odql_10443--Soham_murders.txt

On this day (4th Aug) in 2002, the schoolgirls Jessica Chapman and Holly Wells went missing from which town in Cambridgeshire?

Vikings is an Irish-Canadian historical drama television series written and created by Michael Hirst for the television channel History . Filmed in Ireland , it premiered on March 3 , 2013 in Canada and the United States . Vikings is inspired by the sagas of Viking Ragnar Lothbrok , one of the best-known legendary Norse heroes and notorious as the scourge of England and France . The show portrays Ragnar as a farmer who rises to fame by successful raids into England , and eventually becomes a Scandinavian King , with the support of his family and fellow warriors : his brother Rollo , his son Bjorn Ironside , and his wives—the shieldmaiden Lagertha and the princess Aslaug . Vikings was renewed for a fourth season in March 2015 with an extended order of 20 episodes , which premiered on February 18 , 2016 . On March 17 , 2016 , History renewed Vikings for a fifth season of 20 episodes . Premise The series is inspired by the tales of the raiding , trading , and exploring Norsemen of early medieval Scandinavia . It follows the exploits of the legendary Viking chieftain Ragnar Lothbrok and his crew and family , as notably laid down in the 13th century sagas Ragnars saga Loðbrókar and Ragnarssona þáttr , as well as in Saxo Grammaticus 's 12th century work Gesta Danorum . Norse legendary sagas were partially fictional tales based in Norse oral tradition , written down about 200 to 400 years after the events they describe . Further inspiration is taken from historical sources of the period , such as records of the Viking raid on Lindisfarne depicted in the second episode , or Ahmad ibn Fadlan 's 10th-century account of the Volga Vikings . The series is set at the beginning of the Viking Age , marked by the Lindisfarne raid in 793 . Cast * Travis Fimmel as Ragnar Lothbrok * Katheryn Winnick as Lagertha * Clive Standen as Rollo * Jessalyn Gilsig as Siggy ( seasons 1–3 ) * Gustaf Skarsgård as Floki * George Blagden as Athelstan ( main seasons 1–3 , guest season 4 ) * Gabriel Byrne as Earl Haraldson ( season 1 ) * Alexander Ludwig as Bjorn Ironside ( seasons 2– ) * * Nathan O'Toole as young Bjorn ( main seasons 1-2 , guest season 4 ) * Alyssa Sutherland as Queen Aslaug * Donal Logue as King Horik of Denmark ( seasons 1-2 ) * Linus Roache as King Ecbert of Wessex ( seasons 2– ) * Ben Robson as Kalf ( seasons 3–4 ) * Kevin Durand as Harbard ( season 3– ) * Lothaire Bluteau as Emperor Charles of West Francia ( season 3– ) * John Kavanagh as The Seer / Pope Leo IV ( recurring season 1–3 , main season 4– ) * Peter Franzén as King Harold Finehair ( season 4– ) * Jasper Pääkkönen as Halfdan the Black ( season 4– ) Production An Irish-Canadian co-production , Vikings was developed and produced by Octagon Films and Take 5 Productions . Michael Hirst , Morgan O'Sullivan , John Weber , Sherry Marsh , Alan Gasmer , James Flynn and Sheila Hockin are credited as executive producers . The first season 's budget has been reported as $ 40 million USD . The series began filming in July 2012 at Ashford Studios , a newly built studio facility in Ireland , chosen as a location for its tax advantages . On August 16 , 2012 , longship scenes were filmed at Luggala , as well as on the Poulaphouca Reservoir , in the heart of the Wicklow Mountains . 70 percent of the first season was filmed outdoors . Some additional background shots were done in western Norway . Johan Renck , Ciarán Donnelly and Ken Girotti each directed three episodes . The production team includes cinematographer John Bartley , costume designer Joan Bergin , production designer Tom Conroy , composer Trevor Morris and Irish choir Crux Vocal Ensemble , directed by Paul McGough . According to actor Clive Standen ( Rollo ) , future seasons may feature characters such as Alfred the Great , Leif Ericson , and Ivar the Boneless , as well as travels to Iceland , Russia , France , and across the Atlantic . On April 5 , 2013 , History renewed Vikings for a ten-episode second season . Two new series regulars were announced on June 11 , 2013 . Alexander Ludwig , portraying the teenage Björn , and Linus Roache , playing King Ecbert of Wessex . Season 2 will undergo a jump in time , aging the young Bjorn ( Nathan O ’ Toole ) into an older swordsman portrayed by Ludwig . According to reports , the older Bjorn will not have seen his father , Ragnar , for `` a long period of time . '' Lagertha will have remarried to a powerful Jarl , a stepfather who provides harsh guidance to Bjorn . Several Swedish media sources reported that actors Edvin Endre , son of Swedish actress Lena Endre , and Anna Åström had signed up for roles in season two . It was confirmed that Endre had obtained the role of Erlendur , one of King Horik 's sons . Jeff Woolnough and Kari Skogland joined Ken Girotti and Ciaran Donnelly as directors of season 2 . Michael Hirst announced plans for season 4 before season 3 had begun airing . Season 4 began production around the Dublin area in April 2015 . Finnish actors Peter Franzén and Jasper Pääkkönen , as well as Canadian actress Dianne Doan joined the cast of season 4 . Franzén obtained the role of Norwegian King Harald Finehair , a potential rival to Ragnar . Pääkkönen was cast as Halfdan the Black , Finehair 's brother . Doan portrays Yidu , a Chinese character who has a major role in the first half of the fourth season . At the same time that the series was renewed for a fifth season , it was announced that Irish actor Jonathan Rhys Meyers would be joining the cast for that season . Broadcast Vikings premiered on March 3 , 2013 in Canada and the United States . In the UK , Vikings premiered on May 24 , 2013 where it is exclusively available on the streaming video-on-demand service LoveFilm . The second season premiered on March 24 , 2015 . The third season began airing on February 20 , 2015 on Amazon Video . In Australia , the series premiered on August 8 , 2013 on SBS One . It was later moved to FX , which debuted the second season on February 4 , 2015 . Season 3 of Vikings began broadcasting in Australia on SBS One on March 19 , 2015 . Season 4 of Vikings began broadcasting in Australia on SBS One on February 24 , 2016 . Reception Reviews The series received very favourable ratings by critics after the first episode had aired , with an average rating of 71 % according to Metacritic . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix praised the series ' casting , notably of Fimmel as Ragnar , and observed that Vikings `` is n't complicated . It ( ... ) relies on the inherent appeal of the era and these characters to drive the story . '' Nancy DeWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal noted the `` natural and authentic '' setting and costumes , and appreciated that Vikings was ( unlike , e.g. , Spartacus ) not a celebration of sex and violence , but `` a study of character , stamina , power and ( ... ) of social , emotional and even intellectual awakening '' . Hank Stuever , writing for the Washington Post , found that the `` compelling and robust new drama series ( ... ) delivers all the expected gore and blood spatter '' . But he also wrote that it successfully adapted the skills of cable television drama , with the care taken in acting , writing and sense of scope reminiscent of such series as Rome , Sons of Anarchy and Game of Thrones . He also suggested that the way the series emphasized `` a core pride and nobility in this tribe of thugs '' reflected `` just another iteration of Tony Soprano '' . Neil Genzlinger , in The New York Times , praised the `` arresting '' cinematography and the actors ' performances , notably Fimmel 's , and favourably compared Vikings to Game of Thrones and Spartacus for the absence of gratuitous nudity . In TIME , James Poniewozik noted that the relatively simple generational conflict underlying Vikings `` does n't nearly have the narrative ambition of a Game of Thrones or the political subtleties of a Rome '' , nor these series ' skill with dialogue , but that it held up pretty well compared to the `` tabloid history '' of series like The Tudors and The Borgias . He concluded that `` Vikings ' larger story arc is really more about historical forces '' than about its not very complex characters . Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly appreciated the cast 's performance , but considered Vikings `` kind of a mess '' , lacking the intrigue of The Tudors and Game of Thrones . Brian Lowry criticized the series in Variety as an `` unrelenting cheese-fest '' and as a `` more simpleminded version of 'Game of Thrones ' '' , but considered it to achieve `` a level of atmosphere and momentum that makes it work as a mild diversion '' . In the San Francisco Chronicle , David Wiegand was disappointed by the series ' `` glacial pace '' and lack of action as well as by the `` flabby direction and a gassy script '' , while appreciating the performances and characters . The second season received a Metacritic rating of 77 % and a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 92 % based on 12 professional critic reviews . Ratings According to Nielsen , the series premiere drew 6 million viewers in the U.S. , topping all broadcast networks for viewership amount in the 18- to 49-year-old range . An earlier claim of over 18 million viewers was later retracted by the channel with an apology . In Canada , the premiere was watched by 1.1 million viewers . The first season has averaged 942,000 viewers . Historical accuracy Some critics have pointed out historical inaccuracies in the series ' depiction of Viking society . Lars Walker , in the magazine The American Spectator , criticized its portrayal of Viking Age government ( in the person of Earl Haraldson ) as autocratic rather than essentially democratic . Joel Robert Thompson criticized the show 's depiction of the Norse peoples ' supposed ignorance of the existence of Britain and Ireland , and the use of the death penalty instead of outlawry ( skoggangr ) as a punishment for heinous crimes . Monty Dobson , a historian at Central Michigan University , criticised the show 's depictions of Viking Age clothing , but went on to state that fictional shows like Vikings could still be a useful teaching tool . The Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten reported that the series incorrectly depicted the temple at Uppsala as a stave church in the mountains , whereas the historical temple was situated on flat land and stave churches were a hallmark of later Christian architecture in Scandinavia . On the other hand , the temple as depicted in the show does have similarities with the reconstructions of the Uppåkra hof . The show also portrays a crucifixion of a prominent character instigated by a Christian bishop near Wessex , apparently as a standard punishment for apostasy , an event that may or may not have a basis in historical fact , as Emperor Constantine officially outlawed crucifixion in the 4th century . Regarding the historical accuracy of the show , showrunner Michael Hirst comments that `` I especially had to take liberties with ‘ Vikings ’ because no one knows for sure what happened in the Dark Ages '' and that `` we want people to watch it . A historical account of the Vikings would reach hundreds , occasionally thousands , of people . Here we ’ ve got to reach millions . '' When Katheryn Winnick was asked why she licked the seer 's hand she answered `` It wasn ’ t originally in the script and we just wanted to come up with something unique and different '' . Related media Zenescope partnered with the History Channel to create a free Vikings comic book based on the series . It was first distributed at Comic-Con 2013 and by comiXology in February 2014 . The comic was written by Michael Hirst , features interior artwork by Dennis Calero ( X-Men Noir ) , and is set before the events of season 1 . In addition to featuring Ragnar and Rollo battling alongside their father , the comic depicts the brothers ’ first encounter with Lagertha .

qb_9884--Vikings_(TV_series).txt

What is the first name of Ragnor’s brother in the historical drama television series ‘Vikings’?

Seven Pounds is a 2008 American drama film , directed by Gabriele Muccino , in which Will Smith stars as a man who sets out to change the lives of seven people . Rosario Dawson , Woody Harrelson , and Barry Pepper also star . The film was released in theaters in the United States and Canada on December 19 , 2008 , by Columbia Pictures . Despite receiving negative reviews , it was a box office success , grossing US $ 168,168,201 worldwide . Plot Tim Thomas ( Will Smith ) , while carelessly sending a text message while driving , veers across the center line into oncoming traffic and causes a multi-car crash in which seven people die : six strangers and his fiancée , Sarah Jenson ( Robinne Lee ) . Two years later , in a bid for atonement , Tim sets out to save the lives of seven good people by donating his own vital organs , a process that will be completed after his planned suicide . A year after the crash , having quit his job as an aeronautical engineer , Tim donates a lung lobe to his brother Ben ( Michael Ealy ) , an IRS field agent . Tim then steals his brother 's federal IRS identification badge and credentials , puts his picture over Tim 's , identifies himself by his brother 's name , and uses Ben 's privileges to check out the financial backgrounds of further potential candidates for his donations . In each case he `` interviews '' them first to determine if they are good people . In one case , the director of a hospice nursing home facility , who had an unsuccessful bone marrow transplant , seeks a six-month extension on his back taxes . Tim , now going by his brother 's name , is unsure of the man 's ethics , because he claims to be insolvent , yet drives a new BMW . To resolve the issue , `` Ben '' passionately asks a resident patient , an elderly bedridden woman , to tell him whether he is a `` good man '' , only to discover that the man is punishing the woman for refusing to take a new medication by not allowing the nurses to bathe her . Six months later , `` Ben '' donates part of his liver to a Child Protective Services social worker named Holly ( Judyann Elder ) . He then finds George ( Bill Smitrovich ) , a junior hockey coach and donates a kidney to him . He then donates bone marrow to a young boy named Nicholas ( Quintin Kelley ) , opting to have no anesthesia during the procedure , an evident consequence of his desire for atonement . In each case he does not tell the people what his intentions are for his donations , despite being repeatedly asked . Two weeks before he dies , he contacts Holly and asks if she knows anyone `` in the system '' who needs and deserves help but is too proud to ask for it . Holly suggests Connie Tepos ( Elpidia Carrillo ) , who lives with her two kids and an abusive boyfriend , but ca n't afford to leave . When `` Ben '' arrives to `` interview '' her under the guise of dealing with the IRS , Connie is embarrassed and humiliated that he knows what 's been going on . She defends her boyfriend , is offended by `` Ben '' 's suggestion that she should leave with her kids , and kicks him out of her house . In the meantime , `` Ben '' moves out of his house and into a local motel , taking with him his pet box jellyfish—decidedly the most venomous creature on earth , with its sting causing death in three to five minutes . That night , after being beaten by her boyfriend again , Connie contacts `` Ben '' . He meets her , tells her not to be weak , and gives her the keys and directions to his beach house . She takes her two children and they move into the house . Then she reads a letter from `` Ben '' which includes the deed to the house , again giving no explanation , and asking for her to ( 1 ) respect his wishes , ( 2 ) not try to contact him , ( 3 ) not tell anyone how she got the house , and ( 4 ) `` live life abundantly '' . `` Ben '' 's sixth candidate is Ezra Turner ( Woody Harrelson ) , a blind telemarketer for a meat company , who plays the piano . `` Ben '' calls Ezra and harassed him at work weeks earlier , to see if he was quick to anger ; when Ezra remains calm and humble through the abuse , `` Ben '' decides he is worthy . `` Ben '' then contacts Emily Posa ( Rosario Dawson ) , a wedding announcement/greeting card printer who has a congenital heart condition and rare blood type that has left her with only weeks to live . `` Ben '' `` interviews '' her at her home , again under the guise of an IRS investigation , and more or less stalks her at the hospital . But then he starts to spend time with her , walking her Great Dane called Duke , weeding her garden , and fixing her rare Heidelberg Windmill press . He visibly fights his affections for her , again seeking atonement for the death of his fiancée , but he slowly falls in love with her . At one point , while comforting Emily ( who 's in the hospital after an emergency ) , he tells her the 'tale of a young boy named Tim , who wanted to fly and became a space engineer . ' Emily recognizes this is an actual story of his childhood and suggested the boy was named Ben , but `` Ben '' corrects her by sheer reflex , telling her that the boy is called Tim ... obviously himself . Tim 's brother , the real Ben , finally tracks `` Tim-Ben '' down at Emily 's house , saying that he must return his IRS credentials . After a passionate sexual interlude with Emily , and with Ben waiting outside her house , Tim disappears out the back door , leaving her sleeping . He returns on foot to the motel , first stopping by the hospital to ask the doctor if there is any chance that Emily will improve . Discovering that she will likely die before a donated organ becomes available , he decides `` it 's time '' . Tim then fills the motel bathtub with ice water to preserve his vital organs , calls 9-1-1 emergency and reports his own suicide , climbs into the tub , and releases his box jellyfish into the water with him . The jellyfish wraps its tentacles around his arm , causing a quick but excruciatingly painful death . At the hospital , his best childhood friend Dan ( Barry Pepper ) acts as executor of Tim 's living will to ensure that his organs are donated to Emily and Ezra . Ezra receives Tim 's corneas , which cure his blindness , and Emily receives his heart . Afterward , Ben finds letters from Tim that he is to give to each person explaining why he did what he did . This leaves Emily heartbroken . Emily finds Ezra ( now a school teacher ) at his kid 's choir concert at a park and stops him as he passes by . Having never met before , Emily is fixated on Ezra 's eyes , knowing they belonged to Tim . Emily begins to break down , which clues Ezra in to who she is . When he says , `` You must be Emily , '' she breaks into tears and they share a heartfelt embrace out of mutual love and respect for Tim . Cast * Will Smith as Ben Thomas ( actually Tim Thomas , using his brother 's name ) Smith described the reason he took on the role : Smith felt that the character needed to be a quiet and rather introverted person who does not burn himself out at every possible instance . The character was a contrast to Smith 's previous characters , and Smith felt that director Gabriele Muccino 's trust in him helped him relax and avoid overextending himself . Smith acknowledged Seven Pounds as a drama film , but he saw it as more of a love story . * Michael Ealy as Ben Thomas , Tim 's brother and an IRS agent , whose credentials and name are `` taken '' by his brother . Will Smith handpicked Ealy for the role of the main character 's brother . Connor Cruise , the adopted son of actor Tom Cruise and actress Nicole Kidman , was cast in his first role as a younger version of Ben Thomas . * Barry Pepper as Dan Morris , Tim-Ben 's friend and executor of his will . * Rosario Dawson as Emily Posa , a self-employed greeting card printer and Tim-Ben 's love interest . * Octavia Spencer as Kate , Emily 's caring nurse . * Woody Harrelson as Ezra Turner , a blind meat salesman who plays the piano . * Elpidia Carrillo as Connie Tepos , a woman in a battered relationship with her boyfriend . * Judyann Elder as Holly , a child services employee . * Bill Smitrovich as George , a junior hockey coach . * Quintin Kelly as Nicholas , a child . * Robinne Lee as Sarah Jenson , Tim-Ben 's fiancee * Madison Pettis as Connie 's daughter * Ivan Angulo as Connie 's son * Skylan Brooks as Choir kid * Bryce J Harris as male toddler in the social service office * Bradly J Harris as male toddler in the social service office * Weston Harris male kid in the social service office Production Seven Pounds is based on a script written by Grant Nieporte under Columbia Pictures . In June 2007 , Will Smith joined the studio to star in the planned film and to serve as one of its producers . In September 2007 , director Gabriele Muccino , who worked with Smith on The Pursuit of Happyness ( 2006 ) , was attached to direct Seven Pounds , bringing along his creative team from the 2006 film . Smith was joined by Rosario Dawson and Woody Harrelson the following December to star in Seven Pounds . Filming began in February 2008 . Most of the film was shot in Los Angeles , Pasadena , California and Malibu , California . Points of interest used in the film include the Travel Inn in Tujunga , California , the Colorado Bar , The Huntington Library , The Sheraton and The Pasadena Ice Skating Rink all in Pasadena , as well as Malibu Beach in Malibu . Title Before the film 's release , the title Seven Pounds was considered a `` mystery '' which the studio refused to explain . Early trailers for Seven Pounds kept the film 's details a mystery . Director Gabriele Muccino explained the intent : `` The [ audience ] will not know exactly what this man is up to . '' Will Smith is reported to have confirmed that the title refers to Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice , in which a debtor must pay a pound of flesh . In this case , it amounts to seven gifts to seven individuals deemed worthy by Smith 's character , to atone for seven deaths he caused . Release Seven Pounds was promoted on a five-city tour across the United States in November 2008 , screening in Cleveland , Miami , Dallas , St. Louis , and Denver to raise funds for food banks in each region . The film was promoted at a charity screening in Minneapolis in support of Second Harvest Heartland . Since screenings of new films usually took place in Los Angeles or New York City , the choice of cities was unconventional . Smith said , `` This is more like the old-school music tours . Different clubs , different cities , meeting people . You get in touch with what people are feeling and thinking , and it 's much more personal when you 're actually out shaking hands . '' The actor sought to `` get reacquainted '' with an America that he felt had an `` openness to change '' with the country 's election of Barack Obama as the first African-American president . The film was released on December 19 , 2008 in 2,758 theaters in the United States and Canada . It grossed an estimated US $ 16 million , placing second at the weekend box office after Yes Man . The opening gross was the lowest for a film starring Smith since Ali in 2001 . The gross was US $ 5 million less than anticipated , partially ascribed to winter storms in the Northeast over the weekend . Home media release The film was released on DVD on March 31 , 2009 , by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment . The film is also available to rent or buy on the PlayStation Network in standard or high definition format . , in North American DVD sales , the film has grossed US $ 28,812,423 . Critical reception The film received generally negative reviews from critics . Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 27 % based upon a sample of 186 reviews with an average score of 4.6/10 . On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received a below average score of 36 based on 33 reviews . Varietys film reviewer Todd McCarthy predicted that the movie 's climax `` will be emotionally devastating for many viewers , perhaps particularly those with serious religious beliefs , '' and characterized the film as an `` endlessly sentimental fable about sacrifice and redemption that aims only at the heart at the expense of the head . '' A. O. Scott , writing for The New York Times , said that the movie `` may be among the most transcendently , eye-poppingly , call-your-friend-ranting-in-the-middle-of-the-night-just-to-go-over-it-one-more-time crazily awful motion pictures ever made . '' Positive reviews singled out Dawson 's performance . Richard Corliss wrote in Time that Dawson gives `` a lovely performance , '' while Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle noted that Dawson 's performance `` shows once again that she has it in her to be the powerhouse . '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times commented on the fact that the audience is kept completely out of the loop as to what Ben is doing , comparing the film to Jean-Pierre Melville 's Le Samouraï , pointing out how he `` finds this more interesting than a movie about a man whose nature and objectives are made clear in the first five minutes , in a plot that simply points him straight ahead . ''

qz_2466--Seven_Pounds.txt

Who stars in the 2008 movie Seven Pounds?

Cardiff ( ; ) is the capital and largest city in Wales and the tenth largest city in the United Kingdom . The city is the country 's chief commercial centre , the base for most national cultural and sporting institutions , the Welsh national media , and the seat of the National Assembly for Wales . The unitary authority area 's mid-2011 population was estimated to be 346,100 , while the population of the Larger Urban Zone was estimated at 861,400 in 2009 . The Cardiff metropolitan area makes up over a third of the total population of Wales , with a mid-2011 population estimate of about 1,100,000 people . Cardiff is a significant tourist centre and the most popular visitor destination in Wales with 18.3 million visitors in 2010 . In 2011 , Cardiff was ranked sixth in the world in National Geographic 's alternative tourist destinations . The city of Cardiff is the county town of the historic county of Glamorgan ( and later South Glamorgan ) . Cardiff is part of the Eurocities network of the largest European cities . The Cardiff Urban Area covers a slightly larger area outside the county boundary , and includes the towns of Dinas Powys and Penarth . A small town until the early 19th century , its prominence as a major port for the transport of coal following the arrival of industry in the region contributed to its rise as a major city . Cardiff was made a city in 1905 , and proclaimed the capital of Wales in 1955 . Since the 1980s , Cardiff has seen significant development . A new waterfront area at Cardiff Bay contains the Senedd building , home to the Welsh Assembly and the Wales Millennium Centre arts complex . Current developments include the continuation of the redevelopment of the Cardiff Bay and city centre areas with projects such as the Cardiff International Sports Village , a BBC drama village , and a new business district in the city centre . Sporting venues in the city include the Millennium Stadium ( the national stadium for the Wales national rugby union team ) , SWALEC Stadium ( the home of Glamorgan County Cricket Club ) , Cardiff City Stadium ( the home of Cardiff City football team ) , Cardiff International Sports Stadium ( the home of Cardiff Amateur Athletic Club ) and Cardiff Arms Park ( the home of Cardiff Blues and Cardiff RFC rugby union teams ) . The city was awarded the title of European City of Sport twice , due to its role in hosting major international sporting events : first in 2009 and again in 2014 . The Millennium Stadium hosted 11 football matches as part of the 2012 Summer Olympics , including the games ' opening event and the men 's bronze medal match . Etymology Caerdydd ( the Welsh name of the city ) derives from the earlier Welsh form Caerdyf . The change from -dyf to -dydd shows the colloquial alteration of Welsh f and dd , and was perhaps also driven by folk etymology ( dydd is Welsh for 'day ' whereas dyf has no obvious meaning ) . This sound change had probably first occurred in the Middle Ages ; both forms were current in the Tudor period . Caerdyf has its origins in post-Roman Brythonic words meaning `` the fort of the Taff '' . The fort probably refers to that established by the Romans . Caer is Welsh for fort and -dyf is in effect a form of Taf ( Taff ) , the river which flows by Cardiff Castle , with the showing consonant mutation to and the vowel showing affection as a result of a ( lost ) genitive case ending.Hywel Wyn Owen and Richard Morgan , Dictionary of the Place-names of Wales . University of Wales Press , 2007 , ISBN 1-84323-901-9 , p. 70 . The anglicised form Cardiff is derived from Caerdyf , with the Welsh f borrowed as ff , as also happens in Taff ( from Welsh Taf ) and Llandaff ( from Welsh Llandaf ) . As English does not have the vowel the final vowel has been borrowed as /ɪ/ . The antiquarian William Camden ( 1551–1623 ) suggested that the name Cardiff may derive from `` Caer-Didi '' ( `` the Fort of Didius '' ) , a name supposedly given in honour of Aulus Didius Gallus , governor of a nearby province at the time when the Roman fort was established . Although some sources repeat this theory , it has been rejected on linguistic grounds by modern scholars such as Professor Gwynedd Pierce . History Origins Archaeological evidence from sites in and around Cardiff – the St Lythans burial chamber , near Wenvoe ( about four miles ( 6.4 km ) west , south west of Cardiff city centre ) , the Tinkinswood burial chamber , near St Nicholas ( about six miles ( 10 km ) west of Cardiff city centre ) , the Cae'rarfau Chambered Tomb , Creigiau ( about six miles ( 10 km ) north west of Cardiff city centre ) and the Gwern y Cleppa Long Barrow , near Coedkernew , Newport ( about eight and a quarter miles ( 13.5 km ) north east of Cardiff city centre ) – shows that people had settled in the area by at least around 6,000 years before present ( BP ) , during the early Neolithic ; about 1,500 years before either Stonehenge or the Great Pyramid of Giza was completed . A group of five Bronze Age tumuli is at the summit of The Garth ( ) , within the county 's northern boundary . Four Iron Age hill fort and enclosure sites have been identified within Cardiff 's present-day county boundaries , including Caerau Hillfort , an enclosed area of . Until the Roman conquest of Britain , Cardiff was part of the territory of the Silures – a Celtic British tribe that flourished in the Iron Age – whose territory included the areas that would become known as Breconshire , Monmouthshire and Glamorgan . The fort established by the Romans near the mouth of the River Taff in 75 AD , in what would become the north western boundary of the centre of Cardiff , was built over an extensive settlement that had been established by the Silures in the 50s AD . The fort was one of a series of military outposts associated with Isca Augusta ( Caerleon ) that acted as border defences . The fort may have been abandoned in the early 2nd century as the area had been subdued . However , by this time a civilian settlement , or vicus , was established . It was likely made up of traders who made a living from the fort , ex-soldiers and their families . A Roman villa has been discovered at Ely . Contemporary with the Saxon Shore Forts of the 3rd and 4th centuries , a stone fortress was established at Cardiff . Similar to the shore forts , the fortress was built to protect Britannia from raiders . Coins from the reign of Gratian indicate that Cardiff was inhabited until at least the 4th century ; the fort was abandoned towards the end of the 4th century , as the last Roman legions left the province of Britannia with Magnus Maximus . Little is known about the fort and civilian settlement in the period between the Roman departure from Britain and the Norman Conquest . The settlement probably shrank in size and may even have been abandoned . In the absence of Roman rule , Wales was divided into small kingdoms ; early on , Meurig ap Tewdrig emerged as the local king in Glywysing ( which later became Glamorgan ) . The area passed through his family until the advent of the Normans in the 11th century . Norman occupation to the Middle Ages In 1081 William I , King of England , began work on the castle keep within the walls of the old Roman fort . Cardiff Castle has been at the heart of the city ever since . The castle was substantially altered and extended during the Victorian period by John Crichton-Stuart , 3rd Marquess of Bute , and the architect William Burges . Original Roman work can , however , still be distinguished in the wall facings . A town grew up in the shadow of the castle , made up primarily of settlers from England . Cardiff had a population of between 1,500 and 2,000 in the Middle Ages , a relatively normal size for a Welsh town in this period . It was the centre of the Norman Marcher Lordship of Glamorgan and by the end of the 13th century , Cardiff was the only town in Wales with a population exceeding 2,000 , although it remained relatively small compared with most notable towns in the Kingdom of England , and continued to be very much contained by its walls , which has begun as a wooden palisade in the early 12th century . It was none-the-less of sufficient size and importance to be awarded a series of charters , notably in 1331 by William La Zouche , Lord of Glamorgan through marriage with the de Clare family , Edward III in 1359 , then Henry IV in 1400 , and later Henry VI . In no small part due to the historic Anglicisation of the town , in 1404 Owain Glyndŵr burned Cardiff and took possession of the Castle . As many buildings in the town were made of timber , and tightly packed together within the town walls , much of Cardiff was destroyed . Ironically given the treatment of Cardiff by Glyndwr , a statue of him was erected in Cardiff Town Hall in the early twentieth century , reflecting the complex and often conflicting cultural identity Cardiff has as the capital of Wales . However , the town was soon rebuilt on the same street plan and began to flourish once again . In additional to serving an important political role in the governance of the fertile south Glamorgan coastal plane , Cardiff was a busy port in the Middle Ages due to its location on the Bristol trading routes , and was declared a Staple port in 1327 . This furthermore led to the town gaining a reputation for piracy , which by the Early Modern period led to much dispute between the burgesses of Cardiff and the surrounding county families . County town of Glamorganshire In 1536 , the Act of Union between England and Wales led to the creation of the shire of Glamorgan , and Cardiff was made the county town . It also became part of Kibbor hundred . Around this same time the Herbert family became the most powerful family in the area . In 1538 , Henry VIII closed the Dominican and Franciscan friaries in Cardiff , the remains of which were used as building materials . A writer around this period described Cardiff : `` The River Taff runs under the walls of his honours castle and from the north part of the town to the south part where there is a fair quay and a safe harbour for shipping . '' Cardiff had become a Free Borough in 1542 and further Royal Charters were granted to the town by Elizabeth I in 1600 and James I in 1608 . In 1573 , it was made a head port for collection of customs duties . Pembrokeshire historian George Owen described Cardiff in 1602 as `` the fayrest towne in Wales yett not the welthiest . `` , and the town gained a second Royal Charter in 1608 . A disastrous flood of the Bristol Channel on 30 January 1607 ( now believed to be a tsunami ) led to a change in the course of the River Taff and the ruining of St Mary 's Parish Church , which was replaced by its chapel of ease , St John the Baptist . During the Second English Civil War , St Fagans just to the west of the town , played host to the Battle of St Fagans . The battle , between a Royalist rebellion and a New Model Army detachment , was a decisive victory for the Parliamentarians and allowed Oliver Cromwell to conquer Wales . It is the last major battle to occur in Wales , with about 200 ( mostly Royalist ) soldiers killed . In the ensuing century Cardiff was at peace . In 1766 , John Stuart , 1st Marquess of Bute married into the Herbert family and was later created Baron Cardiff , and in 1778 he began renovations on Cardiff Castle . In the 1790s a racecourse , printing press , bank and coffee house all opened , and Cardiff gained a stagecoach service to London . Despite these improvements , Cardiff 's position in the Welsh urban hierarchy had declined over the 18th century . Iolo Morgannwg called it `` an obscure and inconsiderable place '' , and the 1801 census found the population to be only 1,870 , making Cardiff only the 25th largest town in Wales , well behind Merthyr and Swansea . Building of the docks In 1793 , John Crichton-Stuart , 2nd Marquess of Bute was born . He would spend his life building the Cardiff docks and would later be called `` the creator of modern Cardiff '' . A twice-weekly boat service between Cardiff and Bristol was established in 1815 , and in 1821 , the Cardiff Gas Works was established . After the Napoleonic Wars Cardiff entered a period of social and industrial unrest , starting with the trial and hanging of Dic Penderyn in 1831 . The town grew rapidly from the 1830s onwards , when the Marquess of Bute built a dock , which eventually linked to the Taff Vale Railway . Cardiff became the main port for exports of coal from the Cynon , Rhondda , and Rhymney valleys , and grew at a rate of nearly 80 % per decade between 1840 and 1870 . Much of the growth was due to migration from within and outside Wales : in 1841 , a quarter of Cardiff 's population were English-born and more than 10 % had been born in Ireland . By the 1881 census , Cardiff had overtaken both Merthyr and Swansea to become the largest town in Wales . Cardiff 's new status as the premier town in South Wales was confirmed when it was chosen as the site of the University College South Wales and Monmouthshire in 1893 . A permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of Maindy Barracks in 1877 . Cardiff faced a challenge in the 1880s when David Davies of Llandinam and the Barry Railway Company promoted the development of rival docks at Barry . Barry docks had the advantage of being accessible in all tides , and David Davies claimed that his venture would cause `` grass to grow in the streets of Cardiff '' . From 1901 coal exports from Barry surpassed those from Cardiff , but the administration of the coal trade remained centred on Cardiff , in particular its Coal Exchange , where the price of coal on the British market was determined and the first million-pound deal was struck in 1907 . The city also strengthened its industrial base with the decision of the owners of the Dowlais Ironworks in Merthyr ( who would later form part of Guest , Keen and Nettlefolds ) to build a new steelworks close to the docks at East Moors , which Lord Bute opened on 4 February 1891 . City and capital city status King Edward VII granted Cardiff city status on 28 October 1905 , and the city acquired a Roman Catholic Cathedral in 1916 . In subsequent years an increasing number of national institutions were located in the city , including the National Museum of Wales , Welsh National War Memorial , and the University of Wales Registry Building—however , it was denied the National Library of Wales , partly because the library 's founder , Sir John Williams , considered Cardiff to have `` a non-Welsh population '' . After a brief post-war boom , Cardiff docks entered a prolonged decline in the interwar period . By 1936 , their trade was less than half its value in 1913 , reflecting the slump in demand for Welsh coal . Bomb damage during the Cardiff Blitz in World War II included the devastation of Llandaff Cathedral , and in the immediate postwar years the city 's link with the Bute family came to an end . The city was proclaimed capital city of Wales on 20 December 1955 , by a written reply by the Home Secretary Gwilym Lloyd George . Caernarfon had also vied for this title . Cardiff therefore celebrated two important anniversaries in 2005 . The Encyclopedia of Wales notes that the decision to recognise the city as the capital of Wales `` had more to do with the fact that it contained marginal Conservative constituencies than any reasoned view of what functions a Welsh capital should have '' . Although the city hosted the Commonwealth Games in 1958 , Cardiff only became a centre of national administration with the establishment of the Welsh Office in 1964 , which later prompted the creation of various other public bodies such as the Arts Council of Wales and the Welsh Development Agency , most of which were based in Cardiff . The East Moors Steelworks closed in 1978 and Cardiff lost population during the 1980s , consistent with a wider pattern of counter urbanisation in Britain . However , it recovered and was one of the few cities ( outside London ) where population grew during the 1990s . During this period the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation was promoting the redevelopment of south Cardiff ; an evaluation of the regeneration of Cardiff Bay published in 2004 concluded that the project had `` reinforced the competitive position of Cardiff '' and `` contributed to a massive improvement in the quality of the built environment '' , although it had failed `` to attract the major inward investors originally anticipated '' . In the Welsh devolution referendum , 1997 , Cardiff voters rejected the establishment of the National Assembly for Wales by 55.4 % to 44.2 % on a 47 % turnout , which Denis Balsom partly ascribed to a general preference in Cardiff and some other parts of Wales for a 'British ' rather than exclusively 'Welsh ' identity . The relative lack of support for the Assembly locally , and difficulties between the Welsh Office and Cardiff Council in acquiring the original preferred venue , Cardiff City Hall , encouraged other local authorities to bid to house the Assembly . However , the Assembly eventually located at Tŷ Hywel in Cardiff Bay in 1999 ; in 2005 , a new debating chamber on an adjacent site , designed by Richard Rogers , was opened . The city was county town of Glamorgan until the council reorganisation in 1974 paired Cardiff and the now Vale of Glamorgan together as the new county of South Glamorgan . Further local government restructuring in 1996 resulted in Cardiff city 's district council becoming a unitary authority , the City and County of Cardiff , with the addition of Creigiau and Pentyrch . Government Since local government reorganisation in 1996 , Cardiff has been governed by The City and County Council of Cardiff , which is based at County Hall in Atlantic Wharf , Cardiff Bay . Voters elect 75 councillors every four years . Between the 2004 and 2012 local elections , no individual political party held a majority on Cardiff County Council . The Liberal Democrats held the largest number of seats and Cllr Rodney Berman was Leader of the Council . The Liberal Democrats and Plaid Cymru formed a partnership administration . In the 2012 elections the Labour Party achieved an outright majority , after gaining an additional 33 seats across the city . The National Assembly for Wales has been based in Cardiff Bay since its formation in 1999 . The building , known as the Senedd ( which translates into English as Legislature , Parliament or Senate ) was opened on 1 March 2006 , by The Queen . The Assembly Members ( AMs ) , the Assembly Commission and Ministerial support staff are based in Cardiff Bay . Cardiff elects four constituency Assembly Members ( AMs ) to the Assembly , with the individual constituencies for the Assembly being the same as for the UK Parliament . All of the city 's residents have an extra vote for the South Wales Central region which increases proportionality to the Assembly . The most recent Welsh Assembly general election were held on 5 May 2011 . In the Assembly Cardiff is represented by Jenny Rathbone ( Labour ) in Cardiff Central , Julie Morgan ( Labour ) in Cardiff North , Vaughan Gething ( Labour ) in Cardiff South and Penarth and Mark Drakeford ( Labour ) in Cardiff West . In Westminster , Cardiff is represented by Jo Stevens ( Labour ) in Cardiff Central , Craig Williams ( Conservative ) in Cardiff North , Stephen Doughty ( Labour ) in Cardiff South and Penarth and Kevin Brennan ( Labour ) in Cardiff West . The Welsh Government has its headquarters in Cardiff 's Cathays Park where most of its civil servants are based , with smaller numbers in other locations in the city centre , Cathays , Canton , and Cardiff Bay . There are other Welsh Government offices in other parts of Wales such as Llandudno and Aberystwyth and international offices throughout the world . Local Government For local government purposes , Cardiff is divided into communities . Several of these have their own community council , while the rest are governed solely by Cardiff City Council . They are : * Lisvane * Old St Mellons * Pentyrch * Radyr and Morganstown * St Fagans * Tongwynlais Geography The centre of Cardiff is relatively flat and is bounded by hills on the outskirts to the east , north and west . Its geographic features were influential in its development as the world 's largest coal port , most notably its proximity and easy access to the coal fields of the south Wales valleys . The highest point in the authority is Garth Hill 307 m above sea level . Cardiff is built on reclaimed marshland on a bed of Triassic stones ; this reclaimed marshland stretches from Chepstow to the Ely Estuary , which is the natural boundary of Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan . Triassic landscapes of this part of the world are usually shallow and low-lying which accounts and explains the flatness of the centre of Cardiff . The classic Triassic marl , sand and conglomerate rocks are used predominantly throughout Cardiff as building materials . Many of these Triassic rocks have a purple complexion , especially the coastal marl found near Penarth . One of the Triassic rocks used in Cardiff is `` Radyr Stone '' , a freestone which as it name suggests is quarried in the Radyr district . Cardiff has also imported some materials for buildings : Devonian sandstones ( the Old Red Sandstone ) from the Brecon Beacons has been used . Most famously , the buildings of Cathays Park , the civic centre in the centre of the city , are built of Portland stone which was imported from Dorset . A widely used building stone in Cardiff is the yellow-grey Liassic limestone rock of the Vale of Glamorgan , including the very rare `` Sutton Stone '' , a conglomerate of lias limestone and carboniferous limestone . Cardiff is bordered to the west by the rural district of the Vale of Glamorgan—also known as The Garden of Cardiff— to the east by the city of Newport , to the north by the South Wales Valleys and to the south by the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel . The River Taff winds through the centre of the city and together with the River Ely flows into the freshwater lake of Cardiff Bay . A third river , the Rhymney flows through the east of the city entering directly into the Severn Estuary . Cardiff is situated near the Glamorgan Heritage Coast , stretching westward from Penarth and Barry—commuter towns of Cardiff—with striped yellow-blue Jurassic limestone cliffs . The Glamorgan coast is the only part of the Celtic Sea that has exposed Jurassic ( blue lias ) geology . This stretch of coast , which has reefs , sandbanks and serrated cliffs , was a ship graveyard ; ships sailing up to Cardiff during the industrial era often never made it as far as Cardiff as many were wrecked around this hostile coastline during west/south-westerly gales . Consequently , smuggling , deliberate shipwrecking and attacks on ships were common . Cityscape `` Inner Cardiff '' consists of the following wards : Plasnewydd , Gabalfa , Roath , Cathays , Adamsdown and Splott ward on the north and east of the city centre , and Butetown , Grangetown , Riverside and Canton to the south and west . The inner-city areas to the south of the A4161 road ( known as the `` Southern Arc '' ) are , with the exception of Cardiff Bay , some of the poorest districts of Wales with low levels of economic activity . On the other hand , Gabalfa , Plasnewydd and Cathays north of the 'arc ' have very large student populations , and Pontcanna ( situated north of Riverside and alongside Canton ) is a favourite for students and young professionals . Penylan , which lies to the north east side of Roath Park , is an affluent area popular with those with older children and the retired . To the west lie Ely , Caerau and Fairwater which contain some of the largest housing estates in the United Kingdom . With the exception of some of the outlying privately built estates at Michaelston Super Ely and 1930s developments near Waun-Gron Road , this is an economically disadvantaged area with high numbers of unemployed households . Culverhouse Cross is a more affluent western area of the city . Heath , Birchgrove , Gabalfa , Mynachdy , Llandaff North , Llandaff , Llanishen , Radyr , Whitchurch & Tongwynlais , Rhiwbina , Thornhill , Lisvane and Cyncoed lie in an arc from the north west to the north east of the centre . In particular , Lisvane , Cyncoed , Radyr and Rhiwbina contain some of the most expensive housing in Wales . Further to the east lie the wards of Pontprennau & Old St Mellons , Rumney , Pentwyn , Llanrumney and Trowbridge . The latter three are again largely of public housing stock , although new private housing is being built in Trowbridge in considerable number . Pontprennau is the newest 'suburb ' of Cardiff , whilst Old St Mellons has a history going back to the Norman Conquest in the 11th century . To the north west of the city lies a region that may be called `` Rural Cardiff '' containing the villages of St. Fagans , Creigiau , Pentyrch , Tongwynlais and Gwaelod-y-garth . St. Fagans , home to the Museum of Welsh Life , is protected from further development . Since 2000 , there has been a significant change of scale and building height in Cardiff , with the development of the city centre 's first purpose-built high-rise apartments . Tall buildings have been built in the city centre and Cardiff Bay , and more are planned . Climate Cardiff lies within the north temperate zone and has an essentially maritime climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) , characterised by mild weather that is often cloudy , wet and windy . Summers tend to be warm and sunny , with average maximum temperatures between 19 and . Winters tend to be fairly wet , but rainfall is rarely excessive and the temperature usually stays above freezing . Spring and autumn feel quite similar and the temperatures tend to stay above 14 °C—also the average annual daytime temperature . Rain is unpredictable at any time of year , although the showers tend to be shorter in summer . The northern part of the county , being higher and inland—for example , The Garth ( ) , about 7 mi north west of Cardiff city centre , ( elevation 1007 ft ) —tends to be cooler and wetter than the city centre . Temperature Cardiff 's maximum and minimum monthly temperatures average ( July ) and ( February ) .For Wales , the temperatures average ( July ) and ( February ) . Sunshine hours Cardiff

wh_1136--Cardiff.txt

On which river does Cardiff stand?

Greek mythology is the body of myths and teachings that belong to the ancient Greeks , concerning their gods and heroes , the nature of the world , and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices . It was a part of the religion in ancient Greece . Modern scholars refer to and study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and its civilization , and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself . Greek mythology is explicitly embodied in a large collection of narratives , and implicitly in Greek representational arts , such as vase-paintings and votive gifts . Greek myth attempts to explain the origins of the world , and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods , goddesses , heroes , heroines and mythological creatures . These accounts initially were disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition ; today the Greek myths are known primarily from Greek literature . The oldest known Greek literary sources , Homer 's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey , focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath . Two poems by Homer 's near contemporary Hesiod , the Theogony and the Works and Days , contain accounts of the genesis of the world , the succession of divine rulers , the succession of human ages , the origin of human woes , and the origin of sacrificial practices . Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns , in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle , in lyric poems , in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC , in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age , and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias . Archaeological findings provide a principal source of detail about Greek mythology , with gods and heroes featured prominently in the decoration of many artifacts . Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles . In the succeeding Archaic , Classical , and Hellenistic periods , Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear , supplementing the existing literary evidence . Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture , arts , and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language . Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes . Sources Greek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c. 900–800 BC onward . In fact , literary and archaeological sources integrate , sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict ; however , in many cases , the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots . Literary sources Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature . Nevertheless , the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus . This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends . Apollodorus of Athens lived from c. 180–125 BC and wrote on many of these topics . His writings may have formed the basis for the collection ; however the `` Library '' discusses events that occurred long after his death , hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus . Among the earliest literary sources are Homer 's two epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey . Other poets completed the `` epic cycle '' , but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely . Despite their traditional name , the `` Homeric Hymns '' have no direct connection with Homer . They are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age . Hesiod , a possible contemporary with Homer , offers in his Theogony ( Origin of the Gods ) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths , dealing with the creation of the world ; the origin of the gods , Titans , and Giants ; as well as elaborate genealogies , folktales , and etiological myths . Hesiod 's Works and Days , a didactic poem about farming life , also includes the myths of Prometheus , Pandora , and the Five Ages . The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world , rendered yet more dangerous by its gods . Lyrical poets often took their subjects from myth , but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive . Greek lyric poets , including Pindar , Bacchylides and Simonides , and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion , relate individual mythological incidents . Additionally , myth was central to classical Athenian drama . The tragic playwrights Aeschylus , Sophocles , and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War . Many of the great tragic stories ( e.g . Agamemnon and his children , Oedipus , Jason , Medea , etc . ) took on their classic form in these tragedies . The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths , in The Birds and The Frogs . Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus , and geographers Pausanias and Strabo , who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard , supplied numerous local myths and legends , often giving little-known alternative versions . Herodotus in particular , searched the various traditions presented him and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East . Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts . The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise . Nevertheless , it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost . This category includes the works of : # The Roman poets Ovid , Statius , Valerius Flaccus , Seneca and Virgil with Servius 's commentary . # The Greek poets of the Late Antique period : Nonnus , Antoninus Liberalis , and Quintus Smyrnaeus . # The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period : Apollonius of Rhodes , Callimachus , Pseudo-Eratosthenes , and Parthenius . Prose writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius , Petronius , Lollianus , and Heliodorus . Two other important non-poetical sources are the Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus , the Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger , and the Descriptions of Callistratus . Finally , a number of Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth , much derived from earlier now lost Greek works . These preservers of myth include Arnobius , Hesychius , the author of the Suda , John Tzetzes , and Eustathius . They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective . Archaeological sources The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century , and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in the twentieth century , helped to explain many existing questions about Homer 's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes . Unfortunately , the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental , as the Linear B script ( an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece ) was used mainly to record inventories , although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified . Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle , as well as the adventures of Heracles . These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons . Firstly , many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources : of the twelve labors of Heracles , for example , only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text . Secondly , visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source . In some cases , the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry , by several centuries . In the Archaic ( c. 750–c . 500 BC ) , Classical ( c. 480–323 BC ) , and Hellenistic ( 323–146 BC ) periods , Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear , supplementing the existing literary evidence . Survey of mythic history Greek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture , of which mythology , both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions , is an index of the changes . In Greek mythology 's surviving literary forms , as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes , it is inherently political , as Gilbert Cuthbertson has argued . The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who , using Animism , assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature . Eventually , these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods . When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded , they brought with them a new pantheon of gods , based on conquest , force , prowess in battle , and violent heroism . Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance . After the middle of the Archaic period , myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent , indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty ( eros paidikos , ) , thought to have been introduced around 630 BC . By the end of the fifth century BC , poets had assigned at least one eromenos , an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion , to every important god except Ares and to many legendary figures . Previously existing myths , such as those of Achilles and Patroclus , also then were cast in a pederastic light . Alexandrian poets at first , then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire , often readapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion . The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and , as a result , to develop a new sense of mythological chronology . Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans . While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible , an approximate chronology may be discerned . The resulting mythological `` history of the world '' may be divided into three or four broader periods : # The myths of origin or age of gods ( Theogonies , `` births of gods '' ) : myths about the origins of the world , the gods , and the human race . # The age when gods and mortals mingled freely : stories of the early interactions between gods , demigods , and mortals . # The age of heroes ( heroic age ) , where divine activity was more limited . The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after ( which is regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period ) . While the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth , the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes , establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained . For example , the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity . Under the influence of Homer the `` hero cult '' leads to a restructuring in spiritual life , expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead ( heroes ) , of the Chthonic from the Olympian . In the Works and Days , Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man ( or Races ) : Golden , Silver , Bronze , and Iron . These races or ages are separate creations of the gods , the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos , the subsequent races the creation of Zeus . The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora , when all of the best of human capabilities , save hope , had been spilled out of her overturned jar . In Metamorphoses , Ovid follows Hesiod 's concept of the four ages . Origins of the world and the gods `` Myths of origin '' or `` creation myths '' represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language . The most widely accepted version at the time , although a philosophical account of the beginning of things , is reported by Hesiod , in his Theogony . He begins with Chaos , a yawning nothingness . Out of the void emerged Gaia ( the Earth ) and some other primary divine beings : Eros ( Love ) , the Abyss ( the Tartarus ) , and the Erebus . Without male assistance , Gaia gave birth to Uranus ( the Sky ) who then fertilized her . From that union were born first the Titans—six males : Coeus , Crius , Cronus , Hyperion , Iapetus , and Oceanus ; and six females : Mnemosyne , Phoebe , Rhea , Theia , Themis , and Tethys . After Cronus was born , Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born . They were followed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handed Ones , who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus . This made Gaia furious . Cronus ( `` the wily , youngest and most terrible of Gaia 's children '' ) , was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father . He did this , and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort , and the other Titans became his court . A motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son , Zeus . Because Cronus had betrayed his father , he feared that his offspring would do the same , and so each time Rhea gave birth , he snatched up the child and ate it . Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby 's blanket , which Cronus ate . When Zeus was full grown , he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit , throwing up Rhea 's other children and the stone , which had been sitting in Cronus 's stomach all along . Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods . At last , with the help of the Cyclopes ( whom Zeus freed from Tartarus ) , Zeus and his siblings were victorious , while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus . Zeus was plagued by the same concern and , after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife , Metis , would give birth to a god `` greater than he '' —Zeus swallowed her . She was already pregnant with Athena , however , and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war . The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypical mythos—and imputed almost magical powers to it . Orpheus , the archetypal poet , also was the archetypal singer of theogonies , which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius ' Argonautica , and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades . When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes , the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods . Hesiod 's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods , but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet 's function , with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses . Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems , including those attributed to Orpheus , Musaeus , Epimenides , Abaris , and other legendary seers , which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites . There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony . A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs , however , and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held . After they ceased to become religious beliefs , few would have known the rites and rituals . Allusions often existed , however , to aspects that were quite public . Images existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely , misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales . A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps . One of these scraps , the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence.W . Burkert , Greek Religion , 236 * G. Betegh , The Derveni Papyrus , 147 The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against , or sometimes built upon , popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time . Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod . In Homer , the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun , moon , and stars . The Sun ( Helios ) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night . Sun , earth , heaven , rivers , and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths . Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors , home of the dead . * K. Algra , The Beginnings of Cosmology , 45 Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes . Greek pantheon According to Classical-era mythology , after the overthrow of the Titans , the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed . Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians , residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus . ( The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea . ) Besides the Olympians , the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside , the satyr-god Pan , Nymphs ( spirits of rivers ) , Naiads ( who dwelled in springs ) , Dryads ( who were spirits of the trees ) , Nereids ( who inhabited the sea ) , river gods , Satyrs , and others . In addition , there were the dark powers of the underworld , such as the Erinyes ( or Furies ) , said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives . In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon , poets composed the Homeric Hymns ( a group of thirty-three songs ) . Gregory Nagy regards `` the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes ( compared with Theogony ) , each of which invokes one god '' . The gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies . According to Walter Burkert , the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that `` the Greek gods are persons , not abstractions , ideas or concepts '' . Regardless of their underlying forms , the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities ; most significantly , the gods are not affected by disease , and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances . The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods ; this immortality , as well as unfading youth , was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia , by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins . Each god descends from his or her own genealogy , pursues differing interests , has a certain area of expertise , and is governed by a unique personality ; however , these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants , which do not always agree with one another . When these gods are called upon in poetry , prayer or cult , they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets , that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves ( e.g. , Apollo Musagetes is `` Apollo , [ as ] leader of the Muses '' ) . Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god , sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece . Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life . For example , Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty , Ares was the god of war , Hades the ruler of the underworld , and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage . Some gods , such as Apollo and Dionysus , revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions , while others , such as Hestia ( literally `` hearth '' ) and Helios ( literally `` sun '' ) , were little more than personifications . The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods , who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults . It was , however , common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods . Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere . During the heroic age , the cult of heroes ( or demi-gods ) supplemented that of the gods . Age of gods and mortals Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together . These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later . Most of these tales were later told by Ovid 's Metamorphoses and they are often divided into two thematic groups : tales of love , and tales of punishment . Tales of love often involve incest , or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god , resulting in heroic offspring . The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid ; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings . In a few cases , a female divinity mates with a mortal man , as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite , where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas . The second type ( tales of punishment ) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact , as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods , when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus ' table and gives it to his own subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods , when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice , when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus , or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo . Ian Morris considers Prometheus ' adventures as `` a place between the history of the gods and that of man '' . An anonymous papyrus fragment , dated to the third century , vividly portrays Dionysus ' punishment of the king of Thrace , Lycurgus , whose recognition of the new god came too late , resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife . The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy . In another tragedy , Euripides ' The Bacchae , the king of Thebes , Pentheus , is punished by Dionysus , because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads , the female worshippers of the god . In another story , based on an old folktale-motif , and echoing a similar theme , Demeter was searching for her daughter , Persephone , having taken the form of an old woman called Doso , and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus , the King of Eleusis in Attica . As a gift to Celeus , because of his hospitality , Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god , but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright , which angered Demeter , who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual . Heroic age The age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age . The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories ; they thus arranged the stories in sequence . According to Ken Dowden , `` There is even a saga effect : We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations '' . After the rise of the hero cult , gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them . Burkert notes that `` the roster of heroes , again in contrast to the gods , is never given fixed and final form . Great gods are no longer born , but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead . '' Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity . The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes . To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events : the Argonautic expedition , the Theban Cycle and the Trojan War . Heracles and the Heracleidae Some scholars believe that behind Heracles ' complicated mythology there was probably a real man , perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos . Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun 's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac . Others point to earlier myths from other cultures , showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established . Traditionally , Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene , granddaughter of Perseus . His fantastic solitary exploits , with their many folk-tale themes , provided much material for popular legend . According to Burkert , `` He is portrayed as a sacrificer , mentioned as a founder of altars , and imagined as a voracious eater himself ; it is in this role that he appears in comedy , while his tragic end provided much material for tragedy — Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as `` a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas '' . In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height ; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club . Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles , his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times . Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult , and the exclamation `` mehercule '' became as familiar to the Romans as `` Herakleis '' was to the Greeks . In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders , although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger . Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings . This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese . Hyllus , the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle , became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids ( the numerous descendants of Heracles , especially the descendants of Hyllus — other Heracleidae included Macaria , Lamos , Manto , Bianor , Tlepolemus , and Telephus ) . These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae , Sparta and Argos , claiming , according to legend , a right to rule them through their ancestor . Their rise to dominance is frequently

bt_4028--Greek_mythology.txt

In Greek mythology, who was the first woman on Earth

A planet is an astronomical object orbiting a star or stellar remnant that * is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity , * is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion , and * has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations ; a formal definition agreed by the IAU in 2006 , and an informal working definition established by the IAU in 2001/2003 for objects outside of the Solar System . The official 2006 definition applies only to the Solar System , whereas the 2003 definition applies to planets around other stars . The extrasolar planet issue was deemed too complex to resolve at the 2006 IAU conference . The term planet is ancient , with ties to history , astrology , science , mythology , and religion . Several planets in the Solar System can be seen with the naked eye . These were regarded by many early cultures as divine , or as emissaries of deities . As scientific knowledge advanced , human perception of the planets changed , incorporating a number of disparate objects . In 2006 , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System . This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit . Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain `` planets '' under the modern definition , some celestial bodies , such as Ceres , Pallas , Juno and Vesta ( each an object in the solar asteroid belt ) , and Pluto ( the first trans-Neptunian object discovered ) , that were once considered planets by the scientific community , are no longer viewed as such . The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit Earth in deferent and epicycle motions . Although the idea that the planets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times , it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first telescopic astronomical observations , performed by Galileo Galilei . By careful analysis of the observation data , Johannes Kepler found the planets ' orbits were not circular but elliptical . As observational tools improved , astronomers saw that , like Earth , the planets rotated around tilted axes , and some shared such features as ice caps and seasons . Since the dawn of the Space Age , close observation by space probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as volcanism , hurricanes , tectonics , and even hydrology . Planets are generally divided into two main types : large low-density giant planets , and smaller rocky terrestrials . Under IAU definitions , there are eight planets in the Solar System . In order of increasing distance from the Sun , they are the four terrestrials , Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars , then the four giant planets , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune . Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites . More than two thousand planets around other stars ( `` extrasolar planets '' or `` exoplanets '' ) have been discovered in the Milky Way . As of , known extrasolar planets in planetary systems ( including multiple planetary systems ) , ranging in size from just above the size of the Moon to gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter have been discovered , out of which more than 100 planets are the same size as Earth , nine of which are at the same relative distance from their star as Earth from the Sun , i.e . in the habitable zone . On December 20 , 2011 , the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets , Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f , orbiting a Sun-like star , Kepler-20 . A 2012 study , analyzing gravitational microlensing data , estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way . Around one in five Sun-like stars is thought to have an Earth-sized planet in its habitable zone . History The word `` planet '' derives from the Ancient Greek ἀστήρ πλανήτης astēr planētēs , or πλάνης ἀστήρ plánēs astēr , which means `` wandering star , '' and originally referred to those objects in the night sky that moved relative to one another , as opposed to the `` fixed stars '' , which maintained a constant relative position in the sky . The idea of planets has evolved over its history , from the divine lights of antiquity to the earthly objects of the scientific age . The concept has expanded to include worlds not only in the Solar System , but in hundreds of other extrasolar systems . The ambiguities inherent in defining planets have led to much scientific controversy . The five classical planets , being visible to the naked eye , have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on mythology , religious cosmology , and ancient astronomy . In ancient times , astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars . Ancient Greeks called these lights ( , `` wandering stars '' ) or simply ( , `` wanderers '' ) , from which today 's word `` planet '' was derived . In ancient Greece , China , Babylon , and indeed all pre-modern civilizations , it was almost universally believed that Earth was the center of the Universe and that all the `` planets '' circled Earth . The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around Earth each day and the apparently common-sense perceptions that Earth was solid and stable and that it was not moving but at rest . Babylon The first civilization known to have a functional theory of the planets were the Babylonians , who lived in Mesopotamia in the first and second millennia BC . The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus , that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC . The MUL.APIN is a pair of cuneiform tablets dating from the 7th century BC that lays out the motions of the Sun , Moon and planets over the course of the year . The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology . The Enuma anu enlil , written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC , comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets . Venus , Mercury and the outer planets Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were all identified by Babylonian astronomers . These would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times . Greco-Roman astronomy The ancient Greeks initially did not attach as much significance to the planets as the Babylonians . The Pythagoreans , in the 6th and 5th centuries BC appear to have developed their own independent planetary theory , which consisted of the Earth , Sun , Moon , and planets revolving around a `` Central Fire '' at the center of the Universe . Pythagoras or Parmenides is said to have been the first to identify the evening star ( Hesperos ) and morning star ( Phosphoros ) as one and the same ( Aphrodite , Greek corresponding to Latin Venus ) . In the 3rd century BC , Aristarchus of Samos proposed a heliocentric system , according to which Earth and the planets revolved around the Sun . The geocentric system remained dominant until the Scientific Revolution . By the 1st century BC , during the Hellenistic period , the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets . These schemes , which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians , would eventually eclipse the Babylonians ' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness , and account for most of the astronomical movements observed from Earth with the naked eye . These theories would reach their fullest expression in the Almagest written by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE . So complete was the domination of Ptolemy 's model that it superseded all previous works on astronomy and remained the definitive astronomical text in the Western world for 13 centuries . To the Greeks and Romans there were seven known planets , each presumed to be circling Earth according to the complex laws laid out by Ptolemy . They were , in increasing order from Earth ( in Ptolemy 's order ) : the Moon , Mercury , Venus , the Sun , Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn . India In 499 CE , the Indian astronomer Aryabhata propounded a planetary model that explicitly incorporated Earth 's rotation about its axis , which he explains as the cause of what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars . He also believed that the orbits of planets are elliptical . Aryabhata 's followers were particularly strong in South India , where his principles of the diurnal rotation of Earth , among others , were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them . In 1500 , Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics , in his Tantrasangraha , revised Aryabhata 's model . In his Aryabhatiyabhasya , a commentary on Aryabhata 's Aryabhatiya , he developed a planetary model where Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun , which in turn orbits Earth , similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century . Most astronomers of the Kerala school who followed him accepted his planetary model . Medieval Muslim astronomy In the 11th century , the transit of Venus was observed by Avicenna , who established that Venus was , at least sometimes , below the Sun . In the 12th century , Ibn Bajjah observed `` two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun '' , which was later identified as a transit of Mercury and Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century . Ibn Bajjah could not have observed a transit of Venus , because none occurred in his lifetime . European Renaissance With the advent of the Scientific Revolution , use of the term `` planet '' changed from something that moved across the sky ( in relation to the star field ) ; to a body that orbited Earth ( or that were believed to do so at the time ) ; and by the 18th century to something that directly orbited the Sun when the heliocentric model of Copernicus , Galileo and Kepler gained sway . Thus , Earth became included in the list of planets , whereas the Sun and Moon were excluded . At first , when the first satellites of Jupiter and Saturn were discovered in the 17th century , the terms `` planet '' and `` satellite '' were used interchangeably – although the latter would gradually become more prevalent in the following century . Until the mid-19th century , the number of `` planets '' rose rapidly because any newly discovered object directly orbiting the Sun was listed as a planet by the scientific community . 19th century In the 19th century astronomers began to realize that recently discovered bodies that had been classified as planets for almost half a century ( such as Ceres , Pallas , and Vesta ) were very different from the traditional ones . These bodies shared the same region of space between Mars and Jupiter ( the asteroid belt ) , and had a much smaller mass ; as a result they were reclassified as `` asteroids '' . In the absence of any formal definition , a `` planet '' came to be understood as any `` large '' body that orbited the Sun . Because there was a dramatic size gap between the asteroids and the planets , and the spate of new discoveries seemed to have ended after the discovery of Neptune in 1846 , there was no apparent need to have a formal definition . 20th century In the 20th century , Pluto was discovered . After initial observations led to the belief it was larger than Earth , the object was immediately accepted as the ninth planet . Further monitoring found the body was actually much smaller : in 1936 , Raymond Lyttleton suggested that Pluto may be an escaped satellite of Neptune , and Fred Whipple suggested in 1964 that Pluto may be a comet . As it was still larger than all known asteroids and seemingly did not exist within a larger population , it kept its status until 2006 . In 1992 , astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of planets around a pulsar , PSR B1257+12 . This discovery is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of a planetary system around another star . Then , on October 6 , 1995 , Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the Geneva Observatory announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star ( 51 Pegasi ) . The discovery of extrasolar planets led to another ambiguity in defining a planet : the point at which a planet becomes a star . Many known extrasolar planets are many times the mass of Jupiter , approaching that of stellar objects known as brown dwarfs . Brown dwarfs are generally considered stars due to their ability to fuse deuterium , a heavier isotope of hydrogen . Although objects more massive than 75 times that of Jupiter fuse hydrogen , objects of only 13 Jupiter masses can fuse deuterium . Deuterium is quite rare , and most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusing deuterium long before their discovery , making them effectively indistinguishable from supermassive planets . 21st century With the discovery during the latter half of the 20th century of more objects within the Solar System and large objects around other stars , disputes arose over what should constitute a planet . There were particular disagreements over whether an object should be considered a planet if it was part of a distinct population such as a belt , or if it was large enough to generate energy by the thermonuclear fusion of deuterium . A growing number of astronomers argued for Pluto to be declassified as a planet , because many similar objects approaching its size had been found in the same region of the Solar System ( the Kuiper belt ) during the 1990s and early 2000s . Pluto was found to be just one small body in a population of thousands . Some of them , such as Quaoar , Sedna , and Eris , were heralded in the popular press as the tenth planet , failing to receive widespread scientific recognition . The announcement of Eris in 2005 , an object then thought of as 27 % more massive than Pluto , created the necessity and public desire for an official definition of a planet . Acknowledging the problem , the IAU set about creating the definition of planet , and produced one in August 2006 . The number of planets dropped to the eight significantly larger bodies that had cleared their orbit ( Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune ) , and a new class of dwarf planets was created , initially containing three objects ( Ceres , Pluto and Eris ) . Extrasolar planets There is no official definition of extrasolar planets . In 2003 , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets issued a position statement , but this position statement was never proposed as an official IAU resolution and was never voted on by IAU members . The positions statement incorporates the following guidelines , mostly focused upon the boundary between planets and brown dwarfs : # Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium ( currently calculated to be 13 times the mass of Jupiter for objects with the same isotopic abundance as the Sun ) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are `` planets '' ( no matter how they formed ) . The minimum mass and size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System . # Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are `` brown dwarfs '' , no matter how they formed or where they are located . # Free-floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not `` planets '' , but are `` sub-brown dwarfs '' ( or whatever name is most appropriate ) . This working definition has since been widely used by astronomers when publishing discoveries of exoplanets in academic journals . Although temporary , it remains an effective working definition until a more permanent one is formally adopted . It does not address the dispute over the lower mass limit , and so it steered clear of the controversy regarding objects within the Solar System . This definition also makes no comment on the planetary status of objects orbiting brown dwarfs , such as 2M1207b . One definition of a sub-brown dwarf is a planet-mass object that formed through cloud collapse rather than accretion . This formation distinction between a sub-brown dwarf and a planet is not universally agreed upon ; astronomers are divided into two camps as whether to consider the formation process of a planet as part of its division in classification . One reason for the dissent is that often it may not be possible to determine the formation process . For example , a planet formed by accretion around a star may get ejected from the system to become free-floating , and likewise a sub-brown dwarf that formed on its own in a star cluster through cloud collapse may get captured into orbit around a star . The 13 Jupiter-mass cutoff represents an average mass rather than a precise threshold value . Large objects will fuse most of their deuterium and smaller ones will fuse only a little , and the 13 value is somewhere in between . In fact , calculations show that an object fuses 50 % of its initial deuterium content when the total mass ranges between 12 and 14 . The amount of deuterium fused depends not only on mass but also on the composition of the object , on the amount of helium and deuterium present . The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 25 Jupiter masses , saying , `` The fact that there is no special feature around 13 in the observed mass spectrum reinforces the choice to forget this mass limit . '' The Exoplanet Data Explorer includes objects up to 24 Jupiter masses with the advisory : `` The 13 Jupiter-mass distinction by the IAU Working Group is physically unmotivated for planets with rocky cores , and observationally problematic due to the sin i ambiguity . '' The NASA Exoplanet Archive includes objects with a mass ( or minimum mass ) equal to or less than 30 Jupiter masses . Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs , rather than deuterium fusion , formation process or location , is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure . 2006 IAU definition of planet The matter of the lower limit was addressed during the 2006 meeting of the IAU 's General Assembly . After much debate and one failed proposal , 232 members of the 10,000 member assembly , who nevertheless constituted a large majority of those remaining at the meeting , voted to pass a resolution . The 2006 resolution defines planets within the Solar System as follows : Under this definition , the Solar System is considered to have eight planets . Bodies that fulfill the first two conditions but not the third ( such as Ceres , Pluto , and Eris ) are classified as dwarf planets , provided they are not also natural satellites of other planets . Originally an IAU committee had proposed a definition that would have included a much larger number of planets as it did not include ( c ) as a criterion . After much discussion , it was decided via a vote that those bodies should instead be classified as dwarf planets . This definition is based in theories of planetary formation , in which planetary embryos initially clear their orbital neighborhood of other smaller objects . As described by astronomer Steven Soter : `` The end product of secondary disk accretion is a small number of relatively large bodies ( planets ) in either non-intersecting or resonant orbits , which prevent collisions between them . Minor planets and comets , including KBOs [ Kuiper belt objects ] , differ from planets in that they can collide with each other and with planets . '' The 2006 IAU definition presents some challenges for exoplanets because the language is specific to the Solar System and because the criteria of roundness and orbital zone clearance are not presently observable . Astronomer Jean-Luc Margot proposed a mathematical criterion that determines whether an object can clear its orbit during the lifetime of its host star , based on the mass of the planet , its semimajor axis , and the mass of its host star . This formula produces a value π that is greater than 1 for planets . The eight known planets and all known exoplanets have π values above 100 , while Ceres , Pluto , and Eris have π values of 0.1 or less . Objects with π values of 1 or more are also expected to be approximately spherical , so that objects that fulfill the orbital zone clearance requirement automatically fulfill the roundness requirement . Objects formerly considered planets The table below lists Solar System bodies once considered to be planets . Beyond the scientific community , Pluto still holds cultural significance for many in the general public due to its historical classification as a planet from 1930 to 2006 . A few astronomers , such as Alan Stern , consider dwarf planets and the larger moons to be planets , based on a purely geophysical definition of planet . Mythology and naming The names for the planets in the Western world are derived from the naming practices of the Romans , which ultimately derive from those of the Greeks and the Babylonians . In ancient Greece , the two great luminaries the Sun and the Moon were called Helios and Selene ; the farthest planet ( Saturn ) was called Phainon , the shiner ; followed by Phaethon ( Jupiter ) , `` bright '' ; the red planet ( Mars ) was known as Pyroeis , the `` fiery '' ; the brightest ( Venus ) was known as Phosphoros , the light bringer ; and the fleeting final planet ( Mercury ) was called Stilbon , the gleamer . The Greeks also made each planet sacred to one among their pantheon of gods , the Olympians : Helios and Selene were the names of both planets and gods ; Phainon was sacred to Cronus , the Titan who fathered the Olympians ; Phaethon was sacred to Zeus , Cronus 's son who deposed him as king ; Pyroeis was given to Ares , son of Zeus and god of war ; Phosphoros was ruled by Aphrodite , the goddess of love ; and Hermes , messenger of the gods and god of learning and wit , ruled over Stilbon . The Greek practice of grafting of their gods ' names onto the planets was almost certainly borrowed from the Babylonians . The Babylonians named Phosphoros after their goddess of love , Ishtar ; Pyroeis after their god of war , Nergal , Stilbon after their god of wisdom Nabu , and Phaethon after their chief god , Marduk . There are too many concordances between Greek and Babylonian naming conventions for them to have arisen separately . The translation was not perfect . For instance , the Babylonian Nergal was a god of war , and thus the Greeks identified him with Ares . Unlike Ares , Nergal was also god of pestilence and the underworld . Today , most people in the western world know the planets by names derived from the Olympian pantheon of gods . Although modern Greeks still use their ancient names for the planets , other European languages , because of the influence of the Roman Empire and , later , the Catholic Church , use the Roman ( Latin ) names rather than the Greek ones . The Romans , who , like the Greeks , were Indo-Europeans , shared with them a common pantheon under different names but lacked the rich narrative traditions that Greek poetic culture had given their gods . During the later period of the Roman Republic , Roman writers borrowed much of the Greek narratives and applied them to their own pantheon , to the point where they became virtually indistinguishable . When the Romans studied Greek astronomy , they gave the planets their own gods ' names : Mercurius ( for Hermes ) , Venus ( Aphrodite ) , Mars ( Ares ) , Iuppiter ( Zeus ) and Saturnus ( Cronus ) . When subsequent planets were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries , the naming practice was retained with Neptūnus ( Poseidon ) . Uranus is unique in that it is named for a Greek deity rather than his Roman counterpart . Some Romans , following a belief possibly originating in Mesopotamia but developed in Hellenistic Egypt , believed that the seven gods after whom the planets were named took hourly shifts in looking after affairs on Earth . The order of shifts went Saturn , Jupiter , Mars , Sun , Venus , Mercury , Moon ( from the farthest to the closest planet ) . Therefore , the first day was started by Saturn ( 1st hour ) , second day by Sun ( 25th hour ) , followed by Moon ( 49th hour ) , Mars , Mercury , Jupiter and Venus . Because each day was named by the god that started it , this is also the order of the days of the week in the Roman calendar after the Nundinal cycle was rejected – and still preserved in many modern languages . In English , Saturday , Sunday , and Monday are straightforward translations of these Roman names . The other days were renamed after Tiw ( Tuesday ) , Wóden ( Wednesday ) , Thunor ( Thursday ) , and Fríge ( Friday ) , the Anglo-Saxon gods considered similar or equivalent to Mars , Mercury , Jupiter , and Venus , respectively . Earth is the only planet whose name in English is not derived from Greco-Roman mythology . Because it was only generally accepted as a planet in the 17th century , there is no tradition of naming it after a god . ( The same is true , in English at least , of the Sun and the Moon , though they are no longer generally considered planets . ) The name originates from the 8th century Anglo-Saxon word erda , which means ground or soil and was first used in writing as the name of the sphere of Earth perhaps around 1300 . As with its equivalents in the other Germanic languages , it derives ultimately from the Proto-Germanic word ertho , `` ground '' , as can be seen in the English earth , the German Erde , the Dutch aarde , and the Scandinavian jord . Many of the Romance languages retain the old Roman word terra ( or some variation of it ) that was used with the meaning of `` dry land '' as opposed to `` sea '' . The non-Romance languages use their own native words . The Greeks retain their original name , Γή ( Ge ) . Non-European cultures use other planetary-naming systems . India uses a system based on the Navagraha , which incorporates the seven traditional planets ( Surya for the Sun , Chandra for the Moon , and Budha , Shukra , Mangala , Bṛhaspati| and Shani for Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn ) and the ascending and descending lunar nodes Rahu and Ketu . China and the countries of eastern Asia historically subject to Chinese cultural influence

dpql_5268--Planet.txt

Which planet did Gustav Holst describe as the ‘Winged Messenger’?

The cuisine of South Africa can be generalised as : * Cookery practised by indigenous people of Africa such as the Sotho- and Nguni-speaking people . * Cookery that emerged from several waves of colonisation and immigration introduced during the colonial period by white European people of Dutch ( since 1652 ) , German , French , Italian , Greek and British ( since 1805~1820 ) descent and their Indo-Asian slaves or servants – this includes the cuisine of the so-called Cape Malay people , which has many characteristics of Indonesia and cooking styles from neighbouring colonial cultures such as Portuguese Mozambique . Indigenous cookery In the precolonial period , indigenous cuisine was characterised by the use of a very wide range of foods including fruits , nuts , bulbs , leaves and other products gathered from wild plants and by the hunting of wild game . The introduction of domestic cattle and grain crops by Bantu speakers who arrived in the southern regions from central Africa since 10,000 BC and the spread of cattle keeping to Khoisan groups enabled products and the availability of fresh meat on demand . The pre-colonial diet consisted primarily of cooked grains , especially sorghum , fermented milk ( somewhat like yogurt ) and roasted or stewed meat . At some point , maize replaced sorghum as the primary grain , and there is some dispute as to whether maize , a Central American crop , arrived with European settlers ( notably the Portuguese ) or spread through Africa before white settlement via Africans returning from the Americas during the era of the slave trade . People also kept sheep and goats , and communities often organised vast hunts for the abundant game ; but beef was considered the absolutely most important and high status meat . The ribs of any cattle that were slaughtered in many communities were so prized that they were offered to the chief of the village . In many ways , the daily food of South African families can be traced to the indigenous foods that their ancestors ate . A typical meal in a South African family household that is Bantu-speaking is a stiff , fluffy porridge of maize meal ( called `` pap , '' and very similar to American grits ) with a flavourful stewed meat gravy . Traditional rural families ( and many urban ones ) often ferment their pap for a few days – especially if it is sorghum instead of maize – which gives it a tangy flavor . The Sotho-Tswana call this fermented pap , `` ting . '' The vegetable is often some sort of pumpkin , varieties of which are indigenous to South Africa , although now many people eat pumpkins that originated in other countries . Rice and beans are also very popular even though they are not indigenous . Another common vegetable dish , which arrived in South Africa with its many Irish immigrants , but which has been adopted by South Africans , is shredded cabbage and white potatoes cooked with butter . For many South Africans meat is the centre of any meal . The Khoisan ate roasted meat , and they also dried meat for later use . The influence of their diet is reflected in the common Southern African love of barbecue ( generally called in South Africa by its Afrikaans name , a `` braai '' ) and biltong ( dried preserved meat ) . As in the past , when men kept cattle as their prized possession in the rural areas , South Africans have a preference for beef . Today , South Africans enjoy not only beef , but mutton , goat , chicken and other meats as a centrepiece of a meal . On weekends , many South African families have a `` braai , '' and the meal usually consists of `` pap and vleis '' , which is maize meal and grilled meat . Eating meat even has a ritual significance in both traditional and modern South African culture . In Bantu culture , for weddings , initiations , the arrival of family members after a long trip and other special occasions , families will buy a live animal and slaughter it at home , and then prepare a large meal for the community or neighbourhood . Participants often say that spilling the blood of the animal on the ground pleases the ancestors who invisibly gather around the carcass . On holiday weekends , entrepreneurs will set up pens of live animals along the main roads of townships—mostly sheep and goats—for families to purchase , slaughter , cook and eat . Beef being the most prized meat , for weddings , affluent families often purchase a live steer for slaughter at home . Vegetarianism is generally met with puzzlement among Black South Africans , although most meals are served with vegetables such as pumpkin , beans and cabbage . Decline of indigenous cookery Urbanisation from the nineteenth century onward , coupled with close control over agricultural production , led Black South Africans to rely more and more on comparatively expensive , industrially-processed foodstuffs like wheat flour , white rice , mealie-meal ( maize ) and sugar . Before the arrival of crops from the Americas , pap was mostly made from sorghum , but maize is much more prevalent today . Often these foods were imported or processed by white wholesalers , mills and factories . The consequence was to drastically restrict the range of ingredients and cooking styles used by indigenous cooks . On the other hand , some imported food plants ( maize , tomatoes ) have expanded the dietary range of indigenous cooks . Of these maize is the most significant – it has been integrated to such an extent into the traditional diet that it is often assumed to be an indigenous plant . Popular foods in modern South Africa are chicken , limes , garlic , ginger , chilli , tomatoes , onions and many spices . Settler cookery Huguenots brought wines as well as their traditional recipes . During the pioneering days of the 17th century , new foods such as biltong , droëwors ( dried sausage ) and rusks evolved locally out of necessity . Cape Dutch A very distinctive regional style of South African cooking is often referred to as `` Cape Dutch '' . This cuisine is characterised by the use of spices such as nutmeg , allspice and chili peppers . The Cape Dutch cookery style owes at least as much to the cookery of the slaves brought by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape from Bengal , Java and Malaysia as it does to the European styles of cookery imported by settlers from the Netherlands , and this is reflected in the use of eastern spices and the names given to many of these dishes . The Cape Malay influence has brought spicy curries , sambals , pickled fish , and variety of fish stews . Bobotie is a South African dish that has Cape Malay origins . It consists of spiced minced meat baked with an egg-based topping . Of the many dishes common to South Africa , bobotie is perhaps closest to being the national dish , because it is n't commonly found in any other country . The recipe originates from the Dutch East India Company colonies in Batavia , with the name derived from the Indonesian bobotok . It is also made with curry powder leaving it with a slight `` tang '' . It is often served with sambal , a hint of its origins from the Malay Archipelago . Indian cookery Curried dishes are popular with lemon juice in South Africa among people of all ethnic origins ; many dishes came to the country with the thousands of Indian labourers brought to South Africa in the nineteenth century . The Indians have introduced a different line of culinary practices , including a variety of sweets , chutneys , fried snacks such as samosa , and other savoury foods . Bunny chow , a dish from Durban ( which has a large Indian community ) consisting of a hollowed-out loaf of bread filled with curry , has adapted into mainstream South African cuisine and has become quite popular . Beverages Beer has been an important beverage in South Africa for hundreds of years among indigenous people long before colonisation and the arrival of Europeans with their own beer drinking traditions . Traditional beer was brewed from local grains , especially sorghum . Beer was so prized that it became central to many ceremonies , like betrothals and weddings , in which one family ceremoniously offered beer to the other family . Unlike European beer , South African traditional beer was unfiltered and cloudy and had a low alcohol content . Around the turn of the centuries , when white owned industry began studying malnutrition among urban workers , it was discovered that traditional beer provided crucial vitamins sometimes not available in the grain heavy traditional diet and even less available in urban industrial slums . When South Africa 's mines were developed and Black South Africans began to urbanise , women moved to the city also , and began to brew beer for the predominantly male labour force – a labour force that was mostly either single or who had left their wives back in the rural areas under the migrant labour system . That tradition of urban women making beer for the labour force persists in South Africa to the extent that informal bars and taverns ( shebeens ) are typically owned by women ( shebeen queens ) . Today , most urban dwellers buy beer manufactured by industrial breweries that make beer that is like beer one would buy in Europe and America , but rural people and recent immigrants to the city still enjoy the cloudy , unfiltered traditional beer . Compared to an American , Korean or western European diet , milk and milk products are very prominent in the traditional Black South African diet . As cows were considered extremely desirable domestic animals in precolonial times , milk was abundant . In the absence of refrigeration , various kinds of soured milk , somewhat like yogurt , were a dietary mainstay . A visitor to any African village in the 1800s would have been offered a large calabash of cool fermented milk as a greeting . Because milk cows allowed women to wean their children early and become fertile more quickly , local cultures had a number of sayings connecting cattle , milk and population growth , such as the Sotho-Tswana saying , `` cattle beget children . '' Today , in the dairy section of South Africa 's supermarkets , one will find a variety of kinds of milk , sour milk , sour cream , and other modern versions of traditional milk products . Restaurants and fast food outlets South Africa can be said to have a significant `` eating out '' culture . While there are some restaurants that specialise in traditional South African dishes or modern interpretations there of , restaurants featuring other cuisines such as Moroccan , Chinese , West African , Congolese , and Japanese can be found in all of the major cities and many of the larger towns . In addition , there are also a large number of home-grown chain restaurants , such as Spur and Dulce Cafe . There is also a proliferation of fast food restaurants in South Africa . While some international players such as Kentucky Fried Chicken and Wimpy are active in the country , they face stiff competition from local chains such as Nando 's , Galito 's , Steers , Chicken Licken , Barcelos , and King Pie . Many of the restaurant chains originating from South Africa have also expanded successfully outside the borders of the country . Typical South African foods and dishes * Amasi , sour milk * Biltong , a salty dried meat ( similar to jerky ) , although the meat used is often from different types of Antelope or other venison . * Biryani * Bobotie , a dish of Malay descent , is like meatloaf with raisins and with baked egg on top , and is often served with yellow rice , sambals , coconut , banana slices , and chutney . * Boeber , is a traditional Cape Malay sweet , milk drink , made with vermicelli , sago , sugar , and flavoured with cardamom , stick cinnamon and rose water . * Boerewors , a sausage that is traditionally braaied ( barbecued ) . * Bunny chow , curry stuffed into a hollowed-out loaf of bread . A bunny chow is called Kota by the locals . * Chakalaka , a spicy South African vegetable relish . * Chutney , or blatjang , a sweet sauce made from fruit that is usually poured on meat . * Frikkadelle – meatballs * Gatsby , food mainly popular in Cape Town , comes in the form of a long roll with fillings of anything ranging from polony to chicken or steak and hot chips . * Gesmoorde vis , salted cod or snoek with potatoes and tomatoes and sometimes served with apricot or moskonfyt ( grape must ) jam . * Hoenderpastei , chicken pie , traditional Afrikaans fare . * Isidudu , pumpkin pap * Koeksisters come in two forms and are a sweet delicacy . Afrikaans koeksisters are twisted pastries , deep-fried and heavily sweetened . Koeksisters found on the Cape Flats are sweet and spicy , shaped like large eggs , and deep-fried . * Kota , Skhambana , a quarter of a loaf of bread usually stuffed with Atchar , russians and chips . * Mafi sour milk , often consumed with pap or drank alone * Mageu , a drink made from fermented mealie pap . * Mala Mogodu , a local dish equivalent of tripe . The locals usually enjoy mala mogodu with hot pap and spinach * Malva pudding , a sweet spongy apricot pudding of Dutch origin . * Mashonzha , made from the mopane worm . * Melktert ( milk tart ) , a milk-based tart or dessert . * Melkkos ( milk food ) , another milk-based dessert . * Mealie-bread , a sweet bread baked with sweetcorn . * Mielie-meal , one of the staple foods , often used in baking but predominantly cooked into pap or phutu . * Monkey gland sauce * Ostrich is an increasingly popular protein source as it has a low cholesterol content ; it is either used in a stew or filleted and grilled . * Pampoenkoekies ( pumpkin fritters ) , flour has been supplemented with or replaced by pumpkin or sweet potato . * Potbrood ( pot bread or boerbrood ) , savoury bread baked over coals in cast-iron pots . * Potjiekos , a traditional Afrikaans stew , made with meat and vegetables and cooked over coals in cast-iron pots . * Rusks , a rectangular , hard , dry biscuit eaten after being dunked in tea or coffee ; they are either home-baked or shop-bought ( with the most popular brand being Ouma Rusks ) . * Samosa , or samoosa , is a savoury stuffed Indian pastry that is fried . * Samp and beans * Skilpadjies , lamb 's liver wrapped in netvet and braaied over hot coals . * Smagwinya , fat cakes * Smoked or braai'ed snoek , a regional gamefish . * Sosatie , kebab , grilled marinated meat on a skewer . * Tomato bredie , a lamb and tomato stew . * Trotters and Beans , from the Cape , made from boiled pig 's or sheep 's trotters and onions and beans . * Umngqusho , a dish made from white maize and sugar beans , a staple food for the Xhosa people . * Umphokoqo , an African salad made of maize meal . * Umqombothi , a type of beer made from fermented maize and sorghum . * Umvubo , sour milk mixed with dry pap , commonly eaten by the Xhosa . * Vetkoek ( fat cake , magwenya ) , deep-fried dough balls , typically stuffed with meat or served with snoek fish or jam . * Walkie Talkies , grilled or deep-fried chicken heads and feet , most popular in townships and sold by street vendors , sometimes in industrial areas with high concentrations of workers . * Waterblommetjie bredie ( water flower stew ) , meat stewed with the flower of the Cape Pondweed .

qb_9347--South_African_cuisine.txt

Bunny Chow, also known as Kota, is a fast-food dish consisting of a hollowed-out loaf filled with curry and is native to which country?

Capri ( ; ) is an island located in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the Sorrentine Peninsula , on the south side of the Gulf of Naples in the Campania region of Italy . The main town Capri that is located on the island shares the name . It has been a resort since the time of the Roman Republic . Some of the main features of the island include the following : the Marina Piccola ( the little harbour ) , the Belvedere of Tragara ( a high panoramic promenade lined with villas ) , the limestone crags called sea stacks that project above the sea ( the Faraglioni ) , the town of Anacapri , the Blue Grotto ( Grotta Azzurra ) , and the ruins of the Imperial Roman villas . Capri is part of the region of Campania , Province of Naples . The town of Capri is the island 's main population centre . The island has two harbours , Marina Piccola and Marina Grande ( the main port of the island ) . The separate comune of Anacapri is located high on the hills to the west . Etymology The etymology of the name Capri is unclear ; it might either be traced back to the Ancient Greeks ( Ancient Greek κάπρος kapros meaning `` wild boar '' ) , the first recorded colonists to populate the island . But it could also derive from Latin capreae ( goats ) . Fossils of wild boars have been discovered , lending credence to the `` kapros '' etymology ; on the other hand , the Romans called Capri `` goat island '' . Finally , there is also the possibility that the name derives from an Etruscan word for `` rocky '' , though any historical Etruscan rule of the island is disputed . Capri is a large , limestone and sandstone rock . The sides of the island are perpendicular cliffs and the surface of the island is composed of more cliffs . Government Edwin Cerio was mayor of Capri from 1920 to 1923 . Although he was only three years in office , his vision and policies had far-reaching impact on the nature and role of the government on the island . Italy is a Republic , thus Capri , as part of Italy , has adopted those same principles too . The voters of the island elect representatives for the two villages on the island . The chosen representatives then choose two mayors to govern with them . History Ancient and Roman times The city has been inhabited since early times . Evidence of human settlement was discovered during the Roman era ; according to Suetonius , when the foundations for the villa of Augustus were being excavated , giant bones and 'weapons of stone ' were discovered . The emperor ordered these to be displayed in the garden of his main residence , the Sea Palace . Modern excavations have shown that human presence on the island can be dated to the Neolithic and the Bronze Age . Augustus developed Capri ; he built temples , villas , aqueducts , and planted gardens so he could enjoy his private paradise . In his Aeneid , Virgil states that the island had been populated by the Greek people of Teleboi , coming from the Ionian Islands . Strabo says that `` in ancient times in Capri there were two towns , later reduced to one . '' Tacitus records that there were twelve Imperial villas in Capri . Ruins of one at Tragara could still be seen in the 19th century . Augustus ' successor Tiberius built a series of villas at Capri , the most famous of which is the Villa Jovis , one of the best-preserved Roman villas in Italy . In 27 AD , Tiberius permanently moved to Capri , running the Empire from there until his death in 37 AD . In 182 AD , Emperor Commodus banished his sister Lucilla to Capri . She was executed shortly afterwards . Middle and Modern Ages After the end of the Western Roman Empire , Capri returned to the status of a dominion of Naples , and suffered various attacks and ravages by pirates . In 866 Emperor Louis II gave the island to Amalfi . In 987 Pope John XV consecrated the first bishop of Capri , when Capri , Scala , Minori , and Lettere were made dioceses to serve as suffragans of Amalfi , which thereby became a metropolitan see . Capri continued to be a residential diocese until 1818 , when the island became part of the archdiocese of Sorrento . No longer a residential bishopric , Capri , Capreae in Latin , is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see . In 1496 Frederick IV of Naples established legal and administrative parity between the settlements of Capri and Anacapri . The pirate raids reached their peak during the reign of Charles V : the famous Turkish admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis captured the island in 1535 and 1553 for the Ottoman Empire , respectively . The first recorded tourist to visit the island was French antiques dealer Jean-Jacques Bouchard in the 17th century . His diary , found in 1850 , is an important information source about Capri . 1800s - present French troops under Napoleon occupied Capri in January 1806 . The British ousted the French in the following May , after which Capri was turned into a powerful naval base ( a `` Second Gibraltar '' ) , but the building program caused heavy damage to the archaeological sites . The French reconquered Capri in 1808 , and remained there until the end of the Napoleonic era ( 1815 ) , when Capri was returned to the Bourbon ruling house of Naples . The natural scientist Ignazio Cerio catalogued Capri 's flora and fauna during the 19th century . His work was continued by his son , author and engineer Edwin Cerio , who wrote several books on life in Capri in the 20th century . Prior to the First World War the island was extremely popular with wealthy gay men . John Ellingham Brooks and E.F. Benson shared a villa there . Norman Douglas , Friedrich Alfred Krupp , Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen , Christian Wilhelm Allers , Emil von Behring , Curzio Malaparte , Axel Munthe , and Maxim Gorky are all reported to have owned a villa there , or to have stayed there for more than three months . Swedish Queen Victoria often stayed there . Rose O'Neill , the American illustrator and creator of the Kewpie , owned the Villa Narcissus , formerly owned by the famous Beaux-Arts painter Charles Caryl Coleman . Dame Gracie Fields also had a villa on the island . Mariah Carey owns a villa on the island . In 1908 Lenin was hosted by Maxim Gorky , the Russian author , at his house near the Giardini Augusto . In 1970 a monument by Giacomo Manzù was erected during the centennial celebration in Lenin 's honour . Today , Capri has become more of a resort and is visited by tourists during the summer months of July and August . Capri in art and literature During the later half of the 19th century , Capri became a popular resort for European artists , writers and other celebrities . The book that spawned the 19th century fascination with Capri in France , Germany , and England was Entdeckung der blauen Grotte auf der Insel Capri , 'Discovery of the Blue Grotto on the Isle of Capri ' , by the German painter and writer August Kopisch , in which he describes his 1826 stay on the island and his ( re ) discovery of the Blue Grotto . John Singer Sargent and Frank Hyde are among the prominent artists who stayed on the island around the late 1870s . Sargent is known for his series of portraits featuring local model Rosina Ferrara . The English artist and adventurer , John Wood Shortridge acquired a fortino at Marina Piccola there in the 1880s , ( later transformed into a private villa by Dame Gracie Fields ) and married a Capri girl , Carmela Esposito . He formed a close friendship with the English novelist George Gissing who provides a colourful and insightful account of his stays with Shortridge in his 'Published Letters of George Gissing . ' In the Gissing Journal , vol . XXXV , no . 3 ( July , 1999 ) , p. 2. it is recorded that the only mention of him in a recent book , albeit partially inaccurate , occurs in James Money 's `` Capri : Island of Pleasure '' ( London : Hamish Hamilton , 1986 , p. 42 ) . Claude Debussy refers to the island 's hills in the title of his impressionistic prélude Les collines d'Anacapri ( 1910 ) . Capri is the setting for `` The Lotus Eater '' ( 1945 ) , a short story by Somerset Maugham . In the story , the protagonist from Hendon , part of the borough of Barnet , in London , comes to Capri on a holiday and is so enchanted by the place he gives up his job and decides to spend the rest of his life in leisure there . British novelist Compton Mackenzie lived there from 1913 to 1920 , with later visits , and set some of his work on the island , e.g . Vestal Fire ( 1927 ) . As well as being a haven for writers and artists , Capri served as a relatively safe place for foreign gay men and lesbians to lead a more open life ; a small nucleus of them were attracted to live there , overlapping to some extent with the creative types mentioned above . Poet August von Platen-Hallermünde was one of the first . Jacques d'Adelswärd-Fersen wrote the roman à clef Et le feu s ’ éteignit sur la mer ( 1910 ) about Capri and its residents in the early 20th century , causing a minor scandal . Fersen 's life on Capri became the subject of Roger Peyrefitte 's fictionalised biography , L'Exilé de Capri . A satirical presentation of the island 's lesbian colony is made in Mackenzie 's 1928 novel Extraordinary Women ( unrelated to the Dominican film of the same name ) , inspired by the affairs of American painter Romaine Brooks ( in the novel , under the pseudonym of Olimpia Leigh ) . One of the island 's most famous foreign gay exiles was Norman Douglas ; his novel South Wind ( 1917 ) is a thinly fictionalised description of Capri 's residents and visitors , and a number of his other works , both books and pamphlets , deal with the island , including Capri ( 1930 ) and his last work , A Footnote on Capri ( 1952 ) . Memoirs set on Capri include Edwin Cerio 's Aria di Capri ( 1928 ) ( translated as That Capri Air ) , which contains a number of historical and biographical essays on the island , including a tribute to Norman Douglas ; The Story of San Michele ( 1929 ) by Swedish royal physician Axel Munthe ( 1857–1949 ) , who built a villa of that name and Shirley Hazzard 's Greene on Capri : A Memoir ( 2000 ) , about her reminiscences of Graham Greene . Graham Greene had a house in the town of Anacapri , the upper portion of the island , where he lived with his lover Catherine Walston . The Last Legion , a historical fantasy novel by Valerio Massimo Manfredi , is partly set on the island of Capri , where Romulus is imprisoned after a failed rescue attempt in Ravenna by Aurelianus . Romulus discovers the sword of Julius Caesar hidden in one of Tiberius 's villas , which is revealed at the end of the novel to be the legendary sword Excalibur . Parts of the 2007 film adaptation were subsequently filmed on the island . French singer Hervé Vilard scored a 1965 international success with the song `` Capri c'est fini '' . Main sights File : Capri sights.png|A clickable map showing some of the most important sights on Capri . ( Use icon on the right to enlarge . ) |720px|center|thumb rect 49 952 212 1050 Punta Carena Lighthouse rect 701 575 898 725 Monte Solaro rect 1157 562 1325 636 Via Krupp rect 1599 396 1768 497 Arco Naturale rect 1627 101 1789 182 Villa Lysis rect 1772 174 1897 249 Villa Jovis rect 1553 765 1731 866 Faraglioni rect 774 206 983 286 Villa San Michele rect 236 42 408 128 Blue Grotto rect 270 682 466 881 Capri Philosophical Park rect 1725 544 1910 663 Villa Malaparte rect 1346 552 1551 618 Certosa di San Giacomo rect 475 246 765 518 Anacapri rect 1338 500 1514 554 Capri ( town ) rect 1287 429 1462 501 Piazzetta rect 1191 185 1446 299 Marina Grande rect 1101 644 1307 699 Marina Piccola rect 1151 499 1318 561 Gardens of Augustus rect 294 552 483 671 Torre Materita # the following entries do not yet have articles : # rect 129 128 344 211 Villa Damecuta # rect 827 90 1007 180 Bagni di Tiberio # rect 1568 523 1710 643 Monte Tuoro # rect 1335 309 1537 422 Monte San Michele # rect 771 369 937 511 Monte Cappello # rect 1793 66 1990 171 Monte Tiberio Annual events * Capri Art Film Festival ( every April since 2006 ) * Festival of San Costanzo ( Capri patron saint ) – May 14 * Festival of Sant ’ Antonio ( Anacapri patron saint ) – June 13 * Capri Tango Festival ( every June since 2007 ) * International Folklore Festival ( Anacapri ) – August * Settembrata Anacaprese ( Anacapri harvest festival ) – September * Capri International Film Festival ( every late December/early January since 1995 ) * Capri Hollywood * Eventi Villa San Michele * Premio San Michele * Premio Faraglioni * Premio Cari dell Enigma * Maraton del Golfo Capri Tourism Capri is a tourist destination for both Italians and foreigners . In the 1950s Capri became a popular resort . In summer , the island is heavily visited by tourists , especially by day trippers from Naples and Sorrento . Many of these visitors make it a point to wear the pants named after the destination . The center of Capri is the Piazza . Capri is home to the Mediterranean bush , the Arboreal Euphorbia , and the Ilex Wood . The native inhabitants on the island include quails , robins , peregrine falcons , woodcocks , blackbirds , geckos , red goldfish , conger eels , sargos , groupers , mullets , and the blue lizard of the Faraglioni . Capri has twelve churches , seven museums and several monuments . The most visited attraction in Capri is the Grotta Azzurra ( Blue Grotto ) . It is a special cave , discovered in the 19th century by foreign tourists and has been a phenomenon ever since . On one side of the grotto are the remains of ancient Roman rock , with a narrow cavern . Transport There are no cars on the main part of Capri . Capri is served by ferry or hydrofoil from Naples , Sorrento , Positano or Amalfi as well as by boat services from the ports of the Bay of Naples and the Sorrentine Peninsula . Boats arrive in the morning and leave after lunch ( 3–4 pm ) . Naples is served by two ports , Mergellina and Molo Beverello . Molo Beverello has a higher frequency of departures and a larger selection of boats than Mergellina . From Naples , the ferry takes 80 minutes , and the hydrofoil 40 minutes . From Sorrento , the ferry takes about 40 minutes while the hydrofoil takes about 20 minutes . Boats call at Marina Grande , from where a funicular goes up to Capri town . From Anacapri , a chair lift takes passengers to Monte Solaro , the highest point on the island . Airports The nearest airports are : * Napoli-Capodichino ( NAP ) * Salerno-Pontecagnano ( QSR ) International relations Twin towns – Sister cities Capri is twinned with : * Crosby , Merseyside , United Kingdom Image gallery File : Capri island.JPG|Capri from the sea File : Theodore Robinson - Capri.jpg|Theodore Robinson : Capri ( 1890 ) File : Anacapri BW 2013-05-14 13-55-21.jpg|Overlooking Capri harbour from the rotunda in Villa San Michele File : Campania Capri1 tango7174.jpg|View from Monte Solaro File : Capri skaly Faraglione.JPG|Faraglione File : Capri Biala Grota.JPG| Grotta Meravigliosa File : Arco Naturale.jpg|Natural arch File : Certosa di San Giacomo , Capri.jpg|San Giacomo File : Capri BW 2013-05-14 15-33-40 DxO.jpg|View from August´s Garden File : Capri widok na zatoke.jpg|Marina Piccola from August 's Garden File : Campania Capri6 tango7174.jpg|Marina Piccola viewed toward the Faraglioni File : Capri Monte Tiberio.JPG|Monte Tiberio File : Capri BW 2013-05-14 16-36-00.jpg|Il Funiculare from Marina Grande to Capri File : Anacapri BW 2013-05-14 13-32-36.jpg|Capri File : Capri BW 2013-05-14 15-19-56 DxO.jpg|Capri File : capri.general.view.arp.jpg|The funicular railway cuts across the picture , on the left File : CaprixTermini.jpg|Capri at sunset , from the tip of the peninsula of Sorrento File : Anacapri view.jpg|Overlooking the island from Anacapri File : Coleman - In the Shade of the Vines , Capri ( 1898 ) .jpg|Charles Caryl Coleman : In the Shade of the Vines , Capri ( 1898 ) File : Capri BW 2013-05-14 09-29-12.jpg|A pier in Capri File:2014-09-01 War memorial , Capri , Italy.png|War memorial

sfq_22405--Capri.txt

The Isle of Capri is close to which Italian resort?

Anna Wintour , OBE ( ; born 3 November 1949 ) is a British journalist and editor . She has been editor-in-chief of Vogue since 1988 . In 2013 , she became artistic director for Condé Nast , Vogue 's publisher . With her trademark pageboy bob haircut and dark sunglasses , Wintour has become an important figure in much of the fashion world , widely praised for her eye for fashion trends and her support for younger designers . Her reportedly aloof and demanding personality has earned her the nickname `` Nuclear Wintour '' . She is the eldest daughter of Charles Wintour , who was editor of the London Evening Standard from 1959 to 1976 . Her father consulted her on how to make the newspaper relevant to the youth of the era . Anna became interested in fashion as a teenager . Her career in fashion journalism began at two British magazines . Later , she moved to the United States , with stints at New York and House & Garden . She returned home for a year to turn around British Vogue , and later assumed control of the franchise 's magazine in New York , reviving what many saw as a stagnating publication . Her use of the magazine to shape the fashion industry has been the subject of debate within it . Animal rights activists have attacked her for promoting fur , while other critics have charged her with using the magazine to promote elitist views of femininity and beauty . A former personal assistant , Lauren Weisberger , wrote the 2003 best selling roman à clef The Devil Wears Prada , later made into a successful film starring Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly , a fashion editor , believed to be based on Wintour . In 2009 , she was the focus of another film , R.J. Cutler 's documentary The September Issue . Family Wintour was born in London , in 1949 , to Charles Wintour ( 1917–1999 ) , editor of the Evening Standard , and Eleanor `` Nonie '' Trego Baker ( 1917-1995 ) , daughter of a Harvard law professor . Her parents married in 1940 and divorced in 1979 . Wintour was named after her maternal grandmother , Anna Baker ( born Gilkynson ) , a merchant 's daughter from Pennsylvania . Audrey Slaughter , a magazine editor who founded publications such as Honey and Petticoat , is her stepmother . The late-18th-century novelist Lady Elizabeth Foster , Duchess of Devonshire , was Wintour 's great-great-great-grandmother , and Sir Augustus Vere Foster , the last Baronet of that name , was a granduncle . She had four siblings . Her older brother , Gerald , died in a traffic accident as a child . One of her younger brothers , Patrick , is also a journalist , currently political editor of The Guardian . James and Nora Wintour have worked in London local government and for international non-governmental organisations respectively . Early life In her youth , Wintour was educated at the independent North London Collegiate School , where she frequently rebelled against the dress code by taking up the hemlines of her skirts . At the age of 14 , she began wearing her hair in a bob . She developed an interest in fashion as a regular viewer of Cathy McGowan on Ready Steady Go ! , and from the issues of Seventeen her grandmother sent from America . `` Growing up in London in the '60s , you 'd have to have had Irving Penn 's sack over your head not to know something extraordinary was happening in fashion , '' she recalled . Her father regularly consulted her when he was considering ideas for increasing readership in the youth market . At the age of 15 , she began dating well-connected older men . She was involved briefly with Piers Paul Read , then 24 . In her later teens , she and gossip columnist Nigel Dempster became a fixture on the London club circuit . Career From fashion to journalism `` I think my father really decided for me that I should work in fashion , '' she recalled in The September Issue . He arranged for his daughter 's first job , at the influential Biba boutique , when she was 15 . The next year , she left North London Collegiate and began a training program at Harrods . At her parents ' behest , she also took fashion classes at a nearby school . Soon she gave them up , saying , `` You either know fashion or you do n't . '' Another older boyfriend , Richard Neville , gave her her first experience of magazine production at his popular and controversial Oz . In 1970 , when Harper 's Bazaar UK merged with Queen to become Harper 's & Queen , Wintour was hired as one of its first editorial assistants , beginning her career in fashion journalism . She told her co-workers that she wanted to edit Vogue . While there , she discovered model Annabel Hodin , a former North London classmate . Her connections helped her secure locations for innovative shoots by Helmut Newton , Jim Lee and other trend-setting photographers . One recreated the works of Renoir and Manet using models in go-go boots . After chronic disagreements with her rival , Min Hogg , she quit and moved to New York with her boyfriend , freelance journalist Jon Bradshaw . New York City In her new home , she became a junior fashion editor at Harper 's Bazaar in New York City in 1975 . Wintour 's innovative shoots led editor Tony Mazzola to fire her after nine months . She was introduced to Bob Marley by one of Bradshaw 's friends , and disappeared with him for a week . A few months later , Bradshaw helped her get her first position as a fashion editor , at Viva , a women 's adult magazine started by Kathy Keeton , then wife of Penthouse publisher Bob Guccione . She has rarely discussed working there , due to that connection . This was the first job at which she was able to hire a personal assistant , which began her reputation as a demanding and difficult boss . In late 1978 , Guccione shut down the unprofitable magazine . Wintour decided to take some time off from work . She broke up with Bradshaw and began a relationship with French record producer Michel Esteban , for two years dividing her time with him between Paris and New York . She returned to work in 1980 , succeeding Elsa Klensch as fashion editor for a new women 's magazine named Savvy . It sought to appeal to career-conscious professional women , who spent their own money , the readers Wintour would later target at Vogue . The following year , she became fashion editor of New York . There , the fashion spreads and photo shoots she had been putting together for years finally began attracting attention . Editor Edward Kosner sometimes bent very strict rules for her and let her work on other sections of the magazine . She learned through her work on a cover involving Rachel Ward how effectively celebrity covers sold copies . `` Anna saw the celebrity thing coming before everyone else did , '' Grace Coddington said three decades later . A former colleague arranged for an interview with Vogue editor Grace Mirabella that ended when Wintour told Mirabella she wanted her job . Condé Nast She went to work at Vogue later when Alex Liberman , editorial director for Condé Nast , publisher of Vogue , talked to Wintour about a position there in 1983 . She eventually accepted after a bidding war that doubled her salary , becoming the magazine 's first creative director , a position with vaguely defined responsibilities . Her changes to the magazine were often made without Mirabella 's knowledge , causing friction among the staff . She began dating child psychiatrist David Shaffer , an older acquaintance from London . They married in 1984 . In 1985 , Wintour attained her first editorship , taking over British Vogue after Beatrix Miller retired . Once in charge , she replaced many staffers and exerted far more control over the magazine than any previous editor had , earning the nickname `` Nuclear Wintour '' in the process . Those editors who were retained began to refer to the period as `` The Wintour of Our Discontent . '' Her changes moved the magazine from its traditional eccentricity to a direction more in line with the American magazine . Wintour 's ideal reader was the same woman Savvy had tried to reach . `` There 's a new kind of woman out there , '' she told the Evening Standard . `` She 's interested in business and money . She does n't have time to shop anymore . She wants to know what and why and where and how . '' In 1987 , Wintour returned to New York to take over House & Garden . Its circulation had long lagged behind rival Architectural Digest , and Condé Nast hoped she could improve it . Again , she made radical changes to staff and look , canceling $ 2 million worth of photo spreads and articles in her first week . She put so much fashion in photo spreads that it became known as House & Garment , and enough celebrities that it was referred to as Vanity Chair , within the industry . Those changes worsened the magazine 's problems . When the title was shortened to just HG , many longtime subscribers thought they were getting a new magazine and put it aside for the real thing to arrive . Most of those subscriptions were eventually canceled , and while some fashion advertisers came over , most of the magazine 's traditional advertisers pulled out . Ten months later , she finally became editor of Vogue . Under Mirabella , it had become more focused on lifestyles as a whole and less on fashion . Industry insiders worried that it was losing ground to the recently introduced American edition of Elle . After making sweeping changes in staff , Wintour also changed the style of the cover pictures . Mirabella had preferred tight head shots of well-known models in studios ; Wintour 's covers showed more of the body and were taken outside , like those Diana Vreeland had done years earlier . She used less well-known models , and mixed inexpensive clothes with the high fashion : the first issue she was in charge of , November 1988 , featured a Peter Lindbergh photograph of 19-year-old Michaela Bercu in a $ 50 pair of faded jeans and a bejeweled jacket by Christian Lacroix worth $ 10,000 . It was the first time a Vogue cover model had worn jeans ( Bercu was originally supposed to have worn the skirt that coordinated with the jacket , but she had gained some weight and it did n't fit ) . In 2012 , Wintour reflected on the cover : Years later , Wintour admitted the photo had never been planned as the cover shot . In 2011 , when Vogue put its entire archive online , Wintour was quoted as saying , `` I just said , 'Well , let 's just try this . ' And off we went . It was just very natural . To me it just said , 'This is something new . This is something different . ' The printers called to make sure that was supposed to be the cover , as they thought a mistake might have been made . '' In 2015 she said if she had to pick a favorite of her covers , it would be that one . `` [ I ] t was a leap of faith and it was certainly a big change for Vogue . '' `` Wintour 's approach hit a nerve—this was the way real women put clothes together ( with the likely exception of wearing multi-thousand-dollar T-shirts ) , '' one reviewer says . On the June 1989 cover , another model was shown in wet hair , with just a bathrobe and no apparent makeup . Photographers , makeup artists , and hairstylists got credited along with the models . In August 2014 , Gigi Hadid paid tribute to Wintour 's first cover . 1990s Under her editorship , the magazine renewed its focus on fashion and returned to the prominence it had held under Vreeland . Vogue held its position as market leader against three contenders : Elle ; Harper 's Bazaar , which had lured away Liz Tilberis , Wintour 's most prominent deputy , and Mirabella , a magazine Rupert Murdoch created for Wintour 's fired predecessor . Her most serious competitor was within the company : Tina Brown , editor of Vanity Fair and later The New Yorker . At the end of the decade , another of Wintour 's inner circle left to run Harper 's Bazaar . Kate Betts , seen as Wintour 's likely successor , had broadened the magazine 's reach by commissioning stories with a more hard-news edge , about women in politics , street culture , and the financial difficulties of some major designers . She had also added the `` Index '' section , a few pages of tips meant to be torn out of the magazine . At staff meetings , she earned Wintour 's respect as the only person who publicly challenged her . The two began to disagree about the magazine 's direction . Betts felt Vogue 's fashion coverage was getting too limited . Wintour in turn thought that the stories with popular culture angles Betts was assigning were beneath readers , and began pairing Betts with Plum Sykes , whom Betts reportedly detested as a `` pretentious airhead . '' Eventually , she left , complaining to the New York Times that Wintour had not even sent her a baby gift . Wintour wrote an editor 's letter that complimented Betts and wished her well . 2000s Betts was one of several longtime editors to leave Vogue around the new millennium . A year later , Sykes , another putative successor , left to concentrate on her best-selling novels set in the city 's upper classes and a screenplay . A number of other editors also left to assume the top jobs at other publications . While some of their replacements did n't last , a new group of core editors formed . The September 2004 issue was 832 pages , the largest issue of a monthly magazine ever published at that time , since exceeded by the September 2007 issue Cutler 's documentary covered . Wintour also oversaw the introduction of three spinoffs : Teen Vogue , Vogue Living and Men 's Vogue . Teen Vogue has published more ad pages and earned more advertiser revenue than either Elle Girl and Cosmo Girl , and the 164 ad pages in the début issue of Men 's Vogue were the most for a first issue in Condé Nast history . AdAge named her `` Editor of the Year '' for this brand expansion . Queen Elizabeth II appointed her Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2008 Birthday Honours . That year was generally difficult , as the economy worsened . After ruffling feathers at the Milan shows in February , the April issue 's cover image of LeBron James and Gisele Bündchen brought criticism for its evocation of racial stereotypes . The next month a lavish Karl Lagerfeld gown she wore to the Met 's Costume Institute Gala was called `` the worst fashion faux pas of 2008 . '' In the fall , Vogue Living was suspended indefinitely , and Men 's Vogue cut back to two issues a year as an outsert or supplement to the women 's magazine . At the end of the year , December 's cover highlighted a disparaging comment Jennifer Aniston made about Angelina Jolie , to the former 's displeasure . It seemed Wintour had lost her touch . In 2008 , rumours arose that she would retire , and be replaced by French Vogue editor Carine Roitfeld . An editor at Russian GQ reportedly introduced Russian Vogue editor Aliona Doletskaya as the next editor of American Vogue . Condé Nast responded by taking out a full-page ad in The New York Times defending her record . In that same publication , Cathy Horyn later wrote that while Wintour had n't lost her touch , the magazine had become `` stale and predictable , '' as a reader had recently complained . `` To read Vogue in recent years is to wonder about the peculiar fascination for the 'villa in Tuscany ' story , '' Horyn added . The magazine also dealt awkwardly with the recession , she commented . In 2009 , Wintour began making more media appearances . On a 60 Minutes profile , she said she would not retire . `` To me this is a really interesting time to be in this position and I think it would be in a way irresponsible not to put my best foot forward and lead us into a different time . '' In September , The September Issue , a documentary film by The War Room producer R.J. Cutler about the production of the September 2007 issue , was released . It focused on the sometimes-difficult relationship between Wintour and creative director Grace Coddington . She appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote it , defending the relevance of fashion in a tough economy . The American Society of Magazine Editors elected her to its Hall of Fame in 2010 . 2010s In 2013 , Condé Nast announced she would be taking on the position of artistic director for the company 's magazines while remaining at Vogue . She assumed some of the responsibilities of Si Newhouse , the company 's longtime editorial director , who , in his mid-80s at the time , had begun moving from his role at Condé Nast to join the rest of his family in managing Advance Publications , its parent company . A company spokesman told The New York Times the position was created to keep Wintour . She described it as `` an extension of what I am doing , but on a broader scale . '' In January 2014 , the Metropolitan Museum of Art named its Costume Institute complex after Wintour ; First Lady Michelle Obama opened it in May of that year . Wintour starred in The Fashion Fund , which aired on Ovation TV that year as well ; she was also named the 39th most powerful woman in the world by Forbes . Fashion industry power broker Through the years , she has come to be regarded as one of the most powerful people in fashion , setting trends , and anointing new designers . Industry publicists often hear `` Do you want me to go to Anna with this ? '' when they have differences with her subordinates . The Guardian has called her the `` unofficial mayoress '' of New York City . She has encouraged fashion houses such as Christian Dior to hire younger , fresher designers such as John Galliano . Her influence extends outside fashion . She persuaded Donald Trump to let Marc Jacobs use a ballroom at the Plaza Hotel for a show when Jacobs and his partner were short of cash . More recently , she persuaded Brooks Brothers to hire the relatively unknown Thom Browne . A protégée at Vogue , Plum Sykes , became a successful novelist , drawing her settings from New York 's fashionable élite . Her salary was reported to be $ 2 million a year in 2005 . In addition , she receives several perks , such as a chauffeured Mercedes S-Class ( both in New York and abroad ) , a $ 200,000 shopping allowance , and the Coco Chanel Suite at the Hotel Ritz Paris while attending European fashion shows . Condé Nast president S. I. Newhouse also had the company make her an interest-free $ 1.6 million loan to purchase her townhouse in Greenwich Village . Personal life She had two children by David Shaffer following their 1984 marriage : Charles ( Charlie ) born 1985 , and Katherine ( known as Bee ) born 1987 . The latter wrote occasional columns for The Daily Telegraph in 2006 , but says she wo n't follow her mother into fashion . The couple divorced in 1999 . Newspapers and gossip columnists claimed her affair with investor Shelby Bryan ended the marriage . She declined to comment . Her friends say Bryan has mellowed her . `` She smiles now and has been seen to laugh , '' the Observer quoted one as saying . Wintour is also a philanthropist . She serves as a trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , where she has organised benefits that have raised $ 50 million for the museum 's Costume Institute . She began the CFDA/Vogue Fund in order to encourage , support and mentor unknown fashion designers . She has also raised over $ 10 million for AIDS charities since 1990 , by organising various high profile benefits . She claims to rise before 6 am , plays tennis and has her hair and makeup done , then gets to Vogues offices two hours later . She always arrives at fashion shows well before their scheduled start . `` I use the waiting time to make phone calls and notes ; I get some of my best ideas at the shows , '' she says . According to the BBC documentary series Boss Woman , she rarely stays at parties for more than 20 minutes at a time and gets to bed by 10:15 every night . She exerts a great deal of control over the magazine 's visual content . Since her first days as editor , she has required that photographers not begin until she has approved Polaroids of the setup and clothing . Afterwards , they must submit all their work to the magazine , not just their personal choices . Her control over the text is less certain . Her staffers claim she reads everything written for publication , but former editor Richard Story has claimed she rarely , if ever , read any of Vogues arts coverage or book reviews . Earlier in her career , she often left the task of writing the text accompanying her layouts to others ; former coworkers claim she has minimal skills in that area . Today , she writes little for the magazine save the monthly editor 's letter . She reportedly has three full-time assistants but sometimes surprises callers by answering the phone herself . She often turns her cell phone off in order to eat her lunch , usually a steak ( or bunless hamburger ) , undisturbed . High-protein meals have been a habit of hers for a long time . `` It was smoked salmon and scrambled eggs every single day '' for lunch , says a coworker at Harpers & Queen . `` She would eat nothing else . '' Personal fashion preferences Because of her position , Wintour 's wardrobe is often closely scrutinised and imitated . Earlier in her career , she mixed fashionable T-shirts and vests with designer jeans . When she started at Vogue as creative director she switched to Chanel suits with miniskirts . She continued to wear them during both pregnancies , opening the skirts slightly in back and keeping her jacket on to cover up . Wintour was listed as `` one of the fifty best-dressed over 50s '' by the Guardian in March 2013 . According to biographer Jerry Oppenheimer , her ubiquitous sunglasses are actually corrective lenses , since she suffers from deteriorating vision as her father did . A former colleague he interviewed recalls trying on her Wayfarers in her absence and getting dizzy . `` I think at this point they 've become , you know , really armour , '' Wintour herself told 60 Minutes correspondent Morley Safer , explaining that they allow her to keep her reactions to a show private . As she rebounded from the end of her marriage and the turnover in the magazine 's editorial staff , a fellow editor and friend noted that `` she 's not hiding behind her glasses anymore . Now she 's having fun again . '' Politics Wintour has been a supporter of the Democratic Party since Hillary Clinton 's 2000 Senate run and John Kerry 's 2004 presidential run and serving Barack Obama 's 2008 and 2012 presidential runs as a `` bundler '' of contributions . In 2008 and 2012 , she co-hosted fundraisers with Sarah Jessica Parker , the latter being a 50-person , $ 40,000-a-plate dinner at Parker 's West Village town house with Meryl Streep , Michael Kors , and Trey Laird , an advertising executive , among the attendees . She has also teamed with Calvin Klein and Harvey Weinstein on fundraisers during Obama 's first term and Donna Karan has been amongst the attendees . In 2013 when Vogue 's former director of communications stepped down , Wintour was rumoured to be looking to hire someone with a political background . Soon after , Wintour hired Hildy Kuryk , a former fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee and Obama 's first campaign.She also supported Hillary Clinton 's 2016 Presidential Campaign , forming part of Clinton 's long list of wealthy donators or `` Hillblazers '' . The Devil Wears Prada Lauren Weisberger , a former Wintour assistant who left Vogue for Departures along with Richard Story , wrote The Devil Wears Prada after a writing workshop he suggested she take . It was eagerly anticipated for its supposed insider portrait of Wintour prior to its publication . Wintour told The New York Times , `` I always enjoy a great piece of fiction . I have n't decided whether I am going to read it or not . '' While it has been suggested that the setting and Miranda Priestly were based on Vogue and Wintour , Weisberger claims she drew not only from her own experiences but those of her friends as well . Wintour herself makes a cameo appearance near the end of the book , Weisberger , 322 . `` Immediately I recognized Anna Wintour , looking absolutely ravishing in a cream-colored slip dress and beaded Manolo sandals . She was talking animatedly to a man I presumed to be her boyfriend , although her giant Chanel sunglasses prevented me from being able to tell if she was amused , indifferent or sobbing . The press loved to compare the antics and attitudes of Anna and Miranda , but I found it impossible to believe that anyone could be quite as unbearable as my boss . '' where it is said she and Miranda dislike each other . In the novel , Miranda has many similarities to Wintour—among them , she is British , has two children , and is described as a major contributor to the Met . Priestly is a tyrant ; who makes impossible demands of her subordinates , gives them almost none of the information or time necessary to comply and then berates them for their failures to do so.Weisberger , 145 . `` Ah yes . Mrs. Whitmore . I am a lucky girl indeed . I 'm so lucky , you have no idea . I ca n't tell you how lucky I felt when I was sent out to get tampons for my boss , only to be told that I 'd bought the wrong ones and asked why I do nothing right . And luck is probably the only way to explain why I get to sort another person 's sweat- and food-stained clothing each morning before eight and arrange to have it cleaned . Oh wait ! I think what actually makes me luckiest of all is getting to talk to breeders all over the tristate area for three straight weeks in search of the perfect French bulldog puppy so two incredibly spoiled and unfriendly little girls can each have their own pet . Yes , that 's it ! '' Betts , who had been fired by Harper 's after two years during which staffers said she tried too hard to emulate Wintour , reviewed it harshly in the New York Times Book Review : Priestly has some positive qualities . Andrea notes that she makes all the magazine 's key editorial decisions by herselfWeisberger , 208 . `` Miranda was

qb_6887--Anna_Wintour.txt

Who was declared Model of the Millennium by Vogue editor Anna Wintour?

Springfield is a city in western New England , and the seat of Hampden County , Massachusetts , in the United States . Springfield sits on the eastern bank of the Connecticut River near its confluence with three rivers : the western Westfield River , the eastern Chicopee River , and the eastern Mill River . As of the 2010 Census , the city 's population was 153,060 . Metropolitan Springfield , as one of two metropolitan areas in Massachusetts ( the other being Greater Boston ) , had an estimated population of 698,903 as of 2009 . The first Springfield in the New World , it is the largest city in Western New England , and the urban , economic , and cultural capital of Massachusetts ' Connecticut River Valley ( colloquially known as the Pioneer Valley ) . It is the third-largest city in Massachusetts and fourth-largest in New England , after Boston , Worcester , and Providence . Springfield has several nicknames – The City of Firsts , because of its many innovations ( see below for a partial list ) ; The City of Homes , due to its Victorian residential architecture ; and Hoop City , as basketball – one of the world 's most popular sports – was invented in Springfield by James Naismith . Hartford , the capital of Connecticut , lies south of Springfield , on the western bank of the Connecticut River . Bradley International Airport , which sits 12 mi south of Metro Center Springfield , is Hartford-Springfield 's airport . The Hartford-Springfield region is known as the Knowledge Corridor because it hosts over 160,000 university students and over 32 universities and liberal arts colleges – the second-highest concentration of higher-learning institutions in the United States . The city of Springfield itself is home to Springfield College ; Western New England University ; American International College ; and Springfield Technical Community College , among other higher educational institutions . History Springfield was founded in 1636 by English Puritan William Pynchon as `` Agawam Plantation '' under the administration of the Connecticut Colony . In 1641 it was renamed after Pynchon 's hometown of Springfield , Essex , England , following incidents that precipitated the settlement joining the Massachusetts Bay Colony . During its early existence , Springfield flourished as both an agricultural settlement and trading post , although its prosperity waned dramatically during ( and after ) King Philip 's War in 1675 , when natives laid siege to it and burned it to the ground . The original settlement – today 's downtown Springfield – was located atop bluffs at the confluence of four rivers , at the nexus of trade routes to Boston , Albany , New York City , and Montreal , and with some of the northeastern United States ' most fertile soil . In 1777 , Springfield 's location at numerous crossroads led George Washington and Henry Knox to establish the United States ' National Armory at Springfield , which produced the first American musket in 1794 , and later the famous Springfield rifle . From 1777 until its closing during the Vietnam War , the Springfield Armory attracted skilled laborers to Springfield , making it the United States ' longtime center for precision manufacturing . The near-capture of the U.S. Arsenal at Springfield during Shays Rebellion of 1787 led directly to the formation of the U.S . Constitutional Convention . During the 19th and 20th centuries , Springfielders produced many innovations , including the first American-English dictionary ( 1805 , Merriam Webster ) ; the first use of interchangeable parts and the assembly line in manufacturing , ( 1819 , Thomas Blanchard ; ) the first American horseless car , ( 1825 , Thomas Blanchard ; ) the discovery and patent of vulcanized rubber , ( 1844 , Charles Goodyear ; ) the first American gasoline-powered car , ( 1893 , Duryea Brothers ) ; the first successful motorcycle company , ( 1901 , `` Indian '' ) ; one of America 's first commercial radio stations , ( 1921 , WBZ , broadcast from the Hotel Kimball ) ; and most famously , the world 's second-most-popular sport , basketball , ( 1891 , Dr. James Naismith ) . Springfield underwent a protracted decline during the second half of the 20th century , due largely to the decommission of the Springfield Armory in 1969 ; poor city planning decisions , such as the location of the elevated I-91 along the city 's Connecticut Riverfront ; and overall decline of industry throughout the northeastern U.S. During the 1980s and 1990s , Springfield developed a national reputation for crime , political corruption and cronyism , which stands in stark contrast to the reputation it enjoyed throughout much of U.S. history . During early 21st century , Springfield sought to overcome its downgrade in reputation via long-term revitalization projects and undertook several large , but unfinished projects , including a $ 1 billion high-speed rail ( New Haven-Hartford-Springfield high-speed rail ; ) a proposed $ 1 billion MGM Casino ; and various other construction and revitalization projects . Geography Springfield is located at ( 42.112411 , −72.547455 ) . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of , of which is land and ( 3.31 % ) is water . Once nicknamed `` The City in a Forest , '' Springfield features over of urban parkland , ( which equals 12 % of its total land area . ) Located in the fertile Connecticut River Valley , surrounded by mountains , bluffs , and rolling hills in all cardinal directions , Springfield sits on the eastern bank of the Connecticut River , near its confluence with two major tributary rivers – the western Westfield River , which flows into the Connecticut opposite Springfield 's South End Bridge ; and the eastern Chicopee River , which flows into the Connecticut less than miles north of Springfield , in the city of Chicopee , ( which constituted one of Springfield 's most populous neighborhoods until it separated and became an independent municipality in 1852 . ) The Connecticut state-line sits only 4 mi south of Springfield , beside the wealthy suburb of Longmeadow , which itself separated from Springfield in 1783 . Springfield 's densely urban Metro Center district surrounding Main Street is relatively flat , and follows the north-south trajectory of the Connecticut River ; however , as one moves eastward , the city becomes increasingly hilly . Aside from its rivers , Springfield 's 2nd most prominent topographical feature is the city 's 735 acre Forest Park , designed by renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted . Forest Park lies in the southwestern corner of the city , surrounded by Springfield 's attractive garden districts , Forest Park and Forest Park Heights , which feature over 600 Victorian Painted Lady mansions . Forest Park also borders Western Massachusetts ' most affluent town , Longmeadow , Massachusetts . Springfield shares borders with other well-heeled suburbs such as East Longmeadow , Wilbraham , Ludlow and the de-industrializing city of Chicopee . The small cities of Agawam and West Springfield , Massachusetts lie less than a mile ( 1.6 km ) from Springfield 's Metro Center , across the Connecticut River . The City of Springfield also owns the Springfield Country Club , which is located in the autonomous city of West Springfield , Massachusetts , the latter of which separated from Springfield in 1774 . Climate Springfield , like other cities in southern New England , has a humid continental climate ( Köppen : Dfa ) with four distinct seasons and precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year . Winters are cold with a daily average in January of around 26 °F . During winter , nor'easter storms can drop significant snowfalls on Springfield and the Connecticut River Valley . Temperatures below 0 °F can occur each year , though the area does not experience the high snowfall amounts and blustery wind averages of nearby cities such as Worcester , Massachusetts and Albany , New York . Springfield 's summers are very warm and sometimes humid . During summer , several times per month , on hot days afternoon thunderstorms will develop when unstable warm air collides with approaching cold fronts . The daily average in July is around 74 °F . Usually several days during the summer exceed 90 °F , constituting a `` heat wave . '' Spring and fall temperatures are usually pleasant , with mild days and crisp , cool nights . Precipitation averages annually , and snowfall averages 49 in , most of which falls from mid-December to early March . Although not unheard of , extreme weather events like hurricanes and tornadoes occur infrequently in Springfield compared with other areas in the country . On the occasions that hurricanes have hit New England , Springfield 's inland , upriver location has caused its damages to be considerably less than shoreline cities like New Haven , Connecticut and Providence , Rhode Island . On June 1 , 2011 , Springfield was directly hit by the second-largest tornado ever to hit Massachusetts . With wind speeds exceeding 160 mph , the 2011 Springfield tornado left 4 dead , hundreds injured , and over 500 homeless in the City of Springfield alone . The tornado caused hundreds of millions of dollars worth of damage to Springfield and destroyed nearly everything in a 39 mi path from Westfield , Massachusetts to Charlton , Massachusetts . It was the first deadly tornado to strike Massachusetts since May 29 , 1995 . Neighborhoods The City of Springfield is divided into 17 distinct neighborhoods ; in alphabetical order , they are : * Bay – features Blunt Park . In terms of demographics , Bay is primarily African American . * Boston Road – features the Eastfield Mall . Primarily commercial in character , it features shopping plazas designed for automobile travel . * Brightwood – features numerous Baystate Health specialty buildings . Amputated from the rest of Springfield by the Interstate 91 elevated highway , academic suggestions are being made to reunite the neighborhood with the city . * East Forest Park – features Cathedral High School . Primarily upper-middle class residential in character . Borders East Longmeadow , Massachusetts . * East Springfield – features Smith & Wesson and the Performance Food Group . Residential and working-class in character . * Forest Park – features Frederick Law Olmsted 's renowned 735 acre Forest Park and the Forest Park Heights Historic District , ( established 1975 ) . Residential in character , featuring a commercial district at `` The X '' and an upper-class garden district surrounding Olmsted 's park . * Indian Orchard – features a well-defined Main Street and historic mill buildings that have become artists ' spaces . Formerly a suburb of Springfield , Indian Orchard developed separately as a milltown on the Chicopee River before joining Springfield . Primarily residential in character , Indian Orchard features Lake Lorraine State Park , Hubbard Park , and weekly farmers markets . * Liberty Heights – features Springfield 's three nationally ranked hospitals : Baystate Health , Mercy Medical , and Shriner 's Children 's Hospital . Primarily residential and medical in character , it features a demographically diverse population . Liberty Heights includes eclectic districts like Hungry Hill and Atwater Park , and Springfield 's 3rd largest park , Van Horn Park . * The McKnight Historic District – features the Knowledge Corridor 's largest array of historic , Victorian architecture , including over 900 Painted Ladies . Primarily residential in character , McKnight was the United States ' first planned residential neighborhood . McKnight 's commercial district is called Mason Square . Features American International College . In terms of demographics , McKnight features significant populations of African American and LGBT residents . * Memorial Square – features the North End 's commercial district . * Metro Center – features nearly all major cultural venues in the region . Commercial , cultural , civic , and increasingly residential in character . Features the Downtown Business District , The Club Quarter – with over 60 clubs , restaurants , and bars – numerous festivals , cultural institutions , educational institutions , and significant historic sites . * North End – not technically a Springfield neighborhood , but rather three northern Springfield neighborhoods . Includes Brightwood , which is residential and medical in character , but cut off from the rest of the city by Interstate 91 ; Memorial Square , which is commercial in character ; and Liberty Heights , which is medical and residential in character . In terms of demographics , the North End is predominantly Puerto Rican . * Old Hill – features Springfield College . Residential in character . Bordering Lake Massasoit . Old Hill is primarily Latino . * Pine Point – features the headquarters of MassMutual , a Fortune 100 company . Primarily middle-class and residential in character . * Six Corners – features Mulberry Street in the Ridgewood Historic District ( established 1977 ; ) the Lower Maple Historic District ( established 1977 ; ) and the Maple Hill Historic District , ( established 1977 ) . Urban and residential in character . * Sixteen Acres – features Western New England University and SABIS International School . Suburban in character . Includes much of Springfield 's post-World War II suburban architecture . * South End – features numerous Italian-American restaurants , festivals , and landmarks . Urban and commercial in character , this neighborhood was hard hit by the June 1 , 2011 tornado . Includes the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame ; however , it is separated from it by Interstate 91 . * Upper Hill – features Wesson Park . Bordering Lake Massasoit . Residential in character . Located between Springfield College and American International College . Demographics As of the 2010 Census , there were 153,060 people residing in the City of Springfield . This figure does not include many of the 17,000-plus undergraduate and graduate university students who reside in Springfield during the academic year . According to the 2010 Census , there were 61,706 housing units in Springfield , of which 56,752 were occupied . This was the highest average of home occupancy among the four , distinct Western New England metropolises , ( the other three being Hartford , New Haven , and Bridgeport , Connecticut . ) Also , as of 2010 , Springfield features the highest average home owner occupancy ratio among the four Western New England metropolises at 50 % – 73,232 Springfielders live in owner-occupied units , versus 74,111 in rental units . By comparison , as of the 2010 Census , New Haven features an owner occupancy rate of 31 % ; Hartford of 26 % ; and Bridgeport of 43 % . According to the 2010 Census , Springfield had a population of 153,060 , of which 72,573 ( 47.4 % ) were male and 80,487 ( 52.6 % ) were female . In terms of age , 73.0 % were over 18 years old and 10.9 % were over 65 years old ; the median age is 32.2 years . The median age for males is 30.2 years and 34.1 years for females . In terms of race and ethnicity , Springfield is 51.8 % White , 22.3 % Black or African American , 0.6 % American Indian and Alaska Native , 2.4 % Asian ( 1.2 % Vietnamese ) , 0.1 % Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander , 18.0 % from Some Other Race , and 4.7 % from Two or More Races ( 1.5 % White and Black or African American ; 1.0 % White and Some Other Race ) . Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 38.8 % of the population ( 33.2 % Puerto Rican ) . Non-Hispanic Whites were 36.7 % of the population in 2010 , down from 84.1 % in 1970 . Income Data is from the 2009–2013 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates . Economy Springfield 's Top Five Industries ( in order , by number of workers ) are : Trade and Transportation ; Education and Health Services ; Manufacturing ; Tourism and Hospitality ; and Government . Springfield is considered to have a `` mature economy , '' which protects the city to a degree during recessions and inhibits it somewhat during bubbles . Springfield is considered to have one of America 's top emerging multi-cultural markets – the city features a 33 % Latino population with buying power that has increased over 295 % from 1990 to 2006 . More than 60 % of Hispanic Springfielders have arrived during the past 20 years . With 25 universities and colleges within a 15 mi radius from Springfield , including several of America 's most prestigious universities and liberal arts colleges , and more than six institutions within the city itself , the Hartford-Springfield metropolitan area has been dubbed the Knowledge Corridor by regional educators , civic authorities , and businessmen – touting its 32 universities and liberal arts colleges , numerous highly regarded hospitals , and nearly 120,000 students . The Knowledge Corridor universities and colleges provide the region with an educated workforce , which yields a yearly GDP of over $ 100 billion – more than at least 16 U.S. States . Hartford-Springfield has become home to a number of biotech firms and high-speed computing centers . As of 2009 Springfield ranks as the 24th most important high-tech center in the United States with approximately 14,000 high-tech jobs . In 2010 , the median household income was $ 35,236 . Median income for the family was $ 51,110 . The per capita income was $ 16,863 . About 21.3 % of families and 26.8 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 40.0 % of those under age 18 and 17.5 % of those age 65 or over . Business headquarters The City of Springfield is the economic center of Western Massachusetts . It features the Pioneer Valley 's largest concentration of retail , manufacturing , entertainment , banking , legal , and medical groups . Springfield is home to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts ' largest Fortune 100 company , MassMutual Financial Group . It is also home to the world 's largest producer of handguns , Smith & Wesson , founded in 1852 . It is home to Merriam Webster , the first and most widely read American-English dictionary , founded in 1806 . It also serves as the headquarters of the professional American Hockey League , the NHL 's minor league , Peter Pan Bus , and Big Y Supermarkets , among other businesses . Springfield is also home to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts ' third largest employer , Baystate Health , with over 10,000 employees . Baystate is the western campus of Tufts University School of Medicine . Baystate Health is in the midst of a $ 300 million addition – nicknamed `` The Hospital of the Future , '' it is the largest construction project in New England . In addition to Baystate , Springfield features two other nationally ranked hospitals ; Mercy Medical , run by The Sisters of Providence , and Shriners Hospital for Children . Companies headquartered in Springfield * The American Hockey League – the primary development league for the NHL . * Baystate Health – Largest employer and healthcare provider in Western Massachusetts ; 3rd largest employer in Massachusetts , constructing the $ 300 million `` Hospital of the Future . '' * Big Y – a regional supermarket chain that was originally founded in nearby Chicopee , but is now headquartered in Springfield . Big Y operates more than 50 supermarkets throughout Massachusetts and Connecticut . * Breck Shampoo – Founded in Springfield in 1936 . * Fenton 's Athletic Supplies – Sporting goods provider founded in 1924 . * Hampden Bank – Founded in Springfield in 1852 . Headquartered in Springfield . * Health New England * Mutual Life Insurance Company – Founded in 1851 . MassMutual is the second largest Fortune 100 company based in Massachusetts ( 2010 list ) . The corporate headquarters are on State Street . * Merriam-Webster – Publisher of the original Webster Dictionary * NuVo Bank – Founded in 2008 . Headquartered in Springfield . * Peter Pan Bus Lines – Headquartered in Metro Center , Peter Pan will move its headquarters to Union Station upon its renovation in 2013 . * Smith & Wesson – Founded in 1852 , Smith & Wesson is America 's largest producer of handguns . The company maintains its corporate headquarters on Roosevelt Avenue in East Springfield . Companies formerly in Springfield * Forbes & Wallace – Regional department store , closed in 1974 * Friendly Ice Cream Corporation – Founded in Springfield , headquartered in the Springfield suburb of Wilbraham , Massachusetts . * Good Housekeeping Magazine – Founded in Springfield in 1885 . * Indian Motocycle Manufacturing Company – America 's first motorcycle brand , was founded by George M. Hendee and C. Oscar Hedström in Springfield in 1901 * Milton Bradley Company – American game company established in 1860 . Headquartered in Springfield until its relocation to suburban East Longmeadow , Massachusetts . * M-1 Rifle – productions started in 1919 * Monarch Insurance – went bankrupt while constructing Springfield 's tallest skyscraper , Monarch Place . * Rolls-Royce – Rolls-Royce of America Inc. was formed in 1919 to meet the growing U.S. luxury car market . A manufacturing plant was set up on Hendee Street in Springfield , Massachusetts , at the former 'American Wire Wheel Company ' building . Over the years , the factory 's 1,200 employees produced 1,703 Silver Ghosts and 1,241 Phantoms , with the first Silver Ghost chassis finished in 1921 . The 1929 stock market crash led to the plant 's closure in 1931 . * Sheraton Hotels and Resorts – founded in Springfield in 1937 with the purchase of The Stonehaven Hotel , and later the famous Hotel Kimball . * Springfield Armory – Founded by George Washington in 1777 ; closed by the Pentagon in 1968 . Arts and culture Amusement parks and fairs Within two miles ( 3 km ) of Springfield are New England 's largest and most popular amusement park , Six Flags New England , and its largest and most popular fair , The Big E. Six Flags New England , located across Springfield 's South End Bridge in Agawam features Superman the Ride , a roller coaster that has ranked first or second every year since 2001 in the annual Golden Ticket Awards publication by Amusement Today . Six Flags New England also features a large water park , kid 's rides , and an outdoor concert stadium , among numerous other attractions . It opens in mid-April and closes at the end of October . The Eastern States Exposition ( `` The Big E '' ) is located across Springfield 's Memorial Bridge in West Springfield . The Big E serves as the New England states ' collective state fair . The Big E is currently the sixth largest agricultural fair in America and brings in thousands of tourists each September–October . The Big E features rides , carnival food , music , and replicas of each of the six New England state houses , each of which is owned by its respective New England state . During the Big E , these state houses serve as consulates for the six New England states , and also serve food for which the states are known . Festivals * Hoop City Jazz Festival : an annual event sponsored by the Springfield-headquartered Hampden Bank , which in the past has featured Springfield native and jazz legend Taj Mahal , the Average White Band , and others . In 2011 the Hoop City Jazz Festival will take place July 8–10 on Court Square , and will feature a jazz tribute to the City of New Orleans . * Basketball Hall of Fame Enshrinement Weekend : a week of events that culminates in the Basketball Hall of Fame 's enshrinement ceremony . It features numerous VIP galas , awards dinners , and press conferences . Enshrinement takes place in Springfield 's Neo-Classical Symphony Hall on Court Square . In 2011 , Enshrinement Weekend will take place August 11–13 . * Armory Big Band Concerts : annually each summer the Springfield Armory National Park and National Historic Site features 1940s big band concerts . The band dresses in period costumes , and free dance lessons are provided . In 2011 , an Armory Big Band Concert will be held on July 9 . * Springfield Gay Pride Week : Springfield celebrated its first gay pride event June 8–16 , 2011 . Events range from political roundtables , to film showings , to celebrations at local gay clubs . According to 2010 Census statistics , Springfield has experienced a dramatic rise in its LGBT population during the last decade , and this celebration is aimed at increasing the visibility and voice of the LGBT community and its allies . * Our Lady of Mount Carmel Society Festival : in Springfield 's Italian South End , it is long-running tradition to celebrate Italian Feast Days , in particular during the summer . The largest of these festivals is the Our Lady of Mount Carmel Society festival , which features a parade , and numerous food stands offering all sorts of Italian foods , e.g . fried dough , pasta with meatballs or sausages , sausage and peppers , meatball and steak grinders , and sugar cones , cotton candy , candy apples and gelato . The festival takes place each year in mid-July . * Stearns Square Concert Series and Bike Nights : annually from June through September on Thursday evenings from 7 to 10pm , Springfield sponsors free live music at Stearns Square , in the heart of Metro Center 's Club Quarter . Hundreds and sometimes thousands of motorcyclists attend Bike Nights , which coincide with the Stearns Square Concerts . * Mattoon Street Arts Festival : one of the largest annual art festivals in Springfield . In 2011 , it will feature a record number of exhibitors when it takes place from September 10–11 , 2011 in the Mattoon Street Historic District . The art festival takes place at the corner of Mattoon and Chestnut Streets , near the Apremont Triangle and Kimball Towers Luxury Condominiums . * Pioneer Valley Jewish Film Festival : each spring the Pioneer Valley Jewish Film Festival presents two weeks of films , renowned guest speakers , and events related to Jewish culture . In 2011 , the festival took place from March 23 – April 11 . * St. Patrick 's Day Parade : 7 mi north of Springfield 's Metro Center , the small city of Holyoke , Massachusetts stages the United States ' 2nd-largest , annual St. Patrick 's Day Parade ( larger than Boston 's and Chicago 's , but slightly smaller than New York City 's ) . In 2011 , Holyoke 's St. Patrick 's Day Parade attracted over 400,000 revelers . * World 's Largest Pancake Breakfast : annually , near the city 's founding date ( May 14 ) Springfield attempts to break the Guinness Book of World Records ' mark for largest number of pancakes served . 2011 's event drew over 30,000 people to Main Street , where approximately 60,000 pancakes were served . * Star Spangled Springfield : annually on July 4 , Springfield stages an evening of patriotism , pageantry and pyrotechnics . The evening begins in Court Square with a patriotic concert by the Springfield Symphony Orchestra and concludes with an elaborate fireworks display from the Memorial Bridge . Numerous hills and bluffs in Springfield afford views of the fireworks . * Caribbean Festival : in general held in late August each year , Springfield 's Caribbean Festival celebrates the culture of the West Indies , which has increased greatly in Springfield during recent years . Highlights of the festival include a parade , dancers , floats , Caribbean music , and even a fashion show celebrating traditional Caribbean-dress . * The Parade of Big Balloons : since 1991 , the Parade of Big Balloons has helped to usher in the holiday season in Springfield . A 75 ft inflatable `` Cat in the Hat '' and a dozen or more big balloons , bands , and colorful marching contingents parade through Springfield 's Metro Center at 11 am on the day after Thanksgiving . The Parade of Big Balloons starts in the city 's North End and make its way down Main Street to the South End , entertaining crowds estimated

qg_233--Springfield,_Massachusetts.txt

The Springfield, Mass YMCA saw the first game of what played on January 20, 1892, when 9 players ended the game with a 1-0 score?

The United States Open Tennis Championships is a hardcourt tennis tournament . The tournament is the modern version of one of the oldest tennis championships in the world , the U.S. National Championship , for which men 's singles was first contested in 1881 . Since 1987 , the US Open has been chronologically the fourth and final tennis major comprising the Grand Slam each year ; the other three , in chronological order , are the Australian Open , the French Open and Wimbledon . The US Open is held annually , starting on the last Monday in August , and lasting for two weeks into September , with the middle weekend coinciding with the Labor Day holiday . The main tournament consists of five event championships : men 's and women 's singles , men 's and women 's doubles , and mixed doubles , with additional tournaments for senior , junior , and wheelchair players . Since 1978 , the tournament has been played on acrylic hard courts at the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park , Queens , New York City . The US Open is owned and organized by the United States Tennis Association ( USTA ) , a not-for-profit organization . Net proceeds from ticket sales , sponsorships , and television deals are used to promote the development of tennis in the United States . The US Open is the only Grand Slam that employs tiebreakers in every set of a match . For the other three Grand Slam events , if a match goes to the last set ( the third for women , fifth for men ) and there is a 6–6 tie , the match continues until one player wins by two games ( i.e . 8-6 , 9-7 , 10-8 , etc . ) , while in all four Grand Slam events , the sets played before the last set always employ tiebreakers should a set reach 6-6 . History Newport Casino The tournament was first held in August 1881 on the grass courts at the Newport Casino , Newport , Rhode Island and in that first year only clubs that were members of the United States National Lawn Tennis Association ( USNLTA ) were permitted to enter . The first edition was won by Richard Sears , who went on to win seven consecutive singles titles . From 1884 through 1911 , the tournament used a challenge system whereby the defending champion automatically qualified for the next year 's final in which he would play the winner of the all-comers tournament . In 1915 the national championship was relocated from Newport , Rhode Island to the West Side Tennis Club at Forest Hills , New York ; as early as 1911 an effort was made by a group of tennis players , headed by Karl Behr from New York , to relocate the tournament to New York . West Side Tennis Club In early 1915 the issue resurfaced when a group of about 100 tennis players signed a petition in favor of the move , arguing that most tennis clubs , players and fans were located in the New York area and that it would therefore be beneficial for the development of the sport to host the national championship there . This view was opposed by another group of players which included eight former national singles champions . The contentious issue was brought to a vote at the annual USNLTA meeting on February 5 , 1915 and with 128 votes in favor and 119 against it was decided to relocate . From 1921 through 1923 , the tournament was played at the Germantown Cricket Club in Philadelphia . It returned to Forest Hills in 1924 following the completion of the newly constructed 14,000 seat concrete Forest Hills Stadium . Though regarded unofficially by many as a major championship beforehand , the tournament was officially designated as one of the major tournaments by the ILTF commencing in 1924 . In the first few years of the United States National Championship only men competed and the tournament was known as the US National Singles Championships for Men . Six years after the men 's nationals were first held , the first official U.S. Women 's National Singles Championship was held at the Philadelphia Cricket Club in 1887 , won by 17-year-old Philadelphian Ellen Hansell , accompanied by the U.S. Women 's National Doubles Championship ( not held for the next two years ) and U.S. Mixed Doubles Championship ( not held in 1899 ) . The women 's tournament used a challenge system from 1888 through 1918 , except in 1917 . Between 1890 and 1906 sectional tournaments were held in the east and the west of the country to determine the best two doubles teams , which competed in a play-off to see who would play the defending champions in the challenge round . The open era began in 1968 when all five events were merged into the US Open , held at the West Side Tennis Club in Forest Hills . The 1968 combined tournament was open to professionals for the first time . That year , 96 men and 63 women entered the event , and prize money totaled $ 100,000 . In 1970 , the US Open became the first Grand Slam tournament to use a tiebreak to decide a set that reached a 6–6 score in games and is the only major to use a tiebreak in the deciding set ; the other three grand slams play out the deciding set until a two-game margin is achieved . From 1970 to 1974 the US Open used a best-of-nine point , sudden death tiebreaker before moving to the ITF best-of-twelve point system . In 1973 the US Open became the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to men and women with that year 's singles champions John Newcombe and Margaret Court both receiving $ 25,000 . Another US Open innovation came in 1975 when floodlights enabled night play for the first time . USTA National Tennis Center In 1978 the tournament moved from the West Side Tennis Club , Forest Hills , Queens to the larger USTA National Tennis Center in Flushing Meadows , Queens , three miles to the north . In the process , the tournament switched the court surface from clay , used in the last three years at Forest Hills , to hard courts . Jimmy Connors is the only individual to have won US Open singles titles on all three surfaces ( grass , clay , hardcourt ) , while Chris Evert is the only woman to win on two surfaces ( clay , hardcourt ) . The US Open is the only Grand Slam tournament that has been played every year since its inception . From 1984 through 2015 , the U.S. Open deviated from traditional scheduling practices for tennis tournaments with a concept that came to be known as `` Super Saturday '' , in which the Women 's final was held on Saturday , in between the two Men 's semi-finals . The men 's final was held the next day , on Sunday . While intended to help build a television audience , this scheduling pattern proved divisive , as the men 's and women 's semifinals were held on the day prior to their respective finals , thus only giving players less than a day 's rest before the final . For five consecutive tournaments between 2007 through 2012 , the Men 's final had been postponed to Monday due to weather . The USTA decided to intentionally schedule the Men 's final on Monday in 2013 and 2014 , although this move drew the ire of the ATP for further deviating from the structure of the other Grand Slams . Beginning in 2015 , the tournament has restored a traditional scheduling pattern , with the Men 's final played on a Sunday ; however , weather delays forced both sets of semi-finals to be held on Friday that year . Player challenges of line calls In 2006 , the US Open introduced instant replay reviews of calls , using the Hawk-Eye computer system sponsored by Chase . According to many experts , the system was implemented due to a highly controversial quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open between Serena Williams and Jennifer Capriati , where many important line calls went against Williams . Each player is allowed three challenges per set plus one additional challenge during a tiebreak . The player keeps all existing challenges if the challenge is successful . If the challenge is unsuccessful and the original ruling is upheld , the player loses a challenge . Instant replay was initially available only on the stadium courts ( Ashe and Armstrong ) , until 2009 when it became available on the Grandstand as well . Once a challenge is made , the official review ( a 3-D computer simulation based on multiple high-speed video cameras ) is shown to the players , umpires , and audience on the stadium video boards and to the television audience at the same time . During the 2011 US Open , 29.78 % of men 's challenges and 30.2 % of women 's challenges were correct . In 2007 , JP Morgan Chase renewed its sponsorship of the US Open . As part of its sponsorship arrangement , Chase renamed the tournament 's replay system the `` Chase Review '' on in-stadium video and television . Grounds The DecoTurf surface at the US Open is a fast surface , having slightly less friction and producing a lower bounce compared to other hard courts ( most notably the Rebound Ace surface formerly used at the Australian Open ) . For this reason , many serve-and-volley players have found success at the US Open . The main court is the 22,547-seat Arthur Ashe Stadium , opened in 1997 . It is named after Arthur Ashe , the African American tennis player who won the men 's final of the inaugural US Open in 1968 . The next largest court is the Louis Armstrong Stadium , opened in 1978 , extensively renovated from the Singer Bowl , which was built for the 1964 New York World 's Fair . It was the main stadium from 1978 to 1996 . Its peak capacity neared 18,000 seats , but was reduced to 10,200 by the removal of the upper tiers of seating after the opening of Arthur Ashe Stadium . The third largest court is the 6,000-seat Grandstand , created when the rectangular Singer Bowl was transformed into the square Armstrong Stadium , leaving about a third of the Bowl available to become another venue . In 2011 , Court 17 was opened as a fourth show court , with large television screens and electronic line calling which allows player challenges . Sunken into the ground , it has been nicknamed `` The Pit '' . It initially held 2,500 with temporary stands , but will allow over 3,000 fans after its completion in 2012 . It is located in the southeast corner of the grounds . Sidecourts 4 , 7 , and 11 each have a seating capacity of over 1,000 . All the courts used by the US Open are illuminated , meaning that television coverage of the tournament can extend into prime time to attract higher ratings . This has recently been used to the advantage of USA Network—and now , ESPN2—on cable and especially for CBS , the American broadcast television outlet for the tournament for many years , which used its influence to move the women 's singles final to Saturday night to draw better television ratings . In 2005 , all US Open and US Open Series , tennis courts were given blue inner courts to make it easier to see the ball on television ; the outer courts remained green . During the 2006 US Open , the complex was renamed the USTA Billie Jean King National Tennis Center in honor of four-time tournament champion and women 's tennis pioneer Billie Jean King . Recent attendances Sources : US Open , City University of New York ( CUNY ) Prize money The total prize money for the 2016 US Open championships is $ 46,300,000 ( in US dollars ) . The prize money is divided as follows : * per team In addition to the championship prize money an amount of $ 410,000 was available for the Champions Invitational and $ 1,272,000 for player per diem bringing the total player compensation to $ 25,526,000 . The US Open has made a five-year agreement to increase the total prize money to about $ 50,000,000 by 2017 . As a result , the total base prize money for the 2013 tournament has been increased to $ 33.6 million which is a record $ 8.1 million increase from 2012 . The champions of the 2013 Emirates Airline US Open Series will also have the opportunity to add $ 2.6 million in bonus prize money , potentially bringing the total 2013 US Open purse to more than $ 36 million . In 2014 the total base prize money was $ 38.3 million . In 2015 the prize money will be raised to $ 42.3 million . The growth in prize money awarded to the participants has far outpaced inflation over the past forty years . For example , the singles champions in 1973 earned $ 25,000 , which , in 2015 dollars , would equal approximately $ 133,000 . However , in 2015 , the singles champions each earned $ 3.3 million . In other words , in real dollars , today 's champions are paid approximately forty times more than champions were in 1973 . Ranking points Ranking points for the men ( ATP ) and women ( WTA ) have varied at the US Open through the years but presently singles players receive the following points : Champions Past champions * Men 's Singles * Women 's Singles * Men 's Doubles * Women 's Doubles * Mixed Doubles Current champions File : Novak Djokovic Hopman Cup 2011 ( cropped ) .jpg|Novak Djokovic was the winner of the Men 's Singles in 2015 . It was his tenth Major Singles title and his second title at the US Open . File : Flavia Pennetta at the 2010 US Open 01.jpg|Flavia Pennetta was the winner of the Women 's Singles in 2015 . It was her first Major Singles title . File : Herbert RG15 ( 29 ) ( 19120127518 ) .jpg|Pierre-Hugues Herbert was part of the winning Men 's Doubles team in 2015 . It was his first Major Men 's Doubles title . File : Nicolas Mahut at the 2008 Rogers Cup2.jpg|Nicolas Mahut was part of the winning Men 's Doubles team in 2015 . It was his first Major Men 's Doubles title . File : Martina Hingis , 2006.jpg|Martina Hingis was part of both the winning Women 's Doubles and Mixed Doubles teams in 2015 . These were her eleventh Major Women 's Doubles title and her fourth Grand Slam Mixed Doubles titles , giving her second and third Doubles titles at the US Open . File : Sania Mirza at the 2010 US Open 02.jpg|Sania Mirza was part of the winning Women 's Doubles team in 2015 . It was her second Grand Slam Doubles title and her second Doubles title at the US Open . File : Paes WM13-009 ( 9495560679 ) .jpg|Leander Paes was part of the winning Mixed Doubles team in 2015 . It was his eighth Grand Slam Mixed Doubles title and his second Doubles title at the US Open . Records Media coverage * The US Open 's website allows viewing of live streaming video , but unlike other major tournaments does not allow watching video on demand . The site also offers live radio coverage . * United States : ESPN , and the Tennis Channel . In 2015 , ESPN took full control of televising the event , ending CBS 's 47-year span of coverage . * Belgium : public broadcasters Eén , Canvas and commercial channel Eurosport * Brazil : SporTV and ESPN * Canada : TSN , RDS * Germany : Eurosport 360 HD covers up to five multichannel feeds only available on SKY Germany * Middle East and North Africa : beIN Sports * India and Pakistan : Ten Sports * Japan : WOWOW since 1992 * South Korea : XTM since 2012 * Mexico : Televisa Deportes cable network * The Netherlands and Germany : Eurosport and Eurosport 2 * Philippines : ABS-CBN Sports+Action * Portugal and Spain : Eurosport * Russia : NTV Plus and Eurosport * United Kingdom : – Sky Sports with red button service of all six TV courts and Eurosport

tc_1468--US_Open_(tennis).txt

What was Pete Sampras seeded when he won his first US Open?

`` Peter Piper '' is an English-language nursery rhyme and well-known tongue-twister . It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19745 . Lyrics Common modern versions include : Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers . A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked . If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers , Where 's the peck of pickled peppers that Peter Piper picked ? I . Opie and P. Opie , The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes ( Oxford University Press , 1951 , 2nd edn. , 1997 ) , p. 347 . Origins The earliest version of this tongue twister was published in Peter Piper 's Practical Principles of Plain and Perfect Pronunciation by John Harris ( 1756–1846 ) in London in 1813 , which includes one name tongue-twister for each letter of the alphabet in the same style . However , the rhyme was apparently known at least a generation earlier . Some authors have identified the subject of the rhyme as Pierre Poivre , an eighteenthcentury French horticulturalist and government administrator of Mauritius , who once investigated the Seychelles ' potential for spice cultivation .

jp_2566--Peter_Piper.txt

What did Peter Piper pick a peck of?

The Infidel is a 2010 British comedy film directed by Josh Appignanesi and written by David Baddiel . The film stars Omid Djalili , Richard Schiff , Yigal Naor and Matt Lucas and revolves around a British Muslim who goes through an identity crisis when he discovers he was adopted as a child , having been born to a Jewish family . Plot Mahmud Nasir is a husband , father and a British Muslim who listens to rock music , particularly the long deceased pop star Gary Page , and occasionally drinks alcohol . His son , Rashid , wishes to marry Uzma , but they need her devout Muslim cleric stepfather 's , Arshad Al-Masri , blessing . Mahmud agrees to put on the act of devout Muslim for the occasion . Mahmud , while clearing out his recently deceased mother 's house , stumbles across an adoption certificate . Mahmud learns he was actually adopted by his Muslim parents when he was two weeks old ; his birth parents were Jewish , and his real name is Solomon `` Solly '' Shimshillewitz . This comes as a shock to Mahmud , who is somewhat anti-Semitic , exemplified by his relationship with his American Jewish neighbour , Leonard `` Lenny '' Goldberg . During an argument with Lenny , Mahmud lets slip his ethnicity and his real name , and Lenny mentions a similarity to the name , Isaac `` Izzy '' Shimshillewitz , a local man , who may be Mahmud 's biological father . Mahmud tracks his father to a Jewish old age home . He tries to visit , but a rabbi refuses him entry , saying it would be a shock for Izzy , a Jewish man , to see his son , a Muslim , and advises him to learn to act more like a Jew if he desires to see his father before he dies . Lenny agrees to teach Mahmud what he knows about being a Jew , such as dancing like Topol and learning basic Yiddish , but the frequent trips to Lenny 's house arouse Mahmud 's family 's suspicions , especially when Mahmud 's kippah is spotted during a Muslim rally . Mahmud publicly burns the kippah in desperation as a symbol of his supposed hatred of Jews . Mahmud later attends a Bar Mitzvah with Lenny and unintentionally tells a very crude joke to the audience in broken Yiddish , only to be greeted with laughter from the attendees . Mahmud and Lenny attempt to see Izzy , but the rabbi still refuses to let Mahmud inside when he can not say his Jewish Sh'ma or name the Five Books of Moses in Hebrew . Mahmud and Lenny have a bitter argument and Mahmud storms off , vowing to tell his family the truth immediately , but when he gets home , he sees that Arshad , Uzma and their friends are already there . Arshad , impressed with Mahmud 's supposed devotion to Islam after having seen him burn the kippah on TV , gives his blessing to Rashid and Uzma 's union , but the police arrive , along with the media and a crowd of angry Jews and supportive Muslims , to arrest Mahmud for burning the kippah . In desperation , he yells out in front of everyone that he is Jewish , exonerating him of the crime . A disgusted Arshad leaves with Uzma and his friends . Mahmud 's family leaves him for his dishonesty , one of his colleagues at work resigns , and he starts drinking . He becomes suicidal , but is rescued by Lenny , who saw his announcement on the news . Mahmud goes to the old age home and demands to see his father , but learns that his father has already died . Mahmud is allowed inside Izzy 's room where he finds a video of his announcement in Izzy 's video machine , which Lenny had sent Izzy . Mahmud 's only solace is a sticker on the video with the name `` Solly '' on it , indicating that even after all these years , Izzy still remembered his long-lost son . Mahmud appears at Arshad 's next rally and delivers a speech on behalf of himself , Jewish citizens and Muslims . Mahmud also tells the crowd of another discovery which he 's made : Arshad is actually Gary Page , who staged his own death following his fall from fame after a racist remark , resurfacing much later with a whole new identity as a devout Muslim cleric . Arshad escapes from the rally , comically dressed in his old Gary Page clothes . Rashid and Uzma , dressed in Hindu clothing , are married in a Bollywood style wedding , attended by both Muslims and Jews . Lenny has taken a job with the mostly-Muslim taxi firm at which Mahmud works . Cast * Omid Djalili as Mahmud Nasir/Solomon `` Solly '' Shimshillewitz * Yigal Naor as Arshad Al-Masri * Matt Lucas as Rabbi * Amit Shah as Rashid * Soraya Radford as Uzma * Archie Panjabi as Saamiya Nasir * Richard Schiff as Lenny Goldberg * Miranda Hart as Mrs. Keyes * David Schneider as Monty * Tracy-Ann Oberman as Monty 's wife * Mina Anwar as Muna * James Floyd as Gary Page * Shobu Kapoor as Kashmina * Sartaj Garewal as Wasif * Ricky Sekhon as Hazeem Production David Baddiel wrote The Infidel because he has `` always been a fan of life-swap comedy ( Big , Trading Places , etc ) '' ; he `` think [ s ] that people are terrified about race and religion , especially issues surrounding Muslims and Jews , and when people are terrified , what they really should do is laugh '' ; and he `` love [ s ] Omid Djalili and his big funny face . [ He 's ] hoping that people recognise that underneath the comedy , the message of the film is one of mutual tolerance : if not , [ He 's ] hoping to find a new identity . '' BBC Films helped develop the film 's script . They withdrew shortly after the `` Sachsgate '' scandal , in which the BBC were criticised for offensive content . Release The film was released 9 April 2010 in the United Kingdom . Distribution rights to the film were sold to 62 different countries around the world , including many Arab and Muslim countries such as the United Arab Emirates , Bahrain , Qatar , Lebanon , Oman , Iran and Saudi Arabia . The film has been shown in Iran but was not picked up by Israeli distributors . Critical reception 65 % of the 23 approved Rotten Tomatoes critics gave the film a positive review . Bollywood remake The film was remade in India with the title of Dharam Sankat Mein ( Crisis of faith ) where the basic premise remains same with a man raised by a Hindu family finds out he had been born into a Muslim family .

odql_14278--The_Infidel_(2010_film).txt

Who plays 'Mahmud Nasir', a Muslim who finds out he was born Jewish, in the 2010 film 'The Infidel'?

In psychoanalysis , the Oedipus complex ( or , less commonly , Oedipal complex ) is a child 's desire , that the mind keeps in the unconscious via dynamic repression , to have sexual relations with the parent of the opposite sex ( i.e . males attracted to their mothers , and females attracted to their fathers ) . The Oedipus complex occurs in the third — phallic stage ( ages 3–6 ) — of the five psychosexual development stages : ( i ) the oral , ( ii ) the anal , ( iii ) the phallic , ( iv ) the latent , and ( v ) the genital — in which the source of libidinal pleasure is in a different erogenous zone of the infant 's body . The Oedipal complex originally refers to the sexual desire of a son for his mother and does not have to be reciprocated . Sigmund Freud , who coined the term `` Oedipus complex '' , believed that the Oedipus complex is a desire for the parent in both males and females ; he deprecated the term `` Electra complex '' , which was introduced by Carl Gustav Jung in regard to the Oedipus complex manifested in young girls . Freud further proposed that boys and girls experience the complex differently : boys in a form of castration anxiety , girls in a form of penis envy ; and that unsuccessful resolution of the complex might lead to neurosis , pedophilia , and homosexuality . A child 's identification with the same-sex parent is the successful resolution of the complex . Men and women who are fixated in the Oedipal and Electra stages of their psychosexual development might be considered `` mother-fixated '' and `` father-fixated . '' In adult life , this can lead to a choice of a sexual partner who resembles one 's parent . Background Oedipus refers to a 5th-century BC Greek mythological character Oedipus , who unwittingly kills his father , Laius , and marries his mother , Jocasta . A play based on the myth , Oedipus Rex , was written by Sophocles , ca . 429 BC . Modern productions of Sophocles ' play were staged in Paris and Vienna in the 19th century and were phenomenally successful in the 1880s and 1890s . The Austrian psychiatrist , Sigmund Freud ( 1856–1939 ) , attended . In his book The Interpretation of Dreams first published in 1899 , he proposed that an Oedipal desire is a universal , psychological phenomenon innate ( phylogenetic ) to human beings , and the cause of much unconscious guilt . He based this on his analysis of his feelings attending the play , his anecdotal observations of neurotic or normal children , and on the fact that Oedipus Rex was effective on both ancient and modern audiences . ( He also claimed the play Hamlet “ has its roots in the same soil as Oedipus Rex , ” and that the differences between the two plays are revealing . “ In [ Oedipus Rex ] the child ’ s wishful fantasy that underlies it is brought into the open and realized as it would be in a dream . In Hamlet it remains repressed ; and — just as in the case of a neurosis — we only learn of its existence from its inhibiting consequences . ” ) However , in The Interpretation of Dreams , Freud makes it clear that the “ primordial urges and fears ” that are his concern and the basis of the Oedipal complex are inherent in the myths the play by Sophocles is based on , not primarily in the play itself , which Freud refers to as a “ further modification of the legend ” that originates in a “ misconceived secondary revision of the material , which has sought to exploit it for theological purposes . ” Freud described the character Oedipus : A six-stage chronology of Sigmund Freud 's theoretic evolution of the Oedipus complex is : * Stage 1 . 1897–1909 . After his father 's death in 1896 , and having seen the play Oedipus Rex , by Sophocles , Freud begins using the term `` Oedipus '' . As Freud wrote in a 1897 letter , `` I found in myself a constant love for my mother , and jealousy of my father . I now consider this to be a universal event in early childhood . '' * Stage 2 . 1909–1914 . Proposes that Oedipal desire is the `` nuclear complex '' of all neuroses ; first usage of `` Oedipus complex '' in 1910 . * Stage 3 . 1914–1918 . Considers paternal and maternal incest . * Stage 4 . 1919–1926 . Complete Oedipus complex ; identification and bisexuality are conceptually evident in later works . * Stage 5 . 1926–1931 . Applies the Oedipal theory to religion and custom . * Stage 6 . 1931–1938 . Investigates the `` feminine Oedipus attitude '' and `` negative Oedipus complex '' ; later the `` Electra complex '' . The Oedipus complex In classical psychoanalytic theory , the Oedipus complex occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development ( age 3–6 years ) , when also occurs the formation of the libido and the ego ; yet it might manifest itself at an earlier age . In the phallic stage , a boy 's decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex — his son–father competition for possession of mother . It is in this third stage of psychosexual development that the child 's genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone ; thus , when children become aware of their bodies , the bodies of other children , and the bodies of their parents , they gratify physical curiosity by undressing and exploring themselves , each other , and their genitals , so learning the anatomic differences between `` male '' and `` female '' and the gender differences between `` boy '' and `` girl '' . Psychosexual infantilism — Despite mother being the parent who primarily gratifies the child 's desires , the child begins forming a discrete sexual identity — `` boy '' , `` girl '' — that alters the dynamics of the parent and child relationship ; the parents become objects of infantile libidinal energy . The boy directs his libido ( sexual desire ) upon his mother , and directs jealousy and emotional rivalry against his father — because it is he who sleeps with his mother . Moreover , to facilitate union with mother , the boy 's id wants to kill father ( as did Oedipus ) , but the pragmatic ego , based upon the reality principle , knows that the father is the stronger of the two males competing to possess the one female . Nonetheless , the boy remains ambivalent about his father 's place in the family , which is manifested as fear of castration by the physically greater father ; the fear is an irrational , subconscious manifestation of the infantile id . Psycho-logic defense — In both sexes , defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the id and the drives of the ego . The first defense mechanism is repression , the blocking of memories , emotional impulses , and ideas from the conscious mind ; yet its action does not resolve the id–ego conflict . The second defense mechanism is identification , in which the boy or girl child adapts by incorporating , to his or her ( super ) ego , the personality characteristics of the same-sex parent . As a result of this , the boy diminishes his castration anxiety , because his likeness to father protects him from father 's wrath in their maternal rivalry . In the case of the girl , this facilitates identifying with mother , who understands that , in being females , neither of them possesses a penis , and thus are not antagonists . Dénouement — Unresolved son–father competition for the psycho-sexual possession of the mother might result in a phallic stage fixation that leads to the boy becoming an aggressive , over-ambitious , and vain man . Therefore , the satisfactory parental handling and resolution of the Oedipus complex are most important in developing the male infantile super-ego . This is because , by identifying with a parent , the boy internalizes Morality ; thereby , he chooses to comply with societal rules , rather than reflexively complying in fear of punishment . Oedipal case study In Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-year-old Boy ( 1909 ) , the case study of the equinophobic boy `` Little Hans '' , Freud showed that the relation between Hans 's fears — of horses and of his father — derived from external factors , the birth of a sister , and internal factors , the desire of the infantile id to replace father as companion to mother , and guilt for enjoying the masturbation normal to a boy of his age . Moreover , his admitting to wanting to procreate with mother was considered proof of the boy 's sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent ; he was a heterosexual male . Yet , the boy Hans was unable to relate fearing horses to fearing his father . As the treating psychoanalyst , Freud noted that `` Hans had to be told many things that he could not say himself '' and that `` he had to be presented with thoughts , which he had , so far , shown no signs of possessing '' . Feminine Oedipus attitude Initially , Freud equally applied the Oedipus complex to the psychosexual development of boys and girls , but later modified the female aspects of the theory as `` feminine Oedipus attitude '' and `` negative Oedipus complex '' ; yet , it was his student–collaborator Carl Jung , who , in 1913 , proposed the Electra complex to describe a girl 's daughter–mother competition for psychosexual possession of the father . In the phallic stage , a girl 's Electra complex is her decisive psychodynamic experience in forming a discrete sexual identity ( ego ) . Whereas a boy develops castration anxiety , a girl develops penis envy rooted in anatomic fact : without a penis , she can not sexually possess mother , as the infantile id demands . Resultantly , the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father , thus progressing to heterosexual femininity , which culminates in bearing a child , who replaces the absent penis . Furthermore , after the phallic stage , the girl 's psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina . Freud thus considered a girl 's negative Oedipus complex to be more emotionally intense than that of a boy , resulting , potentially , in a woman of submissive , insecure personality ; thus might an unresolved Electra complex , daughter–mother competition for psychosexual possession of father , lead to a phallic-stage fixation conducive to a girl becoming a woman who continually strives to dominate men ( viz . penis envy ) , either as an unusually seductive woman ( high self-esteem ) or as an unusually submissive woman ( low self-esteem ) . Therefore , the satisfactory parental handling and resolution of the Electra complex are most important in developing the female infantile super-ego , because , by identifying with a parent , the girl internalizes morality ; thereby , she chooses to comply with societal rules , rather than reflexively complying in fear of punishment . In regards to narcissism In regards to narcissism , the Oedipus complex is viewed as the pinnacle of the individual 's maturational striving for success or for love . In The Economic Problem of Masochism ( 1924 ) , Freud writes that in “ the Oedipus complex… [ the parent ’ s ] personal significance for the superego recedes into the background ’ and ‘ the images they leave behind… link [ to ] the influences of teachers and authorities… ” . Educators and mentors are put in the ego ideal of the individual and they strive to take on their knowledge , skills , or insights . In Some Reflections on Schoolboy Psychology ( 1914 ) , Freud writes : `` We can now understand our relation to our schoolmasters . These men , not all of whom were in fact fathers themselves , became our substitute fathers . That was why , even though they were still quite young , they struck us as so mature and so unattainably adult . We transferred on to them the respect and expectations attaching to the omniscient father of our childhood , and we then began to treat them as we treated our fathers at home . We confronted them with the ambivalence that we had acquired in our own families and with its help we struggled with them as we had been in the habit of struggling with our fathers… '' The Oedipus complex , in narcissistic terms , represents that an individual can lose the ability to take a parental-substitute into his ego ideal without ambivalence . Once the individual has ambivalent relations with parental-substitutes , he will enter into the triangulating castration complex . In the castration complex the individual becomes rivalrous with parental-substitutes and this will be the point of regression . In Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of paranoia ( Dementia paranoides ) ( 1911 ) , Freud writes that “ disappointment over a woman ” ( object drives ) or “ a mishap in social relations with other men ” ( ego drives ) is the cause of regression or symptom formation . Triangulation can take place with a romantic rival , for a woman , or with a work rival , for the reputation of being more potent . Freudian theoretic revision When Sigmund Freud ( 1856–1939 ) proposed that the Oedipus complex was psychologically universal , he provoked the evolution of Freudian psychology and the psychoanalytic treatment method , by collaborators and competitors alike . Carl Gustav Jung In countering Freud 's proposal that the psychosexual development of boys and girls is equal , that each initially experiences sexual desire ( libido ) for mother , and aggression towards father , student–collaborator Carl Jung counter-proposed that girls experienced desire for father and aggression towards mother via the Electra complex — derived from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Electra , who plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes , her brother , against Clytemnestra , their mother , and Aegisthus , their stepfather , for their murder of Agamemnon , her father , ( cf . Electra , by Sophocles ) . Moreover , because it is native to Freudian psychology , orthodox Jungian psychology uses the term `` Oedipus complex '' only to denote a boy 's psychosexual development . Otto Rank In classical Freudian psychology the super-ego , `` the heir to the Oedipus complex '' , is formed as the infant boy internalizes the familial rules of his father . In contrast , in the early 1920s , using the term `` pre-Oedipal '' , Otto Rank proposed that a boy 's powerful mother was the source of the super-ego , in the course of normal psychosexual development . Rank 's theoretic conflict with Freud excluded him from the Freudian inner circle ; nonetheless , he later developed the psychodynamic Object relations theory in 1925 . Melanie Klein Whereas Freud proposed that father ( the paternal phallus ) was central to infantile and adult psychosexual development , Melanie Klein concentrated upon the early maternal relationship , proposing that Oedipal manifestations are perceptible in the first year of life , the oral stage . Her proposal was part of the Controversial discussions ( 1942–44 ) at the British Psychoanalytical Association . The Kleinian psychologists proposed that `` underlying the Oedipus complex , as Freud described it . . . there is an earlier layer of more primitive relationships with the Oedipal couple '' . Moreover , Klein 's work lessened the central role of the Oedipus complex , with the concept of the depressive position . Wilfred Bion `` For the post–Kleinian Bion , the myth of Oedipus concerns investigatory curiosity — the quest for knowledge — rather than sexual difference ; the other main character in the Oedipal drama becomes Tiresias ( the false hypothesis erected against anxiety about a new theory ) '' . Resultantly , `` Bion regarded the central crime of Oedipus as his insistence on knowing the truth at all costs '' . Jacques Lacan From the postmodern perspective , Jacques Lacan argued against removing the Oedipus complex from the center of psychosexual developmental experience . He considered `` the Oedipus complex — in so far as we continue to recognize it as covering the whole field of our experience with its signification . . . [ that ] superimposes the kingdom of culture '' upon the person , marking his or her introduction to symbolic order . Thus `` a child learns what power independent of itself is as it goes through the Oedipus complex . . . encountering the existence of a symbolic system independent of itself '' . Moreover , Lacan 's proposal that `` the ternary relation of the Oedipus complex '' liberates the `` prisoner of the dual relationship '' of the son–mother relationship proved useful to later psychoanalysts ; thus , for Bollas , the `` achievement '' of the Oedipus complex is that the `` child comes to understand something about the oddity of possessing one 's own mind . . . discovers the multiplicity of points of view '' . Likewise , for Ronald Britton , `` if the link between the parents perceived in love and hate can be tolerated in the child 's mind . . . this provides us with a capacity for seeing us in interaction with others , and . . . for reflecting on ourselves , whilst being ourselves '' . As such , in The Dove that Returns , the Dove that Vanishes ( 2000 ) , Michael Parsons proposed that such a perspective permits viewing `` the Oedipus complex as a life-long developmental challenge . . . [ with ] new kinds of Oedipal configurations that belong to later life '' . In 1920 , Sigmund Freud wrote that `` with the progress of psychoanalytic studies the importance of the Oedipus complex has become , more and more , clearly evident ; its recognition has become the shibboleth that distinguishes the adherents of psychoanalysis from its opponents '' ; thereby it remained a theoretic cornerstone of psychoanalysis until about 1930 , when psychoanalysts began investigating the pre-Oedipal son–mother relationship within the theory of psychosexual development . Janet Malcolm reports that by the late 20th century , to the object relations psychology `` avant-garde , the events of the Oedipal period are pallid and inconsequential , in comparison with the cliff-hanging psychodramas of infancy . . . . For Kohut , as for Winnicott and Balint , the Oedipus complex is an irrelevance in the treatment of severe pathology '' . Nonetheless , ego psychology continued to maintain that `` the Oedipal period — roughly three-and-a-half to six years — is like Lorenz standing in front of the chick , it is the most formative , significant , moulding experience of human life . . . If you take a person 's adult life — his love , his work , his hobbies , his ambitions — they all point back to the Oedipus complex '' . Criticism In his 1927 book Sex and Repression in Savage Society , anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski demonstrated that the Oedipus complex is not universal . Some contemporary psychoanalysts agree with the idea of the Oedipus complex to varying degrees ; Hans Keller proposed it is so `` at least in Western societies '' ; and others consider that ethnologists already have established its temporal and geographic universality . Nonetheless , few psychoanalysts disagree that the `` child then entered an Oedipal phase . . . [ which ] involved an acute awareness of a complicated triangle involving mother , father , and child '' and that `` both positive and negative Oedipal themes are typically observable in development '' . Despite evidence of parent–child conflict , the evolutionary psychologists Martin Daly and Margo Wilson note that it is not for sexual possession of the opposite sex-parent ; thus , in Homicide ( 1988 ) , they proposed that the Oedipus complex yields few testable predictions , because they found no evidence of the Oedipus complex in people . In No More Silly Love Songs : A Realist 's Guide to Romance ( 2010 ) , Anouchka Grose says that `` a large number of people , these days believe that Freud 's Oedipus complex is defunct . . . 'disproven ' , or simply found unnecessary , sometime in the last century '' . Moreover , from the post-modern perspective , Grose contends that `` the Oedipus complex is n't really like that . It 's more a way of explaining how human beings are socialised . . . learning to deal with disappointment '' . The elementary understanding being that `` You have to stop trying to be everything for your primary carer , and get on with being something for the rest of the world '' . Nonetheless , the open question remains whether or not such a post–Lacanian interpretation `` stretches the Oedipus complex to a point where it almost does n't look like Freud 's any more '' . Parent-child and sibling-sibling incestuous unions are almost universally forbidden . An explanation for this incest taboo is that rather than instinctual sexual desire , there is instinctual sexual aversion against these unions ( See Westermarck effect ) . Steven Pinker wrote that `` The idea that boys want to sleep with their mothers strikes most men as the silliest thing they have ever heard . Obviously , it did not seem so to Freud , who wrote that as a boy he once had an erotic reaction to watching his mother dressing . But Freud had a wet-nurse , and may not have experienced the early intimacy that would have tipped off his perceptual system that Mrs. Freud was his mother . '' In Esquisse pour une autoanalyse , Pierre Bourdieu argues that the success of the concept of Oedipus is inseparable from the prestige associated with ancient Greek culture and the relations of domination that are reinforced in the use of this myth . In other words , if Oedipus was Bantu or Baoule , he probably would not have benefited from the coronation of universality . This remark reminds historically and socially situated character of myth founder of psychoanalysis . According to Didier Eribon , the book Anti-Oedipus by Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari is `` a critique of psychoanalytic normativity and Oedipus ( ... ) '' and `` ( ... ) a setting oedipinianisme devastating issue of ( ... ) `` . Eribon considers the Oedipus complex of Freudian or Lacanian psychoanalysis is an `` implausible ideological construct '' which is an `` inferiorization process of homosexuality '' . According to Armand Chatard , Freudian representation of the Oedipus complex is little or not supported by empirical data ( he relies on Kagan , 1964 , Bussey and Bandura , 1999 )

jp_1238--Oedipus_complex.txt

"Who invented the term ""Oedipus complex""?"

Seven Pillars of Wisdom is the autobiographical account of the experiences of British soldier T. E. Lawrence ( `` Lawrence of Arabia '' ) , while serving as a liaison officer with rebel forces during the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Turks of 1916 to 1918 . Title The title comes from the Book of Proverbs , 9:1 : `` Wisdom hath builded her house , she hath hewn out her seven pillars '' ( King James Version ) . Prior to the First World War , Lawrence had begun work on a scholarly book about seven great cities of the Middle East , to be titled Seven Pillars of Wisdom . When war broke out , it was still incomplete and Lawrence stated that he ultimately destroyed the manuscript although he remained keen on using his original title Seven Pillars of Wisdom for his later work . The book had to be rewritten three times , once following the loss of the manuscript on a train at Reading . From Seven Pillars , `` ... and then lost all but the Introduction and drafts of Books 9 and 10 at Reading Station , while changing trains . This was about Christmas , 1919 . '' ( p. 21 ) Seven Pillars of Wisdom is a biographical account of his experiences during the Arab Revolt of 1916–18 , when Lawrence was based in Wadi Rum ( now a part of Jordan ) as a member of the British Forces of North Africa . With the support of Emir Faisal and his tribesmen , he helped organise and carry out attacks on the Ottoman forces from Aqaba in the south to Damascus in the north . Many sites inside the Wadi Rum area have been named after Lawrence to attract tourists , although there is little or no evidence connecting him to any of these places , including the rock formations near the entrance now known as `` The Seven Pillars '' . Speculation surrounds the book 's dedication , a poem written by Lawrence and edited by Robert Graves , concerning whether it is to an individual or to the whole Arab race . It begins , `` To S.A. '' , possibly meaning Selim Ahmed , a young Arab boy from Syria of whom Lawrence was very fond . Ahmed died , probably from typhus , aged 19 , a few weeks before the offensive to liberate Damascus . Lawrence received the news of his death some days before he entered Damascus . I loved you , so I drew these tides of Men into my hands And wrote my will across the Sky and stars To earn you freedom , the seven Pillared worthy house , That your eyes might be Shining for me When I came Death seemed my servant on the Road , 'til we were near And saw you waiting : When you smiled and in sorrowful Envy he outran me And took you apart : Into his quietness Love , the way-weary , groped to your body , Our brief wage Ours for the moment Before Earth 's soft hand explored your shape And the blind Worms grew fat upon Your substance Men prayed me that I set our work , The inviolate house , As a memory of you But for fit monument I shattered it , Unfinished : and now The little things creep out to patch Themselves hovels In the marred shadow Of your gift . A variant last line of that first stanza—reading , `` When we came '' —appears in some editions ; however , the 1922 Oxford text ( considered the definitive version ; see below ) has `` When I came '' . The poem originated as prose , submitted by letter to Graves , who edited the work heavily into its current form , rewriting an entire stanza and correcting the others . Manuscripts and editions Lawrence kept extensive notes throughout the course of his involvement in the Revolt . He began work on a clean narrative in the first half of 1919 while in Paris for the Peace Conference and , later that summer , while back in Egypt . By December 1919 , he had a fair draft of most of the ten books that make up the Seven Pillars of Wisdom but lost it ( except for the introduction and final two books ) when he misplaced his briefcase while changing trains at Reading railway station . National newspapers alerted the public to the loss of the `` hero 's manuscript '' , but to no avail ; the draft remained lost . Lawrence refers to this version as `` Text I '' and says that had it been published , it would have been some 250,000 words in length . In early 1920 , Lawrence set about the daunting task of rewriting as much as he could remember of the first version . Working from memory alone ( he had destroyed many of his wartime notes upon completion of the corresponding parts of Text I ) , he was able to complete this `` Text II '' , 400,000 words long , in three months . Lawrence described this version as `` hopelessly bad '' in literary terms , but historically it was `` substantially complete and accurate '' . With Text II in front of him , Lawrence began working on a polished version ( `` Text III '' ) in London , Jeddah , and Amman during 1921 . Upon completion of its 335,000 words in February 1922 , Lawrence burned Text II . To eliminate any risk of losing the manuscript again , and to have copies that he could show privately to critics , he considered having the book typed out . However , he discovered that it would be cheaper to get the text typeset and printed on a proofing press at the Oxford Times printing works . Just eight copies were produced , of which six survive . In bibliographical terms the result was the first `` edition '' of Seven Pillars ( because the text was reproduced on a printing press ) . In legal terms , however , these substitutes for a typescript were not `` published '' . Lawrence retained ownership of all the copies and chose who was allowed to read them . The proof-printing became known as the `` Oxford Text '' of Seven Pillars . As a text it is unsatisfactory because Lawrence could not afford to have the proof corrected . It therefore contains innumerable transcription errors , and in places lines and even whole paragraphs are missing . He made corrections by hand in five of the copies and had them bound . ( In 2001 , the last time one of these rough printings came on to the market , it fetched almost US $ 1 million at auction . ) Instead of burning the manuscript , Lawrence presented it to the Bodleian Library in Oxford . By mid-1922 , Lawrence was in a state of severe mental turmoil : the psychological after-effects of war were taking their toll , as were his exhaustion from the literary endeavours of the past three years , his disillusionment with the settlement given to his Arab comrades-in-arms , and the burdens of being in the public eye as a perceived `` national hero '' . It was at this time that he re-enlisted in the armed forces under an assumed name , for the most part in the Royal Air Force , as described in his book The Mint with the byline `` by 352087 A/c Ross '' , with a period in the Royal Tank Corps as `` Private Shaw '' . Concerned over his mental state and eager for his story to be read by a wider public , his friends persuaded him to produce an abridged version of Seven Pillars , to serve as both intellectual stimulation and a source of much-needed income . In his off-duty evenings , he set to trimming the 1922 text down to 250,000 words for a subscribers ' edition . The Subscribers ' Edition – in a limited print run of about 200 copies , each with a unique , sumptuous , hand-crafted binding – was published in late 1926 , with the subtitle A Triumph . It was printed in London by Roy Manning Pike and Herbert John Hodgson , with illustrations by Eric Kennington , Augustus John , Paul Nash , Blair Hughes-Stanton and his wife Gertrude Hermes . Copies occasionally become available in the antiquarian trade and can easily command prices of up to US $ 100,000 . Unfortunately , each copy cost Lawrence three times the thirty guineas the subscribers had paid . The Subscribers ' Edition was 25 % shorter than the Oxford Text , but Lawrence did not abridge uniformly . The deletions from the early books are much less drastic than those of the later ones : for example , Book I lost 17 % of its words and Book IV lost 21 % , compared to 50 % and 32 % for Books VIII and IX . Critics differed in their opinions of the two editions : Robert Graves , E. M. Forster and George Bernard Shaw preferred the 1922 text ( although , from a legal standpoint , they appreciated the removal of certain passages that could have been considered libellous , or at least indiscreet ) , while Edward Garnett preferred the 1926 version . Literary merits aside , however , producing the Subscribers ' Edition had left Lawrence facing bankruptcy . He was forced to undertake an even more stringent pruning to produce a version for sale to the general public : this was the 1927 Revolt in the Desert , a work of some 130,000 words : `` an abridgement of an abridgement , '' remarked George Bernard Shaw , not without disdain . Nevertheless , it received wide acclaim by the public and critics alike , the vast majority of whom had never seen or read the unabridged Subscribers ' Edition . After the 1926 release of the Subscribers ' Edition , Lawrence stated that no further issue of Seven Pillars would be made during his lifetime . Lawrence was killed in a motorcycle accident in May 1935 , at the age of 46 , and within weeks of his death , the 1926 abridgement was published for general circulation . The unabridged Oxford Text of 1922 was not published until 1997 , when it appeared as a `` best text '' edited by Jeremy Wilson from the manuscript in the Bodleian Library and Lawrence 's amended copy of the 1922 proof printing . Wilson made some further minor amendments in a new edition published in 2003 . Critical comments Charles Hill has called Seven Pillars `` a novel traveling under the cover of autobiography , '' capturing Lawrence 's highly personal version of the historical events described in the book.Grand Strategies ; Literature , Statecreft , and World Order , Yale University Press , 2010 , p. 8 . Editions in print * ISBN 0-9546418-0-9 Seven Pillars of Wisdom , 1922 , unabridged Oxford text . * ISBN 0-385-41895-7 Seven Pillars of Wisdom , 1926 , Subscribers ' Edition text . * ISBN 0-385-07015-2 `` Seven Pillars of Wisdom '' , 1935 , Doubleday edition published shortly after Lawrence ’ s death * ISBN 1-56619-275-7 Revolt in the Desert , 1927 , abridgement . Notes

qb_3553--Seven_Pillars_of_Wisdom.txt

Who wrote the novel ‘Seven Pillars of Wisdom’?

Timothy Henry `` Tim '' Henman ( born 6 September 1974 ) is a retired English professional tennis player . Henman played a serve-and-volley style of tennis . He was the first male player from the United Kingdom since Roger Taylor in the 1970s to reach the semi-finals of the Wimbledon Men 's Singles Championship . Henman never reached the finals of any Grand Slam but reached six Grand Slam semifinals and won 15 career ATP titles ( 11 in singles and four in doubles ) , including the Paris Masters in 2003 . Also , he scored 40 wins and 14 losses with the Great Britain Davis Cup team . He was ranked British number 1 in 1996 and again from 1999 to 2005 , from which point he was succeeded by Andy Murray . He reached a career high ranking of World No . 4 during three different periods between July 2002 and October 2004 . He is one of Britain 's most successful open era male tennis players , winning $ 11,635,542 prize money . Henman started playing tennis before the age of three , and began systematic training in the Slater Squad at eleven . After suffering a serious injury which affected him for the better part of two years , he began touring internationally as a junior and achieved some successes . He rose quickly up the ATP rankings , and by 1996 had reached the quarter-finals of the Wimbledon Championships . Throughout his career , Henman was a noted grass specialist , only becoming truly comfortable on clay and hard court before the end of his career , when in 2004 he reached the semi-finals in both the French and US Open . The year 2005 began a decline for Henman , and from that year onwards he never managed to pass through the third round in a Grand Slam tournament . Henman retired from professional tennis in late 2007 , but he remains active in the ATP Champions Tour ( a tour for former professional tennis players ) . Early life Henman was born in Oxford , Oxfordshire , as the youngest boy in a family of three boys . Henman 's father Tony , a solicitor , was accomplished at various sports , including tennis , hockey and squash . His mother Jane , a dress designer , played Junior Wimbledon and introduced Tim and his elder brothers Michael and Richard to tennis as soon as they could walk on the family 's grass tennis court . His great grandfather played at Wimbledon . His maternal grandfather , Henry Billington , played at Wimbledon between 1948 and 1951 , and he represented Britain in the Davis Cup in 1948 , 1950 and 1951 . In 1901 his maternal great-grandmother , Ellen Stanwell-Brown , was reputedly the first woman to serve overarm at Wimbledon . His maternal grandmother , Susan Billington , appeared regularly at Wimbledon in the 1950s , playing mixed doubles on Centre Court with her husband Henry , reaching the third round of the ladies ' doubles in 1951 , 1955 and 1956 . Henman grew up in Weston-on-the-Green , Oxfordshire , a village between Oxford and Bicester with a population of around 500 . At home , the family owned a grass tennis court in their back garden . Henman began playing tennis before the age of three with a shortened squash racket . At this stage , he was already teaching himself how to serve and volley . At an early stage in his life , Henman decided if he did not succeed in tennis , he would become a golf player instead . Henman attended the Longbridge School for boys between the ages of five and seven , and was enrolled in the private Dragon School in Oxford from seven to 11 . He excelled in all sports but was always best at tennis . But Henman was small for his age , a factor which would bode against him in the future . In 1985 , he was appointed the school 's captain of tennis and led the school 's tennis team to win 21 out of 27 matches . He remains to this day the only pupil who has won both the school 's junior and senior tennis tournaments in the same year . From the age of eight until his introduction to the Slater Squad , Henman received coaching from the David Lloyd Tennis Centre , where he was given personal lessons by former professional player Onny Parun from New Zealand . In retrospect , Parun stated that Henman 's greatest strength `` had always been his head . '' David Lloyd noticed the same mental toughness and was impressed . He left the Dragon School after he attained a scholarship for Reed 's School in Cobham , Surrey . Henman received the scholarship after a physical test : to run until you dropped . Henman , along with Marc Moreso and David Loosemore , did not drop , and was given a scholarship . At this point in his life , Lloyd persuaded Henman 's parents to allow him to pursue a tennis career . In retrospect , Lloyd notes , Henman 's parents understood what many do n't : `` you can always go back to higher education at 22 or 23 but that that is far too late to start a serious tennis career . '' Henman was picked up by the Slater Squad , a group funded by financier Jim Slater , at the age of 11 . The main goal of the Slater Squad was to pick and coach young players from the ages of nine or ten , instead of 11 and 12 as the Lawn Tennis Association ( LTA ) did . The original intake for the squad was eight players between the ages of eight and 11 . In addition to Tim , the squad consisted of Jamie Delgado , Gary Le Pla , Paul Jessop , James Bailey , Adrian Blackman , James Davidson , Marc Moreso . In the squad , Henman worked on tennis three hours a day : two hours playing tennis and receiving advice from Donald Watt , and the last hour on gymnastics and learning about the game . In contrast to popular belief , Henman was not considered the best of the bunch , and Sue Barker , the British 1976 French Open Women 's champion , judged that there was `` nothing particularly special in his game in those days '' . She notes , however , that while Henman did not have the natural skills of a tennis player , he was `` a hard worker '' . None of his fellow players in the Slater Squad saw Henman as a potential British number one , with most believing Marc Moreso to be the group 's brightest hope . Not long after becoming a member of the Slater Squad , Henman was diagnosed with osteochondritis , a bone disease . He was unable to play tennis for six months , and it was two years before he could return to tournaments . Luckily for Henman , Slater kept funding him while he was recuperating , because of insistence from Lloyd who believed in Henman 's tennis abilities . At Reed 's School he passed ten GCSE exams , but failed chemistry . Outside of school , he worked in Anji 's emporium in order to save money for a new racquet . As Henman notes in retrospect , `` I passed the others with a few As , a few Bs and a few Cs . It was nothing dazzling by any means , but I got by . '' At the age of 16 , Henman told his mother that it was impossible for him to retain his good grades while keeping up in the tennis world . In 1990 he dropped out of school altogether and focused on becoming a singles player , though Lloyd and the leadership of the Slater Squad had confidence in him as a doubles player , not singles . On the statistics that were available to them , Henman had managed to win five doubles tournaments but only two singles tournaments . But Henman disagreed with the Slater Squad leadership and began playing for the LTA in 1991 . At the age of 17 , Henman toured South America for eight weeks . Personal life On 11 December 1999 , Henman married his longtime girlfriend , TV producer Lucy Heald , in Hampshire . They have three daughters , Rose Elizabeth ( born 19 October 2002 ) , Olivia Susan ( born 15 December 2004 ) , and Grace ( born 14 September 2007 ) . Since 2003 , the family have lived in the Oxfordshire village of Aston Tirrold . Henman occasionally smoked cigarettes during his tennis career . Tennis career Junior tour During his first tour year in 1991 , Henman fared badly . He won the first round in the New South Wales Championship against Andrew Turner , 6–1 , 6–3 , but lost in the second round to Corrado Borroni 5–7 , 1–6 . He was defeated by Australian Michael Hill in the first round of the 1991 Australian Open junior class , 7–5 , 3–6 , 5–7 . At the National Championships the same year , he reached the third round , but was defeated 6–1 , 6–2 by Andrew Richardson . His performance in doubles matches was markedly better . Henman reached the quarter-finals in the New South Wales Championship with Richardson , and won the Midland Bank Junior Championship in doubles with Jamie Delgado , an associate from the Slater Squad days . 1992 began well , with Henman reaching the finals in Nottingham after defeating Delgado in straight sets in the semifinal . But Henman was defeated in the finals by top-seed Mark Schofield , and in the junior French Open by Bjorn Jacob in three sets , 6–7 , 6–1 , 9–7 . He was defeated in the first round of the Wimbledon junior by Mexican clay specialist Enrique Abaroa in straight sets ; 6–2 , 6–1 . However , things improved dramatically from then on , and in the National Junior Championships he reached the semi-finals without dropping a single set . In the semi-finals Henman met Schofield , and defeated him in four sets ; 2–6 , 6–3 , 7–6 , 6–2 . Henman met Nick Baglin in the finals , and won the match 3–6 , 7–5 , 6–4 , 6–4 . In 1992 he turned 18 , and Henman began his tennis career in the senior satellite tournaments . Professional career 1993–1995 : Early years From July 1992 to July 1993 , Henman grew six inches to six feet one , and went from seven stones to nine stones in weight . This would prove important for his career , as he acknowledged : `` As a junior I had pretty good technique . Now I 've got the strength and reach , and on the serve that has helped tremendously . '' Henman was ranked 774th in the world at the beginning of 1993 , but by July he had come close to the top 600 . In July , Henman received a wildcard to participate in the ATP Challenger tournament in Bristol , England . In the first round , he defeated Colombian Miguel Tobon , ranked 257th , in straight sets , 6–0 , 6–3 . In the second round he met the Frenchman Eric Winogradsky and defeated him also in straight sets , 7–6 , 6–3 . Henman was defeated in the quarter-final by British player Chris Bailey , 6–2 , 6–1 . By November Henman 's rank had increased to 415th . Henman 's next tournament was the Volkswagen National Championships in Telford , England ; he reached the quarter-final but lost to top-ranked British male player Jeremy Bates , 7–5 , 7–6 . As 1993 drew to a close , Henman played one last tournament in Israel , which he won . He started the 1994 season with the four-legged Indian satellite circuit ; there he won 18 singles matches in a row . Henman was fairly successful at the British Satellite Masters in Croydon , and by the end of the tournament he was ranked 222nd in the world . Encouraged by his success in the satellite circuit , Henman tried his luck at the ATP tour . Henman travelled to the Far East with Bates , and qualified for his first ATP tournament in April , at the Japan Tennis Championship . In his first round he defeated Kelly Jones , 6–2 , 6–3 , in the second round he defeated Darren Cahill , 6–2 , 7–5 and in the third round Henman was defeated by Pete Sampras , 6–1 , 6–2 . From this performance Henman increased his ranking to 184th . His success in the Japan Open was followed by a failure to qualify at the Hong Kong Open . Because of this failure , he ended the Far East tour by entering a number of satellite tournaments . Henman entered the Nagoya Open , and defeated eighth seed Eyal Ran in the first round , but lost in the second round to Gouichi Motomura . At the Manila Open , another satellite tournament , Henman reached the final but was defeated by fifth seed Michael Tebbutt , 2–6 , 2–6 . After Manila he returned to Europe . In his first Grand Slam bid , Henman failed to qualify in the 1994 French Open , losing the first qualifier round to Australian Wayne Arthurs . His next tournament was the Annenheim Open in Austria , where he lost in the first round to Canadian Sébastien Lareau in straight sets , 6–3 , 6–2 . However , not all was bad , and Henman , ranked 161st at the time , received a wildcard to qualify for the Stella Artois Championship . In the first round Henman defeated Swedish Peter Lundgren , 7–5 , 7–6 , but in the second round he succumbed to the eventual champion American Todd Martin , 6–4 , 6–4 . Henman received a wildcard for the Manchester Open , where he lost in the first round to American Alex O'Brien , and the Wimbledon Championship , the first Grand Slam he had ever played ( he failed to qualify to Wimbledon in 1993 ) . At Wimbledon , Henman lost in the first round to German David Prinosil in four sets , 6–4 , 3–6 , 2–6 , 2–6 . His early defeat in Wimbledon forced Henman into short period of obscurity in the satellite circuit . Henman reached the semi-finals at the Bristol Open and the fourth round at the Winnetka Open ( in Illinois ) . By September Henman was ranked 146th , and in the same month he returned to the Far East . His first tournament in the Far East was the Seoul Open . Henman lost in the second round to Korean Kim Nam-Hoon , who was ranked outside the top 700 . At the Singapore Challenger , he reached the quarterfinals and lost to fellow Brit Chris Wilkinson . He was forced to retire in the third set against Wilkinson when he fell and received a blow to his leg . When he returned to England not long after the tournament , it was revealed that Henman had broken his ankle in three places and would not play another tournament until February 1995 . In fact , he was not fully recovered until May . While injured , his ranking went from 146th to 272nd in the world . That year 's grass season would prove highly successful for Henman ; he reached the semi-finals at the Annenheim Open , later at the Queen 's Club Championship he reached the second round after defeating German Martin Sinner , and in Nottingham he reached the quarter-finals , his first quarter-final in the ATP tour . His success in these tournaments increased his ranking from 272nd to 219th . To make matters better for Henman , he won his first match ever in a Grand Slam event at the Wimbledon Championship over Kenyan Paul Wekesa in straight sets , 7–6 , 6–0 , 6–4 . However , Henman 's winning streak did not last long , and in the second round he met Sampras , and was defeated 6–2 , 6–3 , 7–6 . Two days later he partnered Jeremy Bates in the first round of the doubles at Wimbledon but the pair became the first players in the Open era to be defaulted at Wimbledon after Henman accidentally hit a ballgirl on the side of head with a ball , having lashed out with his racket in frustration after losing a point to a net cord in the fourth set tie-break of their match against Jeff Tarango and Henrik Holm . Because he hit the ball in anger , the referee Alan Mills ruled that this was an automatic disqualification for unsportsmanlike conduct . The rest of the grass season was fairly successful for Henman , he appeared at the Manchester Open and reached the semi-final at the Newcastle Open . At the end of the grass season , Henman 's rank had risen to 150th in the world . After the grass season , Henman headed for the United States . He participated in the RCA Championships and defeated 16th seed Frenchmen Cédric Pioline , the 1993 US Open finalist , in straight sets . He lost the following round , but was later able to qualify for the US Open . In the first round , Henman defeated Spanish Juan Albert Viloca in four sets , 6–3 , 4–6 , 6–3 , 6–2 . In the second round , Henman was defeated by American Jared Palmer in four sets , 4–6 , 7–6 , 3–6 , 1–6 . Henman 's 1995 end-of-year ranking was 95 . 1996–2000 : Breakthrough Henman climbed up the rankings very quickly . In 1994 , he was among the top 200 players in the world ; by 1995 , among the top 100 ; and by 1996 , he had made it into the top 30 and won a medal at the Atlanta Olympics . He was the UK 's highest-ranked player that year , and won the Most Improved Player trophy at the ATP awards . He was subsequently elected to the ATP Tour Player Council and went on to win his first championship in January 1997 . In March of that year , he underwent surgery on his elbow which kept him out of action for two months . Henman came to the attention of the wider tennis world in 1996 when he came from match point down , saving two successive match points with aces when serving at 3–5 and 15/40 , and then breaking his opponent 's serve twice in a row to win the final set 7–5 and beat reigning French Open champion Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the first round at Wimbledon , going on to reach the quarter finals before losing to Todd Martin . A few weeks later he was to reach the Men 's Doubles final at the 1996 Summer Olympics in partnership with Neil Broad , losing to # 1 seeds Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde to receive the silver medal . By the time he reached the last 16 at the US Open later in the year , he was firmly established as a top player . He won his first ATP Tour title in January 1997 , beating Carlos Moyá at the Sydney International event . He was seeded 14th at Wimbledon , and again reached the quarter-final , defeating reigning champion and 4th seed Richard Krajicek in the fourth round before falling to 1992 champion Michael Stich . In 1998 he went one better , reaching the semi-final for the first time , by which time he was ranked as one of the top 10 ATP players . Henman came close to reaching the final on a number of occasions , losing in the semi-finals in 1998 , 1999 , 2001 ( when just two points from victory at one point ) and 2002 . In 2000 he reached the fourth round and in 1996 , 1997 , 2003 and 2004 he lost in the quarter-finals . The first two of those semi-final losses were to Pete Sampras , who went on to win the title on both occasions . In 2002 he lost to Lleyton Hewitt who was ranked number one in the world at the time , and who also won the title : as , indeed , did Goran Ivanisevic , a former two-time finalist ( although only in this tournament as a wild card ) in 2001 . One of the tournaments in which he has been most successful is Queen 's Club . He reached the final in 1999 , where he lost to Pete Sampras , and went on to reach the final again in 2001 and 2002 , where both times he lost to Lleyton Hewitt . From then on , he was expected to be the first man since Fred Perry in 1936 to win a major for Britain – although in the end he never actually managed it , Wimbledon 2001 being the closest that he even came to reaching a final . He became well known for the [ http : //www.theguardian.com/sport/2003/jun/24/wimbledon2003.tennis Henman fist ] , which would become his trademark on winning a point . 2001–2004 Henman started the 2001 ATP season with a ranking of tenth in the world . At the Adelaide International Henman lost in the semi-finals to Nicolás Massú . His next tournament was the Australian Open ; Henman had wins over Hicham Arazi , Nicolás Lapentti , and Wayne Arthurs , but lost to Patrick Rafter in the fourth round in straight sets . He then won the Copenhagen Open , dispatching Andreas Vinciguerra in two sets . Henman then lost in the second round of the Rotterdam Open . Rotterdam was followed by a defeat in the Scottsdale Open . In March , Henman reached the third round at Indian Wells , where he lost to Nicolás Lapentti in straight sets . The hard court season wrapped up with the Miami Masters where Henman lost in round two to Fabrice Santoro . By the beginning of the clay season in April , Henman 's ranking had slipped from 10th to 12th in the world . He reached the second round of the Estoril Open , the quarter-finals of Monte-Carlo , round two in Rome , and lost in round one at the Hamburg Masters . At the French Open Henman had wins over Tomas Behrend and Sjeng Schalken , but lost to Guillermo Cañas in five sets in round three . At the end of the clay season , Henman 's ranking had risen back up to 11th . On the grass at Queen 's Club Championship Henman reached the final , where he was defeated in straight sets by Australian Lleyton Hewitt . Many commentators believed Henman had a chance to win that year 's Wimbledon with several top-seeds being defeated early in the tournament . Henman came through the first three rounds with ease , winning over Artem Derepasko , Martin Lee , and Sjeng Schalken . However , it took five sets to defeat the 22nd American seed Todd Martin in round four . In the quarter-finals Henman beat Roger Federer in four tough sets , the latter having defeated Henman 's longtime nemesis Sampras in the fourth round . In his semi-final Henman met wildcard entrant , Goran Ivanišević where , after several rain delays , Ivanišević eventually managed to win in five sets . Henman had come back from a set down and played some stunning tennis – including crushing Ivanišević in the third set 6-0 – to take the lead by 2 sets to 1 before rain stopped play . The players returned the following day but Henman could n't recapture his form from the Friday and lost the fourth set in a tie break . Henman had got as close as 2 points from victory but serve was with his opponent and he was not able to hang on . Only 5 games into the deciding set , rain fell again and the players were forced to wait it out overnight to finish the epic encounter . When the pair finally returned on Sunday , Ivanišević was able to wrap up the final set and dash the English player 's dream of reaching a Wimbledon final . In August , Henman only reached the second round in the Canada Masters but bounced back and made it to the semi-finals of the Cincinnati Masters . There he lost to Gustavo Kuerten in three sets . His next tournament was nearly as successful , with Henman reaching the quarter-finals at the RCA Championship . Henman lost in the quarter-finals , again to Kuerten in three sets . At the US Open he reached the third round ; Henman defeated Vacek and Fernando Meligeni , but was upset by Xavier Malisse in five sets . Near the end of the season , Henman won the Swiss Indoors , by defeating the previous runner-up Roger Federer in straight sets . In 2002 , Henman reached the 4th round at the Australian Open and the semifinals at Wimbledon for the last time in his career , losing this time to Lleyton Hewitt : for the fourth time , his conqueror in the semi-finals went on to win the tournament . He was defeated in the second round of the French Open , and the third round of the US Open . At the ATP tour , Henman was the runner-up at three finals ; at one ATP Masters Series , at one ATP 500 Series and at one normal ATP tournament . Henman did not participate in the 2003 Australian Open , reached the third round in the French Open , his best so far , reached the quarter-finals at the Wimbledon Championship and lost in the first round at the US Open to eventual champion Andy Roddick . He reached two ATP finals in 2003 , one of them being the Paris Masters , winning both of them—his victory at the 2003 Paris Masters would be his only victory at an ATP Masters tour event . In 2004 , Henman failed to reach the fourth round of the Australian Open and failed to reach the semi-finals at the Wimbledon Championships . However , he reached , to the surprise of commentators , the semi-finals of the French Open and later , the semi-finals of the US Open . His ATP tour was not as successful , but he managed to reach the finals of the Indian Wells , where he was defeated by reigning champion Roger Federer in two sets , 3–6 , 3–6 . 2004 would be the last time Henman participated in the Tennis Masters Cup ( a tournament between the eight best players of the world ) . 2004 would prove Henman 's last successful year as a tennis player ; he failed to reach beyond the third round in any of the Grand Slams from 2005 until his retirement in 2007 . At the Davis Cup World Group Play-off against Austria , Henman and Greg Rusedski played all five rubbers on the Austrian clay , but were beaten 3-2 . Henman now decided to withdraw from the Davis Cup to concentrate on his own career . 2005–2007 : Decline His first tournament in 2005 was the Australian Open . Henman defeated Frenchmen Cyril Saulnier in four sets , 6–1 , 6–2 , 4–6 , 6–3 , and defeated Romanian Victor Hănescu in three sets , 7–5 , 6–1 , 6–4 , but lost to the 28th seed Russian Nikolay Davydenko in straight sets ; 4–6 , 2–6 , 2–6 . The next tournament was the Rotterdam Open where he reached the third round , being defeated by Croatian Mario Ančić , 5–7 , 4–6 . He did not fare much better at the Dubai Open , and lost in the third round to Croatian Ivan Ljubičić , 5–7 , 4–6 . Henman 's next tournament was the first ATP Masters Series event of the year ; at the Indian Wells he reached the quarterfinals after receiving a bye ( meaning he could skip the first round ) . He lost in the quarter-finals to Argentinian Guillermo Cañas , 6–7 , 5–7 . At the Miami Masters Henman again lost in the quarter-finals , this time to Swiss world no . 1 Roger Federer in straight sets , 4–6 , 2–6 . At Henman 's first clay tournament of 2005 , the Monte-Carlo Masters , he lost in the first round to Argentinian Mariano Zabaleta , 4–6 , 6–4 , 2–6 . Henman improved his clay record that year by reaching the third round at both the Italian Open and the Hamburg Masters , but he disappointed his

tc_1693--Tim_Henman.txt

Who beat Tim Henman in his first Wimbledon singles semifinal?

Stratford-upon-Avon is a market town in Warwickshire , England , on the River Avon , 101 mi north west of London , 22 mi south east of Birmingham , and 8 mi south west of Warwick . The estimated population in 2007 was 25,505 , increasing to 27,445 at the 2011 Census . The town is a popular tourist destination owing to its status as birthplace of English playwright and poet William Shakespeare , and receives an estimated 4.9 million visitors a year . The Royal Shakespeare Company resides in Stratford 's Royal Shakespeare Theatre . History Stratford has Anglo-Saxon origins , and developed as a market town in the medieval period . The original charters of the town were granted in 1196 , making Stratford over 800 years old . The name is a combination of the Old English strǣt , meaning `` street '' , and ford , indicating a site at which a road forded a river . The `` street '' was a smaller Roman road connecting the larger roads Fosse Way and Icknield Street . In 1769 the actor David Garrick staged a major Shakespeare Jubilee over three days which saw the construction of a large rotunda and the influx of many visitors . This contributed to the growing phenomenon of Bardolatry which made Stratford a tourist destination . Stratford was the gateway to the British canal network from the South West before the road and rail networks took over and its industrial past is often overlooked because of the town 's association with Shakespeare . Governance The administrative body for the town is the Stratford-upon-Avon Town Council , which is based at the Town Hall in Sheep Street . The Stratford-on-Avon District Council is based at Elizabeth House , Church Street , and the Stratford-upon-Avon Town Trust is based in the Civic Hall , Rother Street . The Town Council is responsible for crime prevention , cemeteries , public conveniences , litter , river moorings , parks , grants via the Town Trust and the selection of the town 's mayor . Geography Stratford is close to the Cotswolds , with Chipping Campden 10 mi to the south . The Cotswolds was a major sheep producing area , up until the latter part of the 19th century , with Stratford as one of its main centres for the processing , marketing , and distribution of sheep and wool . Consequently , Stratford also became a centre for tanning during the 15th–17th centuries . Both the river and the Roman road served as trade routes for the town . Suburbs and areas of Stratford-on-Avon include Shottery , Bishopton , Bridgetown , Tiddington , and Old Town . Climate Stratford has a temperate maritime climate , as is usual for the British Isles , meaning extremes of heat and cold are rare . Sunshine hours are low to moderate ( less than 1,400 hours per year ) , and rainfall is spread evenly throughout the year . The record high temperature is , set in August 1990 , compared to the typical summer maximum of 22 °C . The record low temperature is , recorded in January 1982 . With an average of 62 frosts a year , Stratford is a relatively frosty location . For comparison , nearby Wellesbourne averages 53 frosts a year , and further afield , Malvern , just 33 . As with much of inland Britain , Stratford experiences much cloud development , while coastal areas remain clear ( see image to the right ) . Rainfall , at around 620 mm is typical for low-lying areas of central and eastern England . Over 1 mm of rain was recorded on 115.7 days per year , according to the 1971–2000 observation period . Economy Apart from tourism , which is a major employer , especially in the hotel , hospitality industry and catering sectors , other industries in the town include boat building and maintenance , bicycles , mechanical and electrical engineering , food manufacture , Information Technology , call centre and service sector activities , a large motor sales sector , industrial plant hire , building suppliers , market gardening , farming , storage and transport logistics , finance and insurance , and a large retail sector . Major employers in the town include the NFU Mutual Insurance Company ( and Avon Insurance ) , AMEC , Sitel , Tesco , Morrisons , Marks & Spencer , Debenhams , B & Q and Pashley Cycles . There are , nominally , three theatres run by the prestigious Royal Shakespeare Company , which attract large audiences and income for the town . Tourism The regular large influx of tourists is the major source of the town 's prosperity . Stratford is a major English tourist town due to it being the birthplace of William Shakespeare , who many consider the greatest playwright of all time . In 2010 the District Council spent £298,000 on tourism promotion and supports an official open-top tour bus service . In 2010 Stratford-on-Avon District Council launched a re-branded official tourism website for the Stratford area called Discover Stratford after opening a new tourist information centre on Henley Street in May 2010 , which has since moved back to the original location on Bridgefoot . Shopping centres Apart from the town centre , Maybird Shopping Park , usually referred to locally as `` The Maybird Centre '' or simply `` The Maybird '' , is a large shopping centre situated on Birmingham Road , approximately a five-minute drive from the town centre , which features numerous shops and is a very well used part of the town . Shops featured at the Maybird include Asda Living , B & Q , Argos , Pizza Hut , WHSmith , Subway , The Big Fish , Game , Jollyes Pet Shop , Boots , M & S Foodhall , Sports Direct , New Look , Outfit , Poundstretcher , Pets at Home , Halfords , Matalan , Next and Costa Coffee , the latter of which is the second Costa Coffee shop in Stratford , with another located on Henley Street . A large Tesco supermarket is located next to the Maybird , behind B & Q . On the same road is a smaller Aldi store . Directly opposite the Maybird , on the other side of Birmingham Road , is Maybrook Industrial Estate , a smaller shopping centre which includes stores such as Staples , Carphone Warehouse , Maplin Electronics and Carpetright . The Rosebird Centre is a much smaller shopping centre located on Shipston Road and contains a large Waitrose supermarket , Pets Corner pet shop and Rosebird Centre Pharmacy . The pharmacy also serves as a medical centre , acting as a branch of the main Rother House Medical Centre on Alcester Road . An Avonvale Veterinary Centre is soon to open in Rosebird Centre . In the town centre , Town Square , which is to revert to its old name , Bell Court , is undergoing extensive work and will fully reopen in 2017 . Plans reveal there will be a new Everyman cinema in the Square , as well as a Byron Hamburgers restaurant . There are also plans for a full redevelopment of Bards Walk shopping arcade on Henley Street . Supermarkets The town has a number of supermarkets , including Tesco on Birmingham Road , Aldi on Canners Way ( just off Birmingham Road ) , Morrisons on Alcester Road , Marks & Spencer on Bridge Street ( plus M & S Simply Food in Maybird Shopping Park , Birmingham Road ) and Waitrose at The Rosebird Centre on Shipston Road . A small Sainsbury 's store is located on Bridge Street . Main sights and attractions Theatre The first real theatre in Stratford was a temporary wooden affair built in 1769 by the actor David Garrick for his Shakespeare Jubilee celebrations of that year to mark Shakespeare 's birthday . The theatre , built not far from the site of the present Royal Shakespeare Theatre , was almost washed away in two days of torrential rain that resulted in terrible flooding . A small theatre known as the Royal Shakespeare Rooms was built in the gardens of Shakespeare 's New Place home in the early 19th century but became derelict by the 1860s . To celebrate the 300th anniversary of Shakespeare 's birth in 1864 the brewer , Charles Edward Flower , instigated the building of a temporary wooden theatre , known as the Tercentenary Theatre , which was built in a part of the brewer 's large gardens on what is today the site of the new , and temporary , Courtyard Theatre . After three months the Tercentenary Theatre was dismantled , with the timber used for house-building purposes . In the early 1870s , Charles Flower gave several acres of riverside land to the local council on the understanding that a permanent theatre be built in honour of Shakespeare 's memory , and by 1879 the first Shakespeare Memorial Theatre had been completed . It proved to be a huge success , and by the early 20th century was effectively being run by the actor/manager Frank Benson , later Sir Frank Benson . The theatre burned down in 1926 , with the then artistic director , William Bridges-Adams , moving all productions to the local cinema . An architectural competition was arranged to elicit designs for a new theatre , with the winner , English architect Elisabeth Scott , creating the Royal Shakespeare Theatre we see on the riverside today . The new theatre , adjoining what was left of the old theatre , was opened by the then Prince of Wales , later Edward VIII , in 1932 . The new theatre had many illustrious artistic directors , including the actor Anthony Quayle . Sir Peter Hall was appointed artistic director ( designate ) in 1959 , and formed the Royal Shakespeare Company ( RSC ) in 1961 . The RSC also runs two smaller theatres , the Swan Theatre , which was created in the 1980s out of the shell of the remains of the original Memorial Theatre and is modelled on an Elizabethan theatre , quickly becoming one of the finest acting spaces in the UK , and The Other Place theatre . Along with the RST , the Swan Theatre closed in 2007 for refurbishment and reopened in November 2010 . The Other Place , a Black box theatre , was extended to become the temporary RSC Courtyard Theatre , opening in July 2006 and was the home of the RSC while the RST was being refurbished - its interior is similar to the interior of the refurbished RST . The Courtyard Theatre closed in 2015 and was replaced by The Other Place in March 2016 , which returned as a 200-seat studio theatre within the steel extension in which the Courtyard Theatre was located . The Waterside Theatre ( which is not part of the Royal Shakespeare Theatre complex ) re-opened in December 2004 , then closed again in September 2008 . During this span , the theatre housed the Shakespearience visitor attraction . This has now been turned into the Clore Learning Centre , the Royal Shakespeare Company 's education and events venue . In 1986 , Stratford-upon-Avon was the venue for the disastrous provincial try-out of the ill-fated musical Carrie , based on the Stephen King novel . Henley Street Henley Street , one of the town 's oldest streets , underwent substantial architectural change between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries . John Shakespeare 's large half-timbered dwelling , purchased by him in 1556 , was in 1564 the birthplace of his son William . According to a descriptive placard provided for tourists there , `` The property remained in the ownership of Shakespeare 's direct descendants until 1670 , when his granddaughter , Elizabeth Barnard , died . As she had no children , Elizabeth left the estate to her relative Thomas Hart , Shakespeare 's great-nephew . The main house became a tenanted inn called the Maidenhead ( later the Swan and Maidenhead ) following the death of John Shakespeare in 1601 . Members of the Hart family continued living in the small adjoining cottage throughout the century . '' At the end of the 19th century , Edward Gibbs `` renovated '' the building to more closely represent the original Tudor farmhouse . Adjacent to Shakespeare 's Birthplace stands the Shakespeare Centre , completed in 1964 and not far from the Carnegie Library , opened in 1905 . The large half-timbered building which now comprises numbers 19 , 20 and 21 was formerly the White Lion Inn . It is first mentioned in 1603. and was adjoined on the east by a smaller inn called the `` Swan '' . In 1745 the latter was purchased by John Payton , who also acquired the `` Lion '' five years later and rebuilt the whole premises on a greatly enlarged scale . ( Cal . of Trust Title Deeds , no . 147 . ) The work was completed by James Collins of Birmingham , builder , in 1753 . ( Contract , Trust Title Deeds , no . 167 . ) Payton `` brought the house into great vogue '' though Byng in 1792 complained that `` at the noted White Lion , I met with nothing but incivility '' ( cited from Torrington Diaries ( ed . Andrews ) , iii , 152 ) . Payton was succeeded as innkeeper by his son John , and its reputation as one of the best inns on the Holyhead road must have contributed not a little to the prosperity of the town . Garrick stayed at the `` White Lion '' during the Jubilee of 1769 ( Saunders MSS . 82 , fol . 20 ) and George IV , as Prince Regent , visited it when he came to Stratford in 1806 . Its great days came to an end after John Payton the younger sold it to Thomas Arkell in 1823 . The building is now home to the Enchanted Manor Museum at the Creaky Cauldron and Magic Alley ; the Box Brownie Café ; Doug Brown 's Really Good Gift Company ; and the Not Just Shakespeare Tourist Information Centre . Henley Street is now a major tourist and shopping precinct with many al fresco cafés and street entertainers . Sheep Street Sheep Street runs from Ely Street eastwards to the Waterside . It was a residential quarter in the 16th century , some of the buildings were rebuilt following the fire of 1595 , although many , such as Number 40 , date from 1480 . Formerly a two story building that was extended in the early twentieth century has a lower story of substantial close-set studding : the upper is of more widely spaced thin vertical timbers.From : 'The borough of Stratford-upon-Avon : Introduction and architectural description ' , A History of the County of Warwick : Volume 3 : Barlichway hundred ( 1945 ) , pp . 221–234 . URL : http : //www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx ? compid 57015 Date accessed : 23 August 2009 . From : 'The borough of Stratford-upon-Avon : Introduction and architectural description ' , A History of the County of Warwick : Volume 3 : Barlichway hundred ( 1945 ) , pp . 221–234 . URL : http : //www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx ? compid=57015 Date accessed : 12 June 2009 . As the name suggests Sheep Street , which leads down from the Town Hall to Waterside and the RST , was from early times and until the late 19th century , the area where sheep , brought from the neighbouring Cotswold Hills , were slaughtered and butchered . Today it is the restaurant centre of the town . The Shrieves House is one of the oldest still lived in houses in the town and Shakespeare is said to have based his character of Sir John Falstaff on one of the residents , his godson 's uncle . Oliver Cromwell is thought to have stayed here in 1651 . He wrote a letter from the town to Lord Wharton on 27 August 1651 , before the Battle of Worcester . Behind The Shrieves House is a museum called `` Tudor World '' with recreations of 16th century life in theatrical settings . Just off Sheep Street is Shrieves walk , a very quaint walkway with several small independent stores , including a Vintage Clothing shop . Waterside & Southern Lane This area of Stratford , which runs from the foot of Bridge Street to Holy Trinity Church ( and leads directly off Sheep Street and Chapel Lane ) runs alongside the River Avon and offers access to the Waterside Theatre and all areas of the RST . The Bancroft Gardens and river area is a very popular place for people watching , enjoying picnics and river activities . In the summer the River Avon is busy with rowing boats , motor boats and river cruises . The Birmingham to Stratford Canal is busy with colourful narrowboats passing through or mooring up in the canal basin Stratford-upon-Avon Canal . There are often jugglers , fire-eaters and magicians entertaining the public on the lawns . On the edge of the gardens is a water fountain , known as the Swan Fountain . It was unveiled in 1996 by the Queen Elizabeth II to recognise that Stratford has been a market town since 1196 . It is from here the Stratford Town Walk meet every day ( even Christmas Day ) , to offer a guided walking tour of the town . The tour passes the Shakespeare houses , Royal Shakespeare Theatres , 15th century timber-framed buildings , William Shakespeare 's school and visits Holy Trinity Church where Shakespeare was baptised and is buried . Waterside is also the location of The Dirty Duck pub which is frequented by actors from the nearby RSC theatres , theatre critics and theatregoers . Other Shakespeare sites Other tourist attractions within the town include five houses relating to Shakespeare 's life , which are owned and cared for by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust . These include Hall 's Croft ( the one-time home of Shakespeare 's daughter , Susanna , and her husband Dr. John Hall ) and Nash 's House , which stands alongside the site of another property , New Place , owned by Shakespeare himself , wherein he died . Near to the town are Anne Hathaway 's Cottage at Shottery , the home of Shakespeare 's wife 's family prior to her marriage , and Mary Arden 's House ( Palmer 's Farm ) , the family home of his mother . Elsewhere in the district are farms and buildings at Snitterfield , that belonged to the family of Shakespeare 's father . King Edward VI School , located on the corner of Church Street and Chapel Lane , is a grammar school thought to have been attended by William Shakespeare . No 1 High Street is the former home of Shakespeare 's daughter , Judith , and her husband Thomas Quiney from 1616 to 1637 . Other attractions Harvard House is located at 26 High Street , next door to The Garrick Inn pub , named after Shakespearean actor David Garrick and reputedly the oldest pub in the town . Other attractions include the Stratford Butterfly Farm , which is on the eastern side of the river and the Bancroft Gardens and Stratford Armouries located three miles ( 3 mi ) from the centre of Stratford on Gospel Oak Lane . Each year on 12 October ( unless this is a Sunday , in which case 11 October ) Stratford hosts one of the largest mop fairs in the country . Then , on the second Saturday following , the smaller Runaway fair is held . Historic Spine Many of the town 's most important and visited buildings are located along what is known as Stratford 's Historic Spine , which was once the main route from the town centre to the parish church . The route of the Historic Spine begins at Shakespeare 's Birthplace in Henley Street . It continues through Henley Street to the top end of Bridge Street and into High Street where many Elizabethan buildings are located , including Harvard House . The route carries on through Chapel Street where Nash 's House and New Place are sited . The Historic Spine continues along Church Street where Guild buildings are located dating back to the 15th century , as well as 18th and 19th century properties . The route then finishes in Old Town , which includes Hall 's Croft and the Holy Trinity Church . Shakespeare 's celebrations Every year , Shakespeare 's birthday is celebrated in Stratford . The celebration takes place over two days on the weekend closest to April 23 , the date of his birth , and includes musical performances , drama and a parade through the town . In 2016 , events were held in Stratford to mark the 400th anniversary of Shakespeare 's death . Transport Stratford is 22 mi from the UK 's second largest city , Birmingham , and is easily accessible from junction 15 of the M40 motorway . The 7 mi £12 million Stratford Northern Bypass opened in June 1987 as the A422 . Stratford-upon-Avon railway station has good rail links from Birmingham ( Snow Hill station , Moor Street station ) and from London , with up to seven direct trains a day from London Marylebone . Stratford-upon-Avon Parkway railway station opened on 19 May 2013 to the north of the town . The Stratford on Avon and Broadway Railway Society aims to re-open the closed railway line from Stratford-upon-Avon to Honeybourne , with a later extension to Broadway , Worcestershire . The Honeybourne Line is being extended towards Honeybourne from Cheltenham Racecourse to connect with the Cotswold Line . The Cotswold trains run by Great Western Railway ( train operating company ) go to Worcester Shrub Hill , Worcester Foregate Street , Great Malvern and Hereford westwards and eastwards to Oxford , Reading and London Paddington . Rail passengers currently have a very long and inconvenient journey via Birmingham Moor Street ( changing here for Birmingham New Street ) or continuing on via Birmingham Snow Hill , and onwards to reach Worcester Shrub Hill and places westwards . Rail passengers heading eastwards to Oxford and Reading would have to change trains at Banbury . The Stratford-upon-Avon and Midland Junction Railway connected Stratford with the main line of the London and North Western Railway at Blisworth until passenger trains were withdrawn in 1952 . The town has numerous cycle paths , and is the terminus of the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal where it meets the Avon . A park and ride scheme was launched in 2006 . The Stratford Greenway is a 5 mi traffic free cycle path , which used to be part of the rail network until the early 1960s and is now part of the Sustrans National Cycle Network ( routes NCR 5 and NCR 41 ) . Starting from town it heads along the river and racecourse towards Welford-on-Avon and Long Marston with a cycle hire and cafe available at the start of the Greenway at Seven Meadows Road . The manually powered chain ferry , Malvolio , was opened in 1937 and runs between Holy Trinity Church and the Royal Shakespeare Theatres . It was the last of its kind to be built in Britain . Plans were announced in 2006 to move it along the river to make space for a new bridge . The vessel was restored in 2010 . Birmingham airport is 18 mi to the north-west , with scheduled flights to many national and international destinations . Education Stratford is also home to several institutions set up for the study of Shakespeare , including the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust , which holds books and documents related to the playwright , and the Shakespeare Institute . William Shakespeare is believed to have studied at King Edward VI school . It is an all-boys school , and one of the few remaining grammar schools in England , selecting its pupils exclusively using the Eleven plus examination . There is also an all-girls grammar school , Stratford-upon-Avon Grammar School for Girls , colloquially known as 'Shottery School ' after its location in the village of Shottery , a short distance from the town centre . Finally , there is a non-selective secondary school , Stratford-upon-Avon High School , formerly known as the Hugh Clopton Secondary Modern School , which was demolished to make way for the new high school . There are no independent secondary schools in the town , but there are many primary schools , including St. Gregory 's Catholic Primary School , Stratford-upon-Avon Primary School ( often known locally as `` Broad Street '' due to its location ) , Bishopton Primary School , Willows C of E Primary School and Thomas Jolyffe Primary School both state and independent , as well as Stratford-upon-Avon College . Sport Stratford-upon-Avon Rugby Club is situated on Loxley Rd at their home ground Pearcecroft . The club currently fields three senior sides and a colts team with the 1st XV currently play in Midlands 1 ( West ) . The club boasts one of the largest mini and junior sections in the country . Stratford-upon-Avon Cricket Club Ground is by the river opposite the Royal Shakespeare Theatre . The first match recorded there was in 1880 ; it has hosted first-class games since 1951 and women 's One Day Internationals since 2005 . Stratford Town F.C . are based at the DCS Stadium in Tiddington ; they won the Midland Alliance in the 2012/3 season and were promoted to Division One South & West of the Southern Football League . The town 's parkrun event started in February 2016 and operates on the Recreation Ground every Saturday at 9am . Churches * Stratford-upon-Avon Holy Trinity Church * St Gregory 's Catholic Church * St Andrew 's Church Shottery * Stratford-upon-Avon United Reformed Church * Stratford-upon-Avon Methodist Church * First Church of Christ , Scientist , Stratford-upon-Avon Notable people With the RSC in the town many famous actors have at some point lived or stayed in the town or surrounding villages . Some of these include , * William Shakespeare ( 1564-1616 ) , English playwright and poet . * Gordon Ramsay , noted celebrity chef , and star of several cooking related shows , moved to Stratford-Upon-Avon with his family in 1976 when he was five years old . * Sarah Douglas ( 1952- ) , actress , best known for her film and TV career , was born and raised in the town . * Simon Pegg , actor , studied at Stratford-upon-Avon College ( was born in Gloucestershire , England ) * Jeffery Dench , actor , lived just outside Stratford in Clifford Chambers until his death in 2014 * David Bradley , actor known for his role in the Harry Potter films * Labour MP and actor Andrew Faulds lived in Old Town , Stratford , until his death in 2000 , aged 77 * Marc Elliott actor , played Syed Masood on BBC EastEnders , from Stratford and attended St. Gregory 's Other notable residents include : * Actress and Animator Sarah Ann Kennedy who grew up in Stratford . She is the voice of Miss Rabbit in Peppa Pig and Nanny Plum in Ben and Holly 's Little Kingdom . She is also responsible for the creation of Crapston Villas , an animated soap on Channel 4 * The historic Stratford family ( who took their name from the town ) * Adrian Newey , famous Formula 1 engineer . * George Macaulay Trevelyan , historian * J . B. Priestley died here . * Arthur C. Clarke , author of 2001 : A Space Odyssey , served with the RAF at Stratford-upon-Avon during the 1940s . Clarke later wrote the short story `` The Curse '' , which takes place in a post-apocalyptic Stratford-upon-Avon . * Former Secretary of State for War John Profumo was the MP for Stratford-upon-Avon 1950-1963 . * From 1901 to 1924 , the romantic novelist Marie Corelli , real name Minnie Mackay , daughter of Charles Mackay , made her home , with her companion Miss Vyver , at Mason 's Croft , Church Street , Stratford . * English footballer Dion

qz_4311--Stratford-upon-Avon.txt

Which famous woman in history had a cottage in Shottery in Warwickshire?

Three Men and a Cradle ( ) is a 1985 French comedy film by Coline Serreau . The film was remade in Hollywood as Three Men and a Baby in 1987 which was subsequently remade into 4 Indian movies in four distinct languages . Plot Three young men ( Jacques , Pierre and Michel ) share an apartment in Paris , and have many girlfriends and parties ( During the movie , we even learn that they have signed a contract never to allow a girl to spend more than one night at their place ) . Once , during a party , a friend of Jacques ' tells him he has a quite compromising package ( which turned out to be heroin ) to deliver , and asks him if he can leave it discreetly at their place . Jacques agrees and , as he works as a steward , flies away for a one-month trip in Japan , telling Pierre and Michel about the package . Then , one of Jacques ' former girlfriends drops a baby before their door , making Pierre and Michel believing it is the package they are waiting for . Their lives are then completely changed . This movie follows the bachelors as they deal with angry gangsters , suspicious cops , and the overwhelming responsibility of fatherhood . Cast * Roland Giraud as Pierre * Michel Boujenah as Michel * André Dussollier as Jacques * Philippine Leroy-Beaulieu as Sylvia * Dominique Lavanant as Madame Rapons * Marthe Villalonga as Antoinette * Annick Alane as The Pharmacist Trivia A second film by Coline Serreau , with the same characters , the same actors and called ' ( 18 Years After ) was released in 2003 . Awards and nominations * Academy Awards ( USA ) * * Nominated : Best Foreign Language Film * César Awards ( France ) * * Won : Best Actor – Supporting Role ( Michel Boujenah ) * * Won : Best Film * * Won : Best Writing ( Coline Serreau ) * * Nominated : Best Actress – Supporting Role ( Dominique Lavanant ) * * Nominated : Best Director ( Coline Serreau ) * * Nominated : Most Promising Actress ( Philippine Leroy-Beaulieu ) * Golden Globe Awards ( USA ) * * Nominated : Best Foreign Language Film * National Academy of Cinema ( France ) * * Won : Academy Award ( Coline Serreau ) Remakes Trois hommes et un couffin was remade in English as Three Men and a Baby in 1987 which was subsequently adapted asThoovalsparsham ( 1990 ) in Malayalam which was then remade in Telugu as Chinnari Muddula Papa , into Asathal ( 2001 ) in Tamil and Heyy Babyy ( 2007 ) in Hindi .

dpql_5817--Three_Men_and_a_Cradle.txt

Which 1987 US film was based on the 1985 French film ‘Trois hommes et un couffin’?

Oscar-Claude Monet ( ; ; 14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926 ) was a founder of French Impressionist painting , and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement 's philosophy of expressing one 's perceptions before nature , especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting . The term `` Impressionism '' is derived from the title of his painting Impression , soleil levant ( Impression , Sunrise ) , which was exhibited in 1874 in the first of the independent exhibitions mounted by Monet and his associates as an alternative to the Salon de Paris . Monet 's ambition of documenting the French countryside led him to adopt a method of painting the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons . From 1883 Monet lived in Giverny , where he purchased a house and property , and began a vast landscaping project which included lily ponds that would become the subjects of his best-known works . In 1899 he began painting the water lilies , first in vertical views with a Japanese bridge as a central feature , and later in the series of large-scale paintings that was to occupy him continuously for the next 20 years of his life . Monet and Impressionism First `` Impressionist '' exhibition From the late 1860s , Monet and other like-minded artists met with rejection from the conservative Académie des Beaux-Arts , which held its annual exhibition at the Salon de Paris . During the latter part of 1873 , Monet , Pierre-Auguste Renoir , Camille Pissarro , and Alfred Sisley organized the Société anonyme des artistes peintres , sculpteurs et graveurs ( Anonymous Society of Painters , Sculptors , and Engravers ) to exhibit their artworks independently . At their first exhibition , held in April 1874 , Monet exhibited the work that was to give the group its lasting name . Impression , Sunrise was painted in 1872 , depicting a Le Havre port landscape . From the painting 's title the art critic Louis Leroy , in his review , `` L'Exposition des Impressionnistes , '' which appeared in Le Charivari , coined the term `` Impressionism '' . It was intended as disparagement but the Impressionists appropriated the term for themselves . Biography Birth and childhood Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte , in the 9th arrondissement of Paris . He was the second son of Claude Adolphe Monet and Louise Justine Aubrée Monet , both of them second-generation Parisians . On 20 May 1841 , he was baptized in the local parish church , Notre-Dame-de-Lorette , as Oscar-Claude , but his parents called him simply Oscar . ( He signed his juvenilia `` O. Monet '' . ) Despite being baptized Catholic , Monet later became an atheist . In 1845 , his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy . His father wanted him to go into the family grocery business , but Monet wanted to become an artist . His mother was a singer . On 1 April 1851 , Monet entered Le Havre secondary school of the arts . Locals knew him well for his charcoal caricatures , which he would sell for ten to twenty francs . Monet also undertook his first drawing lessons from Jacques-François Ochard , a former student of Jacques-Louis David . On the beaches of Normandy around 1856 he met fellow artist Eugène Boudin , who became his mentor and taught him to use oil paints . Boudin taught Monet `` en plein air '' ( outdoor ) techniques for painting . [ http : //www.guggenheimcollection.org/site/artist_bio_165.html Biography for Claude Monet ] Guggenheim Collection . Retrieved 6 January 2007 . Both received the influence of Johan Barthold Jongkind . On 28 January 1857 , his mother died . At the age of sixteen , he left school and went to live with his widowed , childless aunt , Marie-Jeanne Lecadre . Paris and Algeria When Monet traveled to Paris to visit the Louvre , he witnessed painters copying from the old masters . Having brought his paints and other tools with him , he would instead go and sit by a window and paint what he saw . Monet was in Paris for several years and met other young painters , including Édouard Manet and others who would become friends and fellow Impressionists . After drawing a low ballot number in March 1861 , Monet was drafted into the First Regiment of African Light Cavalry ( Chasseurs d'Afrique ) in Algeria for a seven-year period of military service . His prosperous father could have purchased Monet 's exemption from conscription but declined to do so when his son refused to give up painting . While in Algeria Monet did only a few sketches of casbah scenes , a single landscape , and several portraits of officers , all of which have been lost . In a Le Temps interview of 1900 however he commented that the light and vivid colors of North Africa `` contained the germ of my future researches '' After about a year of garrison duty in Algiers , Monet contracted typhoid fever and briefly went absent without leave . Following convalescence , Monet 's aunt intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete a course at an art school . It is possible that the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind , whom Monet knew , may have prompted his aunt on this matter . Disillusioned with the traditional art taught at art schools , in 1862 Monet became a student of Charles Gleyre in Paris , where he met Pierre-Auguste Renoir , Frédéric Bazille and Alfred Sisley . Together they shared new approaches to art , painting the effects of light en plein air with broken color and rapid brushstrokes , in what later came to be known as Impressionism . In January 1865 Monet was working on a version of Le déjeuner sur l'herbe , aiming to present it for hanging at the Salon , which had rejected Manet 's Le déjeuner sur l'herbe two years earlier.Charles F. Stuckey , p. 11–16 Monet 's painting was very large and could not be completed in time . ( It was later cut up , with parts now in different galleries . ) Monet submitted instead a painting of Camille or The Woman in the Green Dress ( La femme à la robe verte ) , one of many works using his future wife , Camille Doncieux , as his model . Both this painting and a small landscape were hung . The following year Monet used Camille for his model in Women in the Garden , and On the Bank of the Seine , Bennecourt in 1868 . Camille became pregnant and gave birth to their first child , Jean , in 1867 . Monet and Camille married on 28 June 1870 , just before the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War , and , after their excursion to London and Zaandam , they moved to Argenteuil , in December 1871 . During this time Monet painted various works of modern life . He and Camille lived in poverty for most of this period . Following the successful exhibition of some maritime paintings , and the winning of a silver medal at Le Havre , Monet 's paintings were seized by creditors , from whom they were bought back by a shipping merchant , Gaudibert , who was also a patron of Boudin . Franco-Prussian War and Argenteuil After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War ( 19 July 1870 ) , Monet and his family took refuge in England in September 1870 , where he studied the works of John Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner , both of whose landscapes would serve to inspire Monet 's innovations in the study of color . In the spring of 1871 , Monet 's works were refused authorisation for inclusion in the Royal Academy exhibition.Charles Stuckey `` Monet , a Retrospective '' , Hugh Lauter Levin Associates , 195 In May 1871 , he left London to live in Zaandam , in the Netherlands , where he made twenty-five paintings ( and the police suspected him of revolutionary activities ) . He also paid a first visit to nearby Amsterdam . In October or November 1871 , he returned to France . From December 1871 to 1878 he lived at Argenteuil , a village on the right bank of the Seine river near Paris , and a popular Sunday-outing destination for Parisians , where he painted some of his best-known works . In 1873 , Monet purchased a small boat equipped to be used as a floating studio . From the boat studio Monet painted landscapes and also portraits of Édouard Manet and his wife ; Manet in turn depicted Monet painting aboard the boat , accompanied by Camille , in 1874 . In 1874 , he briefly returned to Holland . Impressionism The first Impressionist exhibition was held in 1874 at 35 boulevard des Capucines , Paris , from 15 April to 15 May . The primary purpose of the participants was not so much to promote a new style , but to free themselves from the constraints of the Salon de Paris . The exhibition , open to anyone prepared to pay 60 francs , gave artists the opportunity to show their work without the interference of a jury . Renoir chaired the hanging committee and did most of the work himself , as others members failed to present themselves . In addition to Impression : Sunrise ( pictured above ) Monet presented four oil paintings and seven pastels . Among the paintings he displayed was The Luncheon ( 1868 ) , which features Camille Doncieux and Jean Monet , and which had been rejected by the Paris Salon of 1870 . Also in this exhibition was a painting titled Boulevard des Capucines , a painting of the boulevard done from the photographer Nadar 's apartment at no . 35 . Monet painted the subject twice , and it is uncertain which of the two pictures , that now in the Pushkin Museum in Moscow , or that in the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City , was the painting that appeared in the groundbreaking 1874 exhibition , though more recently the Moscow picture has been favoured . Altogether , 165 works were exhibited in the exhibition , including 4 oils , 2 pastels and 3 watercolors by Morisot ; 6 oils and 1 pastel by Renoir ; 10 works by Degas ; 5 by Pissarro ; 3 by Cézanne ; and 3 by Guillaumin . Several works were on loan , including Cézanne 's Modern Olympia , Morisot 's Hide and Seek ( owned by Manet ) and 2 landscapes by Sisley that had been purchased by Durand-Ruel . The total attendance is estimated at 3500 , and some works did sell , though some exhibitors had placed their prices too high . Pissarro was asking 1000 francs for The Orchard and Monet the same for Impression : Sunrise , neither of which sold . Renoir failed to obtain the 500 francs he was asking for La Loge , but later sold it for 450 francs to Père Martin , dealer and supporter of the group . File : Monet , Claude - View At Rouelles , Le Havre ( 1858 ) .jpg|View at Rouelles , Le Havre 1858 , Private collection ; an early work showing the influence of Corot and Courbet File : Claude Monet - Mouth of the Seine.jpg|Mouth of the Seine at Honfleur , 1865 , Norton Simon Foundation , Pasadena , CA ; indicates the influence of Dutch maritime painting . File : Claude Monet 024.jpg|Women in the Garden , 1866–1867 , Musée d'Orsay , Paris . Image : Claude Monet 022.jpg|Woman in a Garden , 1867 , Hermitage , St. Petersburg ; a study in the effect of sunlight and shadow on colour Image : Claude Monet - Jardin à Sainte-Adresse.jpg|Jardin à Sainte-Adresse , 1867 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York . File : Claude Monet - The Luncheon - Google Art Project.jpg|The Luncheon , 1868 , Städel , which features Camille Doncieux and Jean Monet , was rejected by the Paris Salon of 1870 but included in the first Impressionists ' exhibition in 1874 . File : Claude Monet La Grenouillére.jpg|La Grenouillére 1869 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York ; a small plein-air painting created with broad strokes of intense colour . File : Claude Monet - The Magpie - Google Art Project.jpg|The Magpie , 1868–1869 . Musée d'Orsay , Paris ; one of Monet 's early attempts at capturing the effect of snow on the landscape . See also Snow at Argenteuil . File : Claude Monet , 1870 , Le port de Trouville ( Breakwater at Trouville , Low Tide ) , oil on canvas , 54 x 65.7 cm , Museum of Fine Arts , Budapest.jpg|Le port de Trouville ( Breakwater at Trouville , Low Tide ) , 1870 , Museum of Fine Arts , Budapest . File : Claude Monet 002.jpg|La plage de Trouville , 1870 , National Gallery , London . The left figure may be Camille , on the right possibly the wife of Eugène Boudin , whose beach scenes influenced Monet . File : Claude Monet - Jean Monet on his Hobby Horse.jpg|Jean Monet on his hobby horse , 1872 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York File : Claude Monet - Springtime - Google Art Project.jpg|Springtime 1872 , Walters Art Museum Death of Camille In 1876 , Camille Monet became ill with tuberculosis . Their second son , Michel , was born on 17 March 1878 . This second child weakened her already fading health . In the summer of that year , the family moved to the village of Vétheuil where they shared a house with the family of Ernest Hoschedé , a wealthy department store owner and patron of the arts . In 1878 , Camille Monet was diagnosed with uterine cancer , and she died on 5 September 1879 at the age of thirty-two . Monet made a study in oils of his dead wife . Many years later , Monet confessed to his friend Georges Clemenceau that his need to analyse colours was both the joy and torment of his life . He explained , I one day found myself looking at my beloved wife 's dead face and just systematically noting the colours according to an automatic reflex ! John Berger describes the work as `` a blizzard of white , grey , purplish paint ... a terrible blizzard of loss which will forever efface her features . In fact there can be very few death-bed paintings which have been so intensely felt or subjectively expressive . '' Vétheuil After several difficult months following the death of Camille , Monet began to create some of his best paintings of the 19th century . During the early 1880s , Monet painted several groups of landscapes and seascapes in what he considered to be campaigns to document the French countryside . These began to evolve into series of pictures in which he documented the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons . Monet 's friend Ernest Hoschedé became bankrupt , and left in 1878 for Belgium . After the death of Camille Monet in September 1879 , and while Monet continued to live in the house in Vétheuil , Alice Hoschedé helped Monet to raise his two sons , Jean and Michel . She took them to Paris to live alongside her own six children , Blanche ( who married Jean Monet ) , Germaine , Suzanne , Marthe , Jean-Pierre , and Jacques . In the spring of 1880 , Alice Hoschedé and all the children left Paris and rejoined Monet at Vétheuil . In 1881 , all of them moved to Poissy , which Monet hated . In April 1883 , looking out the window of the little train between Vernon and Gasny , he discovered Giverny in Normandy . Monet , Alice Hoschedé and the children moved to Vernon , then to the house in Giverny , where he planted a large garden and where he painted for much of the rest of his life . Following the death of her estranged husband , Monet married Alice Hoschedé in 1892 . File : Claude Monet , 1873 , Camille Monet on a Bench , oil on canvas , 60.6 x 80.3 cm , The Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York.jpg|Camille Monet on a Garden Bench , 1873 , Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York File : Claude Monet - The Artist 's House at Argenteuil.jpg|The Artist 's house at Argenteuil , 1873 , The Art Institute of Chicago File : Claude Monet 037.jpg|Coquelicots , La promenade ( Poppies ) , 1873 , Musée d'Orsay , Paris File : Pont Argenteuil Monet 1.jpg|Argenteuil , 1874 , National Gallery of Art , Washington D.C . File : Claude Monet The Studio Boat.jpg|The Studio Boat , 1874 , Kröller-Müller Museum , Otterlo , Netherlands File : Claude_Monet_-_Woman_with_a_Parasol_-_Madame_Monet_and_Her_Son_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|Woman with a Parasol – Madame Monet and Her Son , 1875 File : Claude Monet - Flowered Riverbank , Argenteuil.jpg|Flowers on the riverbank at Argenteuil , 1877 , Pola Museum of Art , Japan File : Claude Monet 003.jpg|Saint Lazare train station , Paris , 1877 , The Art Institute of Chicago File : Monet - Vetheuil im Nebel.jpg|Vétheuil in the Fog , 1879 , Musée Marmottan Monet , Paris Giverny Monet 's house and garden At the beginning of May 1883 , Monet and his large family rented a house and 2 acre from a local landowner . The house was situated near the main road between the towns of Vernon and Gasny at Giverny . There was a barn that doubled as a painting studio , orchards and a small garden . The house was close enough to the local schools for the children to attend and the surrounding landscape offered many suitable motifs for Monet 's work . The family worked and built up the gardens and Monet 's fortunes began to change for the better as his dealer Paul Durand-Ruel had increasing success in selling his paintings . By November 1890 , Monet was prosperous enough to buy the house , the surrounding buildings and the land for his gardens . During the 1890s , Monet built a greenhouse and a second studio , a spacious building well lit with skylights . Monet wrote daily instructions to his gardener , precise designs and layouts for plantings , and invoices for his floral purchases and his collection of botany books . As Monet 's wealth grew , his garden evolved . He remained its architect , even after he hired seven gardeners . Monet purchased additional land with a water meadow . In 1893 he began a vast landscaping project which included lily ponds that would become the subjects of his best-known works . White water lilies local to France were planted along with imported cultivars from South America and Egypt , resulting in a range of colours including yellow , blue and white lilies that turned pink with age.Art Gallery of Victoria , [ http : //www.ngv.vic.gov.au/whats-on/exhibitions/exhibitions/monets-garden/explore/themes/waterlilies-symbol-of-the-orient-and-modern-science Monet 's Garden ] , ( retrieved 16 December 2013 ) In 1899 he began painting the water lilies , first in vertical views with a Japanese bridge as a central feature , and later in the series of large-scale paintings that was to occupy him continuously for the next 20 years of his life . This scenery , with its alternating light and mirror-like reflections , became an integral part of his work . By the mid-1910s Monet had achieved : File : Monet - Im Garten - 1895.jpeg|In the Garden , 1895 , Collection E. G. Buehrle , Zürich File:1914-26 Claude Monet Agapanthus MOMA NY anagoria.JPG|Agapanthus , between 1914 and 1926 , Museum of Modern Art , New York File : Claude Monet - Les arceaux de roses , Giverny ( Les arceaux fleuris ) .jpg|The rose arches , Giverny , 1913 , private collection File : Water-Lilies-and-Japanese-Bridge- ( 1897-1899 ) -Monet.jpg|Water Lilies and the Japanese bridge , 1897–99 , Princeton University Art Museum File : Monet - Seerosen 1906.jpg|Water Lilies , 1906 , Art Institute of Chicago File : Monet - Seerosen6.jpg|Water Lilies , Musée Marmottan Monet File : Nympheas 71293 3.jpg|Water Lilies , c. 1915 , Neue Pinakothek , Munich File : Monet - Seerosen5.jpg|Water Lilies , c. 1915 , Musée Marmottan Monet Last years Failing sight Monet 's second wife , Alice , died in 1911 , and his oldest son Jean , who had married Alice 's daughter Blanche , Monet 's particular favourite , died in 1914 . After Alice died , Blanche looked after and cared for Monet . It was during this time that Monet began to develop the first signs of cataracts . During World War I , in which his younger son Michel served and his friend and admirer Clemenceau led the French nation , Monet painted a series of weeping willow trees as homage to the French fallen soldiers . In 1923 , he underwent two operations to remove his cataracts . The paintings done while the cataracts affected his vision have a general reddish tone , which is characteristic of the vision of cataract victims . It may also be that after surgery he was able to see certain ultraviolet wavelengths of light that are normally excluded by the lens of the eye ; this may have had an effect on the colors he perceived . After his operations he even repainted some of these paintings , with bluer water lilies than before . Death Monet died of lung cancer on 5 December 1926 at the age of 86 and is buried in the Giverny church cemetery . Monet had insisted that the occasion be simple ; thus only about fifty people attended the ceremony . His home , garden , and waterlily pond were bequeathed by his son Michel , his only heir , to the French Academy of Fine Arts ( part of the Institut de France ) in 1966 . Through the Fondation Claude Monet , the house and gardens were opened for visits in 1980 , following restoration . In addition to souvenirs of Monet and other objects of his life , the house contains his collection of Japanese woodcut prints . The house and garden , along with the Museum of Impressionism , are major attractions in Giverny , which hosts tourists from all over the world . File : Nymphéas reflets de saule 1916-19.jpg|Water Lilies and Reflections of a Willow ( 1916–19 ) , Musée Marmottan Monet Image : Claude Monet , Water-Lily Pond and Weeping Willow.JPG|Water-Lily Pond and Weeping Willow , 1916–1919 , Sale Christie 's New York , 1998 File : Claude Monet , Weeping Willow.JPG|Weeping Willow , 1918–1919 , Columbus Museum of Art Image : Claude Monet Weeping Willow.jpg|Weeping Willow , 1918–1919 , Kimball Art Museum , Fort Worth , Monet 's Weeping Willow paintings were an homage to the fallen French soldiers of World War I File : Monet - Das Haus in den Rosen.jpeg|House Among the Roses , between 1917 and 1919 , Albertina , Vienna File : Monet- Der Rosenweg in Giverny.jpeg|The Rose Walk , Giverny , 1920–22 , Musée Marmottan Monet File:1920-22 Claude Monet The Japanese Footbridge MOMA NY anagoria.JPG|The Japanese Footbridge , 1920–22 , Museum of Modern Art File : Monet - Garten in Giverny.jpg|The Garden at Giverny Monet 's methods Monet has been described as `` the driving force behind Impressionism '' . Crucial to the art of the Impressionist painters was the understanding of the effects of light on the local colour of objects , and the effects of the juxtaposition of colours with each other . Monet 's long career as a painter was spent in the pursuit of this aim . In 1856 , his chance meeting with Eugene Boudin , a painter of small beach scenes , opened his eyes to the possibility of plein-air painting . From that time , with a short interruption for military service , he dedicated himself to searching for new and improved methods of painterly expression . To this end , as a young man , he visited the Paris Salon and familiarised himself with the works of older painters , and made friends with other young artists . The five years that he spent at Argenteuil , spending much time on the River Seine in a little floating studio , were formative in his study of the effects of light and reflections . He began to think in terms of colours and shapes rather than scenes and objects . He used bright colours in dabs and dashes and squiggles of paint . Having rejected the academic teachings of Gleyre 's studio , he freed himself from theory , saying `` I like to paint as a bird sings . '' In 1877 a series of paintings at St-Lazare Station had Monet looking at smoke and steam and the way that they affected colour and visibility , being sometimes opaque and sometimes translucent . He was to further use this study in the painting of the effects of mist and rain on the landscape . The study of the effects of atmosphere were to evolve into a number of series of paintings in which Monet repeatedly painted the same subject in different lights , at different hours of the day , and through the changes of weather and season . This process began in the 1880s and continued until the end of his life in 1926 . His first series exhibited as such was of Haystacks , painted from different points of view and at different times of the day . Fifteen of the paintings were exhibited at the Galerie Durand-Ruel in 1891 . In 1892 he produced what is probably his best-known series , twenty-six views of Rouen Cathedral . In these paintings Monet broke with painterly traditions by cropping the subject so that only a portion of the facade is seen on the canvas . The paintings do not focus on the grand Medieval building , but on the play of light and shade across its surface , transforming the solid masonry . Other series include Poplars , Mornings on the Seine , and the Water Lilies that were painted on his property at Giverny . Between 1883 and 1908 , Monet traveled to the Mediterranean , where he painted landmarks , landscapes , and seascapes , including a series of paintings in Venice . In London he painted four series : the Houses of Parliament , London , Charing Cross Bridge , Waterloo Bridge , and Views of Westminster Bridge . Helen Gardner writes : File : La Gare Saint-Lazare - Claude Monet.jpg|La Gare Saint-Lazare , 1877 , Musée d'Orsay File : Arrival of the Normandy Train , Gare Saint-Lazare 1877 Claude Monet.jpg|Arrival of the Normandy Train , Gare Saint-Lazare , 1877 , The Art Institute of Chicago File : Claude Monet The Cliffs at Etretat.jpg|The Cliffs at Etretat , 1885 , Clark Institute , Williamstown File : Monet - Segelboote hinter der Nadel bei Eretat 1885.jpg|Sailboats behind the needle at Etretat , 1885 Image : Claude Monet , Grainstacks in the Sunlight , Morning Effect , 1890 , oil on canvas 65 x 100 cm.jpg|Two paintings from a series of grainstacks , 1890–91 : Grainstacks in the Sunlight , Morning Effect , Image:1270 Wheatstacks , 1890-91 , 65.8 x 101 cm , 25 7-8 x 39 3-4 in , The Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|Grainstacks , end of day , Autumn , 1890–1891 , Art Institute of Chicago File : Claude Monet - Les Peupliers.jpg|Poplars ( Autumn ) , 1891 , Philadelphia Museum of Art File : Monet Poplars on the River Epte.jpg|Poplars at the River Epte , 1891 Tate File : Claude Monet - Branch of the Seine near Giverny.JPG|The Seine Near Giverny , 1897 , Museum of Fine Arts , Boston File : Claude Monet - Morning on the Seine - Google Art Project.jpg|Morning on the Seine , 1898 , National Museum of Western Art Image : Charing Cross Bridge , Monet.jpg|Charing Cross Bridge , 1899 , Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum Madrid File : Claude Monet - Charing Cross Bridge ( Saint Louis ) .jpg|Charing Cross Bridge , London , 1899–1901 , Saint Louis Art Museum Image : Claude Monet - Houses of Parliament , London.jpg|Two paintings from a series of The Houses of Parliament ,

jp_1331--Claude_Monet.txt

What painter is sometimes confused with Claude Monet because their last names differ by just a single letter?

The Argentine Navy or Navy of the Argentine Republic or Armada of the Argentine Republic ( — ARA , also Armada Argentina ) is the navy of Argentina . It is one of the three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic , together with the Army and the Air Force . Each ship of the Argentine Navy is designated with the prefix `` ARA '' before its name . The Argentine Navy day is celebrated on May 17 , anniversary of the victory achieved in 1814 in the Battle of Montevideo over the Spanish fleet during the war of Independence . History 19th century The Argentine Navy was created in the aftermath of the May Revolution of May 25 , 1810 , which started the war for independence from Spain . The navy was first created to support Manuel Belgrano in the Paraguay campaign , but it was sunk by ships from Montevideo , and did not take part in that conflict . Renewed conflicts with Montevideo led to the creation of a second fleet , which participated in the capture of the city . As Buenos Aires had little maritime history , most men in the navy were from other nations , such as the Irish-born admiral William Brown , who directed the operation . As the cost of maintaining a navy was too high , most of the Argentine naval forces were composed of privateers . Brown led the Argentine navy in further naval conflicts at the War with Brazil and the Anglo-French blockade of the Río de la Plata . In the 1870s the Argentine Navy began modernizing itself . At the close of the century , the force included : * 5 armoured cruisers * 4 coastal defence ironclads * 3 second-class , high-speed , British-built cruisers * 7 modern small cruisers and gunboats * 4 destroyers and * 22 torpedo boats . The most powerful ships at this time included the Italian-built and her sister ships : , , and , each at over 6,000 tons . Three older ironclads , , , and dated from the 1880s and early 1890s . The navy 's ships were built primarily in Italy , Britain , France , and Spain and were operated by over 600 officers and 7760 seamen . These were supported by a battalion of marines and an artillery battery . 20th century Argentina remained neutral in both world wars . In 1940 , Argentina 's navy was ranked the eighth most powerful in the world ( after the European powers , Japan , and the United States ) and the largest in Latin America . A ten-year building programme costing $ 60 million had produced a force of 14,500 sailors and over a thousand officers . The fleet included two First World War-era ( but modernized ) American-built s , three modern cruisers , a dozen British-built destroyers , and three submarines in addition to minelayers , minesweepers , coastal defence ships , and gunboats . A naval air force was also in operation . In the postwar period , Naval Aviation and Marine Corps units were put under direct Navy command . With Brazil , Argentina is one of two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers : the and . The Argentine Navy has been traditionally heavily involved in fishery inspection helping the Coast Guard : most notably in 1966 a destroyer fired on and holed a Soviet trawler that had refused to be escorted to Mar del Plata , in the 1970s there were four more incidents with Soviet and Bulgarian ships and continued in recent years . The Navy also took part in all military coups through the 20th century . During the last dictatorship , Navy personnel were involved in the Dirty War of the late 1970s in which thousands of people were kidnapped , tortured and killed by the forces of the Military Junta . The Naval Mechanics School , known as ESMA , was a notorious centre for torture . Among their more well-known victims were the Swedish teenager Dagmar Hagelin and French nuns , Alice Domon and Léonie Duquet ( In October 2007 the Argentine Navy formally handed possession of the school to human rights groups to turn into a memorial museum ) . During this regime , the Navy was also the main supporter of a military solution for the country 's two longest standing disputes : the Beagle Conflict with Chile and the Falkland Islands ( ) with the United Kingdom . Falklands War During the 1982 Falklands conflict termed by the Argentines Guerra de las Malvinas / Guerra del Atlántico Sur the Main Argentine Naval Fleet consisted of modernised World War II era ships ( one GUPPY-type submarine , one British-built carrier , a cruiser , and four destroyers ) supported with new ones ( 2 Type 42 class destroyers , 3 French built corvettes and one German built Type 209 submarine ) . This fleet was supported by several ELMA tankers and transports as well as two ice breakers/polar ships . New German MEKO class destroyers , corvettes and Thyssen-Nordseewerke ( Type TR-1700 ) submarines were still under construction at the time . Despite leading the invasion of the Falkland Islands , in both strategic and tactical aspects the Argentine fleet played only a small part in the subsequent conflict with the Royal Navy . After sank the , the Argentine surface fleet did not venture from a 12-mile ( 22.2-km ) coastal limit imposed by the British due to the threat posed by the Royal Navy fleet of nuclear-powered submarines ( SSNs ) . The Argentine Navy 's contributions to the war were principally the initial amphibious assaults on 2 and 3 April , with naval aviation Exocet armed Super Étendards sinking and the , its Skyhawks sinking ; and the Marines , with the 5th Marine Corps Battalion defending Mount Tumbledown . In addition , the Type 42 destroyer ARA Santisima Trinidad operating off Staten Island played an important part in the destruction of the British landing ship Sir Galahad on 8 June , and a landbased Exocet battery outside Port Stanley scored a direct hit on on 11 June , and a Marine Tigercat SAM put out of action a Royal Air Force Harrier ( XW 919 ) on 12 June . Naval aviation also carried out intensive maritime patrols searching to locate the British Fleet for the strike aircraft and British submarines for the anti-submarine Sea King helicopters , while their Lockheed L-188 Electra and Fokker F-28 Fellowship transports reinforced the Port Stanley garrison and evacuated the wounded . The submarine also played a strategic role , nearly sinking the frigate HMS Arrow on 10 May , although she scored no hits . The submarine , after a successful resupply mission , was attacked and disabled off South Georgia , where her crew then surrendered along with the Argentine detachment at Grytviken . She was later scuttled by the British . Aftermath of the Falklands war The core of the fleet was reformed with the retirement of all the World War II era and s and their replacement with the MEKO 360 and 140 classes designed by the German shipyard Blohm + Voss . Also , the submarine force greatly reinforced their assets with the introduction of the Thyssen-Nordseewerke ( TR-1700 ) class . Although the original programme called for six units with the last four to be built in Argentina , only the two built in Germany were delivered . The amphibious force was drastically affected with the retirement of their only LST landing ship and replacement by a modified cargo vessel , the . This situation was to be improved during 2006 with the delivery made by France of the first of the LPD s but the whole operation was placed in stand by the Argentine Government due to asbestos concerns . In 2010 France offered the instead . France also transferred the , now , multi-product replenishment ship ( AOR ) enhancing the capabilities of the fleet . In 1988 the A-4 Skyhawks were withdrawn leaving the Super Étendard as the only fighter jets in the navy inventory . The already paid for A-4Hs bought in Israel as their replacement could not be delivered due to the embargo imposed by the United States after the war . Instead IAI used the money to refurbish the S-2E Trackers to the S-2T Turbo Tracker variant currently in service . In the 1990s , the embargo was lifted and the Lockheed L-188 Electras ( civilian aircraft converted for maritime patrol ) were finally retired and replaced with similar P-3B Orions and civilian Beechcraft King Air Model 200 were locally converted to the MP variant . In 2000 the aircraft carrier was decommissioned without replacement , although the navy maintains the air group of Super Étendard jets and S-2 Trackers that routinely operate from the Brazilian Navy aircraft carrier [ http : //www.youtube.com/watch ? v=fc9yNM4_Kgk ARAEX video ] or United States Navy carriers when they are in transit in the south Atlantic during Gringo-Gaucho manoeuvers . Gulf War and nineties Argentina was the only Latin American country to participate in the 1991 Gulf War sending a destroyer and a corvette in a first deployment and a supply ship and another corvette later to participate in the United Nations blockade and sea control effort in the gulf . The success of Operación Alfil ( `` '' ) as it was known , with more than 700 interceptions and 25,000 miles sailed in the operations theatre helped to overcome the so-called `` Malvinas syndrome '' . From 1990 to 1992 , the s were deployed under UN mandate ONUCA to the Gulf of Fonseca in Central America . In 1994 , the three s participated in Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti . 21st Century and today In 2003 , for the first time , the Argentine Navy ( classified as major non-NATO ally ) inter-operated with a United States Navy battle group when the destroyer joined the Carrier Strike Group and Destroyer Squadron 18 as a part of Exercise Solid Step during their tour in the Mediterranean Sea . In 2010 the construction of four 1,800 ton offshore patrol ships was announced , but no keel has ever been laid down . Also in May 2010 , Defence Minister Nilda Garre announced that the Navy would continue working on a system that would enable the launch of Exocet missiles from the Navy ’ s P-3 Orion aircraft . In addition , the financing of the local development and construction of a coastal naval defence system that may also be based on the use of Exocet missiles similar to the Excalibur system . In October 2012 the Navy 's sail training ship was seized under court order in Ghana by creditors of Argentina 's debt default in 2002 . On 15 December 2012 the UN International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea ruled unanimously that the ship had immunity as a military vessel , and ordered that `` Ghana should forthwith and unconditionally release the frigate ARA Libertad '' Four days later Libertad was released from Tema and arrived to the port of Mar del Plata on 9 January 2013 . Structure The Argentine Navy participates in joint exercises with other friendly navies like Brazil , United States , Spain , France , Canada , South Africa , Italy , Uruguay , and since the 1990s , Chile . They are also routinely held in order to develop a common operational doctrine . Every year in conjunction with the Chilean Navy , the Argentine Navy participate in the Patrulla Antártica Naval Combinada ( ) to guarantee safety to all touristic and scientific ships that are in transit within the Antarctic Peninsula where the Navy is also directly responsible of maintaining the Argentine bases there . The Argentine navy has four main commands : High Seas Fleet , Submarine Force , Naval Aviation , and Naval Infantry ( Marines ) . Current fleet Puerto Belgrano Naval Base ( Spanish : Base Naval Puerto Belgrano - BNPB ) is the largest naval base of the Argentine Navy , situated next to Punta Alta , near Bahía Blanca , about 700 km ( 435 mi ) south of Buenos Aires . Most of the fleet is based there . The Argentine Navy is under-funded and struggling to meet maintenance and training requirements , as a result only 15 out of a total of 42 navy vessels are in a condition to sail . The 2013 defence budget allowed for the 15 operational vessels to each spend less than 11 days at sea , while the submarines averaged just over 6 hours submerged in the whole of 2012. spent 73 days in late 2012 stranded in South Africa for lack of spares . The s are short of spares and their ordnance has expired while the Antarctic patrol ship has been under repair since a fire in 2007 . On 23 January 2013 the Type 42 destroyer sank at her moorings having been mothballed for ten years . Submarine Force The Argentine Submarine Force was created when the Navy first started using submarines in 1927 . As of 2013 the force is based at Mar del Plata . The Tactical Divers Group is also under the submarine force command structure . Naval Aviation The Naval Aviation Command is abbreviated COAN ( ) and is one of two South American countries to have operated two aircraft carriers . Naval Infantry The Infantería de Marina de la Armada de la República Argentina ( IMARA ) ( ) is the land warfare amphibious branch of the Argentine Navy . Argentine Marines have the same rank insignia and titles as the rest of the Navy and they are currently deployed abroad on UN mandates . Other branches The Servicio de Hidrografia Naval provides the national hydrographics services . Ranks Officers Rank insignia consists of a variable number of gold-braid stripes worn on the sleeve cuffs or on shoulderboards . Officers may be distinguished by the characteristic loop of the top stripe ( in the manner of British Royal Navy officers ) . Combat uniforms may include metal pin-on or embroidered collar rank insignia . Rank insignia is worn on the chest when in shipboard or flying coveralls . Officers are commissioned in either the Command ( line ) Corps ( those who attend the Escuela Naval Militar- Naval College ) or the Staff Corps ( Professional Officers who only attend a short course in the Naval Academy after getting a civilian degree , except for the Paymasters who indeed attend the Naval College ) . The Line Corps is divided into three branches : the Naval branch ( including Surface Warfare , Submarine Warfare and Naval Aviation sub-branches ) , the Marine Corps branch , and Executive -Engineering- branch . Line Corps ' reserve officers are considered Restricted Line ( Escalafon Complementario ) officers in any of the Warfare Communities ( Surface , Submarine , Marines , Aviation and Propulsion ) , and can only raise to OF-4 rank ( Capitan de Fragata ) . All Line Corps officers were distinctive branch/sub-branch insignia on the right breast . Some Staff Corps officers also wear specialisation badges ( Aviation , Surface , Submarine and Marines ) . Other common insignia is the Naval War College insignia , parachute wings , etc. , also worn on the right breast . Medals and Ribbons , if awarded , are worn on the left breast , just above the chest pocket . The rank insignia of Staff Corps ' officers is placed over a background colour denoting the wearer 's field , such as purple ( Chaplains ) , blue ( Engineers ) , red ( Health Corps ) , white ( Paymasters ) , green ( Judge Advocate Officers ) , brown ( Technical Officers , promoted from the ranks ) and grey ( special branch ) . The background colour for Command Corps officers is navy blue/black . Beards Following a global trend , Argentine armed forces have prohibited beards since the 1920s . This was reinforced in the Cold War era when they were deemed synonymous with leftist leanings . The only exception were Antarctic service within the three armed forces as a protection from cold weather , and submarine service within the Navy as a way of saving water . However , shaving was mandatory upon return to headquarters . In 2000 the Navy broke with this tradition within the Argentine armed forces as Adm. Joaquín Stella , then Navy Chief of Staff allowed beards for officers with ranks above Teniente de Corbeta ( Ensign ) , according to Section 1.10.1.1 of the Navy Uniform regulations ( R.A-1-001 ) . Adm. Stella gave the example himself by becoming the first bearded Argentine admiral since Adm. Sáenz Valiente in the 1920s . Non commissioned officers can wear beards from Suboficial Segundo rank , and upwards . Protocol still requires officers to appear clean-shaved on duty , thus forcing those who choose to sport beards to grow them while on leave . Both full beards and goatees are allowed , as long as they proffer a professional , non-eccentric image . Nowadays , bearded Argentine naval officers and senior NCO 's are a relatively common sight . Enlisted men and Non-Commissioned Officers Other ranks ' insignia ( not including Seamen ) is worn on either shoulderboards or breast or sleeve patches . Seamen and Seamen Recruits wear their insignia on their sleeves . The shoulderboards denote the wearer 's specialty .

bb_439--Argentine_Navy.txt

What was the name of the Argentine Navy cruiser which was torpedoed and sunk during the 1982 Falklands War?

American History X is a 1998 American crime drama film directed by Tony Kaye , written by David McKenna , and stars Edward Norton , Edward Furlong , Fairuza Balk , Stacy Keach , Elliott Gould , Avery Brooks , Ethan Suplee and Beverly D'Angelo . The film was released in the United States on October 30 , 1998 and was distributed by New Line Cinema . The film tells the story of two Venice , Los Angeles brothers who become involved in the neo-Nazi movement . The older brother serves three years in prison for voluntary manslaughter , changes his beliefs and tries to prevent his brother from going down the same path . The film is told in the style of nonlinear narrative . Made on a budget of $ 20 million , it grossed $ 24 million at the worldwide box office . Critics mostly praised the film and Norton 's performance , which earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor . In September 2008 , Empire magazine named it the 311th Greatest Movie of All Time . Plot Danny Vinyard ( Edward Furlong ) , a high school student and budding neo-Nazi in Venice Beach , California , receives an assignment from Mr. Murray ( Elliott Gould ) , his history teacher , to write a paper on `` any book which relates to the struggle for human rights . '' Knowing Murray is Jewish , Danny writes his paper on Adolf Hitler 's Mein Kampf . Murray attempts to get Danny expelled for doing this , but Principal Dr. Bob Sweeney ( Avery Brooks ) — who is black — refuses , instead informing Danny that he will study history and current events under Sweeney , and that the class will be called `` American History X '' . Danny 's first assignment is to prepare a paper on his brother Derek ( Edward Norton ) , a former neo-Nazi leader who has just been released from prison after serving three years for voluntary manslaughter . Danny is warned that failing to submit the paper the next morning will result in his expulsion . The rest of the film alternates between a series of vignettes from Danny and Derek 's shared past ( distinguished by being shown in black and white ) , and present day events ( shown in color ) . Derek and Danny 's father is Dennis Vinyard ( William Russ ) , a firefighter who exposes his own racism in reaction to the news that Derek 's English teacher , Dr. Sweeney , had assigned Richard Wright 's novel Native Son . Sent on a call to fight a fire in a drug den , Dennis is murdered by black drug dealers . In a television interview conducted after Dennis ' death , Derek erupts in a long racist tirade . Shortly thereafter , Cameron Alexander ( Stacy Keach ) and Derek form a white supremacist gang called the D.O.C . ( Disciples of Christ ) . A skilled basketball player , Derek is reluctantly dragged into a 3-on-3 game against several members of the Crips in which the prize is control of the recreation center basketball courts . Derek and his friends win the game . Later that evening , Derek leads a large gang of skinheads to attack a supermarket owned by a Korean . They wreck the store , robbing it , and Derek tortures a Hispanic woman after the robbery before escaping . The next day , his mother Doris ( Beverly D'Angelo ) invites Mr. Murray , whom she is dating , home for dinner . A dinnertime discussion about Rodney King and police brutality turns into a full-blown argument between Derek and Murray . When Derek reveals his swastika tattoo , calls Murray a `` hook-nosed kike '' and violently threatens Murray for `` invading his family , '' Murray leaves and Doris orders Derek out of her home . That night , as Derek and his girlfriend Stacey ( Fairuza Balk ) have sex , Danny hears people ( the three gang members whom Derek beat at basketball ) attempting to steal Derek 's truck . Derek shoots and kills one of the thieves with a pistol and curb stomps another , before being arrested by the police and being sentenced to three years in prison . Derek is given a job in the prison laundry and is assigned to be the partner of Lamont ( Guy Torry ) , a black man who is serving six years for assault . Lamont stole a television set from a store and broke the arresting officer 's foot when he was ordered to drop the television and put his hands up . The pair develop a rapport from their shared love of basketball . In prison , Derek joins the Aryan Brotherhood but , after about a year , he becomes disillusioned with the Aryan Brotherhood , particularly over the group 's hypocritical friendly relations with a Hispanic gang member , and their trafficking of narcotics . In response to Derek 's criticisms , Aryan Brotherhood members savagely beat and rape him in the shower . While recovering from the attack , Derek is visited by Sweeney , whom he asks for help to be paroled . Sweeney informs him of Danny 's involvement with neo-Nazis , and warns that he is on the same path as his older brother . Sweeney confesses that he hated white people as a youth , but eventually realized that hatred is pointless . Derek further distances himself from the Aryan Brotherhood and changes his outlook on life . He spends the remainder of his time in prison alone , reading books that Sweeney sends him . He fears that the prison 's black inmates will attack him , but they leave him alone , thanks to Lamont 's persuasion . Finally realizing the error of his ways , Derek leaves prison a changed man . In the evening that Derek returns home from prison , he finds that Danny has a D.O.C . tattoo . Derek tries to persuade Danny to leave the gang . Later that night , they both go to a neo-Nazi party , where Derek tells the leader , Cameron , that he and Danny will no longer associate with the neo-Nazi movement . Cameron provokes Derek , who beats him up . In response , Danny 's neo-Nazi friend Seth Ryan ( Ethan Suplee ) runs after Derek and aims a pistol at him , which Derek wrestles from him and points at the angry crowd before running away . Danny angrily confronts Derek , who tells him about his experience in prison , which seems to prompt a change in Danny . Back at their home , they remove all the white power posters from their bedroom walls . The next morning , Danny finishes his paper and Derek gets ready for a meeting with his parole officer . Derek walks Danny to school before his meeting , and on their way they stop at a diner where they are met by Sweeney and a police officer . They tell Derek that Cameron and Seth were attacked the previous night and have been hospitalized . At school , Danny is confronted by a young black student named Little Henry , with whom he had a confrontation the previous day . Little Henry shoots and kills Danny . Derek arrives at the school , runs into the bathroom and sadly mourns for Danny . The film ends with a voice over of Danny reading the final lines of his paper for Dr. Sweeney , stating `` Hate is baggage . Life 's too short to be pissed off all the time . It 's just not worth it . '' and then quoting the final stanza of Abraham Lincoln 's first inaugural address . Cast * Edward Norton as Derek Vinyard * Edward Furlong as Danny Vinyard * Beverly D'Angelo as Doris Vinyard * Jennifer Lien as Davina Vinyard * Ethan Suplee as Seth Ryan * Fairuza Balk as Stacey * Avery Brooks as Dr. Bob Sweeney * Elliott Gould as Murray * Stacy Keach as Cameron Alexander * William Russ as Dennis Vinyard * Guy Torry as Lamont * Joseph Cortese as Rasmussen * Keram Malicki-Sánchez as Chris * Giuseppe Andrews as Jason * Christopher Masterson as Daryl Dawson * Paul Le Mat as McMahon Soundtrack Production Shooting took place in Los Angeles , California . With some suggestions from New Line , director Tony Kaye made a second heavily shortened cut , which New Line rejected as it bore little resemblance to the first . Film editor Jerry Greenberg was brought in to cut a third version with Edward Norton . Kaye disowned the third version as the final cut of the film , as he did not approve of its quality . He tried and failed to have his name removed from the credits , openly telling some interviewers he tried to invoke the Alan Smithee pseudonym which the Directors Guild of America used to reserve for such cases . When his request was denied , Kaye tried `` Humpty Dumpty '' as an alternative name . Joaquin Phoenix was offered the role of Derek Vinyard but turned it down . Release Box office American History X was released on October 30 , 1998 and grossed $ 156,076 in seventeen theaters during its opening weekend . The film went on to gross $ 6,719,864 from 513 theaters in the United States , and a total of $ 23,875,127 worldwide . Critical reception The film received positive reviews upon release with many critics directing particular praise towards Edward Norton 's performance . Based on the reviews of 82 critics collected on Rotten Tomatoes , 83 % of critics gave the film a positive review , with an average score of 7.3/10 ; the website 's consensus reads : `` A compelling and provocative story led by an excellent performance by Edward Norton . '' By comparison , on Metacritic , the film holds a 62/100 average rating based on 32 reviews of top mainstream critics , indicating `` generally favorable reviews '' . Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune , awarding American History X four stars out of four , described it as `` a shockingly powerful screed against racism that also manages to be so well performed and directed that it is entertaining as well '' and stated that it was `` also effective at demonstrating how hate is taught from one generation to another . '' Siskel singled out Norton 's performance and called him `` the immediate front-runner '' for an Oscar . Todd McCarthy , writing for Variety , gave the film a positive review stating , `` This jolting , superbly acted film will draw serious-minded upscale viewers interested in cutting-edge fare . '' He gave special praise to Norton 's performance , saying `` His Derek mesmerizes even as he repels , and the actor fully exposes the human being behind the tough poses and attitudinizing . '' The New York Timess Janet Maslin wrote , `` Though its story elements are all too easily reduced to a simple outline , American History X has enough fiery acting and provocative bombast to make its impact felt . For one thing , its willingness to take on ugly political realities gives it a substantial raison d'être . For another , it has been directed with a mixture of handsome photo-realism and visceral punch . '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four , stating that it was `` always interesting and sometimes compelling , and it contains more actual provocative thought than any American film on race since Do the Right Thing . '' He was critical though of the film 's underdeveloped areas , stating that `` the movie never convincingly charts Derek 's path to race hatred '' and noting that `` in trying to resolve the events of four years in one day , it leaves its shortcuts showing '' . Nevertheless , Ebert concluded , `` This is a good and powerful film . If I am dissatisfied , it is because it contains the promise of being more than it is . '' Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle expressed disappointment at the film , though he did praise Norton 's performance as Derek , commenting that he `` is perfect for the role '' . LaSalle felt that while the film succeeded in portraying Derek 's descent into neo-Nazism , it failed to portray his renouncement of his past beliefs : `` We had to watch him think his way in . We should see him think his way out . '' LaSalle also noted other problems : `` In some places the dialogue is surprisingly stilted . Far worse , the ending is a misfire . '' Stephen Hunter , writing for The Washington Post , was highly critical of the film and gave it a negative review . He called it `` a mousy little nothing of a picture , an old melodramatic formula hidden under pretentious TV-commercial-slick photography , postmodernist narrative stylings and violations of various laws of probability . '' Accolades Norton was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance as Derek Vinyard , but lost to Roberto Benigni for Life is Beautiful . In 2006 , the film was nominated for AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers . Norton 's performance was ranked by Total Film as the 72nd greatest film performance of all time . Norton 's Academy Award loss was also included on Empire list of `` 22 Incredibly Shocking Oscars Injustices . ''

qg_3389--American_History_X.txt

Name the 1998 movie from the IMDB plot summary: "A former neo-nazi skinhead tries to prevent his younger brother from going down the same wrong path that he did."

The West Wing is an American serial political drama television series created by Aaron Sorkin that was originally broadcast on NBC from September 22 , 1999 , to May 14 , 2006 . The series is set primarily in the West Wing of the White House , where the Oval Office and offices of presidential senior staff are located , during the fictitious Democratic administration of Josiah Bartlet ( played by Martin Sheen ) . The West Wing was produced by Warner Bros. Television . For the first four seasons , there were three executive producers : Aaron Sorkin ( lead writer of almost all of the first four seasons ) ; Thomas Schlamme ( primary director ) ; and John Wells . After Sorkin left the series , Wells assumed the role of head writer , with later executive producers being directors Alex Graves and Christopher Misiano ( seasons 6–7 ) , and writers Lawrence O'Donnell Jr. and Peter Noah ( season 7 ) . The series first aired on NBC in 1999 and has been broadcast by many networks in several other countries . The series ended its seven-year run on May 14 , 2006 . The West Wing received widespread critical acclaim from critics , political science professors , and former White House staffers . In total , The West Wing won three Golden Globe Awards and 26 Emmy Awards , including the award for Outstanding Drama Series , which it won four consecutive times from 2000 through 2003 . The show 's ratings waned in later years following the departure of series creator Sorkin after the fourth season ( Sorkin wrote or co-wrote 85 of the first 88 episodes ) , yet it remained popular among high-income viewers , a key demographic for the show and its advertisers , with around 16 million viewers . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked it # 7 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time and # 42 in its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time , while the Writers Guild of America ranked it # 10 in its 101 Best Written TV Series List . Cast and characters The West Wing employed a broad ensemble cast to portray the many positions involved in the daily work of the federal government . The President , the First Lady , and the President 's senior staff and advisers form the core cast . Numerous secondary characters , appearing intermittently , complement storylines that generally revolve around this core group . Main characters * Sam Seaborn ( Rob Lowe ) is the White House Deputy Communications Director , who later departs in order to run for Congress . He returns to the West Wing as Santos ' Deputy Chief of Staff at the series end ( regular : seasons 1–4 , guest star : season 7 ) . * Mandy Hampton ( Moira Kelly ) is Josh Lyman 's ex-girlfriend and a White House Media Consultant contracted by the Bartlet administration . She departs without explanation following the first season ( regular : season 1 ) . * Charlie Young ( Dulé Hill ) is originally the Personal Aide to the President , and later a Deputy Special Assistant to the Chief of Staff . He is in a relationship with Zoey Bartlet . At the series end he begins to study law at Georgetown ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * C. J. Cregg ( Allison Janney ) , the Press Secretary who succeeds Leo McGarry as Chief of Staff . She leaves the White House at the end of the Bartlet administration . Post-series , she marries Danny Concannon and has a child ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Toby Ziegler ( Richard Schiff ) , the Communications Director . He is fired from the Bartlet administration after leaking classified information to save the lives of astronauts , though he is later pardoned for his crimes . He has twin children with his ex-wife who is a congresswoman for Maryland ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Leo McGarry ( John Spencer ) , Bartlet 's close personal friend and the original Chief of Staff . Following a heart attack , he becomes Counselor to the President , and later the Democratic Candidate for Vice President . He dies before assuming office ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Josh Lyman ( Bradley Whitford ) , is the Deputy Chief of Staff to Leo McGarry and C.J . Cregg , who later leaves the White House to become the `` Santos for President '' campaign manager . When Santos is elected , Josh becomes White House Chief of Staff ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Josiah Bartlet ( Martin Sheen ) is the President of the United States . He suffers from multiple sclerosis , a fact he initially hides from the electorate . Jed 's presidency is plagued with issues , including an attempted assassination , and the murder of a foreign minister . He is succeeded by Santos ( regular : seasons 1–7 ) . * Donna Moss ( Janel Moloney ) is the Senior Assistant to the Deputy Chief of Staff , who later acts as both the `` Russell for President '' campaign spokesperson , and the Santos campaign spokesperson . Upon Santos ' election , she becomes Chief of Staff to the First Lady ( regular : seasons 2–7 , recurring : season 1 ) . * Abbey Bartlet ( Stockard Channing ) is the First Lady , Jed 's wife , and a medical doctor . She is forced to rescind her license during the series , though later regains her privileges ( regular : seasons 3–7 , recurring : seasons 1–2 ) . * Will Bailey ( Joshua Malina ) is hired on a freelance basis by Toby Ziegler and later becomes Deputy Communications Director . He also holds the positions of Chief of Staff to the Vice President , Russell 's Campaign Manager , and Communications Director . After the series end he becomes a congressman for Oregon ( regular : seasons 4–7 ) . * Kate Harper ( Mary McCormack ) is a talented intelligence analyst and Nancy McNally 's newest Deputy National Security Advisor . Kate is also a veteran Commander in the United States Navy , and is stationed out of the West Wing ( regular : seasons 6–7 , recurring : season 5 ) . * Matt Santos ( Jimmy Smits ) is a Congressman from Texas who is convinced by Josh to run for President , eventually becoming the Democratic nominee and later the President of the United States . He is married with children , and selects Leo McGarry as his running mate ( regular : seasons 6–7 ) . * Arnold Vinick ( Alan Alda ) is a Senator from California who later becomes the Republican nominee for President . After losing the election to Santos , he momentarily fades into obscurity . He is later appointed Secretary of State , as President-elect Santos believes he is the only person for the job ( regular : seasons 6–7 ) . * Annabeth Schott ( Kristin Chenoweth ) is Bartlet 's Deputy Press Secretary , who later becomes a `` Santos for President '' campaigner and the assistant to the Vice Presidential Candidate . At the series end , she is appointed Press Secretary to Helen Santos , the First Lady ( regular : season 7 , recurring : season 6 ) . Background Each of the principal actors made approximately $ 75,000 an episode , with Sheen 's confirmed salary being $ 300,000 . Rob Lowe left the series in the fourth season reportedly due to not getting a salary increase . Disparities in cast salaries led to very public contract disputes , particularly by Janney , Schiff , Spencer , and Whitford . During contract negotiations in 2001 , the four were threatened with breach of contract suits by Warner Bros . However , by banding together , they were able to persuade the studio to more than double their salaries . Two years later , the four again demanded a doubling of their salaries , a few months after Warner Bros had signed new licensing deals with NBC and Bravo . John Spencer died of a heart attack on December 16 , 2005 , about a year after his character experienced a nearly fatal heart attack on the show . Martin Sheen gave a brief memorial message before `` Running Mates '' , the first new episode that aired after Spencer 's death . The loss of Spencer 's character was addressed beginning with the episode `` Election Day '' , which aired on April 2 , 2006 . In an interview on the season 1 DVD , Bradley Whitford said that he was originally cast as Sam , even though Aaron Sorkin had created the Josh character specifically for him . In the same interview , Janel Moloney stated she had originally auditioned for the role of C.J . and that Donna , the role for which she was eventually cast , was not meant to be a recurring character . Other actors were seriously considered for other roles , including Alan Alda and Sidney Poitier for the President , Judd Hirsch for Leo , Eugene Levy for Toby , and CCH Pounder for C.J . Crew The series was created by Aaron Sorkin , who served as executive producer for the pilot episode alongside director Thomas Schlamme and John Wells . Kristin Harms and Llewellyn Wells were producers for the pilot . Michael Hissrich acted as a co-producer . The first season proper saw the return of all of the pilot production team along with the addition of Ron Osborn and Jeff Reno as consulting producers and Rick Cleveland as a second co-producer with Robert W. Glass as an associate producer . Glass left the production team after only five episodes . Osborn and Reno departed after nine episodes . Paul Redford served as a story editor throughout the first season . Lawrence O'Donnell worked as executive story editor for the second half of the season . With the second season , Kevin Falls became a co-executive producer . Cleveland left the production team and Redford and O'Donnell were promoted to co-producer . Peter Parnell and Patrick Caddell became co-producers and Julie Herlocker and Mindy Kanaskie became associate producers . O'Donnell was promoted again to producer five episodes into the season and Hissrich joined him twelve episodes into the season . The third season saw the departure of Parnell , Caddell , and Herlocker and the temporary absence of O'Donnell . Director Christopher Misiano became a supervising producer , Patrick Ward joined the series as an associate producer , and Eli Attie joined the writing staff as a staff writer . Redford was promoted to producer . With the thirteenth episode of the third season director Alex Graves became an additional supervising producer and Attie became a story editor . The fourth season marked the temporary departure of Hissrich . Misiano and Graves became co-executive producers alongside Falls . Attie was promoted to executive story editor and Debora Cahn became a staff writer . The fourteenth episode of the season saw Redford promoted to supervising producer and Kanaskie , Ward and Attie promoted to co-producers . The fifth season saw the departure of both Sorkin and Schlamme as executive producers . Schlamme remained attached to the series as an executive consultant . John Wells remained the sole executive producer and showrunner . Co-executive producer Kevin Falls also left the show . O'Donnell rejoined the production team as a consulting producer . Wells also added Carol Flint , Alexa Junge , Peter Noah , and John Sacret Young as consulting producers . Andrew Stearn came aboard as a producer and Attie was promoted to producer . Cahn became story editor and Josh Singer replaced her as staff writer . With the tenth episode Flint , Junge , Noah and Sacret Young became supervising producers . With the sixth season Misiano and Graves were promoted to executive producers . Redford and Junge left the production team and Dylan K. Massin became a co-producer . Cahn was promoted to executive story editor and Singer replaced her as story editor . Lauren Schmidt filled the staff writer role . The fourth episode saw the departure of original crew member Llewellyn Wells . Debora Cahn was promoted to co-producer with the fourteenth episode . The seventh season saw Noah and O'Donnell promoted again , this time becoming additional executive producers . Attie became a supervising producer . Hissrich returned to his role as producer for the final season . Episodes The West Wing , like many serial dramas , stretches storylines over several episodes or entire seasons . In addition to these larger storylines , each episode also contains smaller arcs that usually begin and end within an episode . Most episodes follow President Bartlet and his staff through particular legislative or political issues . Plots can range from behind-closed-doors negotiating with Congress to personal problems like post-traumatic stress disorder , from which Josh suffers during the second season . The typical episode loosely follows the President and his staff through their day , generally following several plots connected by some idea or theme . A large , fully connected set of the White House allowed the producers to create shots with very few cuts and long , continuous master shots of staff members conversing as they walk through the hallways . These `` walk and talks '' became a trademark of the show . The final two seasons presented a narrative change , with the focus of the show divided between plots in the West Wing with President Bartlet and his remaining senior staffers and plots revolving around the rest of the main cast on the campaign trail for the 2006 election . * In the first season , the Bartlet administration is in the middle of its second year and is still having trouble settling in and making progress on legislative issues . * The second season covers the aftermath of a shooting at Rosslyn , the 2000 midterm elections and dealings with a new Congress , and sees scandal when the White House is rocked by allegations of criminal conduct and the President must decide whether he will run for a second term . * The third and fourth seasons take an in-depth look at the campaign trail and the specter of both foreign and domestic terrorism . * In the fifth season , the President begins to encounter more issues on the foreign front , while at home he faces off with the newly elected Speaker of the House , battles controversy over Supreme Court appointments and oversees a daring plan to save Social Security . * The sixth season chronicles the quest to replace President Bartlet in the next election , following the primary campaigns of several candidates from both parties , while the President himself attempts to build his legacy , but finds his ability to govern compromised by his illness . * In the seventh season , the President must face a leak of confidential information about a secret Department of Defense program from inside the White House , while the Democratic and Republican candidates battle to succeed him in the general election . Development The series developed following the success of 1995 theatrical film The American President , for which Aaron Sorkin wrote the screenplay , and in which Martin Sheen played the White House Chief of Staff . Unused plot elements from the film and a suggestion from Akiva Goldsman inspired Sorkin to create The West Wing . According to the DVD commentary , Sorkin intended to center the show on Sam Seaborn and the other senior staff with the President in an unseen or a secondary role . However , Bartlet 's screen time gradually increased , and his role expanded as the series progressed . Positive critical and public reaction to Sheen 's performance raised his character 's profile , decreasing Lowe 's perceived significance . In addition , according to Sorkin , the storylines began to focus less on Sam and more on Josh Lyman , the Deputy Chief of Staff . This shift was one of the reasons for Lowe 's eventual departure from the show in the fourth season . For the first four seasons , drawing on research materials , scene drafts , and occasionally entire draft scripts from his writing staff , Sorkin wrote almost every episode of the series , occasionally reusing plot elements , episode titles , character names , and actors from his previous work , Sports Night , a sitcom in which he began to develop his signature dialogue style of rhythmic , snappy , and intellectual banter . Fellow executive producer and director Thomas Schlamme championed the walk and talk , a continuous shot tracking in front of the characters as they walk from one place to another that became part of The West Wing signature visual style . Sorkin 's hectic writing schedule often led to cost overruns and schedule slips , and he opted to leave the show after the fourth season , following increasing personal problems , including an arrest for possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms . Thomas Schlamme also left the show after the fourth season . John Wells , the remaining executive producer , took the helm after their departure . The West Wing aired on Wednesdays at 9:00 pm ET from its debut until the end of its sixth season . NBC elected to move the series to Sundays at 8:00 pm for its seventh season , a move universally regarded as the beginning of the series ' end ( since NBC and the NFL had reached a deal for Sunday Night Football to return to the network in fall 2006 ) , and the series finale aired on May 14 , 2006 . The West Wing took a large ratings hit with the move , which put it up against ABC 's Top 20 hit Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , and CBS ' Top 30 hit Cold Case in its timeslot . Critical reactions The West Wing offers a glimpse into the inner workings of the fictional Bartlet White House . The show 's legitimacy , political slant , and idealist representations of Washington , as well as its notable writing and film merits , have generated considerable discussion . Realism While The West Wing is not completely accurate in its portrayal of the actual West Wing , former White House staffers described the show as capturing the feel of the real West Wing . However , President Gerald Ford 's daughter Susan made the comment `` I ca n't watch [ the show ] . They turn left and right where you are not supposed to . '' Former Senate aide Lawrence O'Donnell and former White House aide and presidential campaign speechwriter Eli Attie were both longtime writers on the show ( O'Donnell for seasons 1-2 and 5-7 , Attie for seasons 3-7 ) . Former White House Press Secretaries Dee Dee Myers and Marlin Fitzwater and pollsters Patrick Caddell and Frank Luntz also served as consultants , advising the writing staff for part of the show 's run . Other former White House staffers , such as Peggy Noonan and Gene Sperling , served as consultants for brief periods . A documentary special in the third season compared the show 's depiction of the West Wing to the real thing . Many former West Wing denizens applauded the show 's depiction of the West Wing , including advisor David Gergen , Secretary of State Henry Kissinger , Chief of Staff Leon Panetta , Deputy Chief of Staff Karl Rove , and former Presidents Gerald Ford , Jimmy Carter , and Bill Clinton . While critics often praised The West Wing for its writing , others faulted the show as unrealistically optimistic and sentimental . A large part of this criticism came from the perceived naiveté of the characters . Television critic Heather Havrilesky asked , `` What rock did these morally pure creatures crawl out from under and , more important , how do you go from innocent millipede to White House staffer without becoming soiled or disillusioned by the dirty realities of politics along the way ? '' Social impact Despite acclaim for the veracity of the series , Sorkin believed , `` our responsibility is to captivate you for however long we 've asked for your attention . '' Former White House aide Matthew Miller noted that Sorkin `` captivates viewers by making the human side of politics more real than life—or at least more real than the picture we get from the news . '' Miller also noted that by portraying politicians with empathy , the show created a `` subversive competitor '' to the cynical views of politics in media . In the essay `` The West Wing and the West Wing '' , author Myron Levine agreed , stating that the series `` presents an essentially positive view of public service and a healthy corrective to anti-Washington stereotypes and public cynicism . '' Dr. Staci L. Beavers , associate professor of political science at California State University , San Marcos , wrote a short essay , `` The West Wing as a Pedagogical Tool '' . She concluded , `` While the series ' purpose is for-profit entertainment , The West Wing presents great pedagogical potential . '' The West Wing , in her opinion , gave greater depth to the political process usually espoused only in stilted talking points on shows like Face the Nation and Meet the Press . However , the merits of a particular argument may be obscured by the viewer 's opinion of the character . Beavers also noted that characters with opposing viewpoints were often set up to be `` bad people '' in the viewer 's eyes . These characters were assigned undesirable characteristics having nothing to do with their political opinions , such as being romantically involved with a main character 's love interest . In Beavers ' opinion , a critical analysis of the show 's political views can present a worthwhile learning experience to the viewer . One of the stranger effects of the show occurred on January 31 , 2006 , when The West Wing was said to have played a hand in defeating a proposal backed by Tony Blair 's government in the British House of Commons , during the so-called `` West Wing Plot '' . The plan was allegedly hatched after a Conservative Member of Parliament watched the episode `` A Good Day '' , in which Democrats block a bill aimed at limiting stem cell research , by appearing to have left Washington D.C. but actually hiding in a congressional office until the Republican Speaker calls the vote . A number of episodes referred to a practice of the administration having one day each year on which they accepted meetings with people or groups who would not normally receive an audience with high-level White House staffers , referring to the event as `` Big Block of Cheese Day '' . The name came from the fact that President Andrew Jackson had a large wheel of cheese placed in the White House from which the public were invited to eat during a reception , while discussing issues of the day with politicians . In 2014 , the White House announced that it was to host an online Q & A with Obama administration officials and staff , called a Virtual `` Big Block of Cheese day '' , on January 29 , 2014 . The event was promoted with a video featuring stars from The West Wing . The event was repeated on January 21 , 2015 , again promoted by stars from the show . `` The Left Wing '' Jewish Journal columnist Naomi Pfefferman once referred to The West Wing as `` The Left Wing ... '' because of its portrayal of an ideal liberal administration , and the moniker has also been used by Republican critics of the show . Chris Lehmann , former deputy editor and regular reviewer for The Washington Post Book World section , characterized the show as a revisionist look at the Clinton presidency . On the other hand , some Republicans have admired the show since its inception , before even the departure of Sorkin and the show 's resulting shift toward the center . In his 2001 article `` Real Liberals versus The West Wing , '' Mackubin Thomas Owens wrote , ″Although his administration is reliably liberal , President Bartlet possesses virtues even a conservative could admire . He obeys the Constitution and the law . He is devoted to his wife and daughters . Being unfaithful to his wife would never cross his mind . He is no wimp when it comes to foreign policy—no quid pro quo for him . '' Journalist Matthew Miller wrote , `` although the show indeed has a liberal bias on issues , it presents a truer , more human picture of the people behind the headlines than most of today 's Washington journalists . '' Filming techniques and reactions In its first season , The West Wing attracted critical attention in the television community with a record nine Emmy wins . The show has been praised for its high production values and repeatedly recognized for its cinematic achievements . The series had a budget of $ 2.7 million per episode . The series has also been praised for Sorkin 's rapid-fire and witty scripts . The West Wing is noted for developing the `` walk-and-talk '' —long Steadicam tracking shots showing characters walking down hallways while involved in long conversations . In a typical `` walk-and-talk '' shot , the camera leads two characters down a hallway as they speak to each other . One of these characters generally breaks off and the remaining character is then joined by another character , who initiates another conversation as they continue walking . These `` walk-and-talks '' create a dynamic feel for what would otherwise be long expository dialogue , and have become a staple for dialogue-intensive television show scenes . Awards In its first season , The West Wing garnered nine Emmys , a record for most won by a series in its first season . In addition , the series received the Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , and 2003 , tying Hill Street Blues , L.A. Law and Mad Men for most won in this category . Each of its seven seasons earned a nomination for the award . With its 26 total awards , The West Wing ties with Hill Street Blues as the drama with the most Emmy wins . The series shares the Emmy Award record for most acting nominations by regular cast members ( excluding the guest performer category ) for a single series in one year . ( Both Hill Street Blues and L.A. Law also hold that record ) . For the 2001–2002 season , nine cast members were nominated for Emmys . Allison Janney , John Spencer and Stockard Channing each won an Emmy ( for Lead Actress , Supporting Actor and Supporting Actress respectively ) . The others nominated were Martin Sheen ( for Lead Actor ) , Richard Schiff , Dule Hill and Bradley Whitford ( for Supporting Actor ) , and Janel Moloney and Mary-Louise Parker ( for Supporting Actress ) . In addition , that same year Mark Harmon , Tim Matheson and Ron Silver were each nominated in the Guest Actor category ( although none won the award ) . This gave the series an Emmy Award record for most acting nominations overall ( including guest performer category ) in a single year , with 12 acting nominations . Twenty individual Emmys were awarded to writers , actors , and crew members . Allison Janney is the record holder for most wins by a cast member , with a total of four Emmys . The West Wing won at least one Emmy in each of its seasons except the sixth . In addition to its Emmys , the show won two Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) Awards , in 2000 and 2001 , Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series . Martin Sheen was the only cast member to win a Golden Globe Award , and he and Allison Janney were the only cast members to win SAG Awards . In both 1999 and 2000 , The West Wing was awarded the Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting . The following table summarizes award wins by cast members : Many cast members were Emmy-nominated for their work

sfq_23493--The_West_Wing.txt

Josiah Bartlet was a central character in which U.S. TV drama series?

Aidan of Lindisfarne ( died 31 August 651 ) was an Irish monk and missionary credited with restoring Christianity to Northumbria . He founded a monastic cathedral on the island of Lindisfarne , served as its first bishop , and travelled ceaselessly throughout the countryside , spreading the gospel to both the Anglo-Saxon nobility and to the socially disenfranchised ( including children and slaves ) . He is known as the Apostle of Northumbria and is recognised as a saint by the Orthodox Church , the Roman Catholic Church , the Anglican Communion and others . Biography Bede 's meticulous and detailed account of Aidan 's life provides the basis for most biographical sketches ( both classical and modern ) . One notable lacuna , which ( somewhat paradoxically ) reinforces the notion of Bede 's reliability , is that virtually nothing is known of the monk 's early life , save that he was a monk at the ancient monastery on the island of Iona from a relatively young age and that he was of Irish descent . Aidan was known for his strict asceticism . [ http : //oca.org/saints/lives/2014/08/31/102445-st-aidan-the-bishop-of-lindesfarne `` St. Aidan the Bishop of Lindisfarne '' , Orthodox Church in America ] Background In the years prior to Aidan 's mission , Christianity , which had been propagated throughout Britain but not Ireland by the Roman Empire , was being largely displaced by Anglo-Saxon paganism . In the monastery of Iona ( founded by Columba of the Irish Church ) , the religion soon found one of its principal exponents in Oswald of Northumbria , a noble youth who had been raised there as a king in exile since 616 . Baptized as a Christian , the young king vowed to bring Christianity back to his people—an opportunity that presented itself in 634 , when he gained the crown of Northumbria . Owing to his historical connection to Iona 's monastic community , King Oswald requested that missionaries be sent from that monastery instead of the Roman-sponsored monasteries of Southern England . At first , they sent him a bishop named Cormán , but he alienated many people by his harshness , and returned in failure to Iona reporting that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted . Aidan criticised Cormán 's methods and was soon sent as his replacement in 635.Powicke Handbook of British Chronology p. 237 Missionary efforts Allying himself with the pious king , Aidan chose the island of Lindisfarne , which was close to the royal castle at Bamburgh , as the seat of his diocese . An inspired missionary , Aidan would walk from one village to another , politely conversing with the people he saw and slowly interesting them in Christianity : in this , he followed the early apostolic model of conversion , by offering `` them first the milk of gentle doctrine , to bring them by degrees , while nourishing them with the Divine Word , to the true understanding and practice of the more advanced precepts . '' By patiently talking to the people on their own level ( and by taking an active interest in their lives and communities ) , Aidan and his monks slowly restored Christianity to the Northumbrian countryside . King Oswald , who after his years of exile had a perfect command of Irish , often had to translate for Aidan and his monks , who did not speak English at first . In his years of evangelism , Aidan was responsible for the construction of churches , monasteries and schools throughout Northumbria . At the same time , he earned a tremendous reputation for his pious charity and dedication to the less fortunate—such as his tendency to provide room , board and education to orphans , and his use of contributions to pay for the freedom of slaves : He was one to traverse both town and country on foot , never on horseback , unless compelled by some urgent necessity ; and wherever in his way he saw any , either rich or poor , he invited them , if infidels , to embrace the mystery of the faith or if they were believers , to strengthen them in the faith , and to stir them up by words and actions to alms and good works . … This [ the reading of scriptures and psalms , and meditation upon holy truths ] was the daily employment of himself and all that were with him , wheresoever they went ; and if it happened , which was but seldom , that he was invited to eat with the king , he went with one or two clerks , and having taken a small repast , made haste to be gone with them , either to read or write . At that time , many religious men and women , stirred up by his example , adopted the custom of fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays , till the ninth hour , throughout the year , except during the fifty days after Easter . He never gave money to the powerful men of the world , but only meat , if he happened to entertain them ; and , on the contrary , whatsoever gifts of money he received from the rich , he either distributed them , as has been said , to the use of the poor , or bestowed them in ransoming such as had been wrong fully sold for slaves . Moreover , he afterwards made many of those he had ransomed his disciples , and after having taught and instructed them , advanced them to the order of priesthood . The monastery he founded grew and helped found churches and other religious institutions throughout the area . It also served as centre of learning and a storehouse of scholarly knowledge , training many of Aidan 's young charges for a career in the priesthood . Though Aidan was a member of the Irish branch of Christianity ( instead of the Roman branch ) , his character and energy in missionary work won him the respect of Pope Honorius I and Felix of Dunwich . When Oswald died in 642 , Aidan received continued support from King Oswine of Deira and the two became close friends . As such , the monk 's ministry continued relatively unchanged until the rise of pagan hostilities in 651 . At that time , a pagan army attacked Bamburgh and attempted to set its walls ablaze . According to legend , Aidan saw the black smoke from his cell at Lindisfarne Abbey , immediately recognized its cause , and knelt in prayer for the fate of the city . Miraculously , the winds abruptly reversed their course , blowing the conflagration towards the enemy , which convinced them that the capital city was defended by potent spiritual forces.Baring-Gould , 399 . Around this time , Oswine was betrayed and murdered . Twelve days later Aidan died , on 31 August , in the seventeenth year of his episcopate . He had become ill while on one of his incessant missionary tours , and died leaning against the wall of the local church . As Baring-Gould poetically summarizes : `` It was a death which became a soldier of the faith on his own fit field of battle . '' Legacy and veneration After his death , Aidan 's body was buried at Lindisfarne , beneath the abbey that he had helped found.Farmer , David Hugh , 9 . Though his popularity waned in the coming years , `` in the 10th century Glastonbury monks obtained some supposed relics of Aidan ; through their influence Aidan 's feast appears in the early Wessex calendars , which provide the main evidence for his cult after the age of Bede . '' His feast is celebrated on the anniversary of his death , 31 August . Reflecting his Irish origins , his Scottish monasticism and his ministry to the English , Aidan has been proposed as a possible patron saint of the United Kingdom . Today , Aidan 's significance is still recognized in the following saying by Joseph Lightfoot , Bishop of Durham : St Aidan 's College of the University of Durham was named after Aidan of Lindisfarne . Footnotes

sfq_6110--Aidan_of_Lindisfarne.txt

On which island in the North Sea did both St Aidan and St Cuthbert live?

Ronald Wilson Reagan ( ; February 6 , 1911 – June 5 , 2004 ) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . Prior to his presidency , he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975 , following a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader . Raised in a poor family in small towns of northern Illinois , Ronald Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and worked as a sports announcer on several regional radio stations . After moving to Hollywood in 1937 , he became an actor and starred in a few major productions . Reagan was twice elected as President of the Screen Actors Guild , the labor union for actors , where he worked to root out Communist influence . In the 1950s , he moved into television and was a motivational speaker at General Electric factories . Having been a lifelong Democrat , his views changed . He became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party . In 1964 , Reagan 's speech , `` A Time for Choosing '' , in support of Barry Goldwater 's floundering presidential campaign , earned him national attention as a new conservative spokesman . Building a network of supporters , he was elected Governor of California in 1966 . As governor , Reagan raised taxes , turned a state budget deficit to a surplus , challenged the protesters at the University of California , ordered National Guard troops in during a period of protest movements in 1969 , and was re-elected in 1970 . He twice ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nominations in 1968 and 1976 ; four years later , he easily won the nomination outright , going on to be elected the oldest President , defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter in 1980 . Entering the presidency in 1981 , Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives . His supply-side economic policies , dubbed `` Reaganomics '' , advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growth , control of the money supply to curb inflation , economic deregulation , and reduction in government spending . In his first term he survived an assassination attempt , escalated the War on Drugs , and fought public-sector labor . Over his two terms , his economic policies saw a reduction of inflation from 12.5 % to 4.4 % , and an average annual growth of real GDP of 3.4 % ; while Reagan did enact cuts in domestic discretionary spending , increased military spending contributed to increased federal outlays overall , even after adjustment for inflation . During his reelection bid , Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was `` Morning in America '' , winning a landslide in 1984 with the largest electoral college victory in history . Foreign affairs dominated his second term , including ending of the Cold War , the bombing of Libya , and the Iran–Contra affair . Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an `` evil empire '' , he transitioned Cold War policy from détente to rollback , by escalating an arms race with the USSR while engaging in talks with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev , which culminated in the INF Treaty , shrinking both countries ' nuclear arsenals . During his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate , President Reagan challenged Gorbachev to `` tear down this wall ! `` . Five months after the end of his term , the Berlin Wall fell , and on December 26 , 1991 , nearly three years after he left office , the Soviet Union collapsed . Leaving office in 1989 , Reagan held an approval rating of sixty-eight percent , matching those of Franklin D. Roosevelt , and later Bill Clinton , as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era . While having planned an active post-presidency , in 1994 Reagan disclosed his diagnosis with Alzheimer 's disease earlier that year , appearing publicly for the last time at the funeral of Richard Nixon ; he died ten years later in 2004 at the age of 93 . An icon among Republicans , he ranks favorably in public and critical opinion of U.S. Presidents , and his tenure constituted a realignment toward conservative policies in the United States . Early life Ronald Wilson Reagan was born in an apartment on the second floor of a commercial building in Tampico , Illinois on February 6 , 1911 , the son of Nelle Clyde ( Wilson ) and John Edward `` Jack '' Reagan . Reagan 's father was a salesman and a storyteller , the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary , while his mother was of half Scots and half English descent ( Reagan 's maternal grandmother was born in Surrey , England ) . Reagan had one older brother , Neil ( 1908–96 ) , who became an advertising executive . As a boy , Reagan 's father nicknamed his son `` Dutch , '' due to his `` fat little Dutchman '' -like appearance , and his `` Dutchboy '' haircut ; the nickname stuck with him throughout his youth . Reagan 's family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois , including Monmouth , Galesburg , and Chicago , in 1919 , they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C. Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon . After his election as president , residing in the upstairs White House private quarters , Reagan would quip that he was `` living above the store again '' . According to Paul Kengor , author of God and Ronald Reagan , Reagan had a particularly strong faith in the goodness of people , which stemmed from the optimistic faith of his mother , Nelle , and the Disciples of Christ faith , which he was baptized into in 1922 . For the time , Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination , and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there . Reagan brought them back to his house , where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning . After the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 , the Reagans moved to Dixon ; the midwestern `` small universe '' had a lasting impression on Reagan . He attended Dixon High School , where he developed interests in acting , sports , and storytelling . His first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park , near Dixon , in 1927 . Over a six-year period , Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard . Reagan attended Eureka College , a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school , where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity , a cheerleader , and studied economics and sociology . While involved , the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an `` indifferent student '' . He majored in Economics and graduated with a C average . He developed a reputation as a jack of all trades , excelling in campus politics , sports and theater . He was a member of the football team and captain of the swim team . He was elected student body president and led a student revolt against the college president after he tried to cut back the faculty . Entertainment career Radio and film After graduating from Eureka in 1932 , Reagan drove himself to Iowa , where he held jobs as an announcer at several stations . He moved to WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games . His specialty was creating play-by-play accounts of games using as his source only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress . While traveling with the Cubs in California , Reagan took a screen test in 1937 that led to a seven-year contract with Warner Brothers studios . He spent the first few years of his Hollywood career in the `` B film '' unit , where , Reagan joked , the producers `` did n't want them good ; they wanted them Thursday '' . His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air , and by the end of 1939 he had already appeared in 19 films , including Dark Victory with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart . Before the film Santa Fe Trail with Errol Flynn in 1940 , he played the role of George `` The Gipper '' Gipp in the film Knute Rockne , All American ; from it , he acquired the lifelong nickname `` the Gipper . '' In 1941 exhibitors voted him the fifth most popular star from the younger generation in Hollywood . Reagan 's favorite acting role was as a double amputee in 1942 's Kings Row , in which he recites the line `` Where 's the rest of me ? `` —later used as the title of his 1965 autobiography . Many film critics considered Kings Row to be his best movie , though the film was condemned by New York Times critic Bosley Crowther . Although Reagan called Kings Row the film that `` made me a star '' , he was unable to capitalize on his success because he was ordered to active duty with the U.S. Army at San Francisco two months after its release , and never regained `` star '' status in motion pictures . In the post-war era , after being separated from almost four years of World War II stateside service with the 1st Motion Picture Unit in December 1945 , Reagan co-starred in such films as , The Voice of the Turtle , John Loves Mary , The Hasty Heart , Bedtime for Bonzo , Cattle Queen of Montana , Tennessee 's Partner , Hellcats of the Navy ( the only film in which he appears with Nancy Reagan ) and the 1964 remake The Killers ( his final film and the only one in which he played a villain ) . Throughout his film career , his mother answered much of his fan mail . Military service After completing fourteen home-study Army Extension Courses , Reagan enlisted in the Army Enlisted Reserve and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps of the cavalry on May 25 , 1937 . Reagan was ordered to active duty for the first time on April 18 , 1942 . Due to his poor eyesight , he was classified for limited service only , which excluded him from serving overseas . His first assignment was at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason , California , as a liaison officer of the Port and Transportation Office . Upon the approval of the Army Air Force ( AAF ) , he applied for a transfer from the cavalry to the AAF on May 15 , 1942 , and was assigned to AAF Public Relations and subsequently to the First Motion Picture Unit ( officially , the `` 18th Army Air Force Base Unit '' ) in Culver City , California . On January 14 , 1943 , he was promoted to first lieutenant and was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Unit of This Is the Army at Burbank , California . He returned to the First Motion Picture Unit after completing this duty and was promoted to captain on July 22 , 1943 . In January 1944 , Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the opening of the Sixth War Loan Drive . He was reassigned to the First Motion Picture Unit on November 14 , 1944 , where he remained until the end of World War II . He was recommended for promotion to major on February 2 , 1945 , but this recommendation was disapproved on July 17 of that year . While with the First Motion Picture Unit in 1945 , he was indirectly involved in discovering actress Marilyn Monroe . He returned to Fort MacArthur , California , where he was separated from active duty on December 9 , 1945 . By the end of the war , his units had produced some 400 training films for the AAF . Reagan never left the United States during the war , though he kept a film reel , obtained while in the service , depicting the liberation of Auschwitz , as he believed that someday doubts would arise as to whether the Holocaust had occurred . It has been alleged that he was overheard telling Israeli foreign minister Yitzhak Shamir in 1983 that he had filmed that footage himself and helped liberate Auschwitz , though this purported conversation was disputed by Secretary of State George P. Shultz . SAG president Reagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941 , serving as an alternate . After World War II , he resumed service and became 3rd vice-president in 1946 . The adoption of conflict-of-interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six board members to resign ; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of president and subsequently elected . He was subsequently chosen by the membership to serve seven additional one-year terms , from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959 . Reagan led the SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor-management disputes , the Taft–Hartley Act , House Un-American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era . Secret FBI informant in Hollywood During the late 1940s , Reagan and his wife provided the FBI with names of actors within the motion picture industry whom they believed to be communist sympathizers , though he expressed reservations ; he said `` Do they expect us to constitute ourselves as a little FBI of our own and determine just who is a Commie and who is n't ? '' Reagan testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee on the subject as well . A fervent anti-communist , he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles , stating , `` I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged , by either fear or resentment of this group , that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment . '' Television Though an early critic of television , Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s and decided to join the medium . He was hired as the host of General Electric Theater , a series of weekly dramas that became very popular . His contract required him to tour GE plants sixteen weeks out of the year , often demanding of him fourteen speeches per day . He earned approximately $ 125,000 per year ( about $ 1.07 million in 2010 dollars ) in this role . The show ran for ten seasons from 1953 to 1962 and , as a result it increased Reagan 's profile in American households , especially as he had appeared in feature films mostly in supporting role or as a `` second lead '' . His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days . Reagan and Nancy Davis appeared together on television several times , including an episode of General Electric Theater in 1958 called `` A Turkey for the President . '' Marriages and children In 1938 , Reagan co-starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman ( 1917–2007 ) . They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre , and married on January 26 , 1940 , at the Wee Kirk o ' the Heather church in Glendale , California . Together they had two biological children , Maureen ( 1941–2001 ) and Christine ( who was born in 1947 but only lived one day ) , and adopted a third , Michael ( born 1945 ) . After arguments about Reagan 's political ambitions , Wyman filed for divorce in 1948 , citing a distraction due to her husband 's Screen Actors Guild union duties ; the divorce was finalized in 1949 . He is the only US president to have been divorced . Reagan and Wyman continued to be friends until his death , with Wyman voting for Reagan in both of his runs and , upon his death , saying `` America has lost a great president and a great , kind , and gentle man . '' Reagan met actress Nancy Davis ( 1921–2016 ) in 1949 after she contacted him in his capacity as president of the Screen Actors Guild to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a Communist blacklist in Hollywood . She had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis . She described their meeting by saying , `` I do n't know if it was exactly love at first sight , but it was pretty close . '' They were engaged at Chasen 's restaurant in Los Angeles and were married on March 4 , 1952 , at the Little Brown Church in the Valley ( North Hollywood , now Studio City ) San Fernando Valley . Actor William Holden served as best man at the ceremony . They had two children : Patti ( born October 21 , 1952 ) and Ron ( born May 20 , 1958 ) . Observers described the Reagans ' relationship as close , authentic and intimate . During his presidency they were reported to frequently display their affection for one another ; one press secretary said , `` They never took each other for granted . They never stopped courting . '' He often called her `` Mommy '' and she called him `` Ronnie . '' He once wrote to her , `` Whatever I treasure and enjoy ... all would be without meaning if I did n't have you . '' When he was in the hospital in 1981 , she slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent . In a letter to U.S. citizens written in 1994 , Reagan wrote `` I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer 's disease ... I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience , '' and in 1998 , while Reagan was stricken by Alzheimer 's , Nancy told Vanity Fair , `` Our relationship is very special . We were very much in love and still are . When I say my life began with Ronnie , well , it 's true . It did . I ca n't imagine life without him . '' Nancy Reagan died on March 6 , 2016 at the age of 94 . Early political career Reagan began as a Hollywood Democrat ; Franklin D. Roosevelt was his great hero . He moved to the right in the 1950s , became a Republican in 1962 , and emerged as a leading conservative spokesman in the Goldwater campaign of 1964 . He joined numerous political committees with a left-wing orientation , such as the American Veterans Committee . He fought against Republican-sponsored right-to-work legislation and for Helen Gahagan Douglas in 1950 , when she was defeated for the Senate by Richard Nixon . It was his realization that Communists were a powerful backstage influence in those groups , that led him to rally his friends against them . Reagan spoke frequently at rallies with a strong ideological dimension ; in December 1945 , he was stopped from leading an anti-nuclear rally in Hollywood by pressure from the Warner Bros. studio . He would later make nuclear weapons a key point of his presidency , specifically his opposition to mutually assured destruction , building on previous efforts to limit the spread of nuclear weapons to a new focus to reduce the numbers and types of them . In the 1948 election , Reagan strongly supported Harry S. Truman , appearing on stage with him during a campaign speech in Los Angeles.McCullough , David . Truman . Simon & Schuster , 1992 , p. 665 . ISBN 0-671-45654-7 . However , in the early 1950s , as his relationship with actress Nancy Davis grew , he shifted to the right and endorsed the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 as well as Richard Nixon in 1960 . He was hired by General Electric in 1954 to host the General Electric Theater , a weekly TV drama series . Much more important , he crisscrossed the country giving talks to over 200,000 GE employees as a motivational speaker . His many speeches—which he wrote himself—were non-partisan but carried a conservative , pro-business message ; he was influenced by Lemuel Boulware , a senior GE executive . Boulware , known for his tough stance against unions and his innovative strategies to win over workers , championed the core tenets of modern American conservatism : free markets , anticommunism , lower taxes , and limited government . Eager for a larger stage , but not allowed to enter politics by GE , he quit and formally registered as a Republican . He often said `` I did n't leave the Democratic Party . The party left me . '' When legislation that would become Medicare was introduced in 1961 , Reagan created a recording for the American Medical Association warning that such legislation would mean the end of freedom in America . Reagan said that if his listeners did not write letters to prevent it , `` we will awake to find that we have socialism . And if you do n't do this , and if I do n't do it , one of these days , you and I are going to spend our sunset years telling our children , and our children 's children , what it once was like in America when men were free . '' He also joined the National Rifle Association and would become a lifetime member . Reagan gained national attention in his speeches for conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater in 1964 . Speaking for Goldwater , Reagan stressed his belief in the importance of smaller government . Consolidating themes he had developed in talks for GE , he argued in `` A Time for Choosing '' ( October 27 , 1964 ) : This `` A Time for Choosing '' speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign , but it was the key event that established Reagan 's national political visibility . Governorship of California : 1967–75 California Republicans were impressed with Reagan 's political views and charisma after his `` Time for Choosing '' speech , he announced in late 1965 , his campaign for Governor of California in 1966 . He defeated former San Francisco mayor George Christopher in the GOP primary . In Reagan 's campaign , he emphasized two main themes : `` to send the welfare bums back to work , '' and , in reference to burgeoning anti-war and anti-establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley , `` to clean up the mess at Berkeley . '' Ronald Reagan accomplished in 1966 what US Senator William F. Knowland in 1958 and former Vice President Richard Nixon in 1962 had tried : he was elected , defeating two-term governor Edmund G. `` Pat '' Brown , and was sworn in on January 2 , 1967 . In his first term , he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget . Shortly after the beginning of his term , Reagan tested the presidential waters in 1968 as part of a `` Stop Nixon '' movement , hoping to cut into Nixon 's Southern support and be a compromise candidate if neither Nixon nor second-place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention . However , by the time of the convention Nixon had 692 delegate votes , 25 more than he needed to secure the nomination , followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place . Reagan was involved in high-profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era . On May 15 , 1969 , during the People 's Park protests at UC Berkeley , Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests , in an incident that became known as `` Bloody Thursday , '' resulting in the death of student James Rector and the blinding of carpenter Alan Blanchard . Reagan then called out 2,200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks to crack down on the protesters . A year after `` Bloody Thursday , '' Reagan responded to questions about campus protest movements saying , `` If it takes a bloodbath , let 's get it over with . No more appeasement . '' When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor , Reagan joked to a group of political aides about a botulism outbreak contaminating the food . Conversely , in that one afternoon , `` Bloody Thursday , '' 111 police officers were injured , including one C.H.P . officer who was knifed in the chest . After calling in the National Guard , the Guard remained in Berkeley for 17 days , camping in People 's Park , and demonstrations subsided as the University removed cordoned-off fencing and placed all development plans for People 's Park on hold . Early in 1967 , the national debate on abortion was beginning . Democratic California state senator Anthony C. Beilenson introduced the `` Therapeutic Abortion Act , '' in an effort to reduce the number of `` back-room abortions '' performed in California . The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan 's desk where , after many days of indecision , he signed it . About two million abortions would be performed as a result , most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well-being of the mother . Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill , and later stated that had he been more experienced as governor , he would not have signed it . After he recognized what he called the `` consequences '' of the bill , he announced that he was pro-life . He maintained that position later in his political career , writing extensively about abortion . In 1967 , Reagan signed the Mulford Act , which became California penal code [ http : //caselaw.findlaw.com/cacodes/pen/12020-12040.html 12031 ] and [ http : //leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode ? sectionpen & group 00001-01000 & file=142-181 171 ( c ) ] . The bill repealed a law allowing public carrying of loaded firearms . Named after Republican assemblyman Don Mulford , the bill garnered national attention after the Black Panthers marched bearing arms upon the California State Capitol to protest the bill . Despite an unsuccessful attempt to recall him in 1968 , Reagan was re-elected in 1970 , defeating `` Big Daddy '' Jesse M. Unruh . He chose not to seek a third term in the following election cycle . One of Reagan 's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment , which he strongly supported . His efforts to enforce the state 's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision , which invalidated all death sentences issued in California before 1972 , though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment . The only execution during Reagan 's governorship was on April 12 , 1967 , when Aaron Mitchell 's sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin 's gas chamber . In 1969 , Reagan , as governor , signed the Family Law Act , an amalgam of two bills which had been written and revised by the California State Legislature for over two years and became the first no-fault divorce legislation in the United States . Reagan 's terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president . By campaigning on a platform of sending `` the welfare bums back to work , '' he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state . He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy , including that of undue federal taxation . Reagan did not seek re-election to a third term as governor in 1974 and was succeeded by Democratic California Secretary of State Jerry Brown on January 6 , 1975 . 1976 presidential campaign In 1976 , Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party 's candidate for

qg_1341--Ronald_Reagan.txt

Whom was Ronald Reagan referring to when he uttered the famous phrase "evil empire" in a 1983 speech?

Communist propaganda in the Soviet Union was extensively based on the Marxism-Leninism ideology to promote the Communist Party line . In societies with pervasive censorship , the propaganda was omnipresent and very efficient . It penetrated even social and natural sciences giving rise to various pseudo-scientific theories like Lysenkoism , whereas fields of real knowledge , as genetics , cybernetics , and comparative linguistics were condemned and forbidden as `` bourgeois pseudoscience '' . With `` truths repressed , falsehoods in every field were incessantly rubbed in print , at endless meetings , in school , in mass demonstrations , on the radio '' . The main Soviet censorship body , Glavlit , was employed not only to eliminate any undesirable printed materials , but also `` to ensure that the correct ideological spin was put on every published item '' . Telling anything against the `` Party line '' was punished by imprisonment or through punitive psychiatry . `` Today a man only talks freely to his wife – at night , with the blankets pulled over his head '' , said writer Isaac Babel privately to a trusted friend . Theory of Propaganda According to historian Peter Kenez , `` the Russian socialists have contributed nothing to the theoretical discussion of the techniques of mass persuasion . ... The Bolsheviks never looked for and did not find devilishly clever methods to influence people 's minds , to brainwash them . '' This lack of interest , says Kenez , `` followed from their notion of propaganda . They thought of propaganda as part of education . '' Media Schools and youth organizations An important goal of Communist propaganda was to create a new man . Schools and the Communist youth organizations , like Soviet pioneers and Komsomol , served to remove children from the `` petit-bourgeois '' family and indoctrinate the next generation into the collective way of life . The idea that the upbringing of children was the concern of their parents was explicitly rejected . One schooling theorist stated : We must make the young into a generation of Communists . Children , like soft wax , are very malleable and they should be moulded into good Communists ... We must rescue children from the harmful influence of the family ... We must nationalize them . From the earliest days of their little lives , they must find themselves under the beneficent influence of Communist schools ... To oblige the mother to give her child to the Soviet state – that is our task . `` . Those born after the Revolution were explicitly told that they were to build a utopia of brotherhood and justice , and to not be like their parents , but completely Red . `` Lenin 's corners '' , `` political shrines for the display of propaganda about the god-like founder of the Soviet state '' have been established in all schools . Schools conducted marches , songs and pledges of allegiance to Soviet leadership . One of purposes was to instill in children the idea that they are involved in the World revolution , which is more important than any family ties . Pavlik Morozov , who betrayed his father to the secret police NKVD , was promoted as a great positive example . Teachers in economic and social sciences were particularly responsible for inculcating `` unshakable '' Marxist-Leninist views . All teachers were prone to follow , strictly , the plan for educating children approved by top for reasons of safety , which could cause serious problems dealing with social events that , having just happened , were not included in the plan . Children of `` socially alien '' elements were often the target of abuse or expelled , in the name of class struggle . Early in the regime , many teachers were drawn into Communist plans for schooling because of a passion for literacy and numeracy , which the Communists were attempting to spread . Young Pioneers , the youth group , was an important factor in the indoctrination of children . They were taught to be truthful and uncompromising and to fight the enemies of socialism . By the 1930s , this indoctrination completely dominated the Young Pioneers . Radio Radio was put to good use , especially to reach the illiterate ; radio receivers were put in communal locations , where the peasants would have to come to hear news , such as changes to rationing , and received propaganda broadcasts with it ; some of these locations were also used for posters . During World War II , radio was used to propagandize Germany ; German POWs would be brought on to speak and assure their relatives they were alive , with propaganda being inserted between the announcement that a soldier would speak and when he actually did , in the time allowed for his family to gather . Posters Wall posters were widely used in the early days , often depicting the Red Army 's triumphs for the benefit of the illiterate . Throughout the 1920s , this was continued . This continued in World War II , still for the benefit of the less literate , with bold , simple designs . Cinema Films were heavily propagandistic , although they were pioneers in the documentary field ( Roman Karmen , Dziga Vertov ) . When war appeared inevitable , dramas , such as Alexander Nevsky were written to prepare the population ; these were withdrawn after the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , but returned to circulation after war began . Films were shown in theaters and from propaganda trains . During the war newsreel were shown in subway stations so that the poor were not excluded by inability to pay . Films were also shot with stories of partisan activity , and of the suffering inflicted by the Nazis , such as Girl No . 217 , depicting a Russian girl enslaved by an inhuman German family . Because film needs an industrial base , propaganda also made much of the output of film . Propaganda train A notable institution was the World War II propaganda train , fitted with presses and portable cinemas , staffed with lecturers . In the Civil War the Soviets sent out both `` agitation trains '' ( ) and `` '' ( ) to inform , entertain and propagandise . Meetings Meetings with speakers were also used . Despite their dullness , many people found they created solidarity , and made them feel important and that they were being kept up to date on news . Lectures Lectures were habitually used to instruct in the proper way of every corner of life . Stalin 's lectures on Leninism were instrumental in establishing that the Party was the cornerstone of the October Revolution , a policy Lenin acted on but did not write of theoretically . Art Art , whether literature , visual art , or performing art , was for the purpose of propaganda . Furthermore , it should show one clear and unambiguous meaning . Long before Stalin imposed complete restraint , a cultural bureaucracy was growing up that regarded art 's highest form and purpose as propaganda and began to restrain it to fit that role . Cultural activities were constrained by censorship and a monopoly of cultural institutions . Imagery frequently drew on heroic realism . The Soviet pavilion for the Paris World Fair was surmounted by Vera Mukhina 's a monumental sculpture , Worker and Kolkhoz Woman , in heroic mold . This reflected a call for heroic and romantic art , which reflected the ideal rather than the realistic . Art was filled with health and happiness ; paintings teemed with busy industrial and agricultural scenes , and sculptures depicted workers , sentries , and schoolchildren . In 1937 , the Industry of Socialism was intended as a major exhibit of socialist art , but difficulties with pain and the problem of `` enemies of the people '' appearing in scene required reworking , and sixteen months later , the censors finally approved enough for an exhibition . Newspapers In 1917 , coming out of underground movements , the Communists prepared to begin publishing Pravda . The very first law the Communists passed on assuming power was to suppress newspapers that opposed them . This had to be repealed and replaced with a milder measure , but by 1918 , Lenin had liquidated the independent press , including journals stemming from the 18th century . From 1930 to 1941 , as well as briefly in 1949 , the propaganda journal USSR in Construction was circulated . It was published in Russian , French , English , German , and , from 1938 , Spanish . The self-proclaimed purpose of the magazine was to `` reflect in photography the whole scope and variety of the construction work now going on the USSR ” . The issues were aimed primarily at an international audience , especially western left wing intellectuals and businessmen , and were quite popular during its early publications , including George Bernard Shaw , H. G. Wells , John Galsworthy , and Romain Rolland among its subscribers . Illiteracy was regarded as a grave danger , excluding the illiterate from political discussion . In part this was because the people could not be reached by Party journals . Books Immediately after the revolution , books were treated with less severity than newspapers , but the nationalizing of printing presses and publishing houses brought them under control . Libraries were purged , sometimes so extremely that works by Lenin were removed . In 1922 , the deportation of writers and scholars warned that no deviation was permitted , and pre-publication censorship was reinstated . Due to a lack of Bolshevist authors , many `` fellow travelers '' were tolerated , but money only came as long as they toed the party line . During the purges , textbooks were often so frequently revised that students had to do without them . Theatre Revolutionary theater was used to inspire support for the regime and hatred of its enemies , particularly agitprop theater , noted for its cardboard characters of perfect virtue and complete evil , and its coarse ridicule . Petrushka was a popular figure , often used to defend poor peasants and attack kulaks . Themes New Man Many Soviet works depicted the development of a `` positive hero '' as requiring intellectualism and hard discipline . He was not driven by crude impulses of nature but by conscious self-mastery . The selfless new man was willing to sacrifice not only his life but his self-respect and his sensitivity . Equality and sacrifice were touted as the ideal appropriate for the `` socialist way of life . '' Work required exertion and austerity , to show the new man triumphing over his base instincts . Alexey Stakhanov 's record-breaking day in mining coal caused him to be set forth as the exemplar of the `` new man '' and to inspire Stakhanovite movements . The movement inspired much pressure to increase production , on both workers and managers , with critics labeled `` wreckers '' . This reflected a change from early days , with emphasis on the `` little man '' among the anonymous labors , to favoring the `` hero of labor '' in the end of the first Five-Year Plan , with writers explicitly told to produce heroization . While these heroes had to stem from the people , they were set apart by their heroic deeds . Stakhanov himself was well suited for this role , not only a worker but for his good looks like many poster hero and as a family man . The hardships of the First Five-Year Plan were put forth in romanticized accounts . In 1937-8 , young heroes who accomplished great feats appeared on the front page of Pravda more often than Stalin himself . Later , during the purges , claims were made that criminals had been `` reforged '' by their work on the White Sea/Baltic Canal ; salvation through labor appeared in Nikolai Pogodin 's The Aristocrats as well as many articles . This could also be a new woman ; Pravda described the Soviet woman as someone who had and could never have existed before . Female Stakhanovites were rarer than male , but a quarter of all trade-union women were designated as `` norm-breaking . '' For the Paris World Fair , Vera Mukhina depicted a momentual sculpture , Worker and Kolkhoz Woman , dressed in work clothing , pressing forward with his hammer and her sickle crossed . Pro-natalist policies encouraging women to have many children were justified by the selfishness inherent in limiting the next generation of `` new men . '' `` Mother-heroines '' received medals for ten or more children . Stakhanovites were also used as propaganda figures so heavily that some workers complained that they were skipping work . The murder of Pavlik Morozov was widely exploited in propaganda to urge on children the duty of informing on even their parents to the new state . Class enemy The class enemy was a pervasive feature of Communist propaganda . With the civil war , the Communist moved to massacre large numbers of kulaks and otherwise promulgate a Red Terror to terrify the masses into obedience . Lenin proclaimed that they were exterminating the bourgeois as a class , a position reinforced by the many actions against landlords , well-off peasants , banks , factories , and private shops . Stalin warned , often , that with the struggle to build a socialist society , the class struggle would sharpen as class enemies grew more desperate . During the Stalinist era , all opposition leaders were routinely described as traitors and agents of foreign , imperialist powers . The Five Year Plan intensified the class struggle with many attacks on kulaks , and when it was found that many peasant opponents were not rich enough to qualify , they were declared `` sub-kulaks . '' `` Kulaks and other class-alien enemies '' were often cited as the reason for failures on collective farms . Throughout the First and Second Five Year plans , kulaks , wreckers , saboteurs and nationalists were attacked , leading up to the Great Terror . Those who profited from public property were `` enemies of the people . '' By the late 1930s , all `` enemies '' were lumped together in art as supporters of historical idiocy . Newspapers reported even on the trial of children as young as ten for counterrevolutionary and fascist behavior . During the Holodomor , the starving peasants were denounced as saboteurs , all the more dangerous in that their gentle and inoffensive appearance made them appear innocent ; the deaths were only proof that peasants hated socialism so much they were willing to sacrifice their families and risk their lives to fight it . Stalin , denouncing White counter-revolutionaries , Trotskyists , wreckers , and others , particularly aimed his attention at the Communist old guard . The very improbability of the charges was cited as evidence , since more plausible charges could have been invented . These enemies were rounded up for the gulags , which propaganda proclaimed to be `` corrective labor camps '' to such an extent that even people who saw the starvation and slave labor believed the propaganda rather than their eyes . During World War II , entire nationalities , such as the Volga Germans , were branded traitors . Stalin himself informed Sergei Eisenstein that his film Ivan the Terrible was flawed because it did not show the necessity of terror in Ivan 's persecution of the nobility . New society Propaganda can start a large movement or revolution , but only if the masses rally behind one another to make the images produced by propaganda a reality . Good propaganda must instill hope , faith , and certainty . It must bring solidarity among the population . It must stave off demoralization , hopelessness , and resignation . The Soviet union did its best to try and create a new society in which the people of Russia could unite as one A common theme was the creation of a new , utopian society , depicted in posters and newsreels , which inspired an enthusiasm in many people . Much propaganda was dedicated to a new community , as exemplified in the use of `` comrade . '' This new society was to be classless . Distinctions were to be based on function , not class , and all possessed the equal duty to work . During the 1930s discussion of the new constitution , one speaker proclaimed that there were , in fact , no classes in the USSR , and newspapers effused over how the dreams of the working class were coming true for the luckiest people in the world . One admission that there were classes—workers , peasants , and working intelligentsia—dismissed it as unimportant , as these new classes had no need to conflict . Military metaphors were used frequently for this creation , as in 1929 , where the collectivization of agriculture was officially termed a `` full-scale socialist offensive on all fronts . '' The Second Five Plan saw a slowdown of the Socialist Offensive , this against a propaganda background of trumpeting the USSR 's triumphs on `` the battlefield of building socialism . '' In Stalinist times , this was often portrayed as a `` great family '' , with Stalin as the great father . Happiness was mandatory ; in a novel where a horse was described as moving `` slowly '' , the censor objected , asking why it was not moving speedily , being happy like the rest of the collective farm workers . Kohlkhoznye Rebiata published bombastic reports from the collective farms of their children . When hot breakfasts were provided for schoolchildren , particularly in city schools , the program was announced with great fanfare . Since Communist society was the highest and most progressive form of society , it was ethically superior to all others , and `` moral '' and `` immoral '' were determined by whether things helped or hindered its development . Tsarist law was overtly abolished , and while judges could use it , they were to be guided by `` revolutionary consciousness '' . Under the pressure of the need for law , more and more was implemented ; Stalin justified this in propaganda as the law would `` wither away '' best when its authority was raised to the highest , through its contradictions . When the draft of the new constitution led people to believe that private property would be returned and that workers could leave collective farms , speakers were sent out to `` clarify '' the matter . Production Stalin bluntly declared the Bolshevists must close the fifty- or a hundred-year gap with Western countries in ten years , or socialism would be destroyed . In support of the Five Year Plan , he declared being an industrial laggard had caused Russia 's historical defeats . Newspapers reported overproduction of quotas , even though many had not occurred , and where they did , the goods were often shoddy . During the 1930s , the development of the USSR was just about the only theme of art , literature and film . The heroes of Arctic exploration were glorified . The twentieth anniversary of the October Revolution was honored with a five volume work glorifying the accomplishments of socialism and ( in the last volume ) `` scientifically based fantasies '' of the future , raising such questions as whether the whole world or only Europe would be socialist in twenty years . Even while a majority of the population was still rural , the USSR was proclaimed `` a mighty industrial power . '' USSR in Construction glorified the Moscow-Volga Canal , with only the briefest mention of the slave labor that had built it . In 1939 , a rationing plan was considered but not implemented because it would undermine the propaganda of improving care for the people , whose lives grew better and more cheerful every year . During World War II , the slogans were altered from overcoming backwardness to overcoming the `` fascist beast '' but continued focus on production . The slogan proclaimed `` Everything for the Front ! '' Teams of Young Communists were used as shocktroops to shame workers into higher production as well as spread socialist propaganda . In the 1950s , Khrushchev repeatedly boasted that the USSR would soon surpass the West in material well-being . Other communists officials agreed that it would soon show its superiority , because capitalism was like a dead herring—shining as it rotted . Subsequently , the USSR was referred to as `` developed socialism . '' Mass movement This led to a great emphasis on education . The first post-mortem attack on Stalin was the publication of articles in Pravda proclaiming that the masses made history and the error of a `` cult of the individual . '' Peace-loving A common motif in propaganda was that the Soviet Union was peace-loving . Many warnings were made of the necessity of keeping out of any imperialistic war , as the breakdown of capitalism would make capitalist countries more desperate . The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was presented as a peace measure . Internationalism Even before the Bolshevists seized power , Lenin proclaimed in speeches that the Revolution was the vanguard of a world-wide revolution , both international and socialist . The workers were informed they were the vanguard of world socialism ; the slogan `` Workers of the world , unite ! '' was constantly repeated . The Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic used the term Rossiiskaya not Russkaya , to make it refer to the region rather than the ethnic group , and so include all ethnicities . Lenin founded the organization Comintern to propagate Communism internationally . Stalin proceeded to use it to promote Communism throughout the world for the benefit of the USSR . When this topic was a difficulty dealing with the Allies in World War II , Comintern was dissolved . Similarly , The Internationale was dropped as the anthem . Japanese prisoners of war were intensively propagandized before their release in 1949 , to act as Soviet agents . Personality cult While Lenin was uncomfortable with the popular personality cult that sprung up about him , the party exploited it during the civil war and officially enshrined it after his death . As early as 1918 , a biography of Lenin was written , and busts were produced . With his death , his embalmed body was displayed ( to exploit beliefs that the bodies of saints did not decay ) , and picture books of his life were produced in mass quantities . Stalin presented himself a simple man of the people , but distinct from everyday politics by his unique role as leader . His clothing was carefully selected to cement this image . Propaganda presented him as Lenin 's heir , exaggerating their relationship , until the Stalin cult drained out the Lenin cult—an effect shown in posters , where at first Lenin would be the dominating figure over Stalin , but as time went on became first only equal , and then smaller and more ghostly , until he was reduced to the byline on the book Stalin was depicted reading . This occurred despite the historical accounts describing Stalin as insignificant , or even a `` gray blur '' , in the early Revolution . From the late 1920s until it was debunked in the 1960s , he was presented as the chief military leader of the civil war . Stalingrad was renamed for him on the claim that he had single-handedly , and against orders , saved it in the civil war . He often figured as the great father of the `` great family '' that was the new Soviet Union . Regulations on how exactly to portray Stalin 's image and write of his life were carefully promulgated . Inconvenient facts , such as his having wanted to cooperate with the tsarist government on his return for exile , were purged from his biography . His work for the Soviet Union was praised in paeans to the `` light in the Kremlin window . '' Marx , Engels , Lenin , and above all Stalin appeared frequently in art . Discussions of the proposed constitution in the 1930s included effusive thanks to `` Comrade Stalin . '' Engineering projects such as canals were described as having been decreed personally by Stalin . Young Pioneers were enjoined to struggle for `` the cause of Lenin and Stalin '' . During the purges , he increased his appearances in public , having his photograph taken with children , airmen , and Stakhanovites , being hailed as the source of the `` happy life , '' and according to Pravda , riding the subway with common workers . The propaganda was effectual . Many young people hard at work at construction idolized Stalin . Many people chose to believe that the charges made at the purges were true rather than believing that Stalin had betrayed the revolution . During World War II , this personality cult was certainly instrumental in inspiring a deep level of commitment from the masses of the Soviet Union , whether on the battlefield or in industrial production . Stalin made a fleeting visit to the front so that propagandists could claim that he had risked his life with the frontline soldiers . The cult was , however , toned down until approaching victory was near . As it became clear that the Soviet Union would eventually win the war , Stalin ensured that propaganda always mentioned his leadership of the war ; the victorious generals were sidelined and never allowed to develop into political rivals . Soon after his death , attacks , first veiled and then open , were made on the `` cult of the individual '' arguing that history was made by the masses . Khrushchev , though leading the attacks on the cult , nevertheless sought out publicity , and his photograph frequently appeared in the newspapers . Trotsky As Stalin drew power to himself , Trotsky was pictured in an anti-personality cult . It began with the assertion that he had not joined the Bolshevists until late , after the planning of the October Revolution was done . Propaganda of extermination Some historians believe , an important goal of communist propaganda was `` to justify political repressions of entire social groups which Marxism considered antagonistic to the class of proletariat '' , as in decossackization or dekulakization campaigns . Richard Pipes wrote : `` a major purpose of Communist propaganda was arousing violent political emotions against the regime 's enemies . '' The most effective means to achieve this objective `` was the denial of the victim 's humanity through the process of dehumanization '' , `` the reduction of real or imaginary enemy to a zoological state '' . In particular , Vladimir Lenin called to exterminate enemies `` as harmful insects '' , `` lice '' and `` bloodsuckers '' . According to writer and propagandist Maksim Gorky , `` Class hatred should be cultivated by an organic revulsion as far as the enemy is concerned . Enemies must be seen as inferior . I believe quite profoundly that the enemy is our inferior , and is a degenerate not only in the physical plane but also in the moral sense '' . He also called to use enemy of the people as `` human guinea pigs '' for human experimentation in the USSR Institute of Experimental Medicine in 1933 , which would be `` a true service to humanity '' , according to him . According to The Black Book of Communism , an example of such demonizing animal rhetoric were speeches by state procurator Andrey Vyshinsky during Stalin 's show trials . He said about the suspects : `` Shoot these rabid dogs . Death to this gang who hide their ferocious teeth , their eagle claws , from the people ! Down with

qg_3306--Propaganda_in_the_Soviet_Union.txt

According to the cold war era slogan, you're better what, than red?

Hendrik Johannes `` Johan '' Cruijff OON ( , anglicised to Cruyff ; 25 April 1947 – 24 March 2016 ) was a Dutch professional football player and coach . As a player , he won the Ballon d'Or three times , in 1971 , 1973 and 1974 . Cruyff was one of the most famous exponents of the football philosophy known as Total Football explored by Rinus Michels , and is widely regarded as one of the greatest players in football history . [ http : //www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/best-x-players-of-y.html The Best x Players of the Century/All-Time ] . Rsssf.com ( 5 February 2001 ) ; retrieved 18 January 2013 .. Elgrancampeon.com.ar ; retrieved 28 October 2013 . [ http : //www.newstatesman.com/uk-politics/2009/03/football-politics-team-tony-2 `` Interview : Alex Ferguson '' ] . Newstatesman.com . Retrieved on 18 January 2013 . In the 1970s , Dutch football rose from near obscurity to become a powerhouse in the sport . Cruyff led the Netherlands to the final of the 1974 FIFA World Cup and received the Golden Ball as player of the tournament . At the 1974 finals he executed a feint that subsequently was named after him , the Cruyff Turn , a move widely replicated in the modern game . At club level , Cruyff started his career at Ajax , where he won eight Eredivisie titles , three European Cups and one Intercontinental Cup . In 1973 , he moved to Barcelona for a world record transfer fee , winning La Liga in his first season and was named European Footballer of the Year . After retiring from playing in 1984 , Cruyff became highly successful as manager of Ajax and later Barcelona ; he remained an influential advisor to both clubs . His son Jordi also played football professionally . In 1999 , Cruyff was voted European Player of the Century in an election held by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics , and came second behind Pelé in their World Player of the Century poll . He came third in a vote organised by the French magazine France Football consulting their former Ballon d'Or winners to elect their Football Player of the Century . He was chosen on the World Team of the 20th Century in 1998 , the FIFA World Cup Dream Team in 2002 , and in 2004 was named in the FIFA 100 list of the world 's greatest living players . Considered to be one of the most influential figures in football history , [ http : //www1.skysports.com/football/news/11833/8925645/football-philosopher `` Football philosopher '' ] . Sky Sports . [ http : //www.espnfc.com/blog/espn-fc-united-blog/68/post/1840878/johan-cruyff-remains-one-of-footballs-romanticssays-miguel-delaney `` Johan Cruyff remains one of football 's romantics , says Miguel Delaney '' ] . ESPN . [ http : //www1.skysports.com/football/news/11096/9048056/pass-master `` Pass Master '' ] . Sky Sports . [ http : //www.marca.com/2013/10/25/en/football/international_football/1382729911.html `` I try to instill what I learned from Cruyff '' ] . MARCA . [ http : //www.goal.com/en-india/news/2292/editorials/2011/12/30/2823497/without-him-there-would-be-no-lionel-messi-xavi-andres `` Without Him There Would Be No Lionel Messi , Xavi , Andres Iniesta Or Pep Guardiola ' – Why Barcelona 's Modern Success Is Thanks To Dutch Legend Johan Cruyff '' ] . Goal.com . [ http : //www1.skysports.com/football/news/11731/8515463/swansea-manager-michael-laudrup-dismisses-talk-about-future `` Swansea manager Michael Laudrup dismisses talk about future '' ] . Sky Sports ; accessed 24 October 2016 Cruyff 's style of play and his football philosophy has influenced managers and players , including Frank Rijkaard , Pep Guardiola , Michael Laudrup , Arsène Wenger , Eric Cantona and Xavi . [ http : //www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/fa-league-cups/how-influence-of-johan-cruyff-has-helped-michael-laudrup-to-success-8506522.html `` How influence of Johan Cruyff has helped Michael Laudrup to success '' ] . The Independent ; accessed 24 October 2015 . [ http : //www.theguardian.com/football/2007/mar/07/championsleague.arsenal `` Arsenal are the sole true heirs to Cruyff 's glorious vision '' ] . The Guardian . [ http : //www.fourfourtwo.com/features/eric-cantona-perfect-xi `` Eric Cantona : Perfect XI '' ] , FourFourTwo.com , 7 March 2007 . [ http : //www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/worldcup/southafrica2010/news/newsid=1256223/index.html `` Xavi : I 'm a footballing romantic '' ] . FIFA.com . [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/arsenal/7535744/Arsenal-v-Barcelona-Dennis-Bergkamp-defends-Arsene-Wengers-beautiful-vision.html `` Dennis Bergkamp defends Arsène Wenger 's beautiful vision '' ] , The Daily Telegraph ; accessed 24 October 2015 . [ http : //www.theguardian.com/football/2011/feb/11/xavi-barcelona-spain-interview `` I 'm a romantic , says Xavi , heartbeat of Barcelona and Spain '' ] . The Guardian , 11 February 2011 . Ajax and Barcelona are among the clubs that have developed youth academies based on Cruyff 's coaching methods . [ http : //www1.skysports.com/football/news/11670/7882678/wenger-wont-change-his-ways `` 'Wenger wo n't change his way ] . Sky Sports . Retrieved 30 May 2014 [ http : //www.foxsports.com/foxsoccer/championsleague/story/ucl-final-barcelona-history-johan-cruyff-rinus-michels-dutch-oranje-052511 Dutch seeds of Barcelona success ] . Fox Sports . Retrieved 30 May 2014 His coaching philosophy helped lay the foundations for the revival of Ajax 's international successes in the 1990s . [ http : //backpagefootball.com/johan-cruyff-the-total-voetballer/26050/ 'Johan Cruyff : The Total Voetballer ] . Back Page Football ( 14 September 2011 ) ; retrieved 30 May 2014 . [ http : //www.thenational.ae/sport/football/20130917/johan-cruyffs-legacy-lives-at-both-rivals-ajax-and-barcelona # full 'Johan Cruyff 's legacy lives at both rivals Ajax and Barcelona ] , TheNational.ae , 17 September 2013 ; retrieved 30 May 2014 . Spanish football 's successes at both club and international level during the years 2008 to 2012 have been cited by many as evidence of Cruyff 's impact on contemporary football . [ http : //www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/news-and-comment/james-lawton-dutch-heroes-on-the-sidelines-will-be-an-inspiration-not-intimidation-2021988.html `` Dutch heroes on the sidelines will be an inspiration , not intimidation '' ] , The Independent ; accessed 24 October 2015 . [ http : //www.nytimes.com/2010/07/11/sports/soccer/11cupfeature.html ? _r 0 `` A Dutch Great Helped Transform Spain 's Game '' ] , nytimes.com , 11 July 2010 . [ http : //www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/spain/7883131/World-Cup-final-Johan-Cruyff-sowed-seeds-for-revolution-in-Spains-fortunes.html `` World Cup final : Johan Cruyff sowed seeds for revolution in Spain 's fortunes '' ] , The Daily Telegraph ; accessed 24 October 2015 . [ http : //arxiu.fcbarcelona.cat/web/english/noticies/club/temporada09-10/04/08/n100408110309.html `` Recognition of the man who created a style '' ] , fcbarcelona.cat ; accessed 24 October 2015 . [ http : //nypost.com/2011/08/01/transcript-of-jurgen-klinsmann-sunil-gulati-teleconference/ `` Transcript of Jürgen Klinsmann , Sunil Gulati teleconferenc '' ] , nypost.com , 1 August 2011 ; accessed 24 October 2015 . [ http : //www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/apr/29/barcelona-gospel-of-guardiola `` Barcelona and the gospel of Guardiola '' ] , guardian.com , 29 April 2012 ; accessed 24 October 2014 . [ http : //edition.cnn.com/2012/05/28/sport/football/football-guardiola-barcelona-messi/index.html `` Reinventing the wheel : How Guardiola revolutionized football '' ] , CNN.com , 28 May 2012 . [ http : //edition.cnn.com/2012/06/27/sport/football/football-euro-england-warrior/ `` Football culture : Who are you ? Warrior or tika taka technician ? `` ] , CNN.com , 27 June 2012 . [ http : //www.si.com/soccer/2013/01/17/jurgen-klinsmann-us-national-team `` Klinsmann assesses early U.S. camp , updates on Donovan , more '' ] . Si.com , 17 January 2013 . [ http : //www.dw.de/the-hunt-for-bayerns-old-fox-jupp-heynckes/a-16779567 `` The hunt for Bayern 's old fox Jupp Heynckes '' ] , dw.de ; accessed 24 October 2015 . [ http : //www.goal.com/en/news/12/spain/2013/05/01/3945400/cruyff-the-man-behind-barcelonas-success-says-guardiola `` Cruyff the man behind Barcelona 's success , says Guardiola '' ] , Goal.com , 1 May 2013 . Early life Hendrik Johannes `` Johan '' Cruijff was born on 25 April 1947 in Amsterdam , on a street five minutes away from Ajax 's stadium , his first football club . Johan was the second son of Hermanus Cornelis Cruijff and Petronella Bernarda Draaijer , from a humble , working-class background in east Amsterdam . Cruyff , encouraged by his influential football-loving father and his close proximity in Akkerstraat to the De Meer Stadium , played football with his schoolmates and older brother , Henny , whenever he could , and idolised the prolific Dutch dribbler , Faas Wilkes . In 1959 , Cruyff 's father died from a heart attack . Viewing a potential football career as a way of paying tribute to his father , the death inspired the strong-willed Cruyff , who also frequently visited the burial site at Oosterbegraafplaats . His mother began working at Ajax as a cleaner , deciding that she could no longer carry on at the grocer without her husband , and in the future , this made Cruyff near-obsessed with financial security but also gave him an appreciation for player aids . His mother soon met her second husband , Henk Angel , a field hand at Ajax who proved a key influence in Cruyff 's life . Playing career Club career Gloria Ajax and European dominance Cruyff joined the Ajax youth system on his tenth birthday . Cruyff and his friends would frequent a `` playground '' in their neighbourhood and Ajax youth coach Jany van der Veen , who lived close by , noticed Cruyff 's talent and decided to offer him a place at Ajax without a formal trial . He played football and baseball , showing talent both on the mound pitching and behind the plate as a catcher , before having to leave the club 's baseball section at age 15 to focus on football . He made his first team debut on 15 November 1964 in the Eredivisie , against GVAV , scoring the only goal for Ajax in a 3–1 defeat . That year , Ajax finished in their lowest position since the establishment of professional football , in 13th . Cruyff really started to make an impression in the 1965–66 season and established himself as a regular first team player after scoring two goals against Door Wilskracht Sterk in the Olympic stadium on 24 October 1965 in a 2–0 victory . In the seven games that winter , he scored eight times and in March 1966 scored the first three goals in a league game against Telstar in a 6–2 win . Four days later , in a cup game against Veendam in a 7–0 win , he scored four goals . In total that season , Cruyff scored 25 goals in 23 games , and Ajax won the league championship . In the 1966–67 season , Ajax again won the league championship , and also won the KNVB Cup , for Cruyff 's first `` double '' . Cruyff ended the season as the leading goalscorer in the Eredivisie with 33 . Cruyff won the league for the third successive year in the 1967–68 season . He was also named Dutch footballer of the year for the second successive time , a feat he repeated in 1969 . On 28 May 1969 , Cruyff played in his first European Cup final against Milan , but the Italians won 4–1 . In the 1969–70 season , Cruyff won his second league and cup `` double '' ; at the beginning of the 1970–71 season , he suffered a long-term groin injury . He made his comeback on 30 October 1970 against PSV . In this game , he did not wear his usual number 9 , which was in use by Gerrie Mühren , but instead used number 14 . Ajax won 1–0 . Although it was very uncommon in those days for the starters of a game not to play with numbers 1 to 11 , from that moment onwards , Cruyff wore number 14 , even with the Dutch national team . There was a documentary on Cruyff , Nummer 14 Johan Cruyff and in the Netherlands there is a magazine by Voetbal International , Nummer 14 . In a league game against AZ '67 on 29 November 1970 , Cruyff scored six goals in an 8–1 victory . After winning a replayed KNVB Cup final against Sparta Rotterdam by a score of 2–1 , Ajax won in Europe for the first time . On 2 June 1971 , in London , Ajax won the European Cup by defeating Panathinaikos 2–0 . He signed a seven-year contract at Ajax . At the end of the season , he was named the Dutch and European Footballer of the Year for 1971 . In 1972 , Ajax won a second European Cup , beating Inter Milan 2–0 in the final , with Cruyff scoring both goals . This victory prompted Dutch newspapers to announce the demise of the Italian style of defensive football in the face of Total Football . Soccer : The Ultimate Encyclopaedia says , `` Single-handed , Cruyff not only pulled Internazionale of Italy apart in the 1972 European Cup Final , but scored both goals in Ajax 's 2–0 win . '' Cruyff also scored in the 3–2 victory over ADO Den Haag in the KNVB Cup final . In the league , Cruyff was the top scorer with 25 goals as Ajax became champions . Ajax won the Intercontinental Cup , beating Argentina 's Independiente 1–1 in the first game followed by 3–0 , and then in January 1973 , they won the European Super Cup by beating Rangers 3–1 away and 3–2 in Amsterdam . Cruyff 's only own goal came on 20 August 1972 against FC Amsterdam . A week later , against Go Ahead Eagles in a 6–0 win , Cruyff scored four times for Ajax . The 1972–73 season was concluded with another league championship victory and a third successive European Cup with a 1–0 win over Juventus in the final , with the Encyclopedia stating Cruyff `` inspired one of the greatest 20-minute spells of football ever seen '' . Barcelona and the first La Liga title in 14 years In mid-1973 , Cruyff was sold to Barcelona for 6 million guilders ( approx . US $ 2 million , c. 1973 ) in a world record transfer fee . On 19 August 1973 , he played his last match for Ajax where they defeated FC Amsterdam 6–1 , the second match of the 1973–74 season . Cruyff endeared himself to the Barcelona fans when he chose a Catalan name , Jordi , for his son . He helped the club win La Liga for the first time since 1960 , defeating their deadliest rivals Real Madrid 5–0 at their home of the Santiago Bernabéu . Thousands of Barcelona fans who watched the match on television poured out of their homes to join in street celebrations . A New York Times journalist wrote that Cruyff had done more for the spirit of the Catalan people in 90 minutes than many politicians in years of struggle . Football historian Jimmy Burns stated , `` with Cruyff , the team felt they couldn ’ t lose '' . He gave them speed , flexibility and a sense of themselves . In 1974 Cruyff was crowned European Footballer of the Year . During his time at Barcelona , Cruyff scored one of his most famous goals , `` The 'Phantom ' Goal '' . In a game against Atlético Madrid , Cruyff leapt into the air , twisted his body so he was facing away from the goal , and kicked the ball past Miguel Reina in the Atlético goal with his right heel ( the ball was at about neck height and had already travelled wide of the far post ) . The goal was featured in the documentary ' , in which fans of Cruyff attempted to recreate that moment . The goal has been dubbed ' ( Cruyff 's impossible goal ) . In 1978 , Barcelona defeated Las Palmas 3–1 , to win the Copa del Rey . Cruyff played two games with Paris Saint-Germain in 1975 during the Paris tournament . He had only agreed because he was a fan of designer Daniel Hechter , who was then president of PSG . United States At the age of 32 , Cruyff signed a lucrative deal with the Los Angeles Aztecs of the North American Soccer League ( NASL ) . He had previously been rumoured to be joining the New York Cosmos but the deal did not materialize ; he played a few exhibition games for the Cosmos . He stayed at the Aztecs for only one season , and was voted NASL Player of the Year . The following season , he moved to play for the Washington Diplomats . He played the whole 1980 campaign for the Diplomats , even as the team was facing dire financial trouble . In May 1981 , Cruyff played as a guest player for Milan in a tournament , but was injured . As a result , he missed the beginning of the 1981 NASL soccer season , which ultimately led to Cruyff choosing to leave the team . Cruyff also loathed playing on artificial surfaces , which were common in the NASL at the time . Levante In January 1981 , Cruyff played three friendly matches for FC Dordrecht . Also in January 1981 , manager Jock Wallace of English club Leicester City made an attempt to sign Cruyff , and despite negotiations lasting three weeks , in which Cruyff expressed his desire to play for the club , a deal could not be reached . Cruyff instead chose to sign with Spanish Segunda División side Levante . In March 1981 , Cruyff took the field for the first time for Levante . Injuries and disagreements with the administration of the club , however , blighted his spell in the Segunda División , and he only made ten appearances , scoring two goals . Having failed to secure promotion to the first division , a contract with Levante fell through . Back at Ajax After his spell in the U.S. and a short-lived stay in Spain , Cruyff returned to play in his homeland , rejoining Ajax on 30 November 1980 as `` technical advisor '' to trainer Leo Beenhakker , Ajax being eighth in the league table at the time after 13 games played . After 34 games , however , Ajax finished the 1980–81 season in second after 34 games . In December 1981 , Cruyff signed a contract extension with Ajax . In the 1981–82 and 1982–83 seasons , Ajax , along with Cruyff , became league champions . In 1982–83 , Ajax won the Dutch Cup ( KNVB-Beker ) . In 1982 , he scored a famous goal against Helmond Sport . While playing for Ajax , Cruyff scored a penalty the same way Rik Coppens had done it 25 years earlier . He put the ball down as for a routine penalty kick , but instead of shooting at goal , Cruyff nudged the ball sideways to teammate Jesper Olsen , who in return passed it back to Cruyff to tap the ball into the empty net , as Otto Versfeld , the Helmond goalkeeper , looked on . Feyenoord At the end of the 1982–83 season , Ajax decided not to offer Cruyff a new contract . This angered Cruyff , who responded by signing for Ajax 's archrivals Feyenoord . Cruyff 's season at Feyenoord was a successful one in which the club won the Eredivisie for the first time in a decade , part of a league and KNVB Cup double . The team 's success was due to the performances of Cruyff along with Ruud Gullit and Peter Houtman . Despite his relatively advanced age , Cruyff played all league matches that season except for one . Because of his performance on the field , he was voted as Dutch Footballer of the Year for the fifth time . At the end of the season , the veteran announced his final retirement . He ended his Eredivisie playing career on 13 May 1984 with a goal against PEC Zwolle . Cruyff played his last game in Saudi Arabia against Al-Ahli , bringing Feyenoord back into the game with a goal and an assist . International career As a Dutch international , Cruyff played 48 matches , scoring 33 goals . The national team never lost a match in which Cruyff scored . On 7 September 1966 , he made his official debut for the Netherlands in the UEFA Euro 1968 qualifier against Hungary , scoring in the 2–2 draw . In his second match , a friendly against Czechoslovakia , Cruyff was the first Dutch international to receive a red card . The Royal Dutch Football Association ( KNVB ) banned him from Ajax games but not internationals . Accusations of Cruyff 's `` aloofness '' were not rebuffed by his habit of wearing a shirt with only two black stripes along the sleeves , as opposed to Adidas ' usual design feature of three , worn by all the other Dutch players . Cruyff had a separate sponsorship deal with Puma . From 1970 onwards , he wore the number 14 jersey for the Netherlands , setting a trend for wearing shirt numbers outside the usual starting line-up numbers of 1 to 11 . 1974 FIFA World Cup Cruyff led the Netherlands to a runners-up medal in the 1974 World Cup and was named player of the tournament . Thanks to his team 's mastery of Total Football , they coasted all the way to the final , knocking out Argentina ( 4–0 ) , East Germany ( 2–0 ) and Brazil ( 2–0 ) along the way . Cruyff scored twice against Argentina in one of his team 's most dominating performances , then he scored the second goal against Brazil to knock out the defending champions . The Netherlands faced hosts West Germany in the final . Cruyff kicked off and the ball was passed around the Oranje team 13 times before returning to Cruyff , who then went on a run past Berti Vogts and ended when he was fouled by Uli Hoeneß inside the box . Teammate Johan Neeskens scored from the spot kick to give the Netherlands a 1–0 lead and the Germans had not yet touched the ball . During the latter half of the final , his influence was stifled by the effective marking of Vogts , while Franz Beckenbauer , Uli Hoeneß and Wolfgang Overath dominated the midfield as West Germany came back to win 2–1 . In an interview published in the 50th anniversary issue of World Soccer magazine , the captain of the Brazilian team that won the 1970 World Cup , Carlos Alberto , went on to say , `` The only team I 've seen that did things differently was Holland at the 1974 World Cup in Germany . Since then everything looks more or less the same to me .... Their 'carousel ' style of play was amazing to watch and marvellous for the game . '' With regards to role models , Brazilian football manager and former player Telê Santana has mentioned in one interview that he had no idols , though , `` My greatest satisfaction would be to manage a team such as 1974 Holland . It was a team where you could pick [ Johan ] Cruyff and place him on the right wing . If I had to put him in the left-wing , he would still play [ the same ] . I could choose Neeskens , who played both to the right and to the left of the midfield . Thus , everyone played in any position . '' After 1974 Cruyff retired from international football in October 1977 , having helped the national team qualify for the upcoming World Cup . Without him , the Netherlands finished runners-up in the World Cup again . Initially , the reason given for missing the 1978 World Cup were political reasons given a military dictatorship was in power in Argentina at that time . In 2008 , Cruyff stated to the journalist Antoni Bassas in Catalunya Ràdio that he and his family were subject to a kidnap attempt in Barcelona a year before the tournament , and that this had caused his retirement . `` To play a World Cup you have to be 200 % okay , there are moments when there are other values in life . '' Coaching career Ajax After retiring from playing , Cruyff followed in the footsteps of his mentor Rinus Michels , coaching a young Ajax side to victory in the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1987 ( 1–0 ) . In May and June 1985 , Cruyff returned to Ajax again . In the 1985–86 season , the league title was lost to Guus Hiddink 's PSV , despite Ajax having a goal difference of +85 ( 120 goals for , 35 goals against ) . In the 1985–86 and 1986–87 seasons , Ajax won the KNVB Cup . It was during this period as manager that Cruyff was able to implement his favoured team formation—three mobile defenders ; plus one more covering space – becoming , in effect , a defensive midfielder ( from Rijkaard , Blind , Silooy , Verlaat , Larsson , Spelbos ) , two `` controlling '' midfielders ( from Rijkaard , Scholten , Winter , Wouters , Mühren , Witschge ) with responsibilities to feed the attack-minded players , one second striker ( Bosman , Scholten ) , two touchline-hugging wingers ( from Bergkamp , va n't Schip , De Wit , Witschge ) and one versatile centre forward ( from Van Basten , Meijer , Bosman ) . So successful was this system that Ajax won the Champions League in 1995 playing Cruyff 's system – a tribute to Cruyff 's legacy as Ajax coach . Barcelona and Dream Team In 1988 , Cruyff returned to Barcelona as manager . At Barça , Cruyff brought in players such as Pep Guardiola , José Mari Bakero , Txiki Begiristain , Andoni Goikoetxea , Ronald Koeman , Michael Laudrup , Romário , Gheorghe Hagi and Hristo Stoichkov . Cruyff 's `` Dream Team '' won La Liga four times between 1991 and 1994 , and beat Sampdoria in both the 1989 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final and the 1992 European Cup Final at Wembley Stadium . Victories under Cruyff include a 5–0 La Liga win over Real Madrid in El Clásico at the Camp Nou , as well as a 4–0 win against Manchester United in the UEFA Champions League . Barcelona won a Copa del Rey in 1990 , the European Super Cup in 1992 and three Supercopa de España , as well as finishing runner-up to Manchester United and Milan in two European finals . Cruyff used to smoke 20 cigarettes a day prior to undergoing double heart bypass surgery in 1991 while he was the coach of Barcelona , after which he gave up smoking . He also led the anti-smoking campaign developed by the Health Department of the Catalan autonomous government . Cruyff juggled a cigarette pack 16 times in an anti-tobacco video sponsored by the Catalan Department of Health . With 11 trophies , Cruyff was Barcelona 's most successful manager , but has since been surpassed by his former player Pep Guardiola , who achieved 15 . Cruyff was also the club 's longest-serving manager . In his final two seasons , however , he failed to win any trophies , falling-out with chairman Josep Lluís Núñez , who ultimately sacked him as Barcelona coach . While still at Barcelona , Cruyff was in negotiations with the KNVB to manage the national team for the 1994 World Cup finals , but talks broke off at the last minute . Cruyff 's open support helped candidate Joan Laporta to victory in Barcelona 's presidential elections . He continued to be an adviser for him , although he held no official post at Barcelona . On 26 March 2010 , Cruyff was named honorary president of Barcelona in recognition of his contributions to the club as both a player and manager . In July 2010 , however , he was stripped of this title by new president Sandro Rosell . Catalonia On 2 November 2009 , Cruyff was named as manager of the Catalonia national team in place of Pere Gratacós . It was his first managing job for 13 years . Managerial career Return to Ajax On 20 February 2008 , in the wake of a major research on the ten-year-mismanagement , it was announced that Cruyff would be the new technical director at his boyhood club Ajax , his fourth stint with the Amsterdam club . Cruyff announced in March that he was pulling out of his planned return to Ajax because of `` professional difference of opinion '' between him and Ajax 's new manager , Marco van Basten . Van Basten said that Cruyff 's plans were `` going too fast '' , because he was `` not so dissatisfied with how things are going now '' . On 11 February 2011 , Cruyff returned to Ajax on an advisory basis after agreeing to become a member of one of three `` sounding board groups '' . After presenting his plans to reform the club , in particular to rejuvenate the youth academy , the Ajax board of advisors and the CEO resigned on 30 March 2011 . On 6 June 2011 , he was appointed to the new Ajax board of advisors to implent his reform plans . The Ajax advisory board made a verbal agreement with Louis van

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Who was European Footballer of the Year for 1973 and 1974?

Grozny ( ; ) is the capital city of the Chechen Republic , Russia . The city lies on the Sunzha River . According to the 2010 Census , it had a population of 271,573 ; up from 210,720 recorded in the 2002 Census , but still only about two-thirds of 399,688 recorded in the 1989 Census . Names In Russian , `` Grozny '' means `` fearsome '' , `` awesome '' , or `` redoubtable '' , the same word as in Ivan Grozny or Ivan the Terrible . While the official name in Chechen is the same , informally the city is known as `` '' , which literally means `` the city ( ) on the Sunzha River ( ) '' . In 1996 , during the First Chechen War , the Chechen separatists renamed the city Dzokhar-Ghala ( ) , or Dzhokhar/Djohar for short , after Dzhokhar Dudayev , the first President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria . In December 2005 , the Chechen parliament voted to rename the city `` Akhmadkala '' ( after Akhmad Kadyrov ) —a proposition which was rejected by his son Ramzan Kadyrov , the prime minister and later President of the republic . History Russian fort The fortress of Groznaya ( ; lit . fearsome ) was founded in 1818 as a Russian military outpost on the Sunzha River by general Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov . As the fort was being built the workers were fired upon by the Chechens . The Russians solved the problem by placing a cannon at a carefully chosen point outside the walls . When night fell and the Chechens came out of their hiding places to drag the gun away all the other guns opened up with grapeshot . When the Chechens recovered their senses and began to carry away the bodies the guns fired again . When it was over 200 dead were counted . Thus did the 'terrible ' fort receive its baptism of fire . It was a prominent defense center during the Caucasian War . After the annexation of the region by the Russian Empire , the military use of the old fortress was obsolete and in December 1869 it was renamed Grozny and granted town status . [ http : //grozny.vrcal.com/stories/vaxman.htm Ваксман А. А. , `` Записки краеведа '' , Чечено-Ингушское книжное издательство , Грозный,1984 ] As most of the residents there were Terek Cossacks , the town grew slowly until the development of oil reserves in the early 20th century . This encouraged the rapid development of industry and petrochemical production . In addition to the oil drilled in the city itself , the city became a geographical center of Russia 's network of oil fields , and in 1893 became part of the Transcaucasia — Russia Proper railway . The result was the population almost doubled from 15,600 in 1897 to 30,400 in 1913 . Soviet regional capital One day after the October Revolution , on November 8 , 1917 , the Bolsheviks headed by N. Anisimov seized Grozny . As the Russian Civil War escalated , the Proletariat formed the 12th Red Army , and the garrison held out against numerous attacks by Terek Cossacks from August 11 to November 12 , 1918 . However , with the arrival of Denikin 's armies , the Bolsheviks were forced to withdraw and Grozny was captured on February 4 , 1919 by the White Army . Underground operations were carried out , but only the arrival of the Caucasus front of the Red Army in 1920 allowed the city to permanently end up with the Russian SFSR on March 17 . Simultaneously it became part of the Soviet Mountain Republic , which was formed on January 20 , 1921 , and was the capital of the Chechen National Okrug inside it . On November 30 , 1922 , the mountain republic was dissolved , and the national okrug became the Chechen Autonomous Oblast ( Chechen AO ) with Grozny as the administrative center . At this time most of the population was still Russian , but of Cossack descent . As Cossacks were viewed as a potential threat to the Soviet nation , Moscow actively encouraged the migration of Chechens into the city from the mountains . In 1934 the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Oblast was formed , becoming the Chechen-Ingush ASSR in 1936 . In 1944 , the entire population of Chechens and Ingush was deported after rebelling against Soviet rule . Large amounts of people who were not deemed fit for transport were 'liquidated ' on spot , [ http : //www.history.neu.edu/fac/burds/Burds-FifthColumnists.pdf `` The Soviet War against ‘ Fifth Columnists ’ : The Case of Chechnya , 1942–1944 '' by Jeffrey Burds ] , p.39 and the situation of the transport and of the stay in Siberia caused many deaths as well . According to internal NKVD data , a total of 144,704 were killed in 1944-1948 alone ( death rate of 23.5 % per all groups ) . Authors such as Alexander Nekrich , John Dunlop and Moshe Gammer , based on census data from the period estimate a death toll of about 170,000-200,000 among Chechens alone , thus ranging from over a third of the total Chechen population that was deported to nearly half being killed in those 4 years ( rates for other groups for those four years hover around 20 % ) . All traces of them in the city , including books and graveyards , were destroyed by the NKVD troops . The act was recognized by the European Parliament as an act of genocide in 2004 . Grozny became the administrative center of Grozny Oblast of the Russian SFSR , and the city at the time was again wholly Russian . In 1957 , the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was restored , and the Chechens were allowed to return . The return of the Chechens to Grozny , which had been lacking of Nakh for thirteen years , would cause massive disruptions to the social , economic and political systems of what had been a Russian city for the period until their return . This caused a self-feeding cycle of ethnic conflict between the two groups , both believing the other 's presence in the city was illegitimate . Once again migration of non-Russians into Grozny continued whilst the ethnic Russian population , in turn , moved to other parts of the USSR , notably the Baltic states , after the interethnic conflict broke briefly out in 1958 . According to sociologist Georgy Derluguyan , the Checheno-Ingush Republic 's economy was divided into two spheres—much like French settler-ruled Algeria—and the Russian sphere had all the jobs with higher salaries , while non-Russians were systematically kept out of all government positions . Russians ( as well as Ukrainians and Armenians ) worked in education , health , oil , machinery , and social services . Non-Russians ( excluding Ukrainians and Armenians ) worked in agriculture , construction , a long host of undesirable jobs , as well as the so-called `` informal sector '' ( i.e. , illegal , due to the mass discrimination in the legal sector ) . At the same time a great deal of development occurred in the city . Like many other Soviet cities , the Stalinist style of architecture was prevalent during this period , with apartments in the centre as well as administrative buildings including the massive Council of Ministers and the Grozny University buildings being constructed in Grozny . Later projects included the high-rise apartment blocks prominent in many Soviet cities , as well as a city airport . In 1989 , the population of the city was almost 400,000 people . Collapse of Russian authority After the collapse of the Soviet Union , Grozny became the seat of a separatist government led by Dzhokhar Dudayev . According to some , many of the remaining Russian and other non-Chechen residents fled or were expelled by groups of militants , adding to a harassment and discrimination from the new authorities . These events are perceived by some as an act of an ethnic cleansing of non-Chechens , which has been reflected in the materials of General Prosecutor 's office of the Russian Federation . This view is disputed by authors , such as Russian economists Boris Lvin and Andrei Illarionov , who argue that Russian emigration from the area was no more intense than in other regions of Russia at the time . According to this view of the ethnic situation in Ichkeria , the primary cause of Russian emigration was the extensive bombing of Grozny ( where 4 out of 5 , or nearly 200,000 Russians in Chechnya lived before the war ) by the Russian military during the First Chechen War . The covert Russian attempts of overthrowing Dudayev by means of armed Chechen opposition forces resulted in repeated failed assaults on the city . Originally , Moscow had been backing the political opposition of Umar Avturkhanov `` peacefully '' ( i.e . without supplying the opposition with weapons and encouraging them to try a coup ) . However , this changed in 1994 , after the coups in neighboring Georgia and Azerbaijan ( both of which Moscow was involved with ) , and Russia encouraged armed opposition and occasionally assisted . In August 1994 Avturkhanov attacked Grozny , but was repelled first by Chechen citizens who were then joined by Grozny government troops and Russian helicopters covered his retreat . On September 28 , one of these interfering helicopters was shot down and its Russian pilot was held as a prisoner-of-war by the Chechen government . The last one on 26 November 1994 ended with capture of 21 Russian Army tank crew members , secretly hired as mercenaries by the FSK ( former KGB , soon renamed FSB ) ; their capture was sometimes cited as one of the reasons of Boris Yeltsin 's decision to launch the open intervention . In the meantime , Grozny airport and other targets were bombed by unmarked Russian aircraft . First Chechen War During the First Chechen War , Grozny was the site of an intense battle lasting from December 1994 to February 1995 and ultimately ending with the capture of the city by the Russian military . Intense fighting and carpet bombing carried out by the Russian Air Force destroyed much of the city . Thousands of combatants on both sides died in the fighting , alongside civilians , many of which were reportedly ethnic Russians ; unclaimed bodies were later collected and buried in mass graves on the city outskirts . The main federal military base in Chechnya was located in the area of Grozny air base . Chechen guerrilla units operating from nearby mountains managed to harass and demoralize the Russian Army by means of guerilla tactics and raids , such as the attack on Grozny in March 1996 , which added to political and public pressure for a withdrawal of Russian troops . In August 1996 , a raiding force of 1,500 to 3,000 militants recaptured the city in a surprise attack . They surrounded and routed its entire garrison of 10,000 MVD troops , while fighting off the Russian Army units from the Khankala base . The battle ended with a final ceasefire and Grozny was once again in the hands of Chechen separatists . The name was changed to Djohar in 1997 by the President of the separatist Ichkeria republic , Aslan Maskhadov . By this time most of the remaining Russian minority fled . Second Chechen War Grozny was once again the epicenter of fighting after the outbreak of the Second Chechen War , which further caused thousands of fatalities . During the early phase of the Russian siege on Grozny on October 25 , 1999 , Russian forces launched five SS-21 ballistic missiles at the crowded central bazaar and a maternity ward , killing more than 140 people and injuring hundreds . During the massive shelling of the city that followed , most of the Russian artillery were directed toward the upper floors of the buildings ; although this caused massive destruction of infrastructure , civilian casualties were much less than in the first battles . The final seizure of the city was set in early February 2000 , when the Russian military lured the besieged militants to a promised safe passage . Seeing no build-up of forces outside , the militants agreed . One day prior to the planned evacuation , the Russian Army mined the path between the city and the village of Alkhan-Kala and concentrated most firepower on that point . As a result , both the city mayor and military commander were killed ; a number of other prominent separatist leaders were also killed or wounded , including Shamil Basayev and several hundred rank-and-file militants . Afterwards , the Russians slowly entered the empty city and on February 6 raised the Russian flag in the centre . Many buildings and even whole areas of the city were systematically dynamited . A month later , it was declared safe to allow the residents to return to their homes , although demolishing continued for some time . In 2003 the United Nations called Grozny the most destroyed city on earth . After the war Today , the federal government representatives of Chechnya are based in Grozny . Reconstruction is progressing . By June 2006 , out of more than 60,000 apartment buildings and private homes destroyed , 900 had been rebuilt . Out of several dozens of industrial enterprises , three have been partially rebuilt — the Grozny Machine-Building Factory , the Krasny Molot ( Red Hammer ) and Transmash factories . Although most of the city 's infrastructure was destroyed during the war , the city 's sewage , water , electricity and heating systems have since been repaired , along with 250 km of roads , 13 bridges and some 900 shops . Before the war , Grozny had about 79,000 apartments , and the city authorities expect to be able to restore about 45,000 apartments ; the rest were in the buildings that were completely destroyed . The railway communication was restored in 2005 , and Grozny 's Severny airport was reopened in 2007 with three weekly flights to Moscow . In 2009 the IAC gave Grozny 's Severny airport the international certificate after checking and evaluating the airport 's airworthiness . On November 16 , 2009 , the airport had its first international flight , taking Pilgrims on Hajj to Saudi Arabia via a Boeing 747 . After four years of construction , the Grozny Mosque was formally opened to the public on October 16 , 2008 and is considered one of the largest mosques in Europe . In 2009 , the city of Grozny was honored by the UN Human Settlements Program for transforming the war scarred city and providing new homes for thousands . Administrative and municipal status Grozny is the capital of the republic . Within the framework of administrative divisions , it is incorporated as the city of republic significance of Grozny—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , the city of republic significance of Grozny is incorporated as Grozny Urban Okrug . The city also serves as the administrative center of Groznensky Municipal District , but not of the corresponding administrative district . City divisions For administrative purposes , the city is divided into four city districts : Leninsky , Zavodskoy , Staropromyslovsky , and Oktyabrsky . All of the districts are residential , but Staropromyslovsky District is also the city 's main illegal oil drilling area , and Oktyabrsky District hosts most of the city 's industry . Culture and education Grozny was known for its modern architecture and as a spa town but nearly all the town was destroyed or seriously damaged during the Chechen Wars . It is home to Chechen State University and FC Terek Grozny , which after a fifteen-year absence from its hometown returned to Grozny in March 2008 . Also in Grozny is Chechen State Pedagogical Institute . Transportation The first train pulled into the Grozny Railway station on May 1 , 1893 . Tram and trolleybuses On November 5 , 1932 , the Grozny Tram system was opened to the public , and by 1990 it was 85 km long , with 107 new Russian-built KTM-5 trams that it received in the late 1980s , and two depots . The Grozny Trolleybus system , began operation on December 31 , 1975 , and by 1990 was approximately 60 km long with 58 buses and one depot . Both versions of transport came under difficult pressure in the early 1990s , with frequent theft of equipment , staff not being properly paid and resultant strikes . A major planned Trolleybus extension route to the airport was cancelled . With the outbreak of the First Chechen War both transport services stopped operation . During the destructive battles , the tram tracks were blocked or damaged , cars and buses were turned into barricades . The trolleybus system was luckier , as most of its equipment , including the depot , survived the war . In 1996 it was visited by specialists from the Vologda Trolleybus Company , who repaired some of the lines , with services planned to be restarted in 1997 . However , after they returned , most of the equipment was stolen . The surviving buses were transported to Volzhsky where they were repaired and used in the new Trolleybus system . After the Second Chechen War , little of the infrastructure of both systems was left . The created Ministry of Transport of the Chechen Republic in 2002 , decided not to build the tram system ( rated as too expensive , and no longer answering to the city 's needs , as it had since lost half of its population ) . The trolleybus system however was more fortunate , and despite delays , Grozny hopes to re-open it by 2010 . Airport The city is served by Grozny Airport , hub to airline Grozny Avia . Sports Grozny is home to Russian Football Premier League club FC Terek Grozny . After winning promotion by coming 2nd in the Russian First Division in 2007 , Terek Grozny finished 10th in the Russian Premier League in 2008 . The team still plays in the top tier . The club is owned by Ramzan Kadyrov and play in the recently built city 's Ahmad Arena . Ruud Gullit was the team manager from the beginning of the season 2011 , but was later sacked by the club in June . Climate Grozny has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfa ) with hot summers and cold winters . Twin towns and sister cities Grozny is twinned with : * Ardahan , Turkey * Sivas , Turkey * Warsaw , Poland ( since 1997 ) * Kraków , Poland ( since 1997 ) * Łuków , Poland * Lviv , Ukraine * Odessa , Ukraine * Tatabánya , Hungary Notable people * Timur Aliev , journalist * Israil Arsamakov , weightlifter * Meseda Bagaudinova , pop singer * Dzhokhar Dudayev , Major General of Aviation * Mamed Khalidov , mixed martial arts fighter * Yuri Radonyak , boxer * Makka Sagaipova , singer and dancer * Artur Sarkisov , soccer player * Gennady Troshev , Colonel General * Lyudmila Turishcheva , Olympic gymnast Visitor attractions * Akhmad Kadyrov Mosque * Grozny-City Towers Facade Clocks

jp_553--Grozny.txt

Grozny is the capital of what war-torn Russian republic?

Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill , ( 30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965 ) was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955 . Churchill was also an officer in the British Army , a non-academic historian , a writer ( as Winston S. Churchill ) , and an artist . He won the Nobel Prize in Literature , and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States . Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough , a branch of the Spencer family . His father , Lord Randolph Churchill , was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer ; his mother , Jennie Jerome , was an American socialite . As a young army officer , he saw action in British India , the Anglo–Sudan War , and the Second Boer War . He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns . At the forefront of politics for fifty years , he held many political and cabinet positions . Before the First World War , he served as President of the Board of Trade , Home Secretary , and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of Asquith 's Liberal government . During the war , he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government . He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers . He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions , Secretary of State for War , Secretary of State for Air , then Secretary of State for the Colonies . After two years out of Parliament , he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Baldwin 's Conservative government of 1924–1929 , controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity , a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy . Out of office and politically `` in the wilderness '' during the 1930s because of his opposition to increased home rule for India and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII , Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament . At the outbreak of the Second World War , he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty . Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940 , Churchill became Prime Minister . His speeches and radio broadcasts helped inspire British resistance , especially during the difficult days of 1940–41 when the British Commonwealth and Empire stood almost alone in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler . He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured . After the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election , he became Leader of the Opposition to the Labour Government . He publicly warned of an `` Iron Curtain '' of Soviet influence in Europe and promoted European unity . After winning the 1951 election , Churchill again became Prime Minister . His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs , including the Malayan Emergency , Mau Mau Uprising , Korean War , and a UK-backed coup d'état in Iran . Domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building . Churchill suffered a serious stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955 , although he remained a Member of Parliament until 1964 . Upon his death aged ninety in 1965 , Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral , which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen in history . Named the Greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 poll , Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential people in British history , consistently ranking well in opinion polls of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom . Family and early life Born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough , a branch of the noble Spencer family , Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill , like his father , used the surname `` Churchill '' in public life . His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough , to highlight his descent from John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough . Churchill 's father , Lord Randolph Churchill , the third son of John Spencer-Churchill , 7th Duke of Marlborough , was a politician ; and his mother , Lady Randolph Churchill ( Jennie Jerome ) was the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome . Churchill was born on 30 November 1874 , two months prematurely , in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace , Woodstock , Oxfordshire . From age two to six , he lived in Dublin , where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy and employed Churchill 's father as his private secretary . Churchill 's brother , John Strange Spencer-Churchill , was born during this time in Ireland . It has been claimed that the young Churchill first developed his fascination with military matters from watching the many parades pass by the Vice Regal Lodge ( now Áras an Uachtaráin , the official residence of the President of Ireland ) . Churchill 's earliest exposure to education occurred in Dublin , where a governess tried teaching him reading , writing , and arithmetic ( his first reading book was called 'Reading Without Tears ' ) . With limited contact with his parents , Churchill became very close to his nanny , 'Mrs ' Elizabeth Ann Everest , whom he called 'Old Woom ' ( some references 'Woomany ' ) . She served as his confidante , nurse , and mother substitute . The two spent many happy hours playing in Phoenix Park . Independent and rebellious by nature , Churchill generally had a poor academic record in school . He was educated at three independent schools : St. George 's School , Ascot , Berkshire ; Brunswick School in Hove , near Brighton ( the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex ) ; and at Harrow School from 17 April 1888 . Within weeks of his arrival at Harrow , Churchill had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps . When young Winston started attending Harrow School , he was listed under the S 's as Spencer Churchill . At that time Winston was a stocky boy with red hair who talked with a stutter and a lisp . Winston did so well in mathematics in his Harrow entrance exam that he was put in the top division for that subject . In his first year at Harrow he was recognized as being the best in his division for history . Winston entered the school , however , as the boy with the lowest grades in the lowest class , and he remained in that position . Winston never even made it into the upper school because he would not study the classics . Though he did poorly in his schoolwork , he grew to love the English language . He hated Harrow . His mother rarely visited him , and he wrote letters begging her either to come to the school or to allow him to come home . His relationship with his father was distant ; he once remarked that they barely spoke to one another . His father died on 24 January 1895 , aged 45 , leaving Churchill with the conviction that he too would die young and so should be quick about making his mark on the world . At age 18 , while visiting his aunt Lady Wimborne in Bournemouth , Winston nearly died when he fell from a bridge over a seaside chine ( either Branksome Dene or Alum Chine ) at a height of 29 feet . As a result of injuries sustained in the fall , he was unconscious for three days and bedridden for three months . Winston Churchill was a member of the freemasons and a member of the Loyal Waterloo Lodge of the National Independent Order of Odd Fellows . Speech impediment Churchill had a lateral lisp that continued throughout his career , reported consistently by journalists of the time and later . Authors writing in the 1920s and 1930s , before sound recording became common , also mentioned Churchill having a stutter , describing it in terms such as `` severe '' or `` agonising '' . The Churchill Centre and Museum says the majority of records show his impediment was a lateral lisp , while Churchill 's stutter is a myth . His dentures were specially designed to aid his speech ( Demosthenes ' pebbles ) . After many years of public speeches carefully prepared not only to inspire , but also to avoid hesitations , he could finally state , `` My impediment is no hindrance '' . Marriage and children Churchill met his future wife , Clementine Hozier , in 1904 at a ball in Crewe House , home of the Earl of Crewe and Crewe 's wife Margaret Primrose ( daughter of Archibald Primrose , 5th Earl of Rosebery , and Hannah Rothschild ) . In 1908 , they met again at a dinner party hosted by Susan Jeune , Baroness St Helier . Churchill found himself seated beside Clementine , and they soon began a lifelong romance . He proposed to Clementine during a house party at Blenheim Palace on 10 August 1908 , in a small Temple of Diana . On 12 September 1908 , he and Clementine were married in St. Margaret 's , Westminster . The church was packed ; the Bishop of St Asaph conducted the service . The couple spent their honeymoon at Highgrove House in Eastcote . In March 1909 , the couple moved to a house at 33 Eccleston Square . Their first child , Diana , was born in London on 11 July 1909 . After the pregnancy , Clementine moved to Sussex to recover , while Diana stayed in London with her nanny . On 28 May 1911 , their second child , Randolph , was born at 33 Eccleston Square . Their third child , Sarah , was born on 7 October 1914 at Admiralty House . The birth was marked with anxiety for Clementine , as Churchill had been sent to Antwerp by the Cabinet to `` stiffen the resistance of the beleaguered city '' after news that the Belgians intended to surrender the town . Clementine gave birth to her fourth child , Marigold Frances Churchill , on 15 November 1918 , four days after the official end of the First World War . In the early days of August 1921 , the Churchills ' children were entrusted to a French nursery governess in Kent named Mlle . Rose . Clementine , meanwhile , travelled to Eaton Hall to play tennis with Hugh Grosvenor , 2nd Duke of Westminster , and his family . While still under the care of Mlle . Rose , Marigold had a cold , but was reported to have recovered from the illness . As the illness progressed with hardly any notice , it turned into septicaemia . Following advice from a landlady , Rose sent for Clementine . However the illness proved fatal on 23 August 1921 , and Marigold was buried in the Kensal Green Cemetery three days later . On 15 September 1922 , the Churchills ' last child , Mary , was born . Later that month , the Churchills bought Chartwell , which would be their home until Winston 's death in 1965 . Military service After Churchill left Harrow in 1893 , he applied to attend the Royal Military College , Sandhurst . He tried three times before passing the entrance exam ; he applied to be trained for the cavalry rather than the infantry because the required grade was lower and he was not required to learn mathematics , which he disliked . He graduated eighth out of a class of 150 in December 1894 , and although he could now have transferred to an infantry regiment as his father had wished , chose to remain with the cavalry and was commissioned as a cornet ( second lieutenant ) in the 4th Queen 's Own Hussars on 20 February 1895 . In 1941 , he received the honour of being appointed Regimental Colonel of the 4th Hussars , an honour which was increased after the Second World War when he was appointed as Colonel-in-Chief ; this privilege is usually reserved for members of the royal family . Churchill 's pay as a second lieutenant in the 4th Hussars was £300 annually . However , he believed that he needed at least a further £500 ( equivalent to £55,000 in 2012 terms ) to support a style of life equal to that of other officers of the regiment . His mother provided an allowance of £400 per year , but this was repeatedly overspent . According to biographer Roy Jenkins , this is one reason why he took an interest in war correspondence . He did not intend to follow a conventional career of promotion through army ranks , but rather to seek out all possible chances of military action , using his mother 's and family influence in high society to arrange postings to active campaigns . His writings brought him to the attention of the public , and earned him significant additional income . He acted as a war correspondent for several London newspapers and wrote his own books about the campaigns . Cuba In 1895 , during the Cuban War of Independence , Churchill , and fellow officer Reginald Barnes , travelled to Cuba to observe the Spanish fight the Cuban guerrillas ; he had obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic . He came under fire on his twenty-first birthday , the first of about 50 times during his life , and the Spanish awarded him his first medal . Churchill had fond memories of Cuba as a `` ... large , rich , beautiful island ... '' . While there , he soon acquired a taste for Havana cigars , which he would smoke for the rest of his life . While in New York , he stayed at the home of Bourke Cockran , an admirer of his mother . Bourke was an established American politician , and a member of the House of Representatives . He greatly influenced Churchill , both in his approach to oratory and politics , and encouraging a love of America . He soon received word that his nanny , Mrs Everest , was dying ; he then returned to England and stayed with her for a week until she died . He wrote in his journal , `` She was my favourite friend . '' In My Early Life he wrote : `` She had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the twenty years I had lived . '' India and self-education In early October 1896 , he was transferred to Bombay , British India . He was considered one of the best polo players in his regiment and led his team to many prestigious tournament victories . On arrival Churchill badly wrenched his shoulder while leaping from the boat , an injury which would plague him throughout his life and would later require him to play polo with his upper arm strapped to his side . Churchill came to Bangalore in 1896 as a young army officer . In his book , 'My Early Life ' , he describes Bangalore as a city with excellent weather , and his allotted house as ‘ a magnificent pink and white stucco palace in the middle of a large and beautiful garden ' with servants , dhobi ( to wash clothes ) , gardener , watchman and a water-carrier . It was in Bangalore he met Pamela Plowden , daughter of a civil servant ; she became his first love . He privately described most British women in India as “ nasty ” and scoffed at their belief in their own beauty . His letters home show him to have been obsessed with British politics , advocating a centrist coalition between Lord Rosebery and Joseph Chamberlain , and critical of Lord Lansdowne ’ s proposal for increased spending on the army ( opposition to which had been one of Lord Randolph ’ s reasons for resigning in December 1886 ; Churchill preferred Britain to concentrate on keeping a strong Royal Navy ) . Partly at his mother ’ s urging , Churchill passed the long hot afternoons reading . He read multi-volume historical works by Gibbon ( `` The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire '' ) and Macaulay ( `` History of England ” ) as well as Plato ’ s `` Republic '' and works of economics . He toyed with the idea of studying for a degree in history , politics and economics , but regretted he did not have enough knowledge of Latin and Greek which were then a requirement of university entrance . He also read Winwood Reade ’ s work “ The Martyrdom of Man ” , writing to his mother that its critique of religion confirmed what he had reluctantly come to believe . Churchill believed that religion , although mostly not literally true , was a useful “ crutch ” until men were ready to rely on reason alone . He also wrote to his old headmaster James Welldon , now Bishop of Calcutta , opposing Christian missions in India . Churchill argued that the State was perfectly entitled to dictate the doctrines of the Established Church of England and advocated non-denominational teaching in schools , by secular teachers , based on the Bible and “ Hymns Ancient and Modern ” . Keith Robbins writes that Churchill ’ s opinions were largely formed at this time , and without the “ scrutiny and criticism ” to which they would have been subjected at a university , although he also suggests that Churchill ’ s love of the English language might not have flourished to the same degree under university conditions . John Charmley concurs , commenting that Churchill ’ s self-education had not given him any training in the weighing of arguments and the absorption of the views of others , although he also points out that Lord Moran , Churchill ’ s doctor in the 1940s , recorded Churchill 's sympathy for adults who educated themselves later in life . With some reluctance because of the weight and cost , his mother also sent out copies of Parliamentary debates of the last few generations . Churchill would write down his opinion of each issue ( e.g . the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875 ) before reading the debate , and then record his opinion again . He was highly critical of Lord Salisbury ’ s Conservative-dominated Government , in power from the autumn of 1895 , writing to his mother in March 1897 , in an obvious echo of what he perceived his late father ’ s position to have been , that he was a Liberal in all but name , remaining a “ Tory Democrat ” solely because of the issue of Irish Home Rule . North-West Frontier In 1897 , Churchill attempted to travel to both report on and , if necessary , fight in the Greco-Turkish War , but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive . Later , while preparing for a leave in England , he heard that three brigades of the British Army were going to fight against a Pashtun tribe in the North West Frontier of India and he asked his superior officer if he could join the fight . In 1899 he departed for the North West Frontier to fight in the Second Anglo-Afghan War . He fought under the command of General Jeffery , the commander of the second brigade operating in Malakand , in the Frontier region of British India . Jeffery sent him with fifteen scouts to explore the Mamund Valley ; while on reconnaissance , they encountered an enemy tribe , dismounted from their horses and opened fire . After an hour of shooting , their reinforcements , the 35th Sikhs arrived , the firing gradually ceased and the brigade and the Sikhs marched on . Hundreds of tribesmen then ambushed them and opened fire , forcing them to retreat . As they were retreating , four men were carrying an injured officer , but the fierceness of the fight forced them to leave him behind . The man who was left behind was slashed to death before Churchill 's eyes ; afterwards he wrote of the killer , `` I forgot everything else at this moment except a desire to kill this man . '' However , the Sikhs ' numbers were being depleted , so the next commanding officer told Churchill to get the rest of the men to safety . Before he left , he asked for a note so that he would not be charged with desertion . He received the note , quickly signed , headed up the hill and alerted the other brigade , whereupon they then engaged the army . The fighting in the region dragged on for another two weeks before the dead could be recovered . He wrote in his journal : `` Whether it was worth it I can not tell . '' An account of the Siege of Malakand was published in December 1900 as The Story of the Malakand Field Force . He received £600 for his account . During the campaign , he also wrote articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph . His account of the battle was one of his first published stories , for which he received £5 per column from The Daily Telegraph . Sudan Churchill was transferred to Egypt in 1898 . He visited Luxor before joining an attachment of the 21st Lancers serving in the Sudan under the command of General Herbert Kitchener . During this time he encountered two military officers with whom he would work during the First World War : Douglas Haig , then a captain , and David Beatty , then a gunboat lieutenant . While in the Sudan , he participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British cavalry charge , at the Battle of Omdurman in September 1898 . He also worked as a war correspondent for the Morning Post . By October 1898 , he had returned to Britain and begun his two-volume work , The River War , an account of the conquest of the Sudan which was published the following year . Churchill resigned from the British Army effective from 5 May 1899 . Oldham He soon had his first opportunity to begin a Parliamentary career , when he was invited by Robert Ascroft to be the second Conservative Party candidate in Ascroft 's Oldham constituency . Ascroft 's sudden death caused a double by-election and Churchill was one of the candidates . In the midst of a national trend against the Conservatives , both seats were lost ; however , Churchill impressed by his vigorous campaigning . South Africa Having failed at Oldham , Churchill looked about for some other opportunity to advance his career . On 12 October 1899 , the Second Boer War between Britain and the Boer Republics broke out and he obtained a commission to act as war correspondent for The Morning Post with a salary of £250 per month . He rushed to sail on the same ship as the newly appointed British commander , Sir Redvers Buller . After some weeks in exposed areas , he accompanied a scouting expedition in an armoured train , leading to his capture and imprisonment in a POW camp in Pretoria ( converted school building for Pretoria High School for Girls ) . His actions during the ambush of the train led to speculation that he would be awarded the Victoria Cross , Britain 's highest award to members of the armed forces for gallantry in the face of the enemy , but this was not possible , as he was a civilian . He escaped from the prison camp and , with the assistance of an English mine manager , travelled almost 300 mi to safety in Portuguese East Africa . His escape made him a minor national hero for a time in Britain though , instead of returning home , he rejoined General Buller 's army on its march to relieve the British at the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria . This time , although continuing as a war correspondent , he gained a commission in the South African Light Horse . He was among the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria . He and his cousin , the Duke of Marlborough , were able to get ahead of the rest of the troops in Pretoria , where they demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards . In 1900 , Churchill returned to England on the , the same ship on which he had set sail for South Africa eight months earlier . The same year he published London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and a second volume of Boer war experiences , Ian Hamilton 's March . Territorial Service and advancement In 1900 , he retired from the regular army , and in 1902 joined the Imperial Yeomanry , where he was commissioned as a Captain in the Queen 's Own Oxfordshire Hussars on 4 January 1902 . In that same year , he was initiated into Freemasonry at Studholme Lodge # 1591 , London , and raised to the Third Degree on 25 March 1902 . In April 1905 , he was promoted to Major and appointed to command of the Henley Squadron of the Queen 's Own Oxfordshire Hussars . In September 1916 , he transferred to the territorial reserves of officers , where he remained until retiring in 1924 , at the age of fifty . Western Front After his resignation from the government in 1915 , Churchill rejoined the British Army , attempting to obtain an appointment as brigade commander , but settling for command of a battalion . After spending some time as a Major with the 2nd Battalion , Grenadier Guards , he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel , commanding the 6th Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers ( part of the 9th ( Scottish ) Division ) , on 1 January 1916 . Correspondence with his wife shows that his intent in taking up active service was to rehabilitate his reputation , but this was balanced by the serious risk of being killed . During his period of command , his battalion was stationed at Ploegsteert but did not take part in any set battle . Although he disapproved strongly of the mass slaughter involved in many Western Front actions , he exposed himself to danger by making excursions to the front line or into No Man 's Land . Political career to the Second World War , 1900–39 Early years in Parliament Churchill stood again for the seat of Oldham at the 1900 general election . After winning the seat , he went on a speaking tour throughout Britain and the United States , raising £10,000 for himself ( about £ today ) . From 1903 until 1905 , Churchill was also engaged in writing Lord Randolph Churchill , a two-volume biography of his father which was published in 1906 and received much critical acclaim . In Parliament , he became associated with a faction of the Conservative Party led by Lord Hugh Cecil ; the Hughligans . During his first parliamentary session , he opposed the government 's military expenditure and Joseph Chamberlain 's proposal of extensive tariffs , which were intended to protect Britain 's economic dominance . His own constituency effectively deselected him , although he continued to sit for Oldham until the next general election . In the months leading up to his ultimate change of party from the Conservatives to the Liberals , Churchill made a number of evocative speeches against the principles of Protectionism ; ‘ to think you can make a man richer by putting on a tax is like a man thinking that he can stand in a bucket and lift himself up by the handle . ' [ Winston Churchill , Speech to the Free Trade League , 19 February 1904 . ] As a result of his disagreement with leading members of the Conservative Party over tariff reform , he made the decision to cross the floor . After the Whitsun recess in 1904 , he crossed the floor to sit as a member of the Liberal Party . As a Liberal ,

qw_10944--Winston_Churchill.txt

What post was held by Winston Churchill during the 1926 General Strike in the UK?

BBC Radio 1 is a British radio station operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation which also broadcasts internationally , specialising in modern and current popular music and chart hits throughout the day . Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7:00 pm , including electronic dance , hip hop , rock , indie or interviews . It is aimed primarily at the 15–29 age group , although the average age of the UK audience in 2008 was 33 . BBC Radio 1 started 24-hour broadcasting on 1 May 1991 . History First broadcast Radio 1 was established in 1967 ( along with the more middle of the road BBC Radio 2 ) as a successor to the BBC Light Programme , which had broadcast popular music and other entertainment since 1945 . Radio 1 was conceived as a direct response to the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline and Radio London , which had been outlawed by Act of Parliament . Radio 1 was launched at 7:00 am on Saturday 30 September 1967 . The first disc jockey to broadcast on the new station was Tony Blackburn , whose cheery style , first heard on Radio Caroline and Radio London , won him the prime slot on what became known as the `` Radio 1 Breakfast Show '' . The first words on Radio 1 – after a countdown by the Controller of Radios 1 and 2 , Robin Scott , and a jingle , recorded at PAMS in Dallas , Texas , beginning `` The voice of Radio 1 '' – were `` ... And , good morning everyone . Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1 '' . This was the first use of US-style jingles on BBC radio , but the style was familiar to listeners who were acquainted with Blackburn and other DJs from their days on pirate radio . The first complete record played on Radio 1 was `` Flowers in the Rain '' by The Move . The second single was `` Massachusetts '' by The Bee Gees . The breakfast show remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedule , with every change of breakfast show presenter exciting considerable media interest . The initial rota of staff included John Peel and a gaggle of others , some hired from pirates , such as Keith Skues , Ed Stewart , Mike Raven , David Ryder , Jim Fisher , Jimmy Young , Dave Cash , Kenny Everett , Simon Dee , Terry Wogan , Duncan Johnson , Doug Crawford , Tommy Vance , Chris Denning , Emperor Rosko , Pete Murray , and Bob Holness . Many of the most popular pirate radio voices , such as Simon Dee , had only a one-hour slot per week , ( `` Midday Spin . '' ) Annie Nightingale , who joined in 1970 , was Britain 's first female DJ and is now the longest serving presenter , having constantly evolved her musical tastes with the times . 1970s peak Initially , the station was unpopular with some of its target audience who , it is claimed , disliked the fact that much of its airtime was shared with Radio 2 and that it was less unequivocally aimed at a young audience than the offshore stations , with some DJs such as Jimmy Young being in their 40s . The very fact that it was part of an `` establishment '' institution such as the BBC was a turn-off for some , and needle time restrictions prevented it from playing as many records as offshore stations had . It also had limited finances ( partially because the BBC did not increase its licence fee to fund the new station ) and often , as in January 1975 , suffered disproportionately when the BBC had to make financial cutbacks , strengthening an impression that it was regarded as a lower priority by senior BBC executives . Despite this , it gained massive audiences , becoming the most listened to station in the world with audiences of over 10 million claimed for some of its shows ( up to 20 million for some of the combined Radio 1 and Radio 2 shows ) . In the early-mid-1970s Radio 1 presenters were rarely out of the British tabloids , thanks to the Publicity Department 's high profile work . The popularity of Radio 1 's touring summer live broadcasts the Radio 1 Roadshow - usually as part of the BBC 'Radio Weeks ' promotions that took Radio 1 , 2 and 4 shows on the road - drew some of the largest crowds of the decade . The station undoubtedly played a role in maintaining the high sales of 45 rpm single records although it benefited from a lack of competition , apart from Radio Luxembourg and Manx Radio in the Isle of Man . ( Independent Local Radio did not begin until October 1973 and took many years to cover virtually all of the UK ) . Alan Freeman 's 'Saturday Rock Show ' was voted 'Best Radio Show ' 5 years running by readers of a national music publication , and was then axed by controller Derek Chinnery . 1990s changes In his last few months as controller , Johnny Beerling commissioned a handful of new shows that in some ways set the tone for what was to come under Matthew Bannister . One of these `` Loud'n'proud '' was the UK 's first national radio series aimed at a gay audience ( made in Manchester and was aired from August 1993 ) . Far from being a parting quirk , the show was a surprise hit and led to the network 's first coverage of the large outdoor Gay Pride event in 1994 . Bannister took the reins fully in October 1993 . His aim was to rid the station of its 'Smashie and Nicey ' image and make it appeal to the under 25s . Although originally launched as a youth station , by the early 1990s , its loyal listeners ( and DJs ) had aged with the station over its 25-year history . Many long-standing DJs , such as Simon Bates , Dave Lee Travis , Alan Freeman , Bob Harris , Gary Davies , and later Steve Wright , Bruno Brookes and Johnnie Walker left the station or were sacked , and in January 1995 old music ( typically anything recorded before 1990 ) was banned from the daytime playlist . Many listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC ( notably Bannister and Trevor Dann 's former colleagues at the BBC 's London station , GLR ) with Emma Freud and Danny Baker . Another problem was that , at the time , Radio 2 was sticking resolutely to a format which appealed mainly to those who had been listening since the days of the Light Programme , and commercial radio , which was targeting the `` Radio 1 and a half '' audience , consequently enjoyed a massive increase in its audience share at the expense of Radio 1 . After the departure of Steve Wright , who had been unsuccessfully moved from his long-running afternoon show to the breakfast show in January 1994 , Bannister hired Chris Evans to present the prime morning slot in April 1995 . Evans was a popular but controversial presenter who was eventually sacked in 1997 after he demanded to present the breakfast show for only four days per week . Evans was replaced from 17 February 1997 by Mark and Lard – Mark Radcliffe ( along with his sidekick Marc Riley ) , who found the slick , mass-audience style required for a breakfast show did not come naturally to them . They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Kevin Greening eight months later in October 1997 , with Greening moving on and leaving Ball as solo presenter . The reinvention of the station happened at a fortuitous time , with the rise of Britpop in the mid-90s – bands like Oasis , Blur and Pulp were popular and credible at the time and the station 's popularity rose with them . Documentaries like John Peel 's `` Lost in Music '' which looked at the influence that the use of drugs have had over popular musicians received critical acclaim but were slated inside Broadcasting House . Later in the 1990s the Britpop boom declined , and manufactured chart pop ( boy bands and acts aimed at sub-teenagers ) came to dominate the charts . New-genre music occupied the evenings ( indie on weekdays and dance at weekends ) , with a mix of specialist shows and playlist fillers through late nights . The rise of rave culture through the late 1980s and early 1990s gave the station the opportunity to move into a controversial and youth-orientated movement by bringing in club DJ Pete Tong amongst others . There had been a dance music programme on Radio 1 since 1987 and Pete Tong was the second DJ to present an all dance music show . This quickly gave birth to the Essential Mix where underground DJs mix electronic and club based music in a two-hour slot . Dance music has been a permanent feature on Radio 1 since with club DJs such as Judge Jules , Danny Rampling and Seb Fontaine all having shows as well as Radio 1 hosting an annual weekend in Ibiza . 2000s Listening numbers continued to decline but the station succeeded in targeting a younger age-group and more cross gender groups . Eventually , this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to this day . Notably , the station has received praise for shows such as The Surgery with Aled , Bobby Friction and Nihal , The Evening Session with Steve Lamacq and its successor Zane Lowe . Its website has also been well received . However , the breakfast show and the UK Top 40 continued to struggle . In 2000 , Zoë Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow ladette Sara Cox , but , despite heavy promotion , listening figures for the breakfast show continued to fall . In 2004 Cox was replaced by Chris Moyles . The newly rebranded breakfast show was known as The Chris Moyles Show and it increased its audience , ahead of The Today Programme on Radio 4 as the second most popular breakfast show ( after The Chris Evans Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans ) . Moyles continued to use innovative ways to try to tempt listeners from the 'Wake up with Wogan ' show ; in 2006 , for example , creating a 'SAY NO TO WOGAN ' campaign live on-air . This angered the BBC hierarchy , though the row simmered down when it was clear that the 'campaign ' had totally failed to alter the listening trends of the time – Wogan still increased figures at a faster rate than Moyles . The chart show 's ratings fell after the departure of long-time host Mark Goodier , amid falling single sales in the UK . Ratings for the show fell in 2002 whilst Goodier was still presenting the show , meaning that commercial radio 's Network Chart overtook it in the ratings for the first time . However , the BBC denied he was being sacked . The BBC show now competes with networked commercial radio 's The Big Top 40 Show which is broadcast at the same time . Many DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure ( such as Johnnie Walker , Bob Harris and Steve Wright ) have joined Radio 2 which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK 's most popular radio station , using a style that Radio 1 had until the early 1990s . The success of Moyles ' show has come alongside increased success for the station in general . In 2006 , DJs Chris Moyles , Scott Mills and Zane Lowe all won gold Sony Radio Awards , while the station itself came away with the best station award . A new evening schedule was introduced in September 2006 , dividing the week by genre . Monday was mainly pop-funkrock-oriented , Tuesday was R & B and hip-hop , Thursdays and Fridays were primarily dance , with specialist R & B and reggae shows . Following the death of John Peel in October 2004 , Annie Nightingale is now the longest serving presenter , having worked there since 1970 . 2010s The licence-fee funding of Radio 1 , alongside Radio 2 , is often criticised by the commercial sector . In the first quarter of 2011 Radio 1 was part of an efficiency review conducted by John Myers . His role , according to Andrew Harrison , the chief executive of RadioCentre , was `` to identify both areas of best practice and possible savings . '' The controller of Radio 1 and sister station 1Xtra changed to Ben Cooper on 28 October 2011 , following the departure of Andy Parfitt . Ben Cooper answers to the Director of BBC Audio and Music , Tim Davie . On 7 December 2011 , Ben Cooper 's first major changes to the station were announced . Skream & Benga , Toddla T , Charlie Sloth and Friction replaced Judge Jules , Gilles Peterson , Kissy Sell Out and Fabio & Grooverider . A number of shows were shuffled to incorporate the new line up . On 28 February 2012 , further changes were announced . Greg James and Scott Mills swapped shows and Jameela Jamil , Gemma Cairney and Danny Howard joined the station . The new line up of DJs for In New DJs We Trust was also announced with B.Traits , Mosca , Jordan Suckley and Julio Bashmore hosting shows on a four weekly rotation . This new schedule took effect on Monday , 2 April 2012 . In September 2012 , Nick Grimshaw replaced Chris Moyles as host of `` Radio 1 's Breakfast Show '' . Grimshaw previously hosted Mon-Thurs 10pm-Midnight , Weekend Breakfast and Sunday evenings alongside Annie Mac . Grimshaw was replaced by Phil Taggart and Alice Levine on the 10pm-Midnight show . In November 2012 , another series of changes were announced . This included the departure of Reggie Yates and Vernon Kay . Jameela Jamil was announced as the new presenter of The Official Chart . Matt Edmondson will host a weekend morning show and Tom Deacon will return to present a Wednesday night show . Dan Howell and Phil Lester , famous YouTubers also joined the station . The changes took effect in January 2013 . Former breakfast presenter Sara Cox hosted her last show on Radio 1 in February 2014 before moving to Radio 2 . In March 2014 , Gemma Cairney left the weekend breakfast show to host the weekday early breakfast slot , swapping shows with Dev . In September 2014 , Radio 1 operated a series of changes to their output which saw many notable presenters leave the station - including Edith Bowman , Nihal and Rob da Bank . Huw Stephens gained a new show hosting 10pm-1am Mon-Wed with Alice Levine presenting weekends 1pm-4pm . Radio 1 's Residency also expanded with Skream joining the rotational line-up on Thursday nights 10pm-1am . In January 2015 , Clara Amfo replaced Jameela Jamil as host of The Official Chart on Sundays ( 4pm-7pm ) and in March , Zane Lowe left Radio 1 and was replaced by Annie Mac on the new music evening show . In May 2015 , Fearne Cotton left the station after almost 10 years . Her weekday morning show was taken over by Clara Amfo . Adele Roberts also joined the weekday schedule line-up , hosting the Early Breakfast show . In July 2015 , The Official Chart moved to a Friday from 4pm-5.45pm , hosted by Greg James . The move took place in order to take into account the changes to the release dates of music globally . Cel Spellman joined Radio 1 to host Sunday evenings 4pm-7pm . Broadcast Studios From inception for over 20 years , Radio 1 broadcast from an adjacent pair of continuity suites ( originally Con A and Con B ) in the main control room of Broadcasting House . These cons were configured to allow DJs to operate the equipment themselves and play their own records and jingle cartridges ( called self-op ) . This was a departure from traditional BBC practice , where a studio manager would play in discs from the studio control cubicle . Due to needle time restrictions , much of the music was played from tapes of BBC session recordings . The DJs were assisted by one or more technical operators ( TOs ) who would set up tapes and control sound levels during broadcasts . In 1985 , Radio 1 moved across the road from Broadcasting House to Egton House . The station moved to Yalding House in 1996 , and Egton House was demolished in 2003 to make way for extension to Broadcasting House . This extension would eventually be renamed the Egton Wing , and then the Peel Wing . Until recently , the studios were located in the basement of Yalding House ( near to BBC Broadcasting House ) which is on Great Portland Street in central London . They used to broadcast from two main studios in the basement ; Y2 and Y3 ( there is also a smaller studio , YP1 , used mainly for production ) . These two main studios ( Y2 and Y3 ) are separated by the `` Live Lounge '' , although it is mainly used as an office ; there are rarely live sets recorded from it , as Maida Vale Studios is used instead for larger set-ups . The studios are linked by webcams and windows through the `` Live Lounge '' , allowing DJs to see each other when changing between shows . Y2 is the studio from where The Chris Moyles Show was broadcast and is also the studio rigged with static cameras for when the station broadcasts on the `` Live Cam '' . The station moved there in 1996 from Egton House . In December 2012 Radio 1 moved from Yalding House to new studios on the 8th floor of the new BBC Broadcasting House , Portland Place , just a few metres away from the `` Peel Wing '' , formerly the `` Egton Wing '' , which occupies the land on which Egton House previously stood : it was renamed the `` Peel Wing '' in 2012 in honour of the long-serving BBC Radio 1 presenter , John Peel , who broadcast on the station from its launch in 1967 up until his death in 2004 . Programmes have also regularly been broadcast from other regions , notably The Mark and Lard Show , broadcast every weekday from New Broadcasting House , Oxford Road , Manchester for over a decade ( October 1993–March 2004 ) — the longest regular broadcast on the network from outside the capital . UK analogue frequencies Radio 1 originally broadcast on 1214 kHz medium wave ( or 247 metres ) . On 23 November 1978 , the latter was moved to 1053/1089 kHz ( 275/285 m ) , but did not broadcast nationally on its own FM frequencies until late 1987 . The BBC was allocated three FM frequency ranges in 1955 , for the then Light Programme ( now BBC Radio 2 ) , Third Programme ( now BBC Radio 3 ) and Home Service ( now BBC Radio 4 ) stations . This meant when Radio 1 was launched , there was no FM frequency range allocated for the station , the official reason being that there was no space even though no commercial stations had yet launched on FM . Because of this , from launch until the end of the 1980s Radio 1 was allowed to take over Radio 2 's FM transmitters for a few hours per week – Saturday afternoons , Sunday teatime and evening – most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons – 10:00 pm to midnight on weeknights including Sounds of the Seventies until 1975 , and thereafter the John Peel show ( Mon - Thurs ) and the Friday Rock Show . As well as most Bank Holiday afternoons when Radio 2 was broadcasting a bank holiday edition of Sport on 2 . To coincide Radio 1 's 20th birthday , the first full-time FM broadcast went live in the London area on the 31 October 1987 , but this was at low power on 104.8 MHz FM . In 1988 the FM frequencies became national when the existing police communication allocation changed , freeing up what is known today as 97-99 FM , which the BBC acquired . This was rolled out on 1 September 1988 , starting with Central Scotland , Midlands & the north of England areas . The engineering programme was initially completed in 1995 . Radio 1 made great efforts to promote its new FM service , renaming itself on-air initially to 'Radio 1 FM ' and also later on as '1FM ' until 1995 . The Conservative government decided that to increase competition on AM it would disallow the simulcast of services available on both AM and FM , affecting both BBC and ILR . Therefore , Radio 1 's old medium wave frequencies were reallocated to Talk Radio UK in 1994 ( now Talksport ) . Radio 1 's last broadcast on MW was on 1 July that year , with Stephen Duffy 's `` Kiss Me '' being the last record played on MW just before 9:00 am . In the initial months after this closure a pre-recorded message with Mark Goodier was played to warn listeners that Radio 1 was now an `` FM-only '' station . During this time Radio 1 began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on Sky Television 's analogue satellite service , initially in mono ( on UK Gold ) and later in stereo ( on UK Living ) . Digital distribution The BBC launched its national radio stations on DAB digital radio in 1995 , however the technology was expensive at the time and so was not marketed , instead used as a test for future technologies . DAB was `` officially '' launched in 2002 as sets became cheaper . Today it can also be heard on UK digital TV services Freeview , Virgin Media , Sky and the Internet as well as FM . In July 2005 , Sirius Satellite Radio began simulcasting Radio 1 across the United States as channel 11 on its own service and channel 6011 on Dish Network satellite TV . Sirius Canada began simulcasting Radio 1 when it was launched on 1 December 2005 ( also on channel 11 ) . The Sirius simulcasts were time shifted five hours to allow U.S. and Canadian listeners in the Eastern Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners . On 12 November 2008 , Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29 , moving to XM 15 and Sirius 15 on 4 May 2011 . Until the full station was removed in August 2011 , Radio 1 was able to be heard by approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone . BBC Radio 1 can be heard on cable in the Netherlands at 105.10 FM . SiriusXM cancellation in North America At 12am on 9 August 2011 , Sirius XM ceased carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no prior warning . On 10 August 2011 the BBC issued the following statement : The BBC ’ s commercial arm BBC Worldwide has been in partnership with SIRIUS Satellite Radio to broadcast Radio 1 on their main network , since 2005 . This agreement has now unfortunately come to an end and BBC Worldwide are in current discussions with the satellite radio station to find ways to continue to bring popular music channel , BBC Radio 1 , to the US audience . We will keep you posted . Thousands of angry Sirius XM customers began a campaign on Facebook and other social media to reinstate BBC Radio 1 on Sirius XM Radio . One week later , Sirius and the BBC agreed on a new carriage agreement that saw Radio 1 broadcast on a time-shifted format on the Sirius XM Internet Radio platform only , on channel 815 . The channel is still unavailable on the satellite platform of the service . Starting on 15 January 2012 , The Official Chart Show began broadcasting on SiriusXM 20on20 channel 3 , at 4pm and 9pm Eastern Standard Time . On 19 August 2014 , SiriusXM again stopped carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no advanced notice . The stream is no longer available on the Internet Radio platform . Regionalisation From 1999 until 2012 , Radio 1 split the home nations for localised programming in Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland , to allow the broadcast of a showcase programme for regional talent . Most recently , these shows were under the BBC Introducing brand . Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland had their own shows , which were broadcast on a 3-week rotational basis in England . From January 2011 until June 2012 Scotland 's show was presented by Ally McCrae . Previously it was hosted by Vic Galloway ( who also presents for BBC Radio Scotland ) ; who had presented the show solo since 2004 , after his original co-host Gill Mills departed . Wales 's show was hosted by Jen Long between January 2011 until May 2012 . Previously Bethan Elfyn occupied the slot , who had at one time hosted alongside Huw Stephens , until Stephens left to join the national network ( Stephens still broadcasts a show for the Wales region , a Welsh-language music show on BBC Radio Cymru , on a Monday evening between 7pm-10pm . ) Phil Taggart presented the Northern Irish programme between November 2011 and May 2012 . The show was formerly presented by Rory McConnell . Before joining the national network , Colin Murray was a presenter on the Session in Northern Ireland , along with Donna Legge ; after Murray 's promotion to the network Legge hosted alone for a time , and on her departure McConnell took her place . The regional opt-outs originally went out from 8:00 pm to 10:00 pm on Thursdays ( the Evening Session 's time slot ) and were known as the Session in the Nations ( the 'Session ' tag was later dropped due to the demise of the Evening Session ) ; they later moved to run from 7:30 pm to 9:00 pm , with the first half-hour of Zane Lowe 's programme going out across the whole of the UK . On 18 October 2007 the regional programmes moved to a Wednesday night/Thursday morning slot from 12:00 am to 2:00 am under the BBC Introducing banner , allowing Lowe 's Thursday show to be aired across the network ; prior to this change Huw Stephens had presented the Wednesday midnight show nationally . In January 2011 , BBC Introducing was moved to the new time slot of 00:00 to 02:00 on Monday mornings , and the Scottish and Welsh shows were given new presenters in the form of Ally McCrae and Jen Long . The opt-outs were only available to listeners on the FM frequencies . Because of the way the DAB and digital TV services of Radio 1 are broadcast ( a single-frequency network on DAB and a single broadcast feed of Radio 1 on TV platforms ) , the digital version of the station was not regionalised . The BBC Trust announced in May 2012 that the regional music programmes on Radio 1 would be replaced with a single programme offering a UK-wide platform for new music as part of a series of cost-cutting measures across the BBC . In June 2012 , the regional shows ended and were replaced by a single BBC Introducing show presented by Jen Long and Ally McCrae . Content Music Because of its youth-orientated nature , Radio 1 plays a mix of current songs , including independent/alternative , rap , hip hop , rock , house , electronica , dance , drum and bass , dubstep and pop . Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 ( the `` needle time '' limitation ) the station has recorded many live performances . Studio sessions ( recordings of about four tracks made in a single day ) ,

qb_8996--BBC_Radio_1.txt

Who became BBC Radio One Breakfast Show presenter in June 1973?

Star Trek is an American science fiction entertainment franchise created by Gene Roddenberry and owned by CBS and Paramount Pictures.For a more detailed history of the ownership of the franchise , see the corporate ownership section . The television series Star Trek : The Original Series , Star Trek : The Animated Series , See the Canon issues section of the The Animated Series page for more details . Star Trek : The Next Generation , Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , Star Trek : Voyager , Star Trek : Enterprise , Star Trek : Discovery as well as the Star Trek film franchise make up the franchise 's canon . The first series , now referred to as The Original Series , debuted in 1966 and ran for three seasons on NBC . It followed the galactic adventures of James T. Kirk and the crew of the starship Enterprise , an exploration vessel of a 23rd-century interstellar `` United Federation of Planets '' . In creating the first Star Trek , Roddenberry was inspired by Westerns such as Wagon Train , the Horatio Hornblower novels and Gulliver 's Travels . In fact , the original series was originally described as Wagon Train to the Stars . These adventures continued in the short-lived Star Trek : The Animated Series and six feature films . Four spin-off television series were eventually produced : Star Trek : The Next Generation followed the crew of a new starship Enterprise set a century after the original series ; Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Star Trek : Voyager , set contemporaneously with The Next Generation ; and Star Trek : Enterprise , set before the original series , in the early days of human interstellar travel . Four additional The Next Generation feature films were produced . In 2009 , the film franchise underwent a `` reboot '' set in an alternate timeline , the `` Kelvin Timeline '' , titled simply Star Trek . This film featured a new cast portraying younger versions of the crew from the original show . A sequel to that film , Star Trek Into Darkness , premiered on May 16 , 2013 . A thirteenth film feature and sequel , Star Trek Beyond , was released in July 2016 , to coincide with the franchise 's 50th anniversary . A new Star Trek TV series , titled Star Trek : Discovery , will premiere in January 2017 on the digital platform CBS All Access . Star Trek has been a cult phenomenon for decades . Fans of the franchise are called Trekkies or Trekkers . The franchise spans a wide range of spin-offs including games , figurines , novels , toys , and comics . Star Trek had a themed attraction in Las Vegas that opened in 1998 and closed in September 2008 . At least two museum exhibits of props travel the world . The series has its own full-fledged constructed language , Klingon . Several parodies have been made of Star Trek . In addition , viewers have produced several fan productions . Star Trek is noted for its influence on the world outside of science fiction . It has been cited as an inspiration for several technological inventions , including the cell phone and tablet computers . The franchise is also noted for its progressive civil rights stances . The Original Series included one of television 's first multiracial casts . Star Trek references can be found throughout popular culture from movies such as the submarine thriller Crimson Tide to the animated series South Park . Conception and setting As early as 1964 , Gene Roddenberry drafted a proposal for the science-fiction series that would become Star Trek . Although he publicly marketed it as a Western in outer space—a so-called `` Wagon Train to the Stars '' ( like the popular Western TV series ) —he privately told friends that he was modeling it on Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels , intending each episode to act on two levels : as a suspenseful adventure story and as a morality tale . Most Star Trek stories depict the adventures of humansMembers of the human species are occasionally called `` Terrans '' in Star Trek , although usage has been inconsistent . and aliens who serve in Starfleet , the space-borne humanitarian and peacekeeping armada of the United Federation of Planets . The protagonists have altruistic values , and must apply these ideals to difficult dilemmas . Many of the conflicts and political dimensions of Star Trek represent allegories of contemporary cultural realities . Star Trek : The Original Series addressed issues of the 1960s , just as later spin-offs have reflected issues of their respective decades . Issues depicted in the various series include war and peace , the value of personal loyalty , authoritarianism , imperialism , class warfare , economics , racism , religion , human rights , sexism , feminism , and the role of technology . Roddenberry stated : `` [ By creating ] a new world with new rules , I could make statements about sex , religion , Vietnam , politics , and intercontinental missiles . Indeed , we did make them on Star Trek : we were sending messages and fortunately they all got by the network . '' Roddenberry intended the show to have a progressive political agenda reflective of the emerging counter-culture of the youth movement , though he was not fully forthcoming to the networks about this . He wanted Star Trek to show humanity what it might develop into , if it would learn from the lessons of the past , most specifically by ending violence . An extreme example is the alien species , the Vulcans , who had a violent past but learned to control their emotions . Roddenberry also gave Star Trek an anti-war message and depicted the United Federation of Planets as an ideal , optimistic version of the United Nations . His efforts were opposed by the network because of concerns over marketability , e.g. , they opposed Roddenberry 's insistence that the Enterprise have a racially diverse crew . Star Trek has also been accused of evincing racism and imperialism , however , by frequently depicting Starfleet and the Federation trying to impose their values and customs on other planets . Mythology The central trio of Kirk , Spock and McCoy from Star Trek : The Original Series was modeled on classical mythological storytelling . William Shatner said : “ There is a mythological component [ to pop culture ] , especially with science fiction . It ’ s people looking for answers – and science fiction offers to explain the inexplicable , the same as religion tends to do… If we accept the premise that it has a mythological element , then all the stuff about going out into space and meeting new life – trying to explain it and put a human element to it – it ’ s a hopeful vision . All these things offer hope and imaginative solutions for the future . ” Richard Lutz wrote : “ The enduring popularity of Star Trek is due to the underlying mythology which binds fans together by virtue of their shared love of stories involving exploration , discovery , adventure and friendship that promote an egalitarian and peace loving society where technology and diversity are valued rather than feared and citizens work together for the greater good . Thus Star Trek offers a hopeful vision of the future and a template for our lives and our society that we can aspire to . ” History and production Beginnings In early 1964 , Roddenberry presented a brief treatment for a proposed Star Trek TV series to Desilu Productions comparing it to Wagon Train , `` a Wagon Train to the stars . '' Desilu worked with Roddenberry to develop the treatment into a script , which was then pitched to NBC . NBC paid to make a pilot , `` The Cage '' , starring Jeffrey Hunter as Enterprise Captain Christopher Pike . NBC rejected The Cage , but the executives were still impressed with the concept , and made the unusual decision to commission a second pilot : `` Where No Man Has Gone Before '' . The first regular episode ( `` The Man Trap '' ) of Star Trek : The Original Series aired on Thursday , September 8 , 1966 . While the show initially enjoyed high ratings , the average rating of the show at the end of its first season dropped to 52nd ( out of 94 programs ) . Unhappy with the show 's ratings , NBC threatened to cancel the show during its second season . The show 's fan base , led by Bjo Trimble , conducted an unprecedented letter-writing campaign , petitioning the network to keep the show on the air . NBC renewed the show , but moved it from primetime to the `` Friday night death slot '' , and substantially reduced its budget . In protest Roddenberry resigned as producer and reduced his direct involvement in Star Trek , which led to Fred Freiberger becoming producer for the show 's third and final season.Roddenberry did , however , co-author two scripts for the third season . Despite another letter-writing campaign , NBC cancelled the series after three seasons and 79 episodes . Rebirth After the original series was cancelled , Paramount Studios , which had bought the series from Desilu , licensed the broadcast syndication rights to help recoup the production losses . Reruns began in the fall of 1969 and by the late 1970s the series aired in over 150 domestic and 60 international markets . This helped Star Trek develop a cult following greater than its popularity during its original run . One sign of the series ' growing popularity was the first Star Trek convention which occurred on January 21–23 , 1972 in New York City . Although the original estimate of attendees was only a few hundred , several thousand fans turned up . Star Trek fans continue to attend similar conventions worldwide . The series ' newfound success led to the idea of reviving the franchise . Filmation with Paramount Television produced the first post original series show , Star Trek : The Animated Series . It ran on NBC for 22 half-hour episodes over two seasons on Saturday mornings from 1973 to 1974 . Although short-lived , typical for animated productions in that time slot during that period , the series garnered the franchise 's only `` Best Series '' Emmy Award as opposed to the franchise 's later technical ones . Paramount Pictures and Roddenberry began developing a new series , Star Trek : Phase II , in May 1975 in response to the franchise 's newfound popularity . Work on the series ended , however , when the proposed Paramount Television Service folded . Following the success of the science fiction movies Star Wars and Close Encounters of the Third Kind , Paramount adapted the planned pilot episode of Phase II into the feature film , Star Trek : The Motion Picture . The film opened in North America on December 7 , 1979 , with mixed reviews from critics . The film earned $ 139 million worldwide , below expectations but enough for Paramount to create a sequel . The studio forced Roddenberry to relinquish creative control of future sequels . The success of the critically acclaimed sequel , Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , reversed the fortunes of the franchise . While the sequel grossed less than the first movie , The Wrath of Khans lower production costs made it net more profit . Paramount produced six Star Trek feature films between 1979 and 1991 . In response to the popularity of Star Trek feature films , the franchise returned to television with Star Trek : The Next Generation ( TNG ) in 1987 . Paramount chose to distribute it as a first-run syndication show rather than a network show . After Roddenberry Following Star Trek : The Motion Picture , Roddenberry 's role was changed from producer to creative consultant with minimal input to the films while being heavily involved with the creation of Star Trek : The Next Generation . Roddenberry died on October 24 , 1991 , giving executive producer Rick Berman control of the franchise . Star Trek had become known to those within Paramount as `` the franchise '' , because of its great success and recurring role as a tent pole for the studio when other projects failed . TNG had the highest ratings of any Star Trek series and became the # 1 syndicated show during the last years of its original seven-season run . In response to TNG 's success , Paramount released a spin-off series Deep Space Nine in 1993 . While never as popular as TNG , the series had sufficient ratings for it to last seven seasons . In January 1995 , a few months after TNG ended , Paramount released a fourth TV series , Voyager . Star Trek saturation reached a peak in the mid-1990s with DS9 and Voyager airing concurrently and three of the four TNG-based feature films released in 1994 , 1996 , and 1998 . By 1998 , Star Trek was Paramount 's most important property ; the enormous profits of `` the franchise '' funded much of the rest of the studio 's operations . Voyager became the flagship show of the new United Paramount Network ( UPN ) and thus the first major network Star Trek series since the original . After Voyager ended , UPN produced Enterprise , a prequel TV series to the original show . Enterprise did not enjoy the high ratings of its predecessors and UPN threatened to cancel it after the series ' third season . Fans launched a campaign reminiscent of the one that saved the third season of the Original Series . Paramount renewed Enterprise for a fourth season , but moved it to the Friday night death slot . Like the Original Series , Enterprise ratings dropped during this time slot , and UPN cancelled Enterprise at the end of its fourth season . Enterprise aired its final episode on May 13 , 2005 . Fan groups , `` Save Enterprise '' , attempted to save the series and tried to raise $ 30 million to privately finance a fifth season of Enterprise . Though the effort garnered considerable press , the fan drive failed to save the series . The cancellation of Enterprise ended an eighteen-year continuous production run of Star Trek programming on television . The poor box office performance in 2002 of the film Nemesis , cast an uncertain light upon the future of the franchise . Paramount relieved Berman , the franchise producer , of control of Star Trek . 2009 `` reboot '' Paramount turned down several proposals in the mid-2000s to restart the franchise . These included pitches from film director Bryan Singer , Babylon 5 creator J. Michael Straczynski , and Trek actors Jonathan Frakes and William Shatner . The studio also turned down an animated web series . Instead , Paramount hired a new creative team to reinvigorate the franchise in 2007 . Writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman and Lost producer , J. J. Abrams , had the freedom to reinvent the feel of Trek . The team created the franchise 's eleventh film , titled simply Star Trek , releasing it in May 2009 . The film featured a new cast portraying the crew of the original show . Star Trek was a prequel of the original series set in an alternate timeline , known as the `` Kelvin Timeline '' . This gave the film and future sequels to it freedom from the need to conform to the franchise 's canonical timeline . The eleventh Star Trek film 's marketing campaign targeted non-fans , even stating in the film 's advertisements that `` this is not your father 's Star Trek '' . The film earned considerable critical and financial success , grossing in inflation-adjusted dollars more box office sales than any previous Star Trek film . The plaudits include the franchise 's first Academy Award ( for makeup ) . The film 's major cast members are contracted for two sequels . Paramount 's sequel to the 2009 film , Star Trek Into Darkness , premiered in Sydney , Australia on April 23 , 2013 , but the film did not release in the United States until May 17 , 2013 . While the film was not as successful in the North American box office as its predecessor , internationally , in terms of box office receipts , Into Darkness was the most successful of the franchise . A thirteenth film entitled Star Trek Beyond was released on July 22 , 2016 . Star Trek will return to subscription-television in January 2017 . The new series , titled Star Trek : Discovery , will be the first series produced specifically for CBS All Access . Episodes will also be available on Netflix within 24 hours of their U.S. premieres . Television series Six television series make up the bulk of the Star Trek mythos : The Original Series , The Animated Series , The Next Generation , Deep Space Nine , Voyager , and Enterprise . All the different versions in total amount to 726 Star Trek episodes across the 30 seasons of the TV series.This episode count includes the animated series , and the original pilot , `` The Cage '' . Two part episodes that were not originally aired at the same time are considered two separate episodes . Ten feature-length episodes were originally aired as two-hour presentations and are sometimes considered single episodes , however in this count they too are seen as two individual episodes . The Star Trek wiki Memory Alpha differs from the count listed because it includes the feature films in its total and it uses the method that counts feature-length episodes as single episodes . This makes that wiki 's total release count 728 . The Original Series ( 1966–69 ) Star Trek : The Original Series or `` TOS '' Originally titled Star Trek , it has in recent years become known as Star Trek : The Original Series or as `` Classic Star Trek '' —retronyms that distinguish it from its sequels and the franchise as a whole . debuted in the United States on NBC on September 8 , 1966 . The show tells the tale of the crew of the starship Enterprise and its five-year mission `` to boldly go where no man has gone before . '' The original 1966–1969 television series featured William Shatner as Captain James T. Kirk , Leonard Nimoy as Spock , DeForest Kelley as Dr. Leonard `` Bones '' McCoy , James Doohan as Montgomery `` Scotty '' Scott , Nichelle Nichols as Uhura , George Takei as Hikaru Sulu , and Walter Koenig as Pavel Chekov . During the series ' original run , it earned several nominations for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and won twice : for the two-parter `` The Menagerie '' and the Harlan Ellison-written episode `` The City on the Edge of Forever '' . NBC canceled the show after three seasons ; the last original episode aired on June 3 , 1969 . The petition near the end of the second season to save the show signed by many Caltech students and its multiple Hugo nominations would , however , indicate that despite low Nielsen ratings , it was highly popular with science fiction fans and engineering students . The series later became popular in reruns and found a cult following . The Animated Series ( 1973–74 ) Star Trek : The Animated Series , produced by Filmation , ran for two seasons from 1973 to 1974 . Most of the original cast performed the voices of their characters from The Original Series , and many of the writers who worked on The Original Series , D. C. Fontana , David Gerrold , and Paul Schneider , wrote for the series . While the animated format allowed the producers to create more exotic alien landscapes and life forms , animation errors and liberal reuse of shots and musical cues have tarnished the series ' reputation . Although it was originally sanctioned by Paramount , which owned the Star Trek franchise following its acquisition of Desilu in 1967 , Gene Roddenberry often spoke of TAS as non-canon . Star Trek writers have used elements of the animated series in later live-action series and movies , and , the Animated Series has references in the library section of the official Startrek.com web site officially bringing the series into the franchise 's main canon . The Animated Series won Star Treks first Emmy Award on May 15 , 1975 . Star Trek TAS briefly returned to television in the mid-1980s on the children 's cable network Nickelodeon . Nickelodeon 's Evan McGuire greatly admired the show and used its various creative components as inspiration for his short series called Piggly Wiggly Hears A Sound which never aired . Nickelodeon parent Viacom would purchase Paramount in 1994 . In the early 1990s , the Sci-Fi Channel also began rerunning TAS . The complete TAS was also released on Laserdisc format during the 1980s . The complete series was first released in the USA on eleven volumes of VHS tapes in 1989 . All 22 episodes were released on DVD in 2006 . The Next Generation ( 1987–1994 ) Star Trek : The Next Generation , also known as `` TNG '' , takes place about a century after The Original Series ( 2364–2370 ) . It features a new starship , the Enterprise-D , and a new crew led by Captain Jean-Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) and Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) . Some crewmembers represent new alien races , including Deanna Troi , a half-Betazoid counselor played by Marina Sirtis . Michael Dorn plays Worf , the first Klingon officer in Starfleet , alongside Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher , LeVar Burton as chief engineer Geordi La Forge , the android Data portrayed by Brent Spiner , and Dr. Crusher 's son Wesley Crusher played by Wil Wheaton . The show premiered on September 28 , 1987 , and ran for seven seasons , ending on May 23 , 1994 . It had the highest ratings of any of the Star Trek series and became the # 1 syndicated show during the last few years of its original run , allowing it to act as a springboard for ideas in other series . Many relationships and races introduced in TNG became the basis of episodes in Deep Space 9 and Voyager . During its run it earned several Emmy awards and nominations – including a nomination for Best Dramatic Series during its final season – two Hugo Awards and a Peabody Award for Outstanding Television Programming for the episode `` The Big Goodbye '' . Deep Space Nine ( 1993–99 ) Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , also known as `` DS9 '' , takes place during the last years and the immediate post-years of The Next Generation ( 2369–2375 ) and aired for seven seasons , debuting the week of January 3 , 1993 . Like Star Trek : The Next Generation , it aired in syndication in the United States and Canada . Unlike the other Star Trek series , DS9 takes place primarily on a space station rather than aboard a starship . The show begins after the brutal Cardassian occupation of the planet Bajor . The liberated Bajoran people ask the United Federation of Planets to help run a Cardassian built space station , Deep Space Nine , near Bajor . After the Federation takes control of the station , the protagonists of the show discover a uniquely stable wormhole that provides immediate access to the distant Gamma Quadrant making Bajor and the station one of the most strategically important locations in the galaxy . The show chronicles the events of the station 's crew , led by Commander ( later Captain ) Benjamin Sisko , played by Avery Brooks , and Major ( later Colonel ) Kira Nerys , played by Nana Visitor . Recurring plot elements include the repercussions of the Cardassian occupation of Bajor , Sisko 's spiritual role for the Bajorans as the Emissary of the Prophets , and in later seasons a war with the Dominion . Deep Space Nine stands apart from earlier Trek series for its lengthy serialized storytelling , conflict within the crew , and religious themes—all elements that critics and audiences praised but Roddenberry forbade in the original series and The Next Generation . Nevertheless , he was informed before his death of DS9 , making this the last Star Trek series connected to Gene Roddenberry . Voyager ( 1995–2001 ) Star Trek : Voyager ran for seven seasons , airing from January 16 , 1995 , to May 23 , 2001 , launching a new Paramount-owned television network UPN . It features Kate Mulgrew as Captain Kathryn Janeway , the first female commanding officer in a leading role of a Star Trek series , and Commander Chakotay , played by Robert Beltran . Voyager takes place at about the same time period as Deep Space Nine and the years following that show 's end ( 2371–2378 ) . The premiere episode has the USS Voyager and its crew pursue a Maquis ( Federation rebels ) ship . Both ships become stranded in the Delta Quadrant about 70,000 light-years from Earth . Faced with a 75-year voyage to Earth , the crew must learn to work together to overcome challenges on their long and perilous journey home while also seeking ways to shorten the voyage . Like Deep Space Nine , early seasons of Voyager feature more conflict between its crewmembers than seen in later episodes . Such conflict often arises from friction between `` by-the-book '' Starfleet crew and rebellious Maquis fugitives forced by circumstance to work together on Voyager . Eventually , though , they settle their differences , after which the overall tone becomes more reminiscent of The Original Series . The starship Voyager , isolated from its home , faces new cultures and dilemmas not possible in shows based in the Alpha Quadrant . Later seasons , however , brought an influx of characters and cultures from prior shows , the Borg , Q , the Ferengi , Romulans , Klingons , Cardassians and cast members of The Next Generation . Enterprise ( 2001–05 ) Star Trek : Enterprise , originally titled Enterprise , is a prequel to the original Star Trek series . It aired from September 26 , 2001 to May 13 , 2005 . Enterprise takes place in the 2150s , some 90 years after the events of Zefram Cochrane 's first warp flight and about a decade before the founding of the Federation . The show centers on the voyages of Earth 's first warp-five capable starship , the Enterprise , commanded by Captain Jonathan Archer ( played by Scott Bakula ) , and the Vulcan Sub-Commander T'Pol ( played by Jolene Blalock ) . During the show 's first two seasons , Enterprise featured self-contained episodes , like The Original Series , The Next Generation and Voyager . The third season consisted of one arc , `` Xindi mission '' , which had a darker tone and serialized nature similar to that of Deep Space 9 . Season 4 consisted of several two to three episode mini-arcs . The final season showed the origins of elements seen in earlier series , and it rectified and resolved some core continuity problems between the various Star Trek series . Ratings for Enterprise started strong but declined rapidly . Although critics received the fourth season well , both fans and the cast reviled the series finale , partly because of the episode 's focus on the guest appearance of members of The Next Generation cast . The cancellation of Enterprise ended an 18-year run of back-to-back new Star Trek shows beginning with The Next Generation in 1987 . Discovery ( 2017– ) On November 2 , 2015 , it was announced that a new Star Trek TV series is in development by Bryan Fuller and Alex Kurtzman . The new series will premiere on CBS All Access in January 2017 . Feature films Paramount Pictures has produced thirteen Star Trek feature films , the most recent being released in July 2016 . [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt2660888/ ] The first six films continue the adventures of the cast of The Original Series ; the seventh film , Generations was designed as a transition from that cast to The Next Generation television series ;

odql_11681--Star_Trek.txt

In the original television series of 'Star Trek' (not the pilot edition) who played the part of 'Scottie'?

Shakoor Rana ( April 3 , 1936 – April 9 , 2001 ) was a Pakistani cricketer and umpire Playing career Shakoor Rana had an undistinguished playing career . He played in 11 first-class matches between 1957 and 1973 , accumulating 226 runs and 12 wickets . He was overshadowed by his brothers Shafqat Rana and Azmat Rana who both represented Pakistan at Test level . Umpiring career Rana made his international debut as an umpire in 1974 at Lahore , the city that had become his hometown . The match was between Pakistan and the West Indies . His career continued until his last match between Pakistan and New Zealand in 1996 , also at Lahore . He stood in 18 test matches and 22 One Day Internationals . Gatting controversy In a test match in Faisalabad in 1987 , Rana argued furiously with Mike Gatting . The argument stopped the match , and footage of the English cricket captain and the umpire shouting at each other with fingers waved in the other 's face was widely broadcast . The incident occurred on the second day of the test after Gatting was considered by Rana to have made an alteration to the fielding positions as Eddie Hemmings ran in to bowl - Rana stopped the game and accused Gatting of cheating . Rana had already upset the English by wearing a Pakistan sweater and placing Mudassar Nazar 's cap on his own head . The game was stopped by the incident and only resumed the following day . Rana and Gatting were both accused of using foul language , much of which was heard by a worldwide TV audience via the stump microphone . [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/in_depth/2000/england_on_tour/976662.stm BBC SPORT | ENGLAND ON TOUR | Gatt regrets Rana row ] Shakoor refused to stand again in that Test until he received an unconditional apology from Gatting for the language used in the dispute . Gatting was threatened with being stripped of the England captaincy and was forced into issuing a written apology to Rana . Gatting has since expressed regret at his part in the row . Coney incident Gatting was not the only international captain to have had a run-in with Rana . In December 1984 during a Test match in Karachi , New Zealand captain Jeremy Coney threatened to lead his side from the field following a controversial decision of not-out for Pakistan player Javed Miandad . Legacy The controversy surrounding Shakoor Rana was a driver in the move towards neutral umpires at Test matches . The home side had previously supplied the umpires but the International Cricket Council have since brought in neutral officials .

sfq_25584--Shakoor_Rana.txt

Which England cricket captain had a row with umpire Shakoor Rana at Faisalabad in December 1987?

An introduced , alien , exotic , non-indigenous , or non-native species , or simply an introduction , is a species living outside its native distributional range , which has arrived there by human activity , either deliberate or accidental . Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem . Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are called invasive species . Some have a negative effect on a local ecosystem . Some introduced species may have no negative effect or only minor impact . Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests . They are called biocontrols and may be regarded as beneficial as an alternative to pesticides in agriculture for example . In some instances the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown . A list of some introduced species is given in a separate article . The effects of introduced species on natural environments have gained much scrutiny from scientists , governments , farmers and others . Terminology The terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons . Other terms with somewhat similar meanings ) with introduced are acclimatized , adventive , naturalized , and immigrant but those terms refer to a subset of introduced species : those that have become established and can reproduce without human assistance . The term invasive refers only to those species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction . For practical purposes , this term is applied only to invasive species that cause damage . In the broadest and most widely used sense , an introduced species is synonymous with non-native and therefore applies as well to most garden and farm organisms ; these adequately fit the basic definition given above . However , some sources add to that basic definition `` and are now reproducing in the wild , '' Carlton , James T. 2002 . Introduced Species in U.S. Coastal Waters . Pew Oceans Commission . which removes from consideration as introduced all of those species raised or grown in gardens or farms that do not survive without tending by people . With respect to plants , these latter are in this case defined as either ornamental or cultivated plants . The following definition from the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , although perhaps lacking ecological sophistication , is more typical : introduced species `` A species that has been intentionally or inadvertently brought into a region or area . Also called an exotic or non-native species . '' Introduction of a species outside its native range is all that is required to be qualified as an `` introduced species '' such that one can distinguish between introduced species that may not occur except in cultivation , under domestication or captivity whereas others become established outside their native range and reproduce without human assistance . Such species might be termed `` naturalized '' , `` established '' , `` wild non-native species '' . If they further spread beyond the place of introduction they are called `` invasive '' . The transition from introduction , to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants . Introduced species are essentially `` non-native '' species . Invasive species are those introduced species that spreadwidely or quickly and cause harm , be that to the environment , human health , other valued resources or the economy . There have been calls from scientists to consider a species `` invasive '' only in terms of their spread and reproduction rather than the harm they may cause . According to a practical definition , an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location , spreading ( invading ) by natural means . The term is used to imply both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm . For example , U.S. Executive Order 13112 ( 1999 ) defines `` invasive species '' as `` an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health '' . The biological definition of invasive species , on the other hand , makes no reference to the harm they may cause , only to the fact that they spread beyond the area of original introduction . Although some argue that `` invasive '' is a loaded word and harm is difficult to define , the fact of the matter is that organisms have and continue to be introduced to areas in which they are not native , sometimes with but usually without much regard to the harm that could result . From a regulatory perspective , it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species ( although the State of Hawaii has adopted an approach that comes close to this ) . Regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others . Introduced pest species that are officially listed as invasive , best fit the definition of an invasive species . Early detection and rapid response is the most effective strategy for regulating a pest species and reducing economic and environmental impacts of an introduction In Great Britain , the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prevents the introduction of any animal not naturally occurring in the wild or any of a list of both animals or plants introduced previously and proved to be invasive . Nature of introductions By definition , a species is considered `` introduced '' when its transport into an area outside of its native range is human mediated . Introductions by humans can be described as either intentional or accidental . Intentional introductions have been motivated by individuals or groups who either ( 1 ) believe that the newly introduced species will be in some way beneficial to humans in its new location or , ( 2 ) as is the case with pythons in the Everglades , species are introduced intentionally but with no regard to the potential impact . Unintentional or accidental introductions are most often a byproduct of human movements , and are thus unbound to human motivations . Subsequent range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity . Intentional introductions Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways . In the first case , organisms are purposely released for establishment in the wild . It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release , and if not initially successful , humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in the wild . In these cases it is clear that the introduction is directly facilitated by human desires . In the second case , species intentionally transported into a new region may escape from captive or cultivated populations and subsequently establish independent breeding populations . Escaped organisms are included in this category because their initial transport to a new region is human motivated . Perhaps the most common motivation for introducing a species into a new place is that of economic gain . Examples of species introduced for the purposes of benefiting agriculture , aquaculture or other economic activities are widespread . Eurasian carp was first introduced to the United States as a potential food source . The apple snail was released in Southeast Asia with the intent that it be used as a protein source , and subsequently to places like Hawaii to establish a food industry . In Alaska , foxes were introduced to many islands to create new populations for the fur trade . About twenty species of African and European dung beetles have established themselves in Australia after deliberate introduction by the Australian Dung Beetle Project in an effort to reduce the impact of livestock manure . The timber industry promoted the introduction of Monterey pine ( Pinus radiata ) from California to Australia and New Zealand as a commercial timber crop . These examples represent only a small subsample of species that have been moved by humans for economic interests . Introductions have also been important in supporting recreation activities or otherwise increasing human enjoyment . Numerous fish and game animals have been introduced for the purposes of sport fishing and hunting ( Earthworms as invasive species ) . The introduced amphibian ( Ambystoma tigrinum ) that threatens the endemic California salamander ( Ambystoma californiense ) was introduced to California as a source of bait for fishermen . Pet animals have also been frequently transported into new areas by humans , and their escapes have resulted in several successful introductions , such as those of feral cats and parrots . Many plants have been introduced with the intent of aesthetically improving public recreation areas or private properties . The introduced Norway maple for example occupies a prominent status in many of Canada 's parks . The transport of ornamental plants for landscaping use has and continues to be a source of many introductions . Some of these species have escaped horticultural control and become invasive . Notable examples include water hyacinth , salt cedar , and purple loosestrife . In other cases , species have been translocated for reasons of `` cultural nostalgia , '' which refers to instances in which humans who have migrated to new regions have intentionally brought with them familiar organisms . Famous examples include the introduction of starlings to North America by Englishman Eugene Schieffelin , a lover of the works of Shakespeare and the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society , who , it is rumoured , wanted to introduce all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare 's plays into the United States . He deliberately released eighty starlings into Central Park in New York City in 1890 , and another forty in 1891 . Yet another prominent example is the introduction of the European rabbit to Australia by one Thomas Austin , a British landowner who had the rabbits released on his estate in Victoria because he missed hunting them . A more recent example is the introduction of the common wall lizard to North America by a Cincinnati boy , George Rau , around 1950 after a family vacation to Italy . Intentional introductions have also been undertaken with the aim of ameliorating environmental problems . A number of fast spreading plants such as garlic mustard and kudzu have been introduced as a means of erosion control . Other species have been introduced as biological control agents to control invasive species and involves the purposeful introduction of a natural enemy of the target species with the intention of reducing its numbers or controlling its spread . A special case of introduction is the reintroduction of a species that has become locally endangered or extinct , done in the interests of conservation . Examples of successful reintroductions include wolves to Yellowstone National Park in the U.S. , and the red kite to parts of England and Scotland . Introductions or translocations of species have also been proposed in the interest of genetic conservation , which advocates the introduction of new individuals into genetically depauperate populations of endangered or threatened species . The above examples highlight the intent of humans to introduce species as a means of incurring some benefit . While these benefits have in some cases been realized , introductions have also resulted in unforeseen costs , particularly when introduced species take on characteristics of invasive species . Non-native species can become such a common part of an environment , culture , and even diet that little thought is given to their geographic origin . For example , soybeans , kiwi fruit , wheat and all livestock except the American bison and the turkey are non-native species to North America . Collectively , non-native crops and livestock comprise 98 % of US food . These and other benefits from non-natives are so vast that , according to the Congressional Research Service , they probably exceed the costs . Unintentional introductions Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors . For example , three species of rat ( the black , Norway and Polynesian ) have spread to most of the world as hitchhikers on ships . There are also numerous examples of marine organisms being transported in ballast water , one being the zebra mussel . Over 200 species have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in the world . Increasing rates of human travel are providing accelerating opportunities for species to be accidentally transported into areas in which they are not considered native . There is also the accidental release of the Africanized honey bees ( AHB ) , known colloquially as `` killer bees '' or Africanized bee to Brazil in 1957 and the Asian carps to the United States . The insect commonly known as the brown marmorated stink bug ( Halyomorpha halys ) was introduced accidentally in Pennsylvania . Another form of unintentional introductions is when an intentionally introduced plant carries a parasite or herbivore with it . Some become invasive , for example the oleander aphid , accidentally introduced with the ornamental plant , oleander . Introduced plants Many non-native plants have been introduced into new territories , initially as either ornamental plants or for erosion control , stock feed , or forestry . Whether an exotic will become an invasive species is seldom understood in the beginning , and many non-native ornamentals languish in the trade for years before suddenly naturalizing and becoming invasive . Peaches , for example , originated in China , and have been carried to much of the populated world . Tomatoes are native to the Andes . Squash ( pumpkins ) , maize ( corn ) , and tobacco are native to the Americas , but were introduced to the Old World . Many introduced species require continued human intervention to survive in the new environment . Others may become feral , but do not seriously compete with natives , but simply increase the biodiversity of the area . Dandelions are also introduced species to North America . A very troublesome marine species in southern Europe is the seaweed Caulerpa taxifolia . Caulerpa was first observed in the Mediterranean Sea in 1984 , off the coast of Monaco . By 1997 , it had covered some 50 km² . It has a strong potential to overgrow natural biotopes , and represents a major risk for sublittoral ecosystems . The origin of the alga in the Mediterranean was thought to be either as a migration through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea , or as an accidental introduction from an aquarium . Japanese knotweed grows profusely in many nations . Human beings introduced it into many places in the 19th century . It is a source of resveratrol , a dietary supplement . Introduced animals Bear in mind that most introduced species do not become invasive . Examples of introduced animals that have become invasive include the gypsy moth in eastern North America , the zebra mussel and alewife in the Great Lakes , the Canada goose and gray squirrel in Europe , the muskrat in Europe and Asia , the cane toad and red fox in Australia , nutria in North America , Eurasia , and Africa , and the common brushtail possum in New Zealand . Most commonly introduced species Some species , such as the brown rat , house sparrow , ring-necked pheasant and European starling , have been introduced very widely . In addition there are some agricultural and pet species that frequently become feral ; these include rabbits , dogs , goats , fish , pigs and cats . Invasive exotic diseases History is rife with the spread of exotic diseases , such as the introduction of smallpox into the indigenous peoples of the Americas by the Spanish , where it obliterated entire populations of indigenous civilizations before they were ever even seen by Europeans . Problematic exotic disease introductions in the past century or so include the chestnut blight which has almost eliminated the American chestnut tree from its forest habitat , and Dutch elm disease , which has severely reduced the American elm trees in forests and cities . Diseases may also be vectored by invasive insects such as the Asian citrus psyllid and the bacterial disease citrus greening . Introduced species on islands Perhaps the best place to study problems associated with introduced species is on islands . Depending upon the isolation ( how far an island is located from continental biotas ) , native island biological communities may be poorly adapted to the threat posed by exotic introductions . Often this can mean that no natural predator of an introduced species is present , and the non-native spreads uncontrollably into open or occupied niche . An additional problem is that birds native to small islands may have become flightless because of the absence of predators prior to introductions and can not readily escape danger . The tendency of rails in particular to evolve flightless forms on islands has led to the disproportionate number of extinctions in that family . The field of island restoration has developed as a field of conservation biology and ecological restoration , a great deal of which deals with the eradication of introduced species . New Zealand In New Zealand the largest commercial crop is Pinus radiata , the native Californian Monterey pine tree , which grows as well in New Zealand as in California . However , the pine forests are also occupied by deer from North America and Europe and by possums from Australia . All are exotic species and all have thrived in the New Zealand environment . The pines are seen as beneficial while the deer and possums are regarded as serious pests . Common gorse , originally a hedge plant in Britain , was introduced to New Zealand for the same purpose . Like the Monterey pine , it has shown a favour to its new climate . It is , however , regarded as a noxious plant that threatens to obliterate native plants in much of the country and is hence routinely eradicated , though it can also provide a nursery environment for native plants to reestablish themselves . Rabbits , introduced as a food source by sailors in the 1800s , have become a severe nuisance to farmers , notably in the South Island . The myxomatosis virus was illegally imported and illegally released , but it had little lasting effect upon the rabbit population other than to make it more resistant to the virus . Rats , brought by the Māori and later by Europeans , have had a devastating effect upon the native birdlife , particularly as many New Zealand birds are flightless . Feral cats and dogs which were originally brought as pets are also known to kill large numbers of birds . A recent ( 2006 ) study in the South Island has shown that even domestic cats with a ready supply of food from their owners may kill hundreds of birds in a year , including natives . Sparrows , which were brought to control insects upon the introduced grain crops , have displaced native birds as have rainbow lorikeets and cockatoos ( both from Australia ) which fly free around areas west of Auckland City such as the Waitakere Ranges . In much of New Zealand , the Australian black swan has effectively eliminated the existence of the previously introduced mute swan . Two notable varieties of spiders have also been introduced : the white tail spider and the redback spider . Both may have arrived inside shipments of fruit . Until then , the only spider ( and the only poisonous animal ) dangerous to humans was the native katipo , which is very similar to the redback and interbreed with the more aggressive Australian variety . Introduced species on a planetary body It has been hypothesized that invasive species of microbial life could contaminate a planetary body after the former is introduced by a space probe or spacecraft , either deliberately or unintentionally . [ http : //solarsystem.nasa.gov/docs/PPCCTECHREPORT3.pdf Assessment of Planetary Protection and Contamination Control Technologies for Future Planetary Science Missions ] , Jet Propulsion Laboratory , January 24 , 20113.1.1 Microbial Reduction Methodologies :

qw_2310--Introduced_species.txt

Which virus spread by fleas was deliberately introduced into Australia to control rabbits in 1951?

Association football , more commonly known as football or soccer , is a sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball . It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies , making it the world 's most popular sport . The game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end . The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal . The goalkeepers are the only players allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play and only in their penalty area . Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball , but may also use their head or torso . The team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins . If the score is level at the end of the game , either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout depending on the format of the competition . The Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863 . Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ; ) , which organises World Cups for both men and women every four years . Name The rules of association football were codified in England by the Football Association in 1863 and the name association football was coined to distinguish the game from the other forms of football played at the time , specifically rugby football . The term soccer originated in England , first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford `` -er '' abbreviation of the word `` association '' . Within the English-speaking world , association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States . People in Australia , Ireland and New Zealand use either or both terms , although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use `` football '' for the formal name . History According to FIFA , the Chinese competitive game cuju ( 蹴鞠 , literally `` kick ball '' ) is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence . Cuju players could use any of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net . It was remarkably similar to modern football , though similarities to rugby occurred . During the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD ) , cuju games were standardized and rules were established . Phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games . An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup . [ http : //www.bangkokpost.com/print/413747/ Bangkok Post article ] Athenaeus , writing in 228 AD , referenced the Roman ball game harpastum . Phaininda , episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence . They all appear to have resembled rugby football , wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football . As with pre-codified `` mob football '' , the antecedent of all modern football codes , these three games involved more handling the ball than kicking . Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan , chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia . Association football in itself does not have a classical history . Notwithstanding any similarities to other ball games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe . The modern rules of association football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England . The history of football in England dates back to at least the eighth century AD . The Cambridge Rules , first drawn up at Cambridge University in 1848 , were particularly influential in the development of subsequent codes , including association football . The Cambridge Rules were written at Trinity College , Cambridge , at a meeting attended by representatives from Eton , Harrow , Rugby , Winchester and Shrewsbury schools . They were not universally adopted . During the 1850s , many clubs unconnected to schools or universities were formed throughout the English-speaking world , to play various forms of football . Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules , most notably the Sheffield Football Club , formed by former public school pupils in 1857 , which led to formation of a Sheffield FA in 1867 . In 1862 , John Charles Thring of Uppingham School also devised an influential set of rules . These ongoing efforts contributed to the formation of The Football Association ( The FA ) in 1863 , which first met on the morning of 26 October 1863 at the Freemasons ' Tavern in Great Queen Street , London . The only school to be represented on this occasion was Charterhouse . The Freemason 's Tavern was the setting for five more meetings between October and December , which eventually produced the first comprehensive set of rules . At the final meeting , the first FA treasurer , the representative from Blackheath , withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting : the first allowed for running with the ball in hand ; the second for obstructing such a run by hacking ( kicking an opponent in the shins ) , tripping and holding . Other English rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA and instead in 1871 formed the Rugby Football Union . The eleven remaining clubs , under the charge of Ebenezer Cobb Morley , went on to ratify the original thirteen laws of the game . These rules included handling of the ball by `` marks '' and the lack of a crossbar , rules which made it remarkably similar to Victorian rules football being developed at that time in Australia . The Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s with the FA absorbing some of its rules until there was little difference between the games . The world 's oldest football competition is the FA Cup , which was founded by C. W. Alcock and has been contested by English teams since 1872 . The first official international football match also took place in 1872 , between Scotland and England in Glasgow , again at the instigation of C. W. Alcock . England is also home to the world 's first football league , which was founded in Birmingham in 1888 by Aston Villa director William McGregor . The original format contained 12 clubs from the Midlands and Northern England . The laws of the game are determined by the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) . The Board was formed in 1886 after a meeting in Manchester of The Football Association , the Scottish Football Association , the Football Association of Wales , and the Irish Football Association . FIFA , the international football body , was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to Laws of the Game of the Football Association . The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the International Football Association Board in 1913 . The board consists of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations . Today , football is played at a professional level all over the world . Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams , while billions more watch the game on television or on the internet . A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level . According to a survey conducted by FIFA published in 2001 , over 240 million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football . Football has the highest global television audience in sport . In many parts of the world football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans , local communities , and even nations . R. Kapuscinski says that Europeans who are polite , modest , or humble fall easily into rage when playing or watching football games . The Côte d'Ivoire national football team helped secure a truce to the nation 's civil war in 2006 and it helped further reduce tensions between government and rebel forces in 2007 by playing a match in the rebel capital of Bouaké , an occasion that brought both armies together peacefully for the first time . By contrast , football is widely considered to have been the final proximate cause for the Football War in June 1969 between El Salvador and Honduras . The sport also exacerbated tensions at the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s , when a match between Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade degenerated into rioting in May 1990 . Women 's association football Early women 's football Women may have been playing `` football '' for as long as the game has existed . Evidence shows that an ancient version of the game ( Tsu Chu ) was played by women during the Han Dynasty ( 25–220 CE ) . Two female figures are depicted in Han Dynasty ( 25–220 CE ) frescoes , playing Tsu Chu . There are , however , a number of opinions about the accuracy of dates , the earliest estimates at 5000 BCE . Reports of an annual match being played in Scotland are reported as early as the 1790s . The first match recorded by the Scottish Football Association took place in 1892 in Glasgow . In England , the first recorded game of football between women took place in 1895 . Association football , the modern game , also has documented early involvement of women . In Europe , it is possible that 12th-century French women played football as part of that era 's folk games . An annual competition in Mid-Lothian , Scotland during the 1790s is reported , too . In 1863 , football governing bodies introduced standardized rules to prohibit violence on the pitch , making it more socially acceptable for women to play . The most well-documented early European team was founded by activist Nettie Honeyball in England in 1894 . It was named the British Ladies ' Football Club . Nettie Honeyball is quoted , `` I founded the association late last year [ 1894 ] , with the fixed resolve of proving to the world that women are not the 'ornamental and useless ' creatures men have pictured . I must confess , my convictions on all matters where the sexes are so widely divided are all on the side of emancipation , and I look forward to the time when ladies may sit in Parliament and have a voice in the direction of affairs , especially those which concern them most . '' Honeyball and those like her paved the way for women 's football . However the women 's game was frowned upon by the British football associations , and continued without their support . It has been suggested that this was motivated by a perceived threat to the 'masculinity ' of the game . Women 's football became popular on a large scale at the time of the First World War , when employment in heavy industry spurred the growth of the game , much as it had done for men fifty years earlier . The most successful team of the era was Dick , Kerr 's Ladies of Preston , England . The team played in the first women 's international matches in 1920 , against a team from Paris , France , in April , and also made up most of the England team against a Scottish Ladies XI in 1920 , and winning 22-0 . Despite being more popular than some men 's football events ( one match saw a 53,000 strong crowd ) , women 's football in England suffered a blow in 1921 when The Football Association outlawed the playing of the game on Association members ' pitches , on the grounds that the game ( as played by women ) was distasteful . Some speculated that this may have also been due to envy of the large crowds that women 's matches attracted . This led to the formation of the English Ladies Football Association and play moved to rugby grounds . Association football has been played by women since at least the time of the first recorded women 's games in the late 19th century . It has traditionally been associated with charity games and physical exercise , particularly in the United Kingdom . In the late 1960s and early 1970s women 's association football was organised in the United Kingdom , eventually becoming the most prominent team sport for British women . 20th and 21st century The growth in women 's football has seen major competitions being launched at both national and international level mirroring the male competitions . Women 's football has faced many struggles . It had a `` golden age '' in the United Kingdom in the early 1920s when crowds reached 50,000 at some matches ; this was stopped on 5 December 1921 when England 's Football Association voted to ban the game from grounds used by its member clubs . The FA 's ban was rescinded in December 1969 with UEFA voting to officially recognise women 's football in 1971 . The FIFA Women 's World Cup was inaugurated in 1991 and has been held every four years since , while women 's football has been an Olympic event since 1996 . Gameplay Association football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the Laws of the Game . The game is played using a spherical ball of circumference , [ http : //quality.fifa.com/en/Footballs/Become-a-licensee/Tests/Circumference/ Circumference - FIFA Quality Programme ] known as the football ( or soccer ball ) . Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team 's goal ( between the posts and under the bar ) , thereby scoring a goal . The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner ; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals then the game is a draw . Each team is led by a captain who has only one official responsibility as mandated by the Laws of the Game : to be involved in the coin toss prior to kick-off or penalty kicks . The primary law is that players other than goalkeepers may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play , though they do use their hands during a throw-in restart . Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around , they may use any part of their body ( notably , `` heading '' with the forehead ) other than their hands or arms . Within normal play , all players are free to play the ball in any direction and move throughout the pitch , though the ball can not be received in an offside position . In game play , players attempt to create goal-scoring opportunities through individual control of the ball , such as by dribbling , passing the ball to a team-mate , and by taking shots at the goal , which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper . Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent in possession of the ball ; however , physical contact between opponents is restricted . Football is generally a free-flowing game , with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play or when play is stopped by the referee for an infringement of the rules . After a stoppage , play recommences with a specified restart . At a professional level , most matches produce only a few goals . For example , the 2005–06 season of the English Premier League produced an average of 2.48 goals per match . The Laws of the Game do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper , but a number of specialised roles have evolved . Broadly , these include three main categories : strikers , or forwards , whose main task is to score goals ; defenders , who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring ; and midfielders , who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball to pass it to the forwards on their team . Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players , to distinguish them from the goalkeeper . These positions are further subdivided according to the area of the field in which the player spends most time . For example , there are central defenders , and left and right midfielders . The ten outfield players may be arranged in any combination . The number of players in each position determines the style of the team 's play ; more forwards and fewer defenders creates a more aggressive and offensive-minded game , while the reverse creates a slower , more defensive style of play . While players typically spend most of the game in a specific position , there are few restrictions on player movement , and players can switch positions at any time . The layout of a team 's players is known as a formation . Defining the team 's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team 's manager . Laws There are 17 laws in the official Laws of the Game , each containing a collection of stipulation and guidelines . The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football , although certain modifications for groups such as juniors , seniors , women and people with physical disabilities are permitted . The laws are often framed in broad terms , which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game . The Laws of the Game are published by FIFA , but are maintained by the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) . In addition to the seventeen laws , numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of football . Players , equipment , and officials Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players ( excluding substitutes ) , one of whom must be the goalkeeper . Competition rules may state a minimum number of players required to constitute a team , which is usually seven . Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms , provided they do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal . Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield ( non-goalkeeper ) players are strategically placed by a coach , these positions are not defined or required by the Laws . The basic equipment or kit players are required to wear includes a shirt , shorts , socks , footwear and adequate shin guards . An athletic supporter and protective cup is highly recommended for male players by medical experts and professionals . Headgear is not a required piece of basic equipment , but players today may choose to wear it to protect themselves from head injury . Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player , such as jewellery or watches . The goalkeeper must wear clothing that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials . A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game . The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is three , though the permitted number may vary in other competitions or in friendly matches . Common reasons for a substitution include injury , tiredness , ineffectiveness , a tactical switch , or timewasting at the end of a finely poised game . In standard adult matches , a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match . IFAB recommends `` that a match should not continue if there are fewer than seven players in either team . '' Any decision regarding points awarded for abandoned games is left to the individual football associations . A game is officiated by a referee , who has `` full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed '' ( Law 5 ) , and whose decisions are final . The referee is assisted by two assistant referees . In many high-level games there is also a fourth official who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise . Ball The ball is spherical with a circumference of between 68 and , a weight in the range of 410 to , and a pressure of between at sea level . In the past the ball was made up of leather panels sewn together , with a latex bladder for pressurisation , but modern balls at all levels of the game are now synthetic . Pitch As the Laws were formulated in England , and were initially administered solely by the four British football associations within IFAB , the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in imperial units . The Laws now express dimensions with approximate metric equivalents ( followed by traditional units in brackets ) , though use of imperial units remains popular in English-speaking countries with a relatively recent history of metrication ( or only partial metrication ) , such as Britain . The length of the pitch for international adult matches is in the range of 100–110 m ( 110–120 yd ) and the width is in the range of 64–75 m ( 70–80 yd ) . Fields for non-international matches may be 90–120 m ( 100–130 yd ) length and 45–90 m ( 50–100 yd ) in width , provided that the pitch does not become square . In 2008 , the IFAB initially approved a fixed size of 105 m ( 344 ft ) long and 68 m ( 223 ft ) wide as a standard pitch dimension for international matches ; however , this decision was later put on hold and was never actually implemented . The longer boundary lines are touchlines , while the shorter boundaries ( on which the goals are placed ) are goal lines . A rectangular goal is positioned at the middle of each goal line . The inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be 24 ft apart , and the lower edge of the horizontal crossbar supported by the goal posts must be 8 ft above the ground . Nets are usually placed behind the goal , but are not required by the Laws . In front of the goal is the penalty area . This area is marked by the goal line , two lines starting on the goal line 16.5 m ( 18 yd ) from the goalposts and extending 16.5 m ( 18 yd ) into the pitch perpendicular to the goal line , and a line joining them . This area has a number of functions , the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penalty foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by a penalty kick . Other markings define the position of the ball or players at kick-offs , goal kicks , penalty kicks and corner kicks . Duration and tie-breaking methods A standard adult football match consists of two periods of 45 minutes each , known as halves . Each half runs continuously , meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play . There is usually a 15-minute half-time break between halves . The end of the match is known as full-time . The referee is the official timekeeper for the match , and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions , injured players requiring attention , or other stoppages . This added time is called additional time in FIFA documents , but is most commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time , while loss time can also be used as a synonym . The duration of stoppage time is at the sole discretion of the referee . The referee alone signals the end of the match . In matches where a fourth official is appointed , toward the end of the half the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time he intends to add . The fourth official then informs the players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number . The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee . Added time was introduced because of an incident which happened in 1891 during a match between Stoke and Aston Villa . Trailing 1–0 and with just two minutes remaining , Stoke were awarded a penalty . Villa 's goalkeeper kicked the ball out of the ground , and by the time the ball had been recovered , the 90 minutes had elapsed and the game was over . The same law also states that the duration of either half is extended until the penalty kick to be taken or retaken is completed , thus no game shall end with a penalty to be taken . In league competitions , games may end in a draw . In knockout competitions where a winner is required various methods may be employed to break such a deadlock , some competitions may invoke replays . A game tied at the end of regulation time may go into extra time , which consists of two further 15-minute periods . If the score is still tied after extra time , some competitions allow the use of penalty shootouts ( known officially in the Laws of the Game as `` kicks from the penalty mark '' ) to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament . Goals scored during extra time periods count toward the final score of the game , but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament ( with goals scored in a penalty shootout not making up part of the final score ) . In competitions using two-legged matches , each team competes at home once , with an aggregate score from the two matches deciding which team progresses . Where aggregates are equal , the away goals rule may be used to determine the winners , in which case the winner is the team that scored the most goals in the leg they played away from home . If the result is still equal , extra time and potentially a penalty shootout are required . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , the IFAB experimented with ways of creating a winner without requiring a penalty shootout , which was often seen as an undesirable way to end a match . These involved rules ending a game in extra time early , either when the first goal in extra time was scored ( golden goal ) , or if one team held a lead at the end of the first period of extra time ( silver goal ) . Golden goal was used at the World Cup in 1998 and 2002 . The first World Cup game decided by a golden goal was France 's victory over Paraguay in 1998 . Germany was the first nation to score a golden goal in a major competition , beating Czech Republic in the final of Euro 1996 . Silver goal was used in Euro 2004 . Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB . Ball in and out of play Under the Laws , the two basic states of play during a game are ball in play and ball out of play . From the beginning of each playing period with a kick-off until the end of the playing period , the ball is in play at all times , except when either the ball leaves the field of play , or play is stopped by the referee . When the ball becomes out of play , play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending on how it went out of play : * Kick-off : following a goal by the opposing team , or to begin each period of play . * Throw-in : when the ball has crossed the touchline ; awarded to the opposing team to that which last touched the ball . * Goal kick : when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without

sfq_13745--Association_football.txt

Which Serbian football club is the only one from that country to win an UEFA completion?

Figure 1 . A whole note and a whole rest . In music , a whole note ( American ) or semibreve ( British ) is a note represented by a hollow oval note head , like a half note ( or minim ) , and no note stem ( see Figure 1 ) . Its length is equal to four beats in 4/4 time , that is the whole 4/4 measure ( or bar ) . Most other notes are fractions of the whole note ; half notes are played for one half the duration of the whole note , quarter notes ( or crotchets ) are each played for one quarter the duration , etc . A whole note lasts half as long as a double whole note ( or breve—hence the British name , semibreve ) , and twice as long as a half note , or minim . The symbol is first found in music notation from the late thirteenth century . A related symbol is the whole rest ( or semibreve rest ) , which usually denotes a silence for the same duration . Whole rests are drawn as filled-in rectangles generally hanging under the second line from the top of a musical staff , though they may occasionally be put under a different line in more complicated passages , such as when two instruments or vocalists are written on one staff , and one is temporarily silent . Other lengths The whole note and whole rest may also be used in music of free rhythm , such as Anglican chant , to denote a whole measure , irrespective of the time of that measure . The whole rest can be used this way in almost all or all forms of music . Etymology The whole note derives from the semibrevis of mensural notation , and this is the origin of the British name . The American name is a calque of the German ganze Note . The names of this note ( and rest ) in different languages vary greatly : The Catalan , French and Spanish names for the note ( meaning `` round '' ) derive from the fact that the semibrevis was distinguished by its round stemless shape , which is true as well of the modern form ( in contrast to the double whole note or shorter values with stems ) . The Greek name means `` whole '' . Chinese , Japanese , Korean , and Vietnamese names mean `` whole note '' .

sfq_8796--Whole_note.txt

In music how many crotchets make up a semibreve?

Yes Minister is a satirical British sitcom written by Sir Antony Jay and Jonathan Lynn that was first transmitted by BBC Television between 1980 and 1984 , split over three seven-episode series . The sequel , Yes , Prime Minister , ran from 1986 to 1988 . In total there were 39 episodes , of which all but two lasted half an hour . Several episodes were adapted for BBC Radio , and a stage play was produced in 2010 , the latter leading to a new television series on UKTV Gold in 2013 . Set principally in the private office of a British Cabinet minister in the fictional Department of Administrative Affairs in Whitehall , Yes Minister follows the ministerial career of the Rt Hon Jim Hacker MP , played by Paul Eddington . His various struggles to formulate and enact legislation or effect departmental changes are opposed by the British Civil Service , in particular his Permanent Secretary , Sir Humphrey Appleby , played by Sir Nigel Hawthorne . His Principal Private Secretary Bernard Woolley , played by Derek Fowlds , is usually caught between the two . The sequel , Yes , Prime Minister , continued with the same cast and followed the events of the premiership of Jim Hacker after his unexpected elevation to Number 10 upon the resignation of the previous Prime Minister . The series received a number of awards , including several BAFTAs and in 2004 was voted sixth in the Britain 's Best Sitcom poll . It was the favourite television programme of the then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Margaret Thatcher . Situation The series opens in the wake of a general election in which the incumbent government has been defeated by the opposition party , to which Jim Hacker MP belongs . His party affiliation is never stated , and his party emblem is clearly neither Conservative nor Labour . The Prime Minister offers Hacker the position of Minister of Administrative Affairs , which he accepts . Hacker goes to his department and meets his Permanent Secretary , Sir Humphrey Appleby , and his Principal Private Secretary , Bernard Woolley . While Appleby is outwardly deferential towards the new minister , he is prepared to defend the status quo at all costs . Woolley is sympathetic towards Hacker but as Appleby reminds him , his civil servant superiors will have much to say about the course of his future career , while ministers do not usually stay long in one department . Many of the episodes revolve around proposals backed by Hacker but frustrated by Appleby , and others revolve around proposals promoted by the latter but rejected by Hacker , which Appleby attempts by all means necessary to persuade Hacker to accept . They do occasionally join forces in order to achieve a common goal , such as preventing the closure of their department or dealing with a diplomatic incident . As the series revolves around the inner workings of central government , most of the scenes take place in private locations , such as offices and exclusive members ' clubs . Lynn says that `` there was not a single scene set in the House of Commons because government does not take place in the House of Commons . Some politics and much theatre takes place there . Government happens in private . As in all public performances , the real work is done in rehearsal , behind closed doors . Then the public and the House are shown what the government wishes them to see . '' However , the episode `` The Compassionate Society '' does feature an audio recording of Yesterday in Parliament in which Hacker speaks in the House of Commons , and other episodes include scenes in the Foreign Secretary 's House of Commons office ( `` The Writing on the Wall '' ) and a Committee room ( `` A Question of Loyalty '' ) . At the time of the making of the series , television cameras were not allowed in the House of Commons and had only recently been introduced into the House of Lords , so it was not unusual to a British audience to have no scenes from there . Character contrast The different ideals and self-interested motives of the characters are frequently contrasted . Whilst Hacker occasionally approaches an issue from a sense of idealism and a desire to be seen to improve things , he ultimately sees his re-election and elevation to higher office as the key measures of his success . Accordingly , he must appear to the voters to be effective and responsive to the public will . To his party ( and , in the first incarnation of the series , the Prime Minister ) he must act as a loyal and effective party member . Sir Humphrey , on the other hand , genuinely believes that the Civil Service , being politically impartial , has the most realistic idea of what `` good governance '' means , and therefore knows what is best for the country — a belief shared by his bureaucratic colleagues . Hacker sees the job of government as one of `` doing good '' , or more specifically reforming the country according to his own party 's policies : which , more often than not , means the initiation of departmental reforms and economies , a reduction of the level of bureaucracy and reduction of staff numbers in the Civil Service . To do so , or to at least look as if he is doing so , is what he considers to be a vote-winner . Conversely , Sir Humphrey sees his role as ensuring that politics is kept out of government as much as possible and that the status quo is upheld as a matter of principle . But with the status quo notably including the prestige , power and influence of the Civil Service , Sir Humphrey attempts to block any move that seeks either to prevent the further expansion of the civil service or to reduce the complexity of its bureaucracy . Much of the show 's humour thus derives from the antagonism between Cabinet ministers ( who believe they are in charge ) and the members of the British Civil Service ( who believe they really run the country ) . A typical episode centres on Hacker 's suggesting and pursuing a reform and Sir Humphrey 's blocking of all Hacker 's lines of approach . More often than not , Sir Humphrey prevents him from achieving his goal while mollifying Hacker with some positive publicity , or at least a means to cover up his failure . Occasionally , however , Hacker does get his way , often by thwarting other arrangements or deals that Sir Humphrey has been making behind the scenes elsewhere with other ministers or civil servants — or in the case of the episode `` The Tangled Web '' , Hacker successfully blackmailing Sir Humphrey into taking his stance . Sir Humphrey occasionally resorts to tactics such as calling a policy `` courageous '' to remind Hacker to contemplate the view that `` a controversial policy will lose votes , whilst a courageous one will lose [ him ] the election '' , and thus to hinder the implementation of a particular policy . Sir Humphrey , on the other hand , believes that from the Civil Service 's perspective `` it makes very little difference who the Minister is '' . Initially , Bernard naively sees his job as the disinterested implementation of the Minister 's policies , but he gradually finds that this conflicts with his institutional duty to the department , and sometimes ( since Sir Humphrey is responsible for formally assessing Woolley 's performance ) his own potential career development . Consequently , another recurring scenario is one where Bernard must `` walk the tightrope '' — that is , balance his two conflicting duties by resorting to elaborate verbosity ( much like Sir Humphrey ) so that he can avoid the appearance of being disloyal to one , in favour of the other . For example , in `` The Skeleton in the Cupboard '' , he sees the importance of notifying Sir Humphrey that Hacker has left his office , whilst still assisting Hacker in his aims . Such is Bernard 's success in performing this balancing act , that after the third series , following Sir Humphrey 's promotion to Cabinet Secretary , when Hacker becomes Prime Minister he requests that Bernard continue as his Principal Private Secretary , reasserting the perception that he is a `` high flier '' . Sir Humphrey 's personal characteristics include his complicated sentences , his cynical views of government , and his snobbery and superciliousness . Hacker 's attributes include occasional indecisiveness , and a tendency to launch into ludicrous Churchillian speeches . Bernard is prone to linguistic pedantry . All characters are able to switch to a completely opposite opinion in seconds when convenient . Supporting characters The first series featured Frank Weisel , Hacker 's political adviser ( played by Neil Fitzwiliam in the television series , and later by Bill Nighy in the radio series ) . The first syllable of his surname is pronounced `` Wise '' , but Sir Humphrey and Bernard persistently call him `` Weasel '' . Weisel does not appear after the first series , following his acceptance of a position on a quango ( Quasi-Autonomous Non-Governmental Organisation ) tasked with investigating the appointment of other quangos , the government 's honours system , and `` jobs for the boys '' . The first series of Yes , Prime Minister introduced Dorothy Wainwright ( played by Deborah Norton ) as a highly able special political adviser to the Prime Minister . Her experience and insight into many civil service tricks ensure a lasting mutual distrust between her and Sir Humphrey and provide an invaluable second opinion for Hacker . Sir Humphrey frequently annoys Dorothy by addressing her as `` dear lady '' . Hacker 's home life is shown occasionally throughout the series . His wife Annie ( Diana Hoddinott ) is generally supportive , but is sometimes frustrated by the disruptions caused by her husband 's political career and is at times somewhat cynical about her husband 's politics . In one episode , his sociology student daughter , Lucy ( Gerry Cowper ) , becomes an environmental activist , campaigning against the Department 's intention to remove protected status from a wooded area believed to be inhabited by badgers . Sir Humphrey falsely assures her there have not been badgers in the woods for some years . Sir Humphrey often discusses matters with other Permanent Secretaries , who appear similarly sardonic and jaded , and the Cabinet Secretary ( whom he eventually succeeds in Yes , Prime Minister ) , Sir Arnold Robinson ( John Nettleton ) , an archetype of cynicism , haughtiness and conspiratorial expertise . The fairly counter-intuitive view of government administration displayed by Sir Humphrey is completely taken for granted by the Civil Service . Almost all the episodes ( the exceptions chiefly being the earlier ones of the first series ) end with one of the characters ( usually Sir Humphrey ) saying `` Yes , Minister '' or `` Mais oui , Prime Minister , '' in `` A Diplomatic Incident '' which centred on negotiations with the President of France . Each episode of the former was more or less self-contained , but the first two episodes of Yes , Prime Minister had a loose story arc relating to Hacker 's attempts to reform the United Kingdom 's armed forces , while the second was mostly devoted to concluding storylines and character arcs that had been seen over the course of Yes , Minister . Politics Lynn joined the Cambridge Union in his first year at the University of Cambridge because he thought that he might like to enter politics . `` All of the main debaters there , aged twenty , were the most pompous , self-satisfied , self-important bunch of clowns that I 've ever clapped eyes on . They were all behaving as if they were on the government front bench , and twenty years later they all were : Michael Howard ; John Selwyn Gummer ; Kenneth Clarke . I thought at that point that the only way that I could ever contribute to politics is making fun of the politicians . '' The series , then , intended to satirise politics and government in general , rather than any specific party . The writers placed Hacker at the centre of the political spectrum , and were careful to identify his party headquarters as `` Central House '' ( a combination of Conservative Central Office and Labour 's Transport House ) . The terms `` Labour '' and `` Conservative '' are scrupulously avoided throughout the series , favouring terms such as `` the party '' or `` the Government '' and `` the opposition '' . In the first scene of the first episode , `` Open Government '' , Hacker is shown at the declaration of his constituency result wearing a white rosette , with other candidates sporting the red and blue rosettes associated with the two leading British parties . The one exception to this neutrality occurs very briefly in `` The National Education Service '' , when Sir Humphrey explains to Bernard how the policy of comprehensive education is retained through successive governments , using different arguments according to which party is in power . Even there , Humphrey does not reveal which party Jim Hacker represents . Despite this , the overall thrust was towards government reduction rather than expansion . The episode `` Jobs for the Boys '' , for example , rejected corporatism . Throughout the period of Yes Minister and Yes Prime Minister the incumbent government of the United Kingdom was Conservative with the government led by Margaret Thatcher . In a 2004 documentary , Armando Iannucci compared Yes Minister to George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty-Four in how it has influenced the public 's view of the state . Although Lynn comments that the word `` spin '' has `` probably entered the political vocabulary since the series , '' Iannucci suggests that the show `` taught us how to unpick the verbal tricks that politicians think they can get away with in front of the cameras . '' The series depicted the media-consciousness of politicians , reflecting the public relations training they undergo to help them deal with interviews and reading from autocue effectively . This is particularly evident in the episode `` The Ministerial Broadcast '' , in which Hacker is advised on the effects of his clothes and surroundings . The episode `` A Conflict of Interest '' humorously lampoons the various political stances of Britain 's newspapers through their readers ( although this material was not original ) : Adam Curtis , in his three-part TV documentary The Trap , criticised the series as `` ideological propaganda for a political movement '' , and claimed that Yes Minister is indicative of a larger movement of criticism of government and bureaucracy , centred upon public choice economics . Jay himself supports this . Inspirations The writers were inspired by a variety of sources , including sources inside government , published material and contemporary news stories . The writers also met several leading senior civil servants under the auspices of the Royal Institute of Public Administration , a think-tank for the public service sector , which led to the development of some plot lines . Some situations were conceived as fiction , but were later revealed to have real-life counterparts . The episode `` The Compassionate Society '' depicts a hospital with five hundred administrative staff but no doctors , nurses or patients . Lynn recalls that `` after inventing this absurdity , we discovered there were six such hospitals ( or very large empty wings of hospitals ) exactly as we had described them in our episode . '' In a programme screened by the BBC in early 2004 , paying tribute to the series , it was revealed that Jay and Lynn had drawn on information provided by two insiders from the governments of Harold Wilson and James Callaghan , namely Marcia Williams and Bernard Donoughue . The published diaries of Richard Crossman also provided inspiration . In particular the first of these describe his battles with `` the Dame '' , his Permanent Secretary , the formidable Baroness Sharp , first woman in Britain to hold the position . The episode entitled `` The Moral Dimension '' , in which Hacker and his staff engage in the scheme of secretly consuming alcohol on a trade mission to the fictional Islamic state of Qumran , was based on a real incident that took place in Pakistan , involving Callaghan and Donoughue , the latter of whom informed Jay and Lynn about the incident . Jay says that `` I ca n't tell you where , I ca n't tell you when and I ca n't tell you who was involved ; all I can tell you is that we knew that it had actually happened . That 's why it was so funny . We could n't think up things as funny as the real things that had happened . '' Media historian Andrew Crisell suggests that the show was `` enriched by the viewers ' suspicion that what they were watching was unhealthily close to real life . '' Fusing inspiration and invention , Lynn and Jay worked on the story `` for anything from three days to two weeks , '' and only took `` four mornings to write all the dialogue . After we wrote the episode , we would show it to some secret sources , always including somebody who was an expert on the subject in question . They would usually give us extra information which , because it was true , was usually funnier than anything we might have thought up . '' Designers Valerie Warrender and Gloria Clayton were given access to the Cabinet Rooms and the State Drawing Rooms . For security purposes , the arrangements of the rooms were altered , and the views from the windows were never shown , to conceal the layout of the buildings . Main characters Jim Hacker The Rt Hon . The Lord Hacker of Islington , KG , PC , BSc ( Paul Eddington ) was the editor of a newspaper , Reform , before entering government . He apparently spent a good deal of time in Parliament on the Opposition benches before his party won the general election . In Yes Minister he is the Minister for Administrative Affairs ( a fictitious ministry of the British government ) and a Cabinet Minister , and in Yes , Prime Minister he becomes the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Hacker received his degree from the London School of Economics ( graduating with a Third ) , for which he is often derided by the Oxford-educated Sir Humphrey ( who attended the fictitious Baillie College graduating with a First in Classics ) . His early character is that of a gung-ho , but naïve , politician , bringing sweeping changes to his department . Before long , Hacker begins to notice that Civil Service tactics are preventing his planned changes being put into practice . As he learns , he becomes more sly and cynical , using some of the Civil Service ruses himself . While Sir Humphrey initially held all the aces , Hacker now and again plays a trump card of his own . Throughout Yes Minister Hacker , at his worst , is portrayed as a publicity-seeking bungler who is incapable of making a firm decision . He is prone to make potentially embarrassing blunders , and is a frequent target of criticism from the press and stern lectures from the Chief Whip . However , he is also shown to be relatively politically savvy , and he slowly becomes more aware of Sir Humphrey 's real agenda . In Yes , Prime Minister Hacker becomes more statesmanlike . He practises more grandiose speeches , dreams up his `` grand design '' and hones his diplomatic skills . Nearly all of these efforts land him in trouble . In a Radio Times interview to promote Yes , Prime Minister , Paul Eddington stated , `` He 's beginning to find his feet as a man of power , and he 's begun to confound those who thought they 'd be able to manipulate him out of hand . '' Sir Humphrey Appleby Sir Humphrey Appleby , GCB , KBE , MVO , MA ( Oxon ) ( Nigel Hawthorne ) serves throughout the series as Permanent Secretary under his Minister , Jim Hacker at the Department of Administrative Affairs . He is appointed Cabinet Secretary just as Hacker 's party enters a leadership crisis , and is instrumental in Hacker 's elevation to Prime Minister . He is committed to maintaining the status quo for the country in general and for the Civil Service in particular . Sir Humphrey is a master of obfuscation and manipulation , baffling his opponents with long winded technical jargon and circumlocutions , strategically appointing allies to supposedly impartial boards , and setting up interdepartmental committees to smother his Minister 's proposals in red tape . However , although presenting an outward appearance of supreme confidence and competence , Sir Humphrey is not immune to making miscalculations or outright blunders . When such blunders occur , he relies on the Civil Service bureaucracy to save him . In Britain 's Best Sitcom , Stephen Fry comments that `` we love the idea of the coherence and articulacy of Sir Humphrey ... it 's one of the things you look forward to in an episode of Yes Minister ... when 's the big speech going to happen ? And can I see if he 's reading it from an idiot board ... he 's really learned it , and it 's superb . '' Derek Fowlds posited to a concerned Eddington that these speeches were the reason why Hawthorne won a BAFTA for Best Comedy Performance four times in a row , while Eddington , though nominated , did not win at all . Loquacious and verbose , he frequently uses both his mastery of the English language and his grasp of Latin and Greek grammar both to perplex his political master and to obscure the relevant issues . In a Radio Times interview to promote the second series of Yes , Prime Minister , producer Sydney Lotterby stated that he always tried to give Eddington and Hawthorne extra time to rehearse as their scenes invariably featured lengthy dialogue exchanges . Bernard Woolley Sir Bernard Woolley , GCB , MA ( Oxon ) ( Derek Fowlds ) is Jim Hacker 's Principal Private Secretary . His loyalties are often split between his Minister and his Civil Service boss , Sir Humphrey . While he is theoretically responsible to Hacker personally , it is Sir Humphrey who writes his performance reviews and influences his Civil Service career . He usually handles these situations well , and maintains his reputation in the Civil Service as a `` high flier '' as opposed to a `` low flier supported by occasional gusts of wind . '' Woolley is always quick to point out the physical impossibilities of Sir Humphrey 's or Hacker 's mixed metaphors , with almost obsessive pedantry . He can occasionally appear rather childlike , by making animal noises and gestures or by acting out how such an analogy can not work , which sometimes annoys his Minister . Woolley tends to side with Hacker when new policies are announced , because they seem radical or democratic , only for Sir Humphrey to point out the disadvantages to the status quo and the civil service in particular . To sway Bernard , Sir Humphrey uses phrases such as `` barbarism '' and `` the beginning of the end '' . At times when Sir Humphrey fails to get his way , Woolley can be seen smiling smugly at him over his defeat . In a 2004 retrospective , Armando Iannucci commented that Fowlds had a difficult task because he had to `` spend most of his time saying nothing but looking interested in everyone else 's total and utter guff '' but `` his one line frequently had to be the funniest of the lot . '' Iannucci suggests that Woolley is essential to the structure of the show because both Hacker and Appleby confide in him , `` which means we get to find out what they 're plotting next . '' The editor 's note to The Complete Yes Prime Minister ( supposedly published in 2024 after Hacker 's death but actually published by the BBC in 1989 ) , thanks `` Sir Bernard Woolley GCB '' for his help and confirms that he did indeed make it to the position of Head of the Civil Service . Other recurring characters The series featured a cast of recurring characters . * Frank Weisel ( often deprecatingly pronounced weasel ) , played by Neil Fitzwiliam , was Hacker 's crusading , idealistic political adviser in the first series . The less scrupulous Hacker found him rather tiresome after a time , while Sir Humphrey found him positively loathsome from the outset . Hacker eventually sent Weisel on a deliberately lengthy worldwide fact-finding assignment , from which he did not return . * It was not until Yes , Prime Minister that another such character appeared regularly : Dorothy Wainwright , special adviser to the Prime Minister , who was played by Deborah Norton . Wainwright was rather more down-to-earth than Weisel , and tended to give more practical advice . She knows all of Humphrey 's tricks and is able to give the Prime Minister instant advice how to get past his manipulations , and Humphrey knows it and sees her as a threat , though always refers to her as `` Dear Lady '' . Earlier Prime Ministerial advisers had appeared from time to time in episodes of Yes Minister , including Daniel Moynihan as Daniel Hughes in `` The Writing on the Wall '' ( 1980 ) and Nigel Stock as Sir Mark Spencer in `` Bed of Nails '' ( 1982 ) . In the later stage play and 2013 television revival , Hacker 's young advisor , Claire Sutton , had a larger role than any of her predecessors . * Hacker also had a Press Secretary , Bill Pritchard , played by Antony Carrick . Meanwhile , Sir Humphrey 's civil service colleagues were also regularly featured . They included : * Sir Arnold Robinson ( played by John Nettleton ) , Cabinet Secretary in Yes Minister and later President of the Campaign for Freedom of Information . The reserved , dignified Sir Arnold is a master manipulator , whom Sir Humphrey often turns to for counsel . * Sir Frederick Stewart ( played by John Savident ) , Permanent Secretary of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office , known as `` Jumbo '' to his friends ; * Sir Ian Whitchurch ( played by John Barron ) , Permanent Secretary to the Department of Health and Social Security * Sir Richard Wharton ( played by Donald Pickering ) , Permanent Secretary to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office . * Sir Frank Gordon , who appeared in both series of Yes , Prime Minister as Permanent Secretary to the Treasury ( played by Peter Cellier ) . * Sir Humphrey also had an old acquaintance : Sir Desmond Glazebrook ( played by Richard Vernon ) , who was Board member , then Chairman , of Bartlett 's Bank . Glazebrook is an amiably vague `` chap '' ( a word he uses frequently to describe banking colleagues ) , of impeccable respectability , very little actual financial knowledge , and no fixed opinions on anything . He became Governor of the Bank of England in the Yes , Prime Minister episode `` A Conflict of Interest '' , to avoid , as one possibility , Britain 's expulsion from the Commonwealth . Hacker 's family : * His wife , Annie Hacker ( played by Diana Hoddinott ) , who appeared in several episodes , and * His daughter , Lucy ( played by Gerry Cowper ) , who only appeared on-screen in one episode ( `` The Right to Know '' ) as an environmental campaigner , but who is mentioned intermittently throughout . By the time of Yes , Prime Minister , she is a student at the University of Sussex ( which Hacker likens to a kibbutz ) . * At one point ( in `` Party Games '' ) it is implied that the Hackers may have

odql_2550--Yes_Minister.txt

What is the name of 'Jim Hacker's' department in the TV comedy, 'Yes Minister'?

John Ronald Simm ( born 10 July 1970 ) is an award winning English actor . His work includes : Life on Mars , Cracker , The Lakes , Sex Traffic , State of Play , Crime and Punishment , Exile , Doctor Who and Prey , and on stage : Hamlet , Elling , The Homecoming , Betrayal , Speaking in Tongues , Three Days in the Country and The Hothouse . He has been nominated twice for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor , and is a Laurence Olivier Award nominee for best actor . His films include Wonderland , Everyday , Boston Kickout , Human Traffic , and 24 Hour Party People . Early life The eldest of three children , Simm grew up in a series of places around North West England , including Blackpool , Burnley , Nelson , Colne , and Manchester . His father , Ronald , was a musician ; and , from the age of twelve , John sang and played guitar with his father on stage in the working men 's clubs . In 1986 , Simm enrolled at Blackpool and the Fylde College in Lytham St. Annes for three years , and starred in Guys and Dolls and West Side Story at Blackpool 's Grand Theatre . However , he soon decided that musical theatre did n't interest him , so he joined an amateur dramatic group and honed his skills in his spare time , playing the title roles in Billy Liar and Amadeus . He then moved to London to train at the Drama Centre London at the age of 19 , where he studied Stanislavski 's system of method acting and graduated in 1992 . Career Independently of his acting , throughout the 1990s and early 2000s , Simm was a founding member , songwriter , and guitarist with the rock band Magic Alex ( named after the Beatles self-styled electronics wizard `` Magic Alex '' Mardas ) . The group played support on two British tours with Echo & the Bunnymen . Simm plays guitar on the album Slideling by his friend , Echo & the Bunnymen singer Ian McCulloch . Simm also played lead guitar on a few of McCulloch 's solo live shows , including one at Wembley Arena as the main support to Coldplay . Magic Alex released one album , Dated and Sexist , before splitting in 2005 . Simm made his professional acting debut in 1992 with the role of Joby Johnson in an episode of the TV series Rumpole of the Bailey ( there had been an earlier part in the BBC drama Between the Lines where Simm was in one scene as PC Witty , but the scene was cut ) . There then followed a variety of roles during which time he honed his craft in front of the camera , including a psycho in The Bill , a lovestruck schoolboy in Heartbeat , and a drugged-up burglar in The Locksmith . He also made two series of the BBC sitcom Men of the World , playing the lead role of Kendle Bains . His next project saw him take the role of Gary Kingston , a deluded murderer , in Chiller . In 1995 , Simm played the troubled teenager Bill Preece in the acclaimed ITV police drama Cracker . This is considered his breakthrough role . He also made his feature film debut in Boston Kickout , beating Dennis Hopper for the Best Actor award at the Valencia Film Festival . In 1996 , he made his professional stage debut in the Simon Bent play Goldhawk Road at the Bush Theatre , directed by Paul Miller . In 1997 , he won the lead role of Danny Kavanagh in the first series of The Lakes , a BBC series written by Jimmy McGovern . In 1999 , he starred in the second series of The Lakes as well as appearing as Jip in the award-winning cult clubbing film Human Traffic and Michael Winterbottom 's acclaimed Wonderland . In 2000 , he starred in the opening episode of the BBC drama Clocking Off , written by Paul Abbott , with whom he would work again in 2002 when he starred as Cal McCaffrey in the multi-award-winning political thriller series State of Play . Simm also played the lead role of loan shark John Parlour in Tony Marchant 's Never Never for Channel 4 . In 2002 , Simm featured in another Michael Winterbottom film , 24 Hour Party People , as New Order frontman Bernard Sumner . At a live concert in Finsbury Park that same year , Simm sang the Joy Division song `` Digital '' onstage with New Order . It was also this year that he played Raskolnikov in the BBC adaptation of Crime and Punishment , adapted by Tony Marchant . Marchant also wrote The Knight 's Tale , one of a series of modern reworkings of The Canterbury Tales , in which Simm played Ace . Later that year , Simm starred opposite Christina Ricci and John Hurt in the film Miranda . In 2004 , he played the researcher and charity investigator Daniel Appleton in the BAFTA award-winning Channel 4 drama Sex Traffic . This two-parter followed the plight of two young Moldovan sisters sold into sexual slavery . After playing Dr. Bruce Flaherty in Howard Davies ' production of Joe Penhall 's Blue/Orange , Simm starred as Detective Inspector Sam Tyler in the 2006 BBC series Life on Mars , playing a police officer sent back in time to 1973 . The show won the Pioneer Audience Award for Best Programme at the 2007 BAFTA TV Awards , Simm was nominated but lost out on the award for Best Actor . He left after the second series , feeling that he had taken the role as far as he could . His next project , in March 2007 , was The Yellow House for Channel 4 , a biographical drama produced by Talkback Thames , based on the book of the same name by Martin Gayford about the turbulent relationship of artists Vincent van Gogh ( Simm ) and Paul Gauguin ( John Lynch ) . In the same year , Simm also returned to the theatre as the title character in Paul Miller 's acclaimed Bush Theatre staging of Simon Bent 's version of Elling , a comedy about two men just out of a psychiatric hospital adjusting to normal life and to each other . Following positive press reviews and an extended , sell-out run , the production was transferred to the Trafalgar Studios 1 in July 2007 and Simm was nominated for an Olivier Award for his performance . In 2007 , Simm was chosen by Russell T. Davies to play The Master , the nemesis of The Doctor in the long-running BBC series Doctor Who . He appeared in the final three episodes of series three : `` Utopia '' , `` The Sound of Drums '' , and `` Last of the Time Lords '' . He reprised the role in the 2009 two-part special The End of Time . In 2008 , Simm played Edward Sexby in The Devil 's Whore , a four-part English Civil War epic for Channel 4 . He performed at the Royal Variety Performance with Alexander Armstrong and Ben Miller , and starred in the film Skellig , broadcast on Sky1 in April 2009 . Simm became involved in an ongoing project with director Michael Winterbottom called Everyday , to be filmed in real time over five years . The film premiered at the Toronto Film Festival in September 2012 , and is in competition at the 2013 London Film Festival . Simm returned to the west end stage in autumn of 2009 to critical acclaim , starring in the Andrew Bovell play Speaking in Tongues at the Duke of York 's Theatre . In September 2010 , Simm played Hamlet at the Sheffield Crucible . The production was a sellout and broke box office records for the theatre . In 2011 , Simm starred in Mad Dogs on Sky1 . Simm plays Baxter in a project that reunited him with Philip Glenister and Marc Warren along with Max Beesley and Ben Chaplin . Mad Dogs became a critical and ratings success and received a BAFTA nomination for best drama serial , and a second and third series were commissioned . Mad Dogs 2 was shot in Mallorca and Ibiza in late 2011 , and appeared on Sky 1 in January 2012 , the same time as Mad Dogs 3 was being shot in South Africa . On BBC One in May 2011 , Simm starred as Tom Rondstadt in Exile . His performance earned him his second BAFTA nomination for best actor . From 17 May to 9 June 2012 , Simm starred as Jerry in a revival of Harold Pinter 's Betrayal at the Crucible Theatre . He plays John Middleton in The Village , a 6-part BBC drama which portrays life in a Derbyshire village during World War I . From May to August 2013 , he returned to Trafalgar Studios in London 's West End to star in a new production of Harold Pinter 's The Hothouse , directed by Jamie Lloyd . The final instalment of Mad Dogs aired in January 2014 , and Simm completed work on the three-part thriller Prey , in which he plays detective Marcus Farrow . The mini-series began airing on 28 April 2014 on ITV . In February 2014 , Simm began filming the BBC America eight-parter Intruders in Vancouver . He plays ex-LAPD officer Jack Whelan . The series aired on BBC America in August 2014 . In addition to this , he completed the second season of The Village in Derbyshire . Later that year Simm played Alec Jeffries , the man who discovered DNA fingerprinting , in Code of a Killer , a 2 part drama for ITV . In 2015 , he took a break from the screen to concentrate on theatre . He appeared for the first time at The National Theatre , playing the role of Rakitin to great acclaim , in Patrick Marber 's Three Days in the Country , ( a version of Turgenev 's A Month in the country ) : and was reunited with Jamie Lloyd for the 50th anniversary production of Harold Pinter 's The Homecoming in London 's West End . Personal life In April 2004 , Simm married actress Kate Magowan in the Forest of Dean ; they have a son and a daughter . He is a supporter of Manchester United . Filmography Film Television Stage Music Video Discography Album Singles

qw_2481--John_Simm.txt

Which British TV series starring John Simm as DCI Sam Tyler and Philip Glenister as DCI Gene Hunt was remade in the USA starring Jason O'Mara and Harvey Keitel?

Newport ( ; ) is a cathedral and university city and unitary authority area in south east Wales . It is located on the River Usk close to its confluence with the Severn estuary , approximately 12 mi northeast of Cardiff . At the 2011 census it is the third largest city in Wales , with a city population of 145,700 and an urban population of 306,844 . The city forms part of the Cardiff-Newport metropolitan area with a population of 1,097,000 . Newport has been a port since medieval times , when Newport Castle was built by the Normans . The town outgrew the earlier Roman town of Caerleon , immediately upstream , and gained its first charter in 1314 . It grew significantly in the 19th century , when its port became the focus of coal exports from the eastern valleys of South Wales . Until the rise of Cardiff from the 1850s , Newport was Wales ' largest coal-exporting port . It was the site of the last large-scale armed insurrection in Britain , the Newport Rising of 1839 led by the Chartists . During the 20th century , when the docks declined in importance , Newport remained an important manufacturing and engineering centre . It was granted city status in 2002 . Newport hosted the Ryder Cup in 2010 . The city was the venue of the 2014 NATO summit . It is the largest urban area within the historic county boundaries of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent . The City of Newport , which includes some surrounding rural areas as well as the built up area , is governed by Newport City Council . History See also : Category : History of Newport , Wales Origins Bronze Age fishermen settled around the fertile estuary of the River Usk and later the Celtic Silures built hillforts overlooking it . In AD 75 , on the very edge of their empire , the Roman legions built a Roman fort at Caerleon to defend the river crossing . According to legend , in the late 5th century Saint Woolos church was founded by Saint Gwynllyw , the patron saint of Newport and King of Gwynllwg . The church was certainly in existence by the 9th century and today has become Newport Cathedral , the seat of the Bishop of Monmouth . The Normans arrived from around 1088–1093 to build Newport Castle and river crossing downstream and the first Norman Lord of Newport was Robert Fitzhamon . The settlement of 'Newport ' is first mentioned as novo burgus established by Robert , Earl of Gloucester in 1126 . The name was derived from the original Latin name Novus Burgus , meaning new borough or new town . The city can sometimes be found labelled as Newport-on-Usk on old maps . The original Welsh language name for the city , Casnewydd-ar-Wysg ( pronounced ) means 'New castle-on-Usk ' ( this is a shortened version of Castell Newydd ar Wysg ) and this refers to the twelfth-century castle ruins near Newport city centre . The original Newport Castle was a small motte-and-bailey castle in the park opposite Newport Cathedral . It was buried in rubble excavated from the Hillfield railway tunnels that were dug under Stow Hill in the 1840s and no part of it is currently visible . Around the settlement , the new town grew to become Newport , obtaining its first charter in 1314 and was granted a second one , by Hugh Stafford , 2nd Earl of Stafford in 1385 . In the 14th century friars came to Newport where they built an isolation hospital for infectious diseases . After its closure the hospital lived on in the place name `` Spitty Fields '' ( a corruption of ysbyty , the Welsh for hospital ) . `` Austin Friars '' also remains a street name in the city . During the Welsh Revolt in 1402 Rhys Gethin , General for Owain Glyndŵr , forcibly took Newport Castle together with those at Cardiff , Llandaff , Abergavenny , Caerphilly , Caerleon and Usk . During the raid the town of Newport was badly burned and Saint Woolos church destroyed . A third charter , establishing the right of the town to run its own market and commerce came from Humphrey Stafford , 1st Duke of Buckingham in 1426 . By 1521 , Newport was described as having `` .... a good haven coming into it , well occupied with small crays [ merchant ships ] where a very great ship may resort and have good harbour . '' Trade was thriving with the nearby ports of Bristol and Bridgwater and industries included leather tanning , soap making and starch making . The town 's craftsmen included bakers , butchers , brewers , carpenters and blacksmiths . A further charter was granted by James I in 1623 . During the English Civil War in 1648 Oliver Cromwell 's troops camped overnight on Christchurch Hill overlooking the town before their attack on the castle the next day . A cannonball dug up from a garden in nearby Summerhill Avenue , dating from this time , now rests in Newport Museum . Industrial Revolution As the Industrial Revolution took off in Britain in the 19th century , the South Wales Valleys became key suppliers of coal from the South Wales coalfield , and iron . These were transported down local rivers and the new canals to ports such as Newport , and Newport Docks grew rapidly as a result . Newport became one of the largest towns in Wales and the focus for the new industrial eastern valleys of South Wales . By 1830 Newport was Wales ' leading coal port , and until the 1850s it was larger than Cardiff . The Newport Rising in 1839 was the last large-scale armed rebellion against authority in mainland Britain . John Frost and 3,000 other Chartists marched on the Westgate Hotel at the centre of the town . The march was met with an attack by militia , called to the town by the Mayor , Thomas Phillips : at least 20 marchers were killed and were later buried in Saint Woolos churchyard . John Frost was sentenced to death for treason , but this was later commuted to transportation to Australia . He returned to Britain ( but not to Newport ) later in his life . John Frost Square ( 1977 ) , in the centre of the city , is named in his honour . Newport probably had a Welsh-speaking majority until the 1830s , but with a large influx of migrants from England and Ireland over the following decades , the town and the rest of Monmouthshire came to be seen as `` un-Welsh '' , a view compounded by ambiguity about the status of Monmouthshire . In the 19th century , the St George Society of Newport ( a group largely consisting of English settlers and businessmen ) asserted that the town was part of England . It was at a meeting in Newport , attended by future Prime Minister David Lloyd George , that the Cymru Fydd movement received its death blow in 1896 when politician Robert Bird stated “ You will find , from Swansea to Newport , a cosmopolitan population who will not submit to the domination of Welsh ideas ! ” . In 1922 Lloyd George was to suffer a further blow in Newport , when the South Wales Liberal Federation , led by David Alfred Thomas , an industrialist and Liberal politician , and Robert Bird moved that Lloyd George `` be not heard '' in the 1895 General Election . The Conservative capture of the recently created Newport constituency in a by-election in 1922 was one of the causes of the fall of his coalition government . The late 19th and early 20th century period was a boom time for Newport . The Alexandra Docks opened in 1875 . The population was expanding rapidly and the town became a county borough in 1891 . In 1892 the Alexandra South Dock was opened and was the largest masonry dock in the world . Although coal exports from Newport were by now modest compared to the Port of Cardiff ( which included Cardiff , Penarth and Barry ) , Newport was the place where the Miners ' Federation of Great Britain was founded in 1889 , and international trade was sufficiently large for 8 consuls and 14 vice-consuls to be based in the town . In 1898 Lysaght 's Orb Works opened and by 1901 employed 3,000 staff . Urban expansion took in Pillgwenlly and Lliswerry to the south ; this eventually necessitated a new crossing of the River Usk , which was provided by the Newport Transporter Bridge completed in 1906 , described as `` Newport 's greatest treasure '' . Further extensions to the South Dock were opened in 1907 and 1914 . The Newport Docks Disaster occurred on 2 July 1909 when , during construction of the new south lock connecting the South Dock to the Severn Estuary , supporting timbers in an excavation trench collapsed and buried 46 workers . The rescuers included 12-year-old paper boy Thomas ‘ Toya ’ Lewis who was small enough to crawl into the collapsed trench . Lewis worked for two hours with hammer and chisel in an attempt to free one of those trapped who was released the next day . Several hundred pounds was later raised through public subscription in gratitude for the boy 's efforts , and he was sent on an engineering scholarship to Scotland . Lewis was awarded the Albert Medal for Lifesaving by King Edward VII in December 1909 . A Wetherspoons pub in the city centre is named `` The Tom Toya Lewis '' after the young hero . The building in which the pub is housed was formerly the Newport YMCA , the Foundation Stone for which was laid by Viscount Tredegar , also in 1909 . From 1893 the town was served by the paddle steamers of P & A Campbell Ltd. ( the `` White Funnel Line '' ) , which was based in Bristol . The company had been originally set up , by the Scottish brothers Alex and Peter Campbell , on the River Clyde , but was re-located to the Severn Estuary . Departing steamers would face south on Davis Wharf , with the Art College to its left and the town bridge behind . The boats gave rise to the name of the short street which led to the quayside - Screwpacket Road . By 1955 steamers had stopped calling at Newport and P & A Campbell went in to receivership in 1959 . It was taken over by the firm which would become the Townsend Ferry group . The modern era Compared to many Welsh towns , Newport 's economy had a broad base , with foundries , engineering works , a cattle market and shops that served much of Monmouthshire . However , the docks were in decline even before the Great Depression , and local unemployment peaked at 34.7 % in 1930 : high , but not as bad as the levels seen in the mining towns of the South Wales Valleys . Despite the economic conditions , the council re-housed over half the population in the 1920s and 30s . In 1930 the Town Dock was filled in . The post-war years saw renewed prosperity , with Saint Woolos Cathedral ( now Newport Cathedral ) attaining full cathedral status in 1949 , the opening of the modern integrated Llanwern steelworks in 1962 , and the construction of the Severn Bridge and local sections of the M4 motorway in the late 1960s , making Newport the best-connected place in Wales . Although employment at Llanwern steelworks declined in the 1980s , the town acquired a range of new public sector employers , and a Richard Rogers-designed Inmos microprocessor factory helped to establish Newport as being extant for technology companies . A flourishing local music scene in the early 1990s led to claims that the town was `` a new Seattle '' . The county borough of Newport was granted city status in 2002 to mark Queen Elizabeth II 's Golden Jubilee . In the same year , an unusually large merchant ship , referred to locally as the Newport Ship , was uncovered and rescued from the west bank of the River Usk during the construction of the Riverfront Arts Centre . The ship has been dated to some time between 1445 and 1469 and it remains the only vessel of its type from this period yet discovered anywhere in the world . Key dates in Newport 's history * 1140 : The first early Norman wood motte and bailey castle is built on Stow Hill . * 1314 : First Town Charter * 1327–1386 : Newport Castle built * 1385 : Second Town Charter granted by Hugh Stafford , 2nd Earl of Stafford * 1402 : Town taken by the forces of Owain Glyndŵr , rebel Prince of Wales during the Welsh Revolt : Saint Woolos Cathedral destroyed . * 1426 : Third Town Charter granted by Humphrey Stafford , 1st Duke of Buckingham * 1648 : Town taken by the forces of Oliver Cromwell during the English Civil War . * 1672 : Tredegar House completed . * 1796 : Opening of the Monmouthshire canal . * 1839 : Chartist Newport Rising , Westgate Hotel , Newport led by radical former mayor John Frost * 1842 : Newport Town Dock opens – floating dock able to accommodate the largest ships in the world . * 1858 : Town Dock extended to the north * 1871 : W. H. Davies , renowned poet born at Portland Street , Pillgwenlly . * 1875 : Alexandra Dock opens . * 1877 : Athletic grounds at Rodney Parade opens . * 1887 : The Boys Brigade movement in Wales founded by George Philip Reynolds at Havelock Street Presbyterian Church . * 1892 : Alexandra South Dock opens , extended 1907 ( phase2 ) and 1914 ( phase3 ) * 1880–1900 : Godfrey Morgan , 1st Viscount Tredegar donates land for the benefit of the public , including Belle Vue Park , the Royal Gwent Hospital and Newport Athletics Grounds . * 1894 : Belle Vue Park opens . * 1898 : Lysaght 's Orb Works steelworks opens . * 1901 : Royal Gwent Hospital moved to its current site * 1906 : Newport Transporter Bridge opens on 12 September . * 1909 : Newport Docks Disaster . * 1930 : Town Dock closed and filled in . * 1937 : King George VI visits Newport and cuts first sod of new Civic Centre building . * 1949 : Saint Woolos pro-Cathedral attains full cathedral status , ( now Newport Cathedral ) . * 1962 : Llanwern steelworks opens . * 1963 : Newport rugby club beat the touring New Zealand All Blacks . * 2002 : Newport granted city status ; discovery of the Newport Ship . * 2003 : Newport Unlimited regeneration company set up . * 2010 : The Ryder Cup golf competition was hosted at the Celtic Manor Resort . * 2014 : The 2014 NATO summit took place at the Celtic Manor Resort . * 2015 : Friars Walk shopping centre opens . Governance Newport has long been the largest town in the historic county of Monmouthshire and became a unitary authority in 1996 , although it was also a county borough between 1891 and 1974 . The Local Government Act 1972 removed ambiguity about the legal status of the area by including the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport into all acts pertaining to Wales , and in 1974 the borough was incorporated into the new local government county of Gwent . Gwent itself was abolished in 1996 but remains in use for ceremonial functions as a preserved county . Politics See also : Category : Politics of Newport , Wales The city is historically industrialised with a large working-class population and a strong support for the Labour Party . Labour lost control of Newport City council in the 2008 local elections to a Conservative/Liberal Democrat coalition but the Labour Party regained an overall majority of councillors in the 2012 election . The City of Newport is divided between the UK Parliamentary constituencies of Newport West and Newport East and elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) in each constituency . The two constituencies cover a similar area to that of the city area controlled by Newport City Council . The city formerly had only one constituency until 1983 when the city was split into Newport West and Newport East due to population growth . In the United Kingdom general election , 2015 , Labour held Newport West with a reduced majority of 3,510 votes over the Conservative Party . The Labour Party also held Newport East with an increased majority of 4,705 votes over the Conservative Party . In the National Assembly of Wales Newport is divided into Newport West and Newport East constituencies and elects one Assembly Minister ( AM ) in each constituency . In the National Assembly for Wales election , 2016 , Labour held Newport West with a reduced majority of 4,115 votes over the Conservative Party . The Labour Party also held Newport East with a reduced majority of 4,896 votes over UKIP . Newport is part of the Wales European Parliament Constituency . The Wales constituency elects four Members of the European Parliament ( MEP ) . In the 2014 European Parliament election the Wales constituency elected one MEP from each of the Labour , UKIP , Conservative , and Plaid Cymru parties . Coat of arms The official blazon of the armorial bearings is : `` ( arms ) Or , a chevron reversed gules , the shield ensigned by a cherub proper . Supporters : on the dexter side a winged sea lion Or , and on the sinister side a sea dragon gules , the nether parts of both proper , finned gold . '' Freedom of the City The title of Freedom of Newport is a ceremonial honour , given by the Newport council to those who have served in some exceptional capacity , or upon any whom Newport wishes to bestow an honour . There have been 17 individuals or organisations that have received the honour since 1909 , including : * Rt . Hon . Godfrey Charles Morgan , 1st Viscount Tredegar , Lord Lieutenant of Monmouthshire * Bernard Montgomery , 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein ( 1945 ) * Corps of the South Wales Borderers ( 24th Foot ) * Royal Regiment of Wales ( 24th/41st Foot ) * 104th Regiment Royal Artillery ( Volunteers ) * Royal Welch Fusiliers ( 2001 ) * British Merchant Navy Association * HMS Severn ( 2006 ) * Newport County A.F.C . ( 2013 ) * Newport R.F.C . ( 2013 ) Geography Newport is located 138 mi west of London and 12 mi east of Cardiff . It is the largest urban area within the historic county boundaries of Monmouthshire and the preserved county of Gwent . The City of Newport , which includes rural areas as well as the built up area , is the seventh most populous unitary authority in Wales . The city is largely low-lying , but with a few hilly areas . ( Wentwood reaches 310 metres above sea level ) . Areas in the south and east of the city tend to be flat and fertile with some housing estates and industrial areas reclaimed from marshland . Areas near the banks of the River Usk , such as Caerleon , are also low-lying . The eastern outskirts of the city are characterised by the gently rolling hills of the Vale of Usk and Christchurch has panoramic views of the Vale of Usk and the Bristol Channel . Ridgeway at Allt-yr-yn also has good views of the surrounding areas and Bristol Channel . Brynglas has views over the city centre and Twmbarlwm to the west . The suburbs of the city have grown outwards from the inner-city , mostly near the main roads , giving the suburban sprawl of the city an irregular shape . The urban area is continuing to expand rapidly with new housing estates continuing to be built . The city boundaries include a number of villages in the Newport Built-up area . Wards and districts See also : Category : Districts of Newport , Wales The city is divided into 20 wards . Most of these wards are coterminous with communities ( parishes ) of the same name . Each community can have an elected council . The following table lists city council wards , communities and associated geographical areas . Communities with a community council are indicated with a ' * ' : Climate Newport has a moderate temperate climate , with the weather rarely staying the same for more than a few days at a time . The city is one of the sunnier locations in Wales and its sheltered location tends to protect it from extreme weather . Like the whole of the British Isles , Newport benefits from the warming effect of the Gulf Stream . Newport has mild summers and cool winters . Thunderstorms may occur intermittently at any time of year , but are most common throughout late-spring and summer . Rain falls throughout the year , Atlantic storms give significant rainfall in the autumn , these gradually becoming rarer towards the end of winter . Autumn and summer have often been the wettest seasons in recent times . Snow falls every winter and usually settles on the ground several times , and usually melts after a few days . Newport records few days with gales compared to most of Wales , again due to its sheltered location . Frosts are common from October to May . On 20 March 1930 , the overnight temperature fell to the coldest temperature for the whole of the UK during that year , and the latest date in spring the UK 's lowest temperature has been recorded . Demography People from Newport are known as Newportonians . In the 2011 census , 89.9 % described themselves as White , 5.5 % Asian , 1.7 % Black , 1.1 % Mixed White/Black , 0.5 % Mixed White/Asian and 1.4 % as other ethnic groups . Religion In 1929 St Woolos Church became the Pro-Cathedral of the Diocese of Monmouth , becoming a full cathedral in 1949 . When Rowan Williams was appointed Archbishop of Wales in 2000 , the Cathedral became the Metropolitan Cathedral of Wales . In 1850 Newport was recognised as the chief centre of Roman Catholicism in Wales when the town became the seat of the Bishop of Newport and Menevia ; however Newport lost its bishop with the creation of the Archdiocese of Cardiff in 1916 . Between 21 October 1966 and 6 October 1969 , having retired as Bishop of Rochester , New York , Fulton J. Sheen , an American bishop who pioneered preaching on television and radio , was appointed the titular archbishop of Newport by Pope Paul VI . In the 2011 census 56.8 % of Newport residents considered themselves Christian , 4.7 % Muslim , 1.2 % Other religions ( including Hindu , Buddhist , Sikh , Jewish and Others ) , 29.7 % were non-religious and 7.5 % chose not to answer the non-compulsory religion question on the census . By 2014 the city 's Jewish community had reduced to only six members , placing it among the smallest in the UK . Newport has more than 50 churches ( including Welsh , Chinese and Urdu speaking services ) , 7 mosques , and one synagogue ; the nearest Gurudwara is in Cardiff . The church of St Julian and St Aaron , at St Julian 's , was consecrated in 1926 . Economy Newport 's Travel to Work Area incorporates much of south Monmouthshire ; the new 2001-based area also includes Cwmbran . The city itself has three major centres for employment : the city centre , and business parks clustered around the M4 motorway junctions 24 in the east and 28 in the west . Organisations based in the city include Airbus Defence & Space ; the headquarters of the Office for National Statistics ; the headquarters of the United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office ( formerly known as the Patent Office ) ; the General Insurance Division of Lloyds TSB ; a large Panasonic manufacturing plant ; a manufacturing plant for International Rectifier ; the headquarters of insurance comparison site Gocompare ; the headquarters of Wales and West Utilities ; the shared-service centre for HM Prison Service ; the Passport Office for much of the south and west of the UK ; and the Wales headquarters of the Charity Commission and British Red Cross . In 2014 Admiral Insurance opened a large newly constructed office opposite Newport railway station . In 1997 , Newport secured what was then thought to be Europe 's largest-ever inward investment when the LG Group announced a £1.7 billion project creating 6,100 jobs , and supported by public sector grants . Facilities were built on the Celtic Lakes business and science park , but market conditions led to the semiconductor plant never opening , and the CRT plant eventually closed in 2003 . In 2005 Irish radiator manufacturer Quinn Group bought the former LG Phillips building , which became its European base . Industry in the east of Newport was formerly based at the Corus Llanwern steelworks , and although the rolling mill is still active , steel manufacture ceased in 2001 . Permission has been granted to transform the 600 acre former steelworks site into a £1bn mixed-use development comprising housing , office and industrial space , public open space and a range of community facilities . At the mouth of the River Usk , the Sims Metal Management plant hosts the world 's largest industrial shredder for scrap metal with access by road , rail and sea . The plant , which is also the world 's largest car crusher which was featured in the TV series 'How do they do it ' . Newport Cattle Market , in the Pillgwenlly area of the city , closed in 2009 and was demolished to make way for a new supermarket . Regeneration The city has seen major regeneration projects being undertaken since 2004 . Infrastructure The first stage of regeneration involved improving the city centre road network , including turning Kingsway and Queensway into boulevards . The Southern Distributor Road to the south of the city opened in 2004 , including the new City Bridge over the River Usk , improving access and opening up new areas for development . The Newport City footbridge opened in 2006 linking the east and west banks of the river for pedestrians and cyclists . Newport railway station was redeveloped with the lengthened Platform 4 of the railway station opening in July 2007 and a new terminal building opened in 2010 with a futuristic design . The railway station 's reconnection with the Ebbw Valley Railway was due to be completed by 2011 but was delayed . There are plans to reopen many suburban stations in the near future – as part of phase one of the Ebbw Valley reopening , Rogerstone station was re-opened in 2008 . Pye Corner station re-opened in 2014 and three others are planned in the city 's Unitary Development Plan . Newport bus station was also redeveloped . A state-of-the-art District General Hospital is envisaged to be built to replace the Royal Gwent Hospital . The former Corus steel Whiteheads site was speculated but this was rejected in favour of redeveloping the Llanfrechfa Grange Hospital site , near Cwmbran as a specialist and critical care unit . The M4 relief road skirting the southern edge of the urban area of Newport is proposed as a means of reducing the congestion on the existing M4 motorway ( presently squeezed through the Brynglas Tunnels ) and making Newport and the surrounding areas more accessible . There have also been calls for a barrage across the River Usk to be incorporated with the M4 bypass , so that the level of the river would stay permanently at high tide level , although possible plans for a Severn barrage across the River Severn would reduce the need for a River Usk barrage . The relief road scheme

sfq_3764--Newport,_Wales.txt

On which river does Newport (Gwent) stand?

The British threepence ( 3d ) coin , usually simply known as a threepence or threepenny bit , was a unit of currency equaling one eightieth of a pound sterling , or three pence sterling . It was used in the United Kingdom , and earlier in Great Britain and England . Similar denominations were later used throughout the British Empire , notably in Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa . The sum of three pence was pronounced variously , or , reflecting different pronunciations in the various regions and nations of the United Kingdom . Likewise , the coin was often referred to in conversation as a , or bit . Before Decimal Day in 1971 there were two hundred and forty pence in one pound sterling . Twelve pence made a shilling , and twenty shillings made a pound . Values less than a pound were usually written in terms of shillings and pence , e.g . forty-two pence would be three shillings and six pence ( 3/6 ) , pronounced `` three and six '' . Values of less than a shilling were simply written in terms of pence , e.g . eight pence would be 8d . Early threepences The three pence coin – expressed in writing as `` 3d '' – first appeared in England during the fine silver coinage of King Edward VI ( 1547–53 ) , when it formed part of a set of new denominations . Although it was an easy denomination to work with in the context of the old sterling coinage system , being a quarter of a shilling , initially it was not popular with the public who preferred the groat ( four pence ) . Hence the coin was not minted in the following two reigns . Edward VI threepences were struck at the London and York mints . The obverse shows a front-facing bust of the king , with a rose to the left and the value numeral III to the right , surrounded by the legend . The reverse shows a long cross over the royal shield , surrounded by the legend ( London mint ) ( I have made God my helper ) , or ( York mint ) ( City of York ) . Queen Elizabeth I ( 1558–1603 ) produced threepences during her third coinage ( 1561–1577 ) . Most 1561 issues are 21 mm in diameter , while later ones are 19 mm in diameter . These coins are identifiable from other denominations by the rose behind the queen 's head on the obverse , and the date on the reverse . The obverse shows a left-facing crowned bust of the queen with a rose behind her , surrounded by the legend , while the reverse shows shield over a long cross , dated 1561 , surrounded by the legend . Dates used for the smaller coins were 1561–77 . Threepences of the fourth coinage ( 1578–1582 ) are identical except for having a slightly lower silver content . There was also a fairly rare milled coinage threepence , produced between 1561 and 1564 with similar designs and inscriptions to the hammered coinage threepences . The threepence denomination fell out of use again during the reign of King James I , while during King Charles I 's reign ( 1625–49 ) it was not produced at the London Tower mint , but was produced ( sometimes in some quantity ) at various provincial mints . The denomination is identified by the numeral III appearing behind the king 's head . Threepences reintroduced By far the most common Charles I threepences were produced at the Aberystwyth mint between 1638 and 1642 . They feature a left-facing crowned bust of the king with plumes in front of his face and the numeral III behind him , with the legend ( or a combination of M ( A ) B F ( R ) ET H ( I ) ( B ) depending on the engraver ) , with the reverse showing the royal arms on a large oval shield with plumes above the shield , and the legend – I reign under the auspices of Christ . Plumes were the identifying symbol of the Aberystwyth mint , but the Bristol and Oxford mints often used dies from the Aberystwyth mint so plumes often appear on their output too . Milled coins were produced at the York mint between 1638 and 1649 , which look similar to the Aberystwyth product but without the plumes – the obverse features a left-facing crowned bust of the king with the numeral III behind him , with the legend , with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield over a cross , with over the shield and the legend . Coins were produced at the Oxford mint between 1644 and 1646 , using the Aberystwyth dies for the obverse , while the reverse of the 1644 coin shows the Declaration of Oxford in three lines : – The religion of the Protestants , the laws of England , the liberty of Parliament . 1644 Oxford , while around the outside of the coin is the legend – Let God arise and His enemies be scattered . This coin also appears dated 1646 . A further type produced at Oxford had on the obverse the king 's bust with the denomination behind him , and the letter `` R '' ( for Rawlins , the maker of the die ) below the king 's shoulder and the legend and the Aberystwyth reverse . Rarer threepences The mint at Bristol produced rare threepences in 1644 and 1645 . In 1644 the Aberystwyth obverse was used to produce a coin with the reverse showing the Declaration of Oxford : – The religion of the Protestants , the laws of England , the liberty of Parliament 1644 , while around the outside of the coin is the legend – Let God arise and His enemies be scattered . This was repeated in 1645 , but with a plumelet instead of a plume in front of the king 's face . In 1644 the Exeter mint produced a fairly scarce threepence . It features a left-facing crowned bust of the king with the numeral III behind him , with the legend , with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield with the date 1644 above the shield , and the legend . No threepences were produced by the Commonwealth of England . Mid-to-late 17th century The final hammered coinage threepences were produced at the start of the reign of King Charles II . In style they are very reminiscent of his father 's issues , the obverse featuring the bust of the king , with the numeral III and the legend , with the reverse showing the royal arms on a shield over a cross , and the legend . The milled silver threepences of Charles II form two types . There is the undated issue which looks very like the earlier hammered coinage , with a crowned left-facing bust of the king with the denomination indicated by III behind his head , and the inscription , with the reverse showing a shield encircling the arms of England , Scotland , Ireland and France with the legend . This was followed by the dated issue , issued each year from 1670 to 1684 , where the obverse features a right-facing uncrowned bust of the king and the inscription , with the reverse showing three crowned interlinked `` C '' s ( indicating the value ) and the inscription . All milled silver threepences were 17 millimetres in diameter and weighed 1.5 grams – dimensions which were unchanged until near the end of the reign of George III . A similar threepence was produced for King James II , dated 1685 to 1688 , the obverse showing a left-facing bust of the king and the inscription , with the reverse showing three crowned `` I '' s ( indicating the value ) and the inscription . For the joint reign of King William III and Queen Mary II , threepences were produced in all years from 1689 to 1694 . For the first two years a somewhat caricatured portrait of the monarchs was used , replaced by a rather more staid portrait in 1691 , with the inscription , while the reverse shows a crowned Arabic number `` 3 '' and the inscription . For the sole reign of William III , the design remained very similar , with the inscriptions changed to and . Early 18th century In the reign of Queen Anne ( 1702–1714 ) , the same basic design was used , with threepences produced in 1703–10 and 1713 . The obverse shows a left-facing bust of the Queen , with the inscription while the reverse shows the crowned `` 3 '' and ( 1703–05 , 1707 ) , ( 1706 ) , or ( 1708–13 ) . The design continued in the reign of King George I , when threepences were produced in 1717 , 1721 , 1723 , and 1727 . The obverse shows a right-facing bust of the King , with the inscription while the reverse shows the crowned `` 3 '' and . Unusually , the same young portrait of King George II was used on the threepence throughout his reign ( 1727–60 ) , despite an older portrait being used on other denominations from 1743 . Threepences were produced in 1729 , 1731 , 1732 , 1735 , 1737 , 1739 , 1740 , 1743 , 1746 , and 1760 . The obverse shows a left-facing bust of the King , with the inscription while the reverse shows the crowned `` 3 '' and . Change of role While the silver threepence was minted as a currency coin until nearly the middle of the 20th century , it is clear that the purpose of the coin changed during the reign of King George III ( 1760–1820 ) . In the first two years of minting , 1762 and 1763 , the coin was obviously produced for general circulation as examples are generally found well worn ; on the other hand , coins from the late issue ( 1817–20 ) are usually found in very fine condition , indicating that they were probably issued as Maundy money . Over the length of the reign there were several different designs of obverse and reverse in use . Threepences were issued in 1762–63 , 1765–66 , 1770 , 1772 , 1780 , 1784 , 1786 , 1792 , 1795 , 1800 , 1817 , 1818 , and 1820 . From 1817 the dimensions of the coin were reduced to a weight of 1.4 grams and diameter of 16 millimetres , following the Great Recoinage of 1816 . The inscription on the obverse reads up to 1800 , and from 1817 . The reverse inscription reads up to 1800 and from 1817 . By the start of the reign of King George IV ( 1820–30 ) the coin was being struck primarily as a Maundy coin , although some coins were produced for use in the colonies . See Maundy money for full details of these issues . Threepences were struck in all years from 1822 to 1830 , though the king 's head is smaller on the 1822 issue , apparently because the correct punch broke and the one from the twopence was used instead . The obverse inscription reads , while the reverse shows a new-style crowned `` 3 '' and date , all within a wreath . In King William IV 's reign ( 1830–37 ) , maundy coins were produced in 1831–37 , and identical circulation coins were produced for the colonies , identifiable only through not having a prooflike surface . The obverse inscription reads , while the reverse shows the new-style crowned `` 3 '' and date , all within a wreath . Queen Victoria During the reign of Queen Victoria , threepences were produced both for maundy use and for normal circulation in all years between 1838 and 1901 except 1847 , 1848 , and 1852 ( probably because of the possible advent of a decimal currency at the time ( see florin ) , when the 3d at 1/80th of a pound would not have fitted within a decimal system ) . Currency silver threepences from 1838 to 1926 were of identical design and can not usually be distinguished except in the best conditions when the higher striking standard of the maundy coins stand out ; this resulted in the curious legal anomaly that when the currency was decimalised in 1971 all silver threepences from 1870 onwards were revalued at three new pence , not just the maundy coins . Threepences were produced with both the `` young head '' ( 1838–87 ) and `` Jubilee head '' ( 1887–93 ) , inscribed , while those produced with the `` old head '' ( 1893–1901 ) are inscribed . Early 20th century The currency threepence was issued for each of the nine years of the reign of King Edward VII from 1902 . The reverse design remained the same , while the obverse showed the right-facing effigy of the king , with the inscription . The reign of King George V ( 1910–1936 ) features several changes to the threepence denomination . As with all British silver coins , the silver content was reduced from sterling ( 0.925 ) silver to 50 % silver , 40 % copper , 10 % nickel in 1920 , 50 % silver , 50 % copper in 1922 , and 50 % silver , 40 % copper , 5 % nickel , 5 % zinc in 1927 , while the design of the reverse of the circulating threepence ( but not the maundy threepence ) was completely changed in 1927 to three oak sprigs with three acorns and a `` G '' in the centre , and the inscription . The inscription on the obverse throughout the reign was . The threepences of King Edward VIII were all patterns awaiting royal approval at the time of the abdication in December 1936 . The silver threepence had another completely new reverse – three interlinked rings of Saint Edmund , with the inscription , while the obverse shows a left-facing effigy of the king with the inscription and a very small silver engravement . Brass vs silver threepences By the end of George V 's reign the threepence had become unpopular in England because of its small size ( George Orwell comments on this in Keep the Aspidistra Flying ) , but it remained popular in Scotland . It was consequently decided to introduce a more substantial threepenny coin which would have a more convenient weight/value ratio than the silver coinage . The silver threepence continued to be minted , as there may have been some uncertainty about how well the new coin would be accepted . The Edward VIII era saw the planned introduction of a new , larger , nickel-brass ( 79 % copper , 20 % zinc , 1 % nickel ) twelve-sided threepence coin . This coin weighed 6.6 grams and the diameter was 21 mm across the sides and 22 mm across the corners . The obverse shows a left-facing effigy of the king ( not right as would have been the convention to alternate the direction ) with the inscription , and the reverse shows a three-headed thrift plant with the inscription . A total of just 12 of these coins were struck for experimental purposes and sent to a slot machine manufacturing company for testing . The whereabouts of six of those 12 are known . However , the other six are still out there somewhere and , as such , they are extremely rare today . An example was sold at auction in 2013 for £30,000 There are two types of Edward VIII brass threepences . The first type has the date broken by a thrift plant design and the second has the date below . During the reign of King George VI , circulation silver threepences were produced only in 1937–45 ( and almost all the 1945 examples were subsequently melted down ) . The obverse shows a left-facing effigy of the king with the inscription , while the reverse has an elegant design of a shield of St George lying on a Tudor rose , dividing the date , with the inscription . The nickel-brass threepence took over the bulk of the production of the denomination , being produced in all years between 1937 and 1952 except 1947 . Apart from the king 's head and name , and the weight being increased to 6.8 grams , the coin was identical to that prepared for Edward VIII . Coins dated 1946 and 1949 were minted in far fewer numbers than the rest , and as nickel-brass wears very quickly , higher grade specimens of these coins are expensive to buy now ( both over £500 for uncirculated examples ) . The scarce dates are 1948 , 1950 and 1951 and these are now selling for £60–£80 in mint state . Elizabeth II threepences The physical dimensions of the brass threepence remained the same in the reign of Queen Elizabeth II . The effigy of the queen produced by Mary Gillick was used , with the inscription used in 1953 , and used in all other years . The reverse shows a Tudor portcullis with chains and a coronet , with the inscription . This coin was produced in all years from 1953 to 1967 , and in 1970 ( in proof sets only ) . Following decimalisation , the brass threepence ceased to be legal tender after 31 August 1971 . The Commonwealth A three pence coin was also used in the pre-decimalisation currencies of Commonwealth of Nations countries such as Fiji , Australia , and New Zealand . It was called a tickey in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia . Building No . 1 Croydon was known for many years as the `` threepenny bit building '' for its resemblance to a stack of threepenny coins . After the coins were phased out ( beginning in 1970 ) the building eventually gained a new nickname : the `` 50p building ” . The 12-sided coin reprised In March 2014 , the Royal Mint announced that a new design of one pound coin will be introduced in 2017 , reprising the twelve-sided shape . The new coin is designed to be more difficult to counterfeit .

odql_9086--Threepence_(British_coin).txt

How many sides did the pre-decimal British threepence have around its edge?

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established on 1 January 1801 under the terms of the Acts of Union 1800 , by which the separate kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were united . In 1922 , about five-sixths of Ireland seceded to form the Irish Free State . Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom , and the state was consequently renamed the `` United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '' . The period began with the newly formed United Kingdom defeating the French Empire in 1814 in the Napoleonic Wars . The British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century . Rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the state 's formation continued up until the mid-19th century . In Ireland , this was focused along the eastern seaboard and north of the island , leading to deepening of economic and social disparities . A devastating famine , exacerbated by government inaction in the mid-19th century , led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland , and increased calls for Irish land reform and the devolution of executive power . During and after World War I , the rise of Irish nationalism and physical force republicanism eventually culminated in the Irish War of Independence , and in 1922 the partition of Ireland between the newly founded Irish Free State and the northeast , which opted to remain part of the United Kingdom as Northern Ireland . To reflect the change in the state 's boundaries , the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927 amended the name of the UK Parliament to the `` Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland '' . 1801 to 1837 Union of Great Britain and Ireland The Kingdom of Ireland was a settler state ; the monarch was the incumbent monarch of England and later of Great Britain . The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland headed the government on behalf of the monarch . He was assisted by the Chief Secretary of Ireland . Both were responsible to the government in London rather than to the Parliament of Ireland . Before the Constitution of 1782 , the Irish parliament was also severely fettered , and decisions in Irish courts could be overturned on appeal to the British House of Lords in London . Ireland gained a degree of independence in the 1780s thanks to Henry Grattan . During this time the effects of the Penal Laws on the majority Roman Catholic population ( and the dissenter minority ) were reduced , and some property-owning Catholics were granted the franchise in 1794 ; however , they were still excluded from becoming members of the Irish House of Commons . This brief period of limited independence came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , which occurred during the British war with revolutionary France . The British government 's fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries . This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801 . The Irish had been led to believe by the British that their loss of legislative independence would be compensated for with Catholic Emancipation , i.e . by the removal of civil disabilities placed upon Roman Catholics in both Great Britain and Ireland . However , King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his government 's attempts to introduce it . Napoleonic Wars During the War of the Second Coalition ( 1799–1801 ) , Britain occupied most of the French and Dutch overseas possessions , the Netherlands having become a satellite state of France in 1796 , but tropical diseases claimed the lives of over 40,000 troops . When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war , Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized . The peace settlement was in effect only a ceasefire , and Napoleon continued to provoke the British by attempting a trade embargo on the country and by occupying the city of Hanover , capital of the Electorate , a German-speaking duchy which was in a personal union with the United Kingdom . In May 1803 , war was declared again . Napoleon 's plans to invade Britain failed , chiefly due to the inferiority of his navy , and in 1805 Lord Nelson 's Royal Navy fleet decisively defeated the French and Spanish at Trafalgar , which was the last significant naval action of the Napoleonic Wars . In 1806 , Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees , which brought into effect the Continental System . This policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade . The British Army remained a minimal threat to France ; it maintained a standing strength of just 220,000 men at the height of the Napoleonic Wars , whereas France 's armies exceeded a million men—in addition to the armies of numerous allies and several hundred thousand national guardsmen that Napoleon could draft into the French armies when they were needed . Although the Royal Navy effectively disrupted France 's extra-continental trade—both by seizing and threatening French shipping and by seizing French colonial possessions—it could do nothing about France 's trade with the major continental economies and posed little threat to French territory in Europe . France 's population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles . Many in the French government believed that cutting the British off from the European mainland would end their economic hegemony , but Great Britain possessed the greatest industrial capacity in the world , and its mastery of the seas allowed it to build up considerable economic strength through trade to its possessions from its rapidly expanding new Empire . The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent . The Duke of Wellington and his army of British and Portuguese gradually pushed the French out of Spain , and in early 1814 , as Napoleon was being driven back in the east by the Prussians , Austrians , and Russians , Wellington invaded southern France . After Napoleon 's surrender and exile to the island of Elba , peace appeared to have returned , but when he escaped back into France in 1815 , the British and their allies had to fight him again . The armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once and for all at Waterloo . Simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars , trade disputes and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States . A central event in American history , it was little noticed in Britain , where all attention was focused on the struggle with France . The British could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814 . American frigates also inflicted a series of defeats on the British navy , which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe . A stepped-up war effort that year brought about successes such as the Battle of Queenston Heights and the Burning of Washington . Peace was eventually agreed to at the end of 1814 , but not before Andrew Jackson , unaware of this , won a great victory over the British at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815 ( news took several weeks to cross the Atlantic before the advent of steam ships ) . The Treaty of Ghent subsequently ended the war . As a result , the Red River Basin was ceded to the US , and the Canadian border completely demilitarised by both countries and never changed since . George IV and William IV Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars a very different country than it had been in 1793 . As industrialisation progressed , society changed , becoming more urban and less rural . The postwar period saw an economic slump , and poor harvests and inflation caused widespread social unrest . Europe after 1815 was on guard against a return of Jacobinism , and even liberal Britain saw the passage of the Six Acts in 1819 , which proscribed radical activities . By the end of the 1820s , along with a general economic recovery , many of these repressive laws were repealed and in 1828 new legislation guaranteed the civil rights of religious dissenters . A weak ruler as regent ( 1811–20 ) and king ( 1820–30 ) , George IV let his ministers take full charge of government affairs , playing a far lesser role than his father , George III . His governments , with little help from the king , presided over victory in the Napoleonic Wars , negotiated the peace settlement , and attempted to deal with the social and economic malaise that followed . His younger brother William IV ruled ( 1830–37 ) , but was little involved in politics . His reign saw several reforms : the poor law was updated , child labour restricted , slavery abolished in nearly all the British Empire , and , most important , the Reform Act 1832 refashioned the British electoral system . There were no major wars until the Crimean War ( 1853–56 ) . While Prussia , Austria , and Russia , as absolute monarchies , tried to suppress liberalism wherever it might occur , the British came to terms with new ideas . Britain intervened in Portugal in 1826 to defend a constitutional government there and recognising the independence of Spain 's American colonies in 1824 . British merchants and financiers , and later railway builders , played major roles in the economies of most Latin American nations . Whig reforms of the 1830s The Whig Party recovered its strength and unity by supporting moral reforms , especially the reform of the electoral system , the abolition of slavery and emancipation of the Catholics . Catholic emancipation was secured in the Catholic Relief Act of 1829 , which removed the most substantial restrictions on Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland . The Whigs became champions of Parliamentary reform . They made Lord Grey prime minister 1830–1834 , and the Reform Act of 1832 became their signature measure . It broadened the franchise and ended the system of `` rotten borough '' and `` pocket boroughs '' ( where elections were controlled by powerful families ) , and instead redistributed power on the basis of population . It added 217,000 voters to an electorate of 435,000 in England and Wales . The main effect of the act was to weaken the power of the landed gentry , and enlarge the power of the professional and business middle-class , which now for the first time had a significant voice in Parliament . However , the great majority of manual workers , clerks , and farmers did not have enough property to qualify to vote . The aristocracy continued to dominate the government , the Army and Royal Navy , and high society . After parliamentary investigations demonstrated the horrors of child labour , limited reforms were passed in 1833 . Chartism emerged after the 1832 Reform Bill failed to give the vote to the working class . Activists denounced the `` betrayal '' of the working classes and the `` sacrificing '' of their `` interests '' by the `` misconduct '' of the government . In 1838 , Chartists issued the People 's Charter demanding manhood suffrage , equal sized election districts , voting by ballots , payment of Members of Parliament ( so that poor men could serve ) , annual Parliaments , and abolition of property requirements . The ruling class saw the movement as pathological , so the Chartists were unable to force serious constitutional debate . Historians see Chartism as both a continuation of the 18th century fight against corruption and as a new stage in demands for democracy in an industrial society . In 1832 Parliament abolished slavery in the Empire with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 . The government purchased the slaves for £20,000,000 ( the money went to rich plantation owners who mostly lived in England ) , and freed the slaves , especially those in the Caribbean sugar islands . Leadership Prime Ministers of the period included : William Pitt the Younger , Lord Grenville , Duke of Portland , Spencer Perceval , Lord Liverpool , George Canning , Lord Goderich , Duke of Wellington , Lord Grey , Lord Melbourne , and Sir Robert Peel . Victorian era The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria 's rule between 1837 and 1901 which signified the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire . Scholars debate whether the Victorian period—as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political concerns that have come to be associated with the Victorians—actually begins with the passage of the Reform Act 1832 . The era was preceded by the Regency era and succeeded by the Edwardian period . Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18 . Her long reign saw Britain reach the zenith of its economic and political power , with the introduction of steam ships , railroads , photography , and the telegraph . Britain again remained mostly inactive in Continental politics . Foreign policy Free trade imperialism After the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars ( 1792–1815 ) , the UK emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century ( with London the largest city in the world from about 1830 ) . Unchallenged at sea , British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ( `` British Peace '' ) , a period of relative peace in Europe and the world ( 1815–1914 ) . By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851 , Britain was described as the `` workshop of the world '' . Using the imperial tools of free trade and financial investment , it exerted major influence on many countries outside Europe and the empire , especially in Latin America and Asia . Thus Britain had both a formal Empire based on British rule as well as an informal one based on the British pound . Russia , France and the Ottoman Empire One nagging fear was the possible collapse of the Ottoman Empire . It was well understood that a collapse of that country would set off a scramble for its territory and possibly plunge Britain into war . To head that off Britain sought to keep the Russians from occupying Constantinople and taking over the Bosphorus Strait , as well as from threatening India via Afghanistan . In 1853 , Britain and France intervened in the Crimean War against Russia . Despite mediocre generalship , they managed to capture the Russian port of Sevastopol , compelling Tsar Nicholas I to ask for peace . The next Russo-Ottoman war in 1877 led to another European intervention , although this time at the negotiating table . The Congress of Berlin blocked Russia from imposing the harsh Treaty of San Stefano on the Ottoman Empire . Despite its alliance with the French in the Crimean War , Britain viewed the Second Empire of Napoleon III with some distrust , especially as the emperor constructed ironclad warships and began returning France to a more active foreign policy . American Civil War During the American Civil War ( 1861–1865 ) , British leaders favoured the Confederacy , a major source of cotton for textile mills . Prince Albert was effective in defusing a war scare in late 1861 . The British people , however , generally favoured the Union . What little cotton was available came from New York , as the blockade by the US Navy shut down 95 % of Southern exports to Britain . In September 1862 , Abraham Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation . Since support of the Confederacy now meant supporting the institution of slavery , there was no possibility of European intervention . The British sold arms to both sides , built blockade runners for a lucrative trade with the Confederacy , and surreptitiously allowed warships to be built for the Confederacy . The warships caused a major diplomatic row that was resolved in the Alabama Claims in 1872 , in the Americans ' favour . Empire expands In 1867 , Britain united most of its North American colonies as the Dominion of Canada , giving it self-government and responsibility for its own defence , but Canada did not have an independent foreign policy until 1931 . Several of the colonies temporarily refused to join the Dominion despite pressure from both Canada and Britain ; the last one , Newfoundland , held out until 1949 . The second half of the 19th century saw a huge expansion of Britain 's colonial empire , mostly in Africa . A talk of the Union Jack flying `` from Cairo to Cape Town '' only became a reality at the end of the Great War . Having possessions on six continents , Britain had to defend all of its empire and did so with a volunteer army , the only great power in Europe to have no conscription . Some questioned whether the country was overstretched . The rise of the German Empire since its creation in 1871 posed a new challenge , for it ( along with the United States ) , threatened to usurp Britain 's place as the world 's foremost industrial power . Germany acquired a number of colonies in Africa and the Pacific , but Chancellor Otto von Bismarck succeeded in achieving general peace through his balance of power strategy . When William II became emperor in 1888 , he discarded Bismarck , began using bellicose language , and planned to build a navy to rival Britain 's . Ever since Britain had wrested control of the Cape Colony from the Netherlands during the Napoleonic Wars , it had co-existed with Dutch settlers who had migrated further away from the Cape and created two republics of their own . The British imperial vision called for control over these new countries , and the Dutch-speaking `` Boers '' ( or `` Afrikaners '' ) fought back in the War in 1899–1902 . Outgunned by a mighty empire , the Boers waged a guerrilla war ( which certain other British territories would later employ to attain independence ) . This gave the British regulars a difficult fight , but their weight of numbers , superior equipment , and often brutal tactics , eventually brought about a British victory . The war had been costly in human rights and was widely criticised by Liberals in Britain and worldwide . However , the United States gave its support . The Boer republics were merged into the Union of South Africa in 1910 ; this had internal self-government , but its foreign policy was controlled by London and it was an integral part of the British Empire . Ireland and the move to Home Rule Part of the agreement which led to the 1800 Act of Union stipulated that the Penal Laws in Ireland were to be repealed and Catholic emancipation granted . However King George III blocked emancipation , arguing that to grant it would break his coronation oath to defend the Anglican Church . A campaign by the lawyer Daniel O'Connell , and the death of George III , led to the concession of Catholic Emancipation in 1829 , allowing Roman Catholics to sit in the Parliament of the United Kingdom . But Catholic Emancipation was not O'Connell 's ultimate goal , which was Repeal of the Act of Union with Great Britain . On 1 January 1843 O'Connell confidently , but wrongly , declared that Repeal would be achieved that year . When potato blight hit the island in 1846 , much of the rural population was left without food , because cash crops were being exported to pay rents . British politicians such as the Prime Minister Robert Peel were at this time wedded to the economic policy of laissez-faire , which argued against state intervention . While funds were raised by private individuals and charities , lack of adequate action let the problem become a catastrophe . Cottiers ( or farm labourers ) were largely wiped out during what is known in Ireland as the `` Great Hunger '' . A significant minority elected Unionists , who championed the Union . A Church of Ireland former Tory barrister turned nationalist campaigner , Isaac Butt , established a new moderate nationalist movement , the Home Rule League , in the 1870s . After Butt 's death the Home Rule Movement , or the Irish Parliamentary Party as it had become known , was turned into a major political force under the guidance of William Shaw and a radical young Protestant landowner , Charles Stewart Parnell . Parnell 's movement campaigned for `` Home Rule '' , by which they meant that Ireland would govern itself as a region within the United Kingdom . Two Home Rule Bills ( 1886 and 1893 ) were introduced by Liberal Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone , but neither became law , mainly due to opposition from the Conservative Party and the House of Lords . The issue was a source of contention throughout Ireland , as a significant majority of Unionists ( largely but not exclusively based in Ulster ) , opposed Home Rule , fearing that a Catholic Nationalist ( `` Rome Rule '' ) Parliament in Dublin would discriminate or retaliate against them , impose Roman Catholic doctrine , and impose tariffs on industry . While most of Ireland was primarily agricultural , six of the counties in Ulster were the location of heavy industry and would be affected by any tariff barriers imposed . Leadership Prime Ministers of the period included : Lord Melbourne , Sir Robert Peel , Lord John Russell , Lord Derby , Lord Aberdeen , Lord Palmerston , Benjamin Disraeli , William Ewart Gladstone , Lord Salisbury , and Lord Rosebery . Queen Victoria The Queen gave her name to an era of British greatness , especially in the far-flung British Empire with which she identified . She played a small role in politics , but became the iconic symbol of the nation , the empire , and proper , restrained behaviour . Her success as ruler was due to the power of the self-images she successively portrayed of innocent young woman , devoted wife and mother , suffering and patient widow , and grandmotherly matriarch . Disraeli Disraeli and Gladstone dominated the politics of the late 19th century , Britain 's golden age of parliamentary government . They long were idolized , but historians in recent decades have become much more critical , especially regarding Disraeli . Benjamin Disraeli ( 1804–1881 ) , prime minister 1868 and 1874–80 , remains an iconic hero of the Conservative Party . He was typical of the generation of British leaders who matured in the 1830s and 1840s . He was concerned with threats to established political , social , and religious values and elites ; he emphasized the need for national leadership in response to radicalism , uncertainty , and materialism . Disraeli was especially noted for his enthusiastic support for expanding and strengthening the British Empire , in contrast to Gladstone 's negative attitude toward imperialism . Gladstone denounced Disraeli 's policies of territorial aggrandizement , military pomp , and imperial symbolism ( such as making the Queen Empress of India ) , saying it did not fit a modern commercial and Christian nation . Disraeli drummed up support by warnings of a supposed Russian threat to India that sank deep into the Conservative mindset . His reputation as the `` Tory democrat '' and promoter of the welfare state fell away as historians showed that Disraeli had few proposals for social legislation in 1874–80 , and that the 1867 Reform Act did not reflect a vision of Conservatism for the unenfranchised working man . However he did work to reduce class anatagonism , for as Perry notes , `` When confronted with specific problems , he sought to reduce tension between town and country , landlords and farmers , capital and labour , and warring religious sects in Britain and Ireland—in other words , to create a unifying synthesis . '' Gladstone William Ewart Gladstone ( 1809–1898 ) was the Liberal counterpart to Disraeli , serving as prime minister four times ( 1868–74 , 1880–85 , 1886 , and 1892–94 ) . His financial policies , based on the notion of balanced budgets , low taxes and laissez-faire , were suited to a developing capitalist society but could not respond effectively as economic and social conditions changed . Called the `` Grand Old Man '' later in life , he was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to British workers and the lower middle class . The deeply religious Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics with his evangelical sensibility and opposition to aristocracy . His moralism often angered his upper-class opponents ( including Queen Victoria , who strongly favoured Disraeli ) , and his heavy-handed control split the Liberal party . His foreign policy goal was to create a European order based on cooperation rather than conflict and mutual trust instead of rivalry and suspicion ; the rule of law was to supplant the reign of force and self-interest . This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by the Germans with a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms . Salisbury Historians portray Conservative Prime Minister Lord Salisbury ( 1830–1903 ) as a talented leader who was an icon of traditional , aristocratic conservatism . Robert Blake has claimed that Salisbury was `` a great foreign minister , [ but ] essentially negative , indeed reactionary in home affairs '' . Professor P.T . Marsh ’ s estimate is more favourable than Blake 's , he portrays Salisbury as a leader who `` held back the popular tide for twenty years . '' Professor Paul Smith argues that , `` into the 'progressive ' strain of modern Conservatism he simply will not fit . '' Professor H.C.G . Matthew points to `` the narrow cynicism of Salisbury '' . One admirer of Salisbury , Maurice Cowling agrees that Salisbury found the democracy born of the 1867 and 1884 Reform Acts as `` perhaps less objectionable than he had expected—succeeding , through his public persona , in mitigating some part of its nastiness . '' Morality The Victorian era is famous for the Victorian standards of personal morality . Historians generally agree that the middle classes held high personal moral standards ( and usually followed them ) , but have debated whether the working classes followed suit . Moralists in the late 19th century such as Henry Mayhew decried the slums for their supposed high levels of cohabitation without marriage and illegitimate births . However , new research using computerized matching of data files shows that the rates of cohabitation then were quite low — under 5 % — for the working class and the poor . Early 20th century Prime Ministers from 1900 to 1923 : Marquess of Salisbury , Arthur Balfour , Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman , Herbert Henry Asquith , David Lloyd George , Andrew Bonar Law . Edwardian era 1901–1914 Queen Victoria died in 1901 and her son Edward VII became king , inaugurating the Edwardian Era , which was characterised by great and ostentatious displays of wealth in contrast to the sombre Victorian Era . With the advent of the 20th century , things such as motion pictures , automobiles , and aeroplanes were coming into use . The new century was characterised by a feeling of great optimism . The social reforms of the last century continued into the 20th with the Labour Party being formed in 1900 . Edward died in 1910 , to be succeeded by George V , who reigned 1910–36 . Scandal-free , hard working and popular , George V was the British monarch who , with Queen Mary , established the modern pattern of exemplary conduct for British royalty , based on middle-class values and virtues . He understood the overseas Empire better than any of his prime ministers and used his exceptional memory for figures and details , whether of uniforms , politics , or relations , to good effect in reaching out in conversation with his subjects . The era was prosperous but political crises were escalating out of control . Dangerfield ( 1935 ) identified the `` strange death of liberal England '' as the multiple crises that hit simultaneously in 1910–1914 with serious social and political instability arising from the Irish crisis , labour unrest , the women 's suffrage movements

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When was the first stamp, the Penny Black, issued in Britain?

Russian literature refers to the literature of Russia and its émigrés and to the Russian-language literature of several independent nations once a part of what was historically Rus ' , Russian Empire or the Soviet Union . Roots of Russian literature can be traced to the Middle Ages , when epics and chronicles in Old Russian were composed . By the Age of Enlightenment , literature had grown in importance , and from the early 1830s , Russian literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry , prose and drama . Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent : Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore . Prose was flourishing as well . The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol . Then came Ivan Turgenev , who mastered both short stories and novels . Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky soon became internationally renowned . In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist . The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian poetry . The poets most often associated with the `` Silver Age '' are Konstantin Balmont , Valery Bryusov , Alexander Blok , Anna Akhmatova , Nikolay Gumilyov , Osip Mandelstam , Sergei Yesenin , Vladimir Mayakovsky , Marina Tsvetaeva and Boris Pasternak . This era produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers , such as Aleksandr Kuprin , Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin , Leonid Andreyev , Fedor Sologub , Aleksey Remizov , Yevgeny Zamyatin , Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely . After the Revolution of 1917 , Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts . While the Soviet Union assured universal literacy and a highly developed book printing industry , it also enforced ideological censorship . In the 1930s Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia . Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky , who laid the foundations of this style . Nikolay Ostrovsky 's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature . Alexander Fadeyev achieved success in Russia . Various émigré writers , such as poets Vladislav Khodasevich , Georgy Ivanov and Vyacheslav Ivanov ; novelists such as Mark Aldanov , Gaito Gazdanov and Vladimir Nabokov ; and short story Nobel Prize-winning writer Ivan Bunin , continued to write in exile . Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology , like Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , who wrote about life in the gulag camps . The Khrushchev Thaw brought some fresh wind to literature and poetry became a mass cultural phenomenon . This `` thaw '' did not last long ; in the 1970s , some of the most prominent authors were banned from publishing and prosecuted for their anti-Soviet sentiments . The end of the 20th century was a difficult period for Russian literature , with few distinct voices . Among the most discussed authors of this period were Victor Pelevin , who gained popularity with short stories and novels , novelist and playwright Vladimir Sorokin , and the poet Dmitry Prigov . In the 21st century , a new generation of Russian authors appeared , differing greatly from the postmodernist Russian prose of the late 20th century , which lead critics to speak about “ new realism ” . Leading `` new realists '' include Ilja Stogoff , Zakhar Prilepin , Alexander Karasyov , Arkadi Babchenko , Vladimir Lorchenkov , Alexander Snegiryov and the political author Sergej Shargunov . Russian authors significantly contributed almost to all known genres of the literature . Russia has five Nobel Prize in literature laureates . As of 2011 , Russia was the fourth largest book producer in the world in terms of published titles . A popular folk saying claims Russians are `` the world 's most reading nation '' . `` When mass illiteracy was finally liquidated in the first half of the twentieth century , the proud self-image of Russians as “ the most reading nation in the world ” emerged - where reading meant , and still means for many , the reading of literature '' . Early history Old Russian literature consists of several masterpieces written in the Old Russian language ( i.e . the language of Rus ' , not to be confused with the contemporaneous Church Slavonic or modern Russian ) . Main type of Old Russian historical literature were chronicles , most of them were anonymous . Anonymous works also include The Tale of Igor 's Campaign and Praying of Daniel the Immured . Hagiographies ( , zhitiya svyatykh , `` lives of the saints '' ) formed a popular genre of the Old Russian literature . Life of Alexander Nevsky offers a well-known example . Other Russian literary monuments include Zadonschina , Physiologist , Synopsis and A Journey Beyond the Three Seas . Bylinas – oral folk epics – fused Christian and pagan traditions . Medieval Russian literature had an overwhelmingly religious character and used an adapted form of the Church Slavonic language with many South Slavic elements . The first work in colloquial Russian , the autobiography of the archpriest Avvakum , emerged only in the mid-17th century . 18th century After taking the throne at the end of the 17th century , Peter the Great 's influence on the Russian culture would extend far into the 18th century . Peter 's reign during the beginning of the 18th century initiated a series of modernizing changes in Russian literature . The reforms he implemented encouraged Russian artists and scientists to make innovations in their crafts and fields with the intention of creating an economy and culture comparable . Peter 's example set a precedent for the remainder of the 18th century as Russian writers began to form clear ideas about the proper use and progression of the Russian language . Through their debates regarding versification of the Russian language and tone of Russian literature , the writers in the first half of the 18th century were able to lay foundation for the more poignant , topical work of the late 18th century . Satirist Antiokh Dmitrievich Kantemir , 1708–1744 , was one of the earliest Russian writers not only to praise the ideals of Peter I 's reforms but the ideals of the growing Enlightenment movement in Europe . Kantemir 's works regularly expressed his admiration for Peter , most notably in his epic dedicated to the emperor entitled Petrida . More often , however , Kantemir indirectly praised Peter 's influence through his satiric criticism of Russia 's “ superficiality and obscurantism , ” which he saw as manifestations of the backwardness Peter attempted to correct through his reforms . Kantemir honored this tradition of reform not only through his support for Peter , but by initiating a decade-long debate on the proper syllabic versification using the Russian language . Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky , a poet , playwright , essayist , translator and contemporary to Antiokh Kantemir , also found himself deeply entrenched in Enlightenment conventions in his work with the Russian Academy of Sciences and his groundbreaking translations of French and classical works to the Russian language . A turning point in the course of Russian literature , his translation of Paul Tallemant 's work Voyage to the Isle of Love , was the first to use the Russian vernacular as opposed the formal and outdated Church-Slavonic . This introduction set a precedent for secular works to be composed in the vernacular , while sacred texts would remain in Church-Slavonic . However , his work was often incredibly theoretical and scholarly , focused on promoting the versification of the language with which he spoke . While Trediakovsky 's approach to writing is often described as highly erudite , the young writer and scholarly rival to Trediakovsky , Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov , 1717–1777 , was dedicated to the styles of French classicism . Sumarokov 's interest in the form of French literature mirrored his devotion to the westernizing spirit of Peter the Great 's age . Although he often disagreed with Trediakovsky , Sumarokov also advocated the use of simple , natural language in order to diversify the audience and make more efficient use of the Russian language . Like his colleagues and counterparts , Sumarokov extolled the legacy of Peter I , writing in his manifesto Epistle on Poetry , “ The great Peter hurls his thunder from the Baltic shores , the Russian sword glitters in all corners of the universe ” . Peter the Great 's policies of westernization and displays of military prowess naturally attracted Sumarokov and his contemporaries . Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov , in particular , expressed his gratitude for and dedication to Peter 's legacy in his unfinished Peter the Great , Lomonosov 's works often focused on themes of the awe-inspiring , grandeur nature , and was therefore drawn to Peter because of the magnitude of his military , architectural and cultural feats . In contrast to Sumarokov 's devotion to simplicity , Lomonosov favored a belief in a hierarchy of literary styles divided into high , middle and low . This style facilitated Lomonosov 's grandiose , high minded writing and use of both vernacular and Church-Slavonic . The influence of Peter I and debates over the function and form of literature as it related to the Russian language in the first half of the 18th century set a stylistic precedent for the writers during the reign of Catherine the Great in the second half of the century . However , the themes and scopes of the works these writers produced were often more poignant , political and controversial . Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev , for example , shocked the Russian public with his depictions of the socio-economic condition of the serfs . Empress Catherine II condemned this portrayal , forcing Radishchev into exile in Siberia . Others , however , picked topics less offensive to the autocrat . Nikolay Karamzin , 1766–1826 , for example , is known for his advocacy of Russian writers adopting traits in the poetry and prose like a heightened sense of emotion and physical vanity , considered to be feminine at the time as well as supporting the cause of female Russian writers . Karamzin 's call for male writers to write with femininity was not in accordance with the Enlightenment ideals of reason and theory , considered masculine attributes . His works were thus not universally well received ; however , they did reflect in some areas of society a growing respect for , or at least ambivalence toward , a female ruler in Catherine the Great . This concept heralded an era of regarding female characteristics in writing as an abstract concept linked with attributes of frivolity , vanity and pathos . Some writers , on the other hand , were more direct in their praise for Catherine II . Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin , famous for his odes , often dedicated his poems to Empress Catherine II . In contrast to most of his contemporaries , Derzhavin was highly devoted to his state ; he served in the military , before rising to various roles in Catherine II 's government , including secretary to the Empress and Minister of Justice . Unlike those who took after the grand style of Mikhail Lomonosov and Alexander Sumarokov , Derzhavin was concerned with the minute details of his subjects . Denis Fonvizin , an author primarily of comedy , approached the subject of the Russian nobility with an angle of critique . Fonvizin felt the nobility should be held to the standards they were under the reign of Peter the Great , during which the quality of devotion to the state was rewarded . His works criticized the current system for rewarding the nobility without holding them responsible for the duties they once performed . Using satire and comedy , Fonvizin supported a system of nobility in which the elite were rewarded based upon personal merit rather than the hierarchal favoritism that was rampant during Catherine the Great 's reign . Image : Sumarokov by A.Losenko.jpg|Alexander Sumarokov Image : Vladimir Borovikovsky 001 ( portrait of Gavrila Derzhavin ) .jpg|Gavrila Derzhavin DenisFonvizin2.jpg|Denis Fonvizin Image : Radishchev color.jpg|Alexander Radishchev Image : Tropinin karamzin.JPG|Nikolay Karamzin Image : Ivan Krylov.jpg|Ivan Krylov Golden Age The 19th century is traditionally referred to as the `` Golden Era '' of Russian literature . Romanticism permitted a flowering of especially poetic talent : the names of Vasily Zhukovsky and later that of his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore . Pushkin is credited with both crystallizing the literary Russian language and introducing a new level of artistry to Russian literature . His best-known work is a novel in verse , Eugene Onegin . An entire new generation of poets including Mikhail Lermontov , Yevgeny Baratynsky , Konstantin Batyushkov , Nikolay Nekrasov , Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy , Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet followed in Pushkin 's steps . Prose was flourishing as well . The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol . Then came Nikolai Leskov , Ivan Turgenev , Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin , all mastering both short stories and novels , and novelist Ivan Goncharov . Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky soon became internationally renowned to the point that many scholars such as F. R. Leavis have described one or the other as the greatest novelist ever . In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in writing short stories and became perhaps the leading dramatist internationally of his period . Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov ; non-fiction writers such as Vissarion Belinsky and Alexander Herzen ; playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov , Aleksandr Ostrovsky and the satirist Kozma Prutkov ( a collective pen name ) . Image : Bryullov portrait of Zhukovsky.jpg|Vasily Zhukovsky Image : Griboyedov.jpg|Alexander Griboyedov Image : Kiprensky Pushkin.jpg|Alexander Pushkin Image : Fyodor Tyutchev.jpg|Fyodor Tyutchev Image : Портрет Гоголя.jpg|Nikolai Gogol Image : Herzen ge detail.jpg|Alexander Herzen Image : Ivan Goncharov ( 2 ) .jpg|Ivan Goncharov Image : Mikhail lermontov.jpg|Mikhail Lermontov Image : A.K.Tolstoy by Repin.jpg|A . K. Tolstoy Image : Turgenev by Repin.jpg|Ivan Turgenev Image : Fet by Repin.jpg|Afanasy Fet Image : Nikolay Gay . Portrait of the Poet Nikolay Nekrasov.jpg|Nikolai Nekrasov Image : Dostoevskij 1872.jpg|Fyodor Dostoyevsky Image : Wassilij Grigorjewitsch Perow 003.jpg|Alexander Ostrovsky Image : Kramskoj - saltykov-schedrin.jpg|Mikhail Saltykov-Schedrin Image : Ilya Efimovich Repin ( 1844-1930 ) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy ( 1887 ) .jpg|Leo Tolstoy Image : Serov Leskov.jpg|Nikolai Leskov Image : Chekhov 1898 by Osip Braz.jpg|Anton Chekhov Silver Age The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian poetry . Well-known poets of the period include : Alexander Blok , Sergei Yesenin , Valery Bryusov , Konstantin Balmont , Mikhail Kuzmin , Igor Severyanin , Sasha Chorny , Nikolay Gumilyov , Maximilian Voloshin , Innokenty Annensky , Zinaida Gippius . The poets most often associated with the `` Silver Age '' are Anna Akhmatova , Marina Tsvetaeva , Osip Mandelstam and Boris Pasternak . While the Silver Age is considered to be the development of the 19th-century Russian literature tradition , some avant-garde poets tried to overturn it : Velimir Khlebnikov , David Burliuk , Aleksei Kruchenykh and Vladimir Mayakovsky . Though the Silver Age is famous mostly for its poetry , it produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers , such as Aleksandr Kuprin , Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin , Leonid Andreyev , Fedor Sologub , Aleksey Remizov , Yevgeny Zamyatin , Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely , though most of them wrote poetry as well as prose . Image : Maxim Gorky.jpg|Maxim Gorky Image : Gippius 1910s.jpg|Zinaida Gippius Image : Ivan Bunin 1933.jpg|Ivan Bunin File : Andreyev by Repin 1905.jpg|Leonid Andreyev Image : Brusov1920.jpg|Valery Bryusov Image : Бакст Леон . Андрей Белый.jpg|Andrey Bely Image : Blok.jpg|Alexander Blok Image : Mayakovsky-1910.jpg|Vladimir Mayakovsky Image : Kustodiev Zamyatin.jpg|Yevgeny Zamyatin Image : Petrov-vodkin-akhmatova.jpg|Anna Akhmatova Image : Osip Mandelstam Russian writer.jpg|Osip Mandelstam Image : Sergey Yesenin.jpg|Sergei Yesenin 20th century With the victory of Russia 's Revolution , Mayakovsky worked on interpreting the facts of the new reality . His works , such as `` Ode to the Revolution '' and `` Left March '' ( both 1918 ) , brought innovations to poetry . In `` Left March '' , Mayakovsky calls for a struggle against the enemies of the Russian Revolution . The poem `` 150,000,000 '' discusses the leading played by the masses in the revolution . In the poem `` Vladimir Ilyich Lenin '' ( 1924 ) , Mayakovsky looks at the life and work at the leader of Russia 's revolution and depicts them against a broad historical background . In the poem `` It 's Good '' , Mayakovsky writes about socialist society being the `` springtime of humanity '' . Mayakovsky was instrumental in producing a new type of poetry in which politics played a major part . In the 1930s Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia . Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky , who laid the foundations of this style with his works The Mother and his play The Enemies ( both 1906 ) . His autobiographical trilogy describes his journey from the poor of society to the development of his political consciousness . His novel The Artamanov Business ( 1925 ) and his play Egor Bulyshov ( 1932 ) depict the decay and inevitable downfall of Russia 's ruling classes . Gorky defined socialist realism as the `` realism of people who are rebuilding the world , '' and points out that it looks at the past `` from the heights of the future 's goals '' . Gorky considered the main task of writers to help in the development of the new man in socialist society . Gorky 's version of a heroic revolutionary is Pavel Vlasov from the novel The Mother , who displays selflessness and compassion for the working poor , as well as discipline and dedication . Gorky 's works were significant for the development of literature in Russia and became influential in many parts of the world . Nikolay Ostrovsky 's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature , with tens of millions of copies printed in many languages around the world . In China , various versions of the book have sold more than 10 million copies . In Russia , more than 35 million copies of the book are in circulation . The book is a fictionalized autobiography of Ostrovsky 's life , who had a difficult working-class childhood and became a Komsomol member in July 1919 and went to the front as a volunteer . The novel 's protagonist , Pavel Korchagin , represented the `` young hero '' of Russian literature : he is dedicated to his political causes , which help him to overcome his tragedies . The novel has served as an inspiration to youths around the world and played a mobilizing role in Russia 's Great Patriotic War . Alexander Fadeyev achieved noteworthy success in Russia , with tens of millions of copies of his books in circulation in Russia and around the world . Many of Fadeyev 's works have been staged and filmed and translated into many languages in Russia and around the world . Fadeyev served as a secretary of the Soviet Writers ' Union and was the general secretary of the union 's administrative board from 1946 to 1954 . He was awarded two Orders of Lenin and various medals . His novel The Rout deals with the partisan struggle in Russia 's Far East during the Russian Revolution and Civil War . Fadeyev described the theme of this novel as one of a revolution significantly transforming the masses . The novel 's protagonist Levinson is a Bolshevik revolutionary who has a high level of political consciousness . The novel The Young Guard , which received the State Prize of the USSR in 1946 , focuses on an underground Komsomol group in Krasnodon , Ukraine and their struggle against the fascist occupation . The first years of the Soviet regime were marked by the proliferation of avant-garde literature groups . One of the most important was the Oberiu movement that included the most famous Russian absurdist Daniil Kharms , Konstantin Vaginov , Alexander Vvedensky and Nikolay Zabolotsky . Other famous authors experimenting with language were novelists Yuri Olesha and Andrei Platonov and short story writers Isaak Babel and Mikhail Zoshchenko . The OPOJAZ group of literary critics , also known as Russian formalism , was created in close connection with Russian Futurism . Two of its members also produced influential literary works , namely Viktor Shklovsky , whose numerous books ( e.g. , Zoo , or Letters Not About Love , 1923 ) defy genre in that they present a novel mix of narration , autobiography , and aesthetic as well as social commentary , and Yury Tynyanov , who used his knowledge of Russia 's literary history to produce a set of historical novels mainly set in the Pushkin era ( e.g. , Young Pushkin : A Novel ) . Writers like those of the Serapion Brothers group , who insisted on the right of an author to write independently of political ideology , were forced by authorities to reject their views and accept socialist realist principles . Some 1930s writers , such as Mikhail Bulgakov , author of The Master and Margarita , and Nobel Prize–winning Boris Pasternak with his novel Doctor Zhivago continued the classical tradition of Russian literature with little or no hope of being published . Their major works would not be published until the Khrushchev Thaw , and Pasternak was forced to refuse his Nobel prize . Meanwhile , émigré writers , such as poets Vladislav Khodasevich , Georgy Ivanov and Vyacheslav Ivanov ; novelists such as Mark Aldanov , Gaito Gazdanov and Vladimir Nabokov ; and short story Nobel Prize winning writer Ivan Bunin , continued to write in exile . The Khrushchev Thaw brought some fresh wind to literature . Poetry became a mass cultural phenomenon : Bella Akhmadulina , Robert Rozhdestvensky , Andrei Voznesensky , and Yevgeny Yevtushenko , read their poems in stadiums and attracted huge crowds . Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology , like short story writer Varlam Shalamov and Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , who wrote about life in the gulag camps , or Vasily Grossman , with his description of World War II events countering the Soviet official historiography . They were dubbed `` dissidents '' and could not publish their major works until the 1960s . But the thaw did not last long . In the 1970s , some of the most prominent authors were not only banned from publishing but were also prosecuted for their anti-Soviet sentiments , or parasitism . Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the country . Others , such as Nobel Prize–winning poet Joseph Brodsky ; novelists Vasily Aksyonov , Eduard Limonov , Sasha Sokolov and Vladimir Voinovich ; and short story writer Sergei Dovlatov , had to emigrate to the West , while Oleg Grigoriev and Venedikt Yerofeyev `` emigrated '' to alcoholism . Their books were not published officially until perestroika , although fans continued to reprint them manually in a manner called `` samizdat '' ( self-publishing ) . Image : Boris Pasternak cropped.jpg|Boris Pasternak Image : Bulgakov1910s.jpg|Mikhail Bulgakov Image : Tsvetaeva.jpg|Marina Tsvetaeva Image : Vladimir Nabokov 1973.jpg|Vladimir Nabokov Image : Andrej-platonovic-platonov-1938.jpg|Andrei Platonov Image : N Ostrovskiy.jpg|Nikolai Ostrovsky Image : Sholokhov-1938.jpg|Mikhail Sholokhov Image : Daniil Kharms.jpg|Daniil Kharms Image : Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1974crop.jpg|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Image : Josef Brodsky crop.jpg|Joseph Brodsky Image : Varlam Shalamov-NKVD-right.jpg|Varlam Shalamov Image : Vasily Aksyonov.jpg|Vasily Aksyonov Popular genres Children 's literature in Soviet Union was considered a major genre , because of its educational role . A large share of early period children 's books were poems : Korney Chukovsky , Samuil Marshak , Agnia Barto were among the most read . `` Adult '' poets , such as Mayakovsky and Sergey Mikhalkov , contributed to the genre as well . Some of the early Soviet children 's prose was loose adaptations of foreign fairy tales unknown in contemporary Russia . Alexey N. Tolstoy wrote Buratino , a light-hearted and shortened adaptation of Carlo Collodi 's Pinocchio . Alexander Volkov introduced fantasy fiction to Soviet children with his loose translation of L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz , published as The Wizard of the Emerald City , and then wrote a series of five sequels , unrelated to Baum . Other notable authors include Nikolay Nosov , Lazar Lagin , Vitaly Bianki and Vladimir Suteev . While fairy tales were relatively free from ideological oppression , the realistic children 's prose of the Stalin era was highly ideological and pursued the goal to raise children as patriots and communists . A notable example is Arkady Gaydar , himself a Red Army commander ( colonel ) in Russian Civil War : his stories and plays about Timur describe a team of young pioneer volunteers who help the elderly and resist hooligans . There was a genre of hero pioneer story , that bore some similarities with Christian genre of hagiography . In Khrushov and Brezhnev times , however , the pressure lightened . Mid- and late Soviet children 's books by Eduard Uspensky , Yuri Entin , Viktor Dragunsky bear no signs of propaganda . In the 1970s many of these books , as well as stories by foreign children 's writers , were adapted into animation . Soviet Science fiction , inspired by scientistic revolution , industrialisation , and the country 's space pioneering , was flourishing , albeit in the limits allowed by censors . Early science fiction authors , such as Alexander Belyayev , Grigory Adamov , Vladimir Obruchev , Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy , stuck to hard science fiction and regarded H. G. Wells and Jules Verne as examples to follow . Two notable exclusions from this trend were Yevgeny Zamyatin , author of dystopian novel We , and Mikhail Bulgakov , who , while using science fiction instrumentary in Heart of a Dog , The Fatal Eggs and Ivan Vasilyevich , was interested in social satire rather than scientistic progress . The two have had problems with publishing their books in Soviet Union . Since the thaw in the 1950s Soviet science fiction began to form its own style . Philosophy , ethics , utopian and dystopian ideas became its core , and Social science fiction was the most popular subgenre . Although the view of Earth 's future as that of utopian communist society was the only welcome , the liberties of genre still offered a loophole for free expression . Books of brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky , and Kir Bulychev , among others , are reminiscent of social problems and often include satire on contemporary Soviet society . Ivan Yefremov , on the contrary , arose to fame with his utopian views on future as well as on Ancient Greece in his historical novels . Strugatskies are also credited for the Soviet 's first science fantasy , the Monday Begins on Saturday trilogy . Other notable science fiction writers included Vladimir Savchenko , Georgy Gurevich , Alexander Kazantsev , Georgy Martynov , Yeremey Parnov . Space opera was less developed , since both state censors and serious writers watched it unfavorably . Nevertheless , there were moderately successful attempts to adapt space westerns to Soviet soil . The first was Alexander Kolpakov with `` Griada '' , after came Sergey Snegov with `` Men Like Gods '' , among others . A specific branch of both science fiction and children 's books appeared in mid-Soviet era : the children 's science fiction . It was meant to educate children while entertaining them . The star of the genre was Bulychov , who , along with his adult books , created children 's space adventure series about Alisa Selezneva , a teenage girl from the future . Others include Nikolay Nosov with his books about dwarf Neznayka , Evgeny Veltistov , who wrote about robot boy Electronic , Vitaly Melentyev , Vladislav Krapivin , Vitaly Gubarev . Mystery was another popular genre . Detectives by brothers Arkady and Georgy Vayner and spy novels by Yulian Semyonov were best-selling , and many of them were adapted into film or TV in the 1970s and 1980s . Village prose is a genre that conveys nostalgic descriptions of rural life . Valentin Rasputin ’ s 1976 novel , Proshchaniye s Matyoroy ( Farewell to Matyora ) depicted a village faced with destruction to make room for a hydroelectric plant . Historical fiction in the early Soviet era included a large share of memoirs , fictionalized or not . Valentin Katayev and Lev Kassil wrote semi-autobiographic books about children 's life in Tsarist Russia . Vladimir Gilyarovsky wrote

qw_14981--Russian_literature.txt

Omar Sharif played the title character in the 1965 film of what 1957 novel by the Russian writer Boris Pasternak?

The queen of spades ( Q ) is one of 52 playing cards in a standard deck : the queen of the suit of spades ( ) . Roles by game In the game of Hearts , the queen of spades is usually considered an unlucky card . The player who ends up with the queen of spades after a match scores 13 points ( points are to be avoided in this game ) . The exception is when the player receives this card with all 13 hearts , in which the player is said to have shot the moon , and this player scores no points , while all opponents are scored 26 points . In the game of Old Maid , while any card can technically be used for this purpose , the queen of spades is traditionally used as a card that has no match , thereby making it the `` old maid '' card . Card reading In cartomancy , the queen of spades is considered to be a sign of intelligence . It is representative of judgment that is practical , logical , and intellectual . It represents a woman who is creative and makes her plans ahead of time .

qg_647--Queen_of_spades.txt

In what card game do you need the queen of spades to shoot the moon?

George Smiley is a fictional character created by John le Carré . Smiley is an intelligence officer working for `` The Circus '' , the British overseas intelligence agency . He is a central character in the novels Call for the Dead , A Murder of Quality , Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy , The Honourable Schoolboy , and Smiley 's People , and a supporting character in The Spy Who Came in from the Cold , The Looking Glass War and The Secret Pilgrim . Early life Although Smiley has no concrete biography beyond that offered briefly at the beginning of Call for the Dead , le Carré does leave clues in his novels . Smiley was probably born around 1906 ( or 1915 on the revised chronology ) to middle class parents in the South of England , and attended a minor public school and an antiquated Oxford college of no real distinction ( in the 1982 BBC television adaptation of Smiley 's People , he refers to himself as a fellow of Lincoln College ) , studying modern languages with a particular focus on Baroque German literature . In July 1928 , while considering post-graduate study in that field , he was recruited into the Circus by his tutor Jebedee . He underwent training and probation in Central Europe and South America , and spent the period from 1935 until approximately 1938 in Germany recruiting networks under cover as a lecturer . In 1939 , with the commencement of World War II , he saw active service not only in Germany , but also in Switzerland and Sweden . Smiley 's wartime superiors described him as having `` the cunning of Satan and the conscience of a virgin '' . In 1943 , he was recalled to England to work at Circus headquarters , and in 1945 successfully proposed marriage to Lady Ann Sercomb , a beautiful , aristocratic , and libidinous young lady working as a secretary there . Ann would prove a most unfaithful and rather condescending wife . In the same year , Smiley left the Service and returned to Oxford . However , in 1947 , with the onset of the Cold War , Smiley was asked to return to the Service , and in early 1951 moved into counter-intelligence work , where he would remain for the next decade . During that period , Smiley first met his Soviet nemesis , Karla , in a Delhi prison . Karla proved impossible to crack , taking Smiley 's lighter for good measure , a gift to Smiley from wife Ann . In the novels The early novels Smiley first appeared in Call for the Dead , le Carré 's debut novel . At the start of the novel , set around 1960 , Smiley has fallen from grace and is working in a relatively menial intelligence job , including security-clearing civil servants . He spends much of the story bemoaning the loss of the talented agents who were his mentors and their replacement by such talentless civil-service bureaucrats as the current head of service , Maston , who refers to himself as the `` Ministers ' Adviser on Intelligence '' and is widely , if secretly , mocked . Over the course of the story , Smiley resigns from the Circus in anger on the spur of the moment while unravelling an East German spy ring , clearing his own name in so doing , and restoring his reputation while remaining in retirement at tale 's end , despite Maston 's pleadings . It is while pursuing a sedate life of scholastic research in German literature at a university in the West Country ( probably Exeter ) that he is called upon to investigate a murder at a fictional public school in le Carré 's next novel , A Murder of Quality . Le Carré was propelled to international renown by The Spy Who Came in from the Cold , his third novel . Smiley , a minor but pivotal character in the story , still retired , but revealed during the story to be back in the Circus as one of the top aides to `` Control '' , Maston 's mysterious successor as the Circus ' chief . Smiley and his assistant Peter Guillam have actually turned the brutal head of East German intelligence into a British double agent . The events in this book take place around 1962 , after the construction of the Berlin Wall . Smiley appears again in The Looking Glass War , le Carré 's fourth novel , though only in a peripheral role , occupying the `` North European desk '' at the Circus . His intervention drives the final twist in the plot , when he uses his position to force a competing British intelligence agency to abandon a mission and the agent conducting it . Smiley does not appear in either of le Carré 's next two works , only one of which dealt with espionage . Events prior to the Karla trilogy , and le Carré 's revision of Smiley 's history Smiley subsequently rose up the ranks of intelligence in the late 1960s and early 1970s , eventually attaining to the status of right-hand man to `` Control '' . When Control is eased out of the Circus in late 1972 after the capture of Jim Prideaux in Czechoslovakia , Smiley , too , is forced out along with him . The Circus is then taken over by Percy Alleline , with Bill Haydon running `` London Station '' , a branch overseeing all of the service 's spy networks . When le Carré wrote Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy , he drastically revised the timeline of Smiley 's early life . According to this new account , Smiley was recruited into intelligence in 1937 , not 1928 . This was probably done so that Smiley 's advancing age would not become an issue in the subsequent novels being planned by le Carré for his protagonist . His colleague Peter Guillam also had his personal history revised , from being a near-contemporary of Smiley 's who had trained with the Circus during World War II in the early novels , to being his younger protégé and trusted deputy . ( In the television adaptations of Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy Guillam , played by Michael Jayston , is portrayed as a relatively young man , a youthful forty-something , albeit in a senior position in the `` Circus '' . ) The Karla trilogy In September or October 1973 , the events of Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy take place , with Smiley successfully managing to expose the long-term Soviet agent , or `` mole '' , codenamed `` Gerald '' . The investigation revealed that Gerald , who was actually a senior member of the anti-Control faction that had taken over the Service the previous year , had passed an enormous quantity of high-grade intelligence to Moscow Centre while producing for the Service and its Whitehall customers a similar quantity of 'chickenfeed ' , i.e. , low-value or misleading intelligence on the USSR . The mole is found to be Smiley 's colleague Bill Haydon , who was also at one time his wife 's lover . At the end of this case Smiley became interim Chief of the Service in late November 1973 to clean up the resultant mess , rebuilding the organisation 's headquarters staff by use of trusted old-timers like Guillam , Doc di Salis , and Connie Sachs . In 1975 or 1976 , after the conclusion of `` Operation Dolphin '' , which was described at length in The Honourable Schoolboy , Smiley retired again from the Service . In Smiley 's People he was brought back in late 1977 to investigate the death of an elderly Estonian general , nationalist activist , and erstwhile Circus agent . A convoluted trail led Smiley to discover a human weakness in his nemesis Karla , whom he coerced to defect to the West in Berlin in December 1977 . This triumph is the highlight of his career . Smiley in retirement Smiley was absent in the three le Carré novels of the 1980s . He re-surfaced for a final time in 1990 when he appeared in The Secret Pilgrim chairing the `` Fishing Rights Committee '' , a body set up to explore possible areas of co-operation between British and Russian intelligence services . Though he does not actually appear in 1989 's The Russia House , that novel is connected to certain aspects of Smiley 's timeline via Ned , who is also a major player in The Secret Pilgrim . Analysis Le Carré introduced Smiley at about the same time as Len Deighton 's unnamed anti-hero ( Harry Palmer in the film versions ) . This was a time when critics and the public were welcoming more realistic versions of espionage fiction , in contrast to the glamorous world of Ian Fleming 's James Bond . Smiley is sometimes considered the anti-Bond in the sense that Bond is an unrealistic figure and is more a portrayal of a male fantasy than a realistic government agent . George Smiley , on the other hand , is quiet , mild-mannered and not at all athletic . He lives by his wits and , unlike Bond , is a master of quiet , disciplined intelligence work , rather than gunplay . In The Honourable Schoolboy it becomes clear that he is not as adept at bureaucratic manoeuvring as the duplicitous Sam Collins and Saul Enderby , who are able to use even a great success to force him into retirement . Also unlike Bond he is not a bed-hopper ; in fact it is Smiley 's wife Ann who is notorious for her affairs . When Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy was published , the reviewer of The Spectator described Smiley as a `` brilliant spy and totally inadequate man . '' However , Smiley has his pride , and in the end , in Smiley 's People , he refuses to take the beautiful Ann back , despite her pleadings . Smiley is depicted as an exceptionally skilled spymaster , gifted with a prodigious memory and a talent for getting people to talk . His subtle interrogation methods , derived from psychology and experience , he imparts to his understudies , such as Jerry Westerby and Peter Guillam . These are depicted as far superior to the heavy-handed tactics of the Americans , who are called `` the Cousins '' in Circus jargon , and whose entry into a mission always ensures that things will get a lot rougher . A student of espionage with a profound insight into human weakness and fallibility , highly sagacious and incredibly perceptive , he is very conscious of the immoral , grisly and unethical aspects of his profession . At the same time he works to inculcate loyalty and discipline into his pupils , and a sense of moral obligation to the espionage service , and to the country . Smiley has no patience with the political niceties of Whitehall and their distaste for classical espionage tactics , including bribery , blackmail , and turning enemy agents into British double agents . On the other hand , he is not one of the `` hawks '' who are given to the sharp , militaristic attitudes of `` the Cousins '' ( clearly depicted during the climax of The Honourable Schoolboy ) . Despite his series of retirements , Smiley 's own unflinching loyalty to and support for his people inculcates loyalty in them . Thus , whether in or out of the Service he is able to maintain an extensive range of aides and support-staff , extending even to `` retired '' police officers , former and present Service members . Le Carré describes him as a somewhat short and fat man , who always wears expensive but badly fitting clothes ( he `` dressed like a bookie '' ) . He has a habit of cleaning his glasses on the `` fat end '' of his necktie . In March 2010 , while giving a talk on his life and works at the Sheldonian Theatre , Oxford , le Carré responded to a question concerning what became of Smiley by telling the audience that although he would like to think of Smiley as a Holmesian figure , never having really retired , he acknowledged that to his mind , the character would now be `` very old and getting past—certainly in his nineties '' . This accords with the later chronology . Le Carré envisaged Smiley now to be `` keeping bees somewhere '' , still alive but very much retired . Models In 1995 , le Carré said that the character of George Smiley was inspired by his one-time Lincoln College , Oxford tutor , the former Rev . Vivian Green—a renowned historian and author with an encyclopaedic knowledge . However , other than the thick spectacles and Green 's habit of disappearing into a crowd , there were too many dissimilarities between the loquacious Green and the reticent Smiley to make this a clear match , and so other sources for Smiley continued to be named . It has been suggested that le Carré subconsciously took the name of his hero from special forces and intelligence officer Colonel David de Crespigny Smiley . More commonly , it was rumoured that Smiley was modelled on Sir Maurice Oldfield , a former head of British Intelligence , who physically resembled him . Le Carré denied the rumours , citing the fact that Oldfield and he were not contemporaries , although he and Alec Guinness did lunch with Oldfield while Guinness was researching the role , and Guinness adopted several of Oldfield 's mannerisms of dress and behaviour for his performance . Oldfield himself believed that , although Green probably inspired le Carré , the character of Smiley was primarily based on John Bingham , 7th Baron Clanmorris , who had been le Carré 's boss when he originally joined MI5 prior to his career in MI6 . In 1999 , le Carré confirmed that Bingham was also an inspiration for Smiley , and in 2000 went further , writing in an introduction to a reissue of one of Bingham 's novels that `` He had been one of two men who had gone into the making of George Smiley . Nobody who knew John and the work he was doing could have missed the description of Smiley in my first novel '' . Various le Carré works involve other characters resembling Bingham ; the most notable is Jack Brotherhood in A Perfect Spy . In an introductory essay dated March 1992 , le Carré wrote : `` And it is no surprise to me that , when I came to invent my leading character , George Smiley , I should give him something of Vivian Green 's unlikely wisdom , wrapped in academic learning , and something of Bingham 's devious resourcefulness and simple patriotism also . All fictional characters are amalgams ; all spring from much deeper wells than their apparent counterparts in life . All in the end , like the poor suspects in my files , are refitted and remoulded in the writer 's imagination , until they are probably closer to his own nature than to anybody else 's . But now that Bingham is dead ... it seems only right that I should acknowledge my debt to him : not merely as a component of George Smiley , but as the man who first put the spark to my writing career . '' Novels * Call for the Dead ( 1961 ) * A Murder of Quality ( 1962 ) * The Spy Who Came in from the Cold ( 1963 ) * The Looking Glass War ( 1965 ) * Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy ( 1974 ) * The Honourable Schoolboy ( 1977 ) * Smiley 's People ( 1979 ) * The Secret Pilgrim ( 1990 ) In other media Film * Rupert Davies , of Maigret fame , played Smiley as a minor although important character in the 1965 film adaptation The Spy Who Came in from the Cold . * James Mason played Smiley ( renamed Charles Dobbs ) in The Deadly Affair , a 1966 film adaptation of Call for the Dead . * Gary Oldman plays Smiley in the 2011 film adaptation of Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy . He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his portrayal . * The character of Smiley was dropped from the film adaptation of The Looking Glass War . Television * Alec Guinness portrayed Smiley in two highly successful BBC TV series : Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy , made in 1979 , and Smiley 's People , made in 1982 . For reasons of cost ( much of the story was set in Indochina against the background of wars there ) the BBC did not film The Honourable Schoolboy , the middle novel of the Karla trilogy – the Far Eastern parts even of Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy were relocated to Portugal for the television adaptation . * Denholm Elliott played Smiley in a 1991 version of A Murder of Quality . Radio * George Cole played Smiley in BBC Radio versions of both Call for the Dead ( 1978 ) and A Murder of Quality ( 1981 ) . * Peter Vaughan played Smiley in a radio version of The Honourable Schoolboy ( 1983 ) . * Bernard Hepton , who played the part of Toby Esterhase in the BBC television series , played Smiley in the BBC Radio series of both Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy ( 1988 ) and Smiley 's People ( 1990 ) , with Charles Kay taking the part of Esterhase . * Simon Russell Beale played Smiley in a series of radio plays based on the novels which began on 23 May 2009 on BBC Radio 4 with Call for the Dead . Comics * In the 1988 comic Shattered Visage , made as a sequel to the spy show The Prisoner , Smiley is mentioned as having tutored a character in interrogation . * Smiley appears as Harry Lime 's assistant in Alan Moore 's graphic novel The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen : Black Dossier . Parody In the popular TV comedy series The Two Ronnies , Ronnie Barker played Smiley along the lines of Alec Guinness ' portrayal in a sketch called Tinker Tailor Smiley Doyle . This was a joint send-up of Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy and The Professionals TV show , with Ronnie Corbett playing a bungling version of Martin Shaw 's Doyle . Barker 's Smiley provides the brains to the brawn of Corbett 's Doyle and actually comes out the better . He is shown as something of an obsessive tea drinker . The sketch guest-starred Frank Williams from Dad 's Army . The name of Smiley 's enemy Karla can be seen on a secretary 's computer screen . Harry Enfield and Paul Whitehouse performed a sketch in 2012 about there being two George Smileys : a reference to the vastly different portrayals in the film versions of Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy .

bb_1352--George_Smiley.txt

Revealed in the author's archives given to Oxford's Bodelian Library in 2008, what occupationally titled novel had the working name The Reluctant Autumn of George Smiley?

Venice ( ; ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region . It is situated across a group of 117 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by bridges . These are located in the marshy Venetian Lagoon which stretches along the shoreline , between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers . Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings , their architecture , and artwork . The lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site . In 2009 , 270,098 people resided in Venice 's comune ( the population estimate of 272,000 inhabitants includes the population of the whole Comune of Venezia ; of whom around 60,000 live in the historic city of Venice ( Centro storico ) ; 176,000 in Terraferma ( the mainland ) , mostly in the large frazioni ( roughly equivalent to `` parishes '' or `` wards '' in other countries ) of Mestre and Marghera ; and 31,000 on other islands in the lagoon ) . Together with Padua and Treviso , the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area ( PATREVE ) , with a total population of 2,600,000 . PATREVE is only a statistical metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy . The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC . The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice . Venice has been known as the `` La Dominante '' , `` Serenissima '' , `` Queen of the Adriatic '' , `` City of Water '' , `` City of Masks '' , `` City of Bridges '' , `` The Floating City '' , and `` City of Canals '' . The Republic of Venice was a major maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance , and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto , as well as a very important center of commerce ( especially silk , grain , and spice ) and art in the 13th century up to the end of the 17th century . This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history . It is also known for its several important artistic movements , especially the Renaissance period . After the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna , the Republic was annexed by the Austrian Empire , until it became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1866 , following a referendum held as a result of the Third Italian War of Independence . Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music , and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi . Etymology The name of the city , deriving from Latin forms Venetia and Venetiae , is most likely taken from `` Venetia et Histria '' , the Roman name of Regio X of Roman Italy , but applied to the coastal part of the region that remained under Roman Empire outside of Gothic , Lombard , and Frankish control . The name Venetia , however , derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti , and called by the Greeks Eneti ( Ἐνετοί ) . The meaning of the word is uncertain , although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names , such as the Celtic Veneti , Baltic Veneti , and the Slavic Wends . Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root * wen ( `` love '' ) , so that * wenetoi would mean `` beloved '' , `` lovable '' , or `` friendly '' . A connection with the Latin word venetus , meaning the color 'sea-blue ' , is also possible . Supposed connections of Venetia with the Latin verb venire ( to come ) , such as Marin Sanudo 's veni etiam ( `` Yet , I have come ! `` ) , the supposed cry of the first refugees to the Venetian lagoon from the mainland , or even with venia ( `` forgiveness '' ) are fanciful . The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia ; ( Venetian : Venèxia ; ; ) . History Origins Although no surviving historical records deal directly with the founding of Venice , tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees from Roman cities near Venice such as Padua , Aquileia , Treviso , Altino and Concordia ( modern Portogruaro ) and from the undefended countryside , who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions . Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons . They were referred to as incolae lacunae ( `` lagoon dwellers '' ) . The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church , that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto ( Rivoalto , `` High Shore '' ) — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 ( the Feast of the Annunciation ) . Beginning as early as AD 166 to 168 , the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the main center in the area , the current Oderzo . The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and , some 50 years later , by the Huns led by Attila . The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula , that of the Lombards in 568 , left the Eastern Roman Empire a small strip of coast in the current Veneto , including Venice . The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna , administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy ( the Exarch ) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople , but Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes ; and with the Venetians ' isolated position came increasing autonomy . New ports were built , including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon . The tribuni maiores , the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon , dated from c. 568 . The traditional first doge of Venice , Paolo Lucio Anafesto , was actually Exarch Paul , and his successor , Marcello Tegalliano , was Paul 's magister militum ( General : literally , `` Master of Soldiers '' ) . In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II . The Exarch was murdered and many officials put to flight in the chaos . At about this time , the people of the lagoon elected their own leader for the first time , although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear . Ursus was the first of 117 `` doges '' ( doge is the Venetian dialect development of the Latin dux ( `` leader '' ) ; the corresponding word in English is duke , in standard Italian duce . ) Whatever his original views , Ursus supported Emperor Leo III 's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna , sending both men and ships . In recognition of this , Venice was `` granted numerous privileges and concessions '' and Ursus , who had personally taken the field , was confirmed by Leo as dux and given the added title of hypatus ( Greek for `` Consul '' . ) In 751 the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna , leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost . During this period , the seat of the local Byzantine governor ( the `` duke/dux '' , later `` doge '' ) , was situated in Malamocco . Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories , as refugees sought asylum there . In 775/6 the episcopal seat of Olivolo ( San Pietro di Castello ; Helipolis ) was created . During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco ( 811–827 ) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the highly protected Rialto , the current location of Venice . The monastery of St Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark , as well as a walled defense ( civitatis murus ) between Olivolo and Rialto , were subsequently built here . Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his own rule . He ordered the Pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast , and Charlemagne 's own son Pepin of Italy , king of the Lombards under the authority of his father , embarked on a siege of Venice itself . This , however , proved a costly failure . The siege lasted six months , with Pepin 's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw ( 810 ) . A few months later , Pepin himself died , apparently as a result of a disease contracted there . In the aftermath , an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast . In 828 the new city 's prestige increased with the acquisition of the claimed relics of St Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria , which were placed in the new basilica . ( Winged lions , visible throughout Venice , symbolise St Mark . ) The patriarchal seat also moved to Rialto . As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned , its autonomy grew , leading to eventual independence . Expansion From the 9th to the 12th century , Venice developed into a city state ( an Italian thalassocracy or Repubblica Marinara : the other three of these were Genoa , Pisa , and Amalfi ) . Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable . With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast , the city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world ( especially the Byzantine Empire and Asia ) with a naval power protecting sea routes from Islamic piracy . The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200 , mostly for commercial reasons , because pirates based there were a menace to trade . The Doge already carried the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria . Later mainland possessions , which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River , were known as the `` Terraferma '' , and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours , partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes , and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat , on which the city depended . In building its maritime commercial empire , the Republic dominated the trade in salt , acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean , including Cyprus and Crete , and became a major power-broker in the Near East . By the standards of the time , Venice 's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo , Brescia and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders . Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople , being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire , through the so-called Golden Bulls or `` chrysobulls '' in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions . In the first chrysobull , Venice acknowledged its homage to the Empire ; but not in the second , reflecting the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Venice 's power . Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade , which , having veered off course , culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire . As a result of this conquest , considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice . This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople , which were originally placed above the entrance to the cathedral of Venice , St Mark 's Basilica , although the originals have been replaced with replicas and are now stored within the basilica . After the fall of Constantinople , the former Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians . Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago , and captured Crete . The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes after Manzikert . Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half-century later , the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened , and existed as a ghost of its old self until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453 . Situated on the Adriatic Sea , Venice always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world . By the late 13th century , Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe . At the peak of its power and wealth , it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships , dominating Mediterranean commerce . Venice 's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists . The city was governed by the Great Council , which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice . The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals . Since this group was too large for efficient administration , a Council of Ten ( also called the Ducal Council or the Signoria ) , controlled much of the administration of the city . One member of the great council was elected `` Doge '' , or duke , the chief executive , who usually held the title until his death ; although several Doges were forced by pressure from their oligarchical peers to resign and retire into monastic seclusion when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure . The Venetian government structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome , with an elected chief executive ( the Doge ) , a senate-like assembly of nobles , and a mass of citizens with limited political power , who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected Doge . Church and various private properties were tied to military service , although there was no knight tenure within the city itself . The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice , and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government 's consent . Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period , and politics and the military were kept separate , except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military . War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means ( hence , the city 's early production of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere , and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce ) . Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics , the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation . This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice 's frequent conflicts with the Papacy . In this context , the writings of the Anglican divine William Bedell are particularly illuminating . Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions , and twice suffered its imposition . The second , most famous , occasion was in 1606 , by order of Pope Paul V . Venetian ambassadors sent home still-extant secret reports of the politics and rumours of European courts , providing fascinating information to modern historians . The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century , and Venice was quick to adopt it . By 1482 , Venice was the printing capital of the world , and the leading printer was Aldus Manutius , who invented paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag . His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era . Decline Venice 's long decline started in the 15th century , when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans ( 1423–1430 ) . It also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks ( 1453 ) . After Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II , he declared war on Venice . The war lasted thirty years and cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions . Next , Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492 . Then Vasco da Gama of Portugal found a sea route to India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage of 1497-99 , destroying Venice 's land route monopoly . France , England and the Dutch Republic followed . Venice 's oared galleys were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing the great oceans , and therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies . The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and once again between 1575 and 1577 . In three years , the plague killed some 50,000 people . In 1630 , the Italian plague of 1629–31 killed a third of Venice 's 150,000 citizens . Venice began to lose its position as a center of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe 's principal intermediary in the trade with the East , striking at the very foundation of Venice 's great wealth ; while France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars , marginalising its political influence . However , the Venetian empire was a major exporter of agricultural products , and until the mid-18th century , a significant manufacturing center . Modern age During the 18th century , Venice became perhaps the most elegant and refined city in Europe , greatly influencing art , architecture and literature . But the Republic lost its independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the First Coalition . Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city 's Jewish population , although it can be argued they had lived with fewer restrictions in Venice . He removed the gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city . Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797 . The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798 . But Venice was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon 's Kingdom of Italy ; however it was returned to Austria following Napoleon 's defeat in 1814 , when it became part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia . In 1848–9 , a revolt briefly re-established the Venetian Republic under Daniele Manin . In 1866 , after the Third Italian War of Independence , Venice , along with the rest of the Veneto , became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy . During the Second World War , the historic city was largely free from attack , the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler , a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945 . The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on the city itself . However the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua , Trieste and Trento were repeatedly bombed . On 29 April 1945 , New Zealand troops under Freyberg of the Eighth Army reached Venice and relieved the city and the mainland , which were already in partisan hands . Subsidence Subsidence , the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice , has led to the seasonal Acqua alta when much of the city 's surface is occasionally covered at high tide . Foundations The buildings of Venice are constructed on closely spaced wooden piles . Most of these piles are still intact after centuries of submersion . The foundations rest on plates of Istrian limestone placed on top of the piles , and buildings of brick or stone sit above these footings . The piles penetrate a softer layer of sand and mud until they reach a much harder layer of compressed clay . Submerged by water , in oxygen-poor conditions , wood does not decay as rapidly as on the surface . Most of these piles were made from trunks of alder trees , a wood noted for its water resistance . The alder came from the westernmost part of today 's Slovenia ( resulting in the barren land of the Kras region ) , in two regions of Croatia , Lika and Gorski kotar ( resulting in the barren slopes of Velebit ) and south of Montenegro . History The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic between autumn and early spring . Six hundred years ago , Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city . This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment . In 1604 , to defray the cost of flood relief , Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a 'stamp tax ' . When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608 , Venice introduced paper with the superscription 'AQ ' and imprinted instructions , which was to be used for 'letters to officials ' . At first , this was to be a temporary tax , but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797 . Shortly after the introduction of the tax , Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes , and the practice spread to other countries . During the 20th century , when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry , Venice began to subside . It was realised that extraction of water from the aquifer was the cause . The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s . However , the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods ( called Acqua alta , `` high water '' ) that creep to a height of several centimetres over its quays , regularly following certain tides . In many old houses , the former staircases used to unload goods are now flooded , rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable . Studies indicate that the city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1-2mm per annum ; therefore , the state of alert has not been revoked . In May 2003 , the Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project ( Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico ) , an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates ; the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon . When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres , the pontoons will be filled with air , causing them to float and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea . This engineering work is due to be completed by 2016 . Geography The whole pensolon ( municipality ) is divided into 6 boroughs . One of these ( the historic city ) is divided into six areas called sestieri : Cannaregio , San Polo , Dorsoduro ( including the Giudecca and Isola Sacca Fisola ) , Santa Croce , San Marco ( including San Giorgio Maggiore ) and Castello ( including San Pietro di Castello and Sant'Elena ) . Each sestiere was administered by a procurator and his staff . Nowadays each sestiere is a statistical and historical area without any degree of autonomy . The six fingers or flanges of the ferro on the bow of a gondola represent the six sestieri . The sestieri are divided into parishes – initially 70 in 1033 , but reduced under Napoleon and now numbering just 38 . These parishes predate the sestieri , which were created in about 1170 . Other islands of the Venetian Lagoon do not form part of any of the sestieri , having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy . Each sestiere has its own house numbering system . Each house has a unique number in the district , from one to several thousand , generally numbered from one corner of the area to another , but not usually in a readily understandable manner . Climate According to the Köppen climate classification , Venice has a Humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) , with cool winters and very warm summers . The 24-hour average in January is , and for July this figure is . Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year , and averages 748 mm . Government File : MunicipalitaVCE.png|The 6 boroughs of the whole comune of Venice File : Map of comune of Venice ( province of Venice , region Veneto , Italy ) .svg|The whole comune ( red ) in the Metropolitan City of Venice File : Ca'Loredan Venice.jpg|Ca ' Loredan , Venice 's City Hall The legislative body of the municipality is the City Council ( Consiglio Comunale ) , which is composed of 45 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system , contextually to the mayoral elections . The executive body is the City Committee ( Giunta Comunale ) , composed of 12 assessors nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor . Venice was governed by center-left parties from the 1990s until the 2010s , when the mayor started to be elected directly . This is remarkable because Veneto has long been a conservative stronghold , with the coalition between the regionalist Lega Nord and the center-right Forza Italia winning absolute majorities of the electorate in many elections at communal , national , and regional levels . After a corruption scandal that forced the center-left mayor Giorgio Orsoni to resign , Venice voted for the first time in June 2015 for a conservative directly-elected mayor : the center-right businessman Luigi Brugnaro won the election in the second round of voting with the 53 % of the votes against the leftist magistrate and member of the Italian Senate Felice Casson , who led in the first round with 38 % of the votes . The municipality of Venice is subdivided into six administrative Boroughs ( Municipalità ) . Each Borough is governed by a Council ( Consiglio ) and a President , elected contextually to the city Mayor . The urban organization is governed by the Italian Constitution ( art . 114 ) . The Boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics ( environment , construction , public health , local markets ) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council ; in addition they are supplied with autonomous funding to finance local activities . The Boroughs are : Lagoon area : * Venezia ( historic city ) -Murano–Burano ( also known as Venezia insulare ) ; population : 69,136 ; * Lido–Pellestrina ( also known as Venezia litorale ) ; population : 21,664 . Mainland ( terraferma ) , annexed with a Royal Decree , in 1926 , to the municipality of Venezia : * Favaro Veneto ; population : 23,615 ; * Mestre-Carpenedo ( also known as Mestre centro ) ; population : 88,952 ; * Chirignago-Zelarino ; population : 38 ; 179 ; * Marghera ; population : 28 ; 466 . After the 2015 elections , five of the six boroughs are governed by the Democratic Party and its allies , and one by the center-right mayoral majority . Economy Venice 's economy has changed throughout history . In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance , Venice was a major center for commerce and trade , as it controlled a vast sea-empire , and became an extremely wealthy European city , a leader in political and economic affairs and a centre for trade and commerce . From the 11th century until the 15th century , pilgrimages to the Holy Land were offered in Venice . Other ports such

sfq_8445--Venice.txt

Which country, a member state of the EC, is noted for the production of the rich dessert wine Commandaria?

A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft , as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft , whose main mission is to attack ground targets . The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed , maneuverability , and small size relative to other combat aircraft . Many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities , and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers ; often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters . This may be for political or national security reasons , for advertising purposes , or other reasons . A fighter 's main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield . Since World War I , achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare . The success or failure of a belligerent 's efforts to gain air supremacy hinges on several factors including the skill of its pilots , the tactical soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters , and the numbers and performance of those fighters . Because of the importance of air superiority , since the dawn of aerial combat armed forces have constantly competed to develop technologically superior fighters and to deploy these fighters in greater numbers , and fielding a viable fighter fleet consumes a substantial proportion of the defense budgets of modern armed forces . Terminology The word `` fighter '' did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I . In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as `` scouts '' into the early 1920s . The U.S. Army called their fighters `` pursuit '' aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s . In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter , or hunting aircraft ( avion de chasse , jagdflugzeuge , avión de caza etc . ) . Exceptions include Russian , where a fighter is an `` истребитель '' ( pronounced `` istrebitel '' ) , meaning `` exterminator '' , and Hebrew where it is `` matose krav '' ( literally `` battle plane '' ) . As a part of military nomenclature , a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use , along with a number to indicate the specific aircraft . The letters used to designate a fighter differ in various countries — in the English-speaking world , `` F '' is now used to indicate a fighter ( e.g . F-35 or Spitfire F.22 ) , though when the pursuit designation was used in the US , they were `` P '' types ( e.g . P-40 ) . In Russia `` I '' was used ( I-16 ) , while the French continue to use `` C '' ( Nieuport 17 C.1 ) . Although the term `` fighter '' specifies aircraft designed to shoot down other aircraft , such designs are often also useful as multirole fighter-bombers , strike fighters , and sometimes lighter , fighter-sized tactical ground-attack aircraft . This has always been the case , for instance the Sopwith Camel and other `` fighting scouts '' of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work . In World War II , the USAAF and RAF often favored fighters over dedicated light bombers or dive bombers , and types such as the P-47 Thunderbolt and Hawker Hurricane that were no longer competitive aerial combat fighters were relegated to ground attack . Several aircraft , such as the F-111 and F-117 , have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons . The F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U.S. Navy , but it was cancelled . This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for `` attack '' or `` strike '' operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs and incendiaries . Versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types . Some of the most expensive fighters such as the US F-14 Tomcat , F-15 Eagle , F-22 Raptor and Russian Su-27 were employed as all-weather interceptors as well as air superiority fighter aircraft , while commonly developing air-to-ground roles late in their careers . An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target ( or intercept ) bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate . Development overview Fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance . Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards , and most were biplanes built with a wooden frame , covered with fabric , and limited to about 100 mph . As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations . Between the wars , wood was largely replaced by steel tubing , then aluminium tubing , and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate . By World War II , most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of machine guns or cannons and some were capable of speeds approaching 400 mph . Most fighters up to this point had one engine , but a number of twin-engine fighters were built ; however they were found to be outmatched against single-engine fighters and were relegated to other tasks , such as night fighters equipped with primitive radar sets . By the end of the war , turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion , further increasing aircraft speed . Since the weight of the engine was so much less than on piston engined fighters , having two engines was no longer a handicap and one or two were used , depending on requirements . This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape and G-suits to counter the much greater forces being applied to the pilot during maneuvers . In the 1950s , radar was fitted to day fighters , since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition . Since then , radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the primary method of target acquisition . Wings were made thinner and swept back to reduce transonic drag , which required new manufacturing methods to obtain sufficient strength . Skins were no longer sheet metal riveted to a structure , but milled from large slabs of alloy . The sound barrier was broken , and after a few false starts due to required changes in controls , speeds quickly reached Mach 2—past which aircraft ca n't maneuver to avoid attack . Air-to-air missiles largely replaced guns and rockets in the early 1960s since both were believed unusable at the speeds being attained , however the Vietnam War showed that guns still had a role to play , and most fighters built since then are fitted with cannon ( typically between 20 and 30 mm in caliber ) in addition to missiles . Most modern combat aircraft can carry at least a pair of air-to-air missiles . In the 1970s , turbofans replaced turbojets , improving fuel economy enough that the last piston engined support aircraft could be replaced with jets , making multi-role combat aircraft possible . Honeycomb structures began to replace milled structures , and the first composite components began to appear on components subjected to little stress . With the steady improvements in computers , defensive systems have become increasingly efficient . To counter this , stealth technologies have been pursued by the United States , Russia , India and China . The first step was to find ways to reduce the aircraft 's reflectivity to radar waves by burying the engines , eliminating sharp corners and diverting any reflections away from the radar sets of opposing forces . Various materials were found to absorb the energy from radar waves , and were incorporated into special finishes that have since found widespread application . Composite structures have become widespread , including major structural components , and have helped to counterbalance the steady increases in aircraft weight—most modern fighters are larger and heavier than World War II medium bombers . Piston engine fighters World War I The word `` fighter '' was first used to describe a two-seater aircraft with sufficient lift to carry a machine gun and its operator as well as the pilot . Some of the first such `` fighters '' belonged to the `` gunbus '' series of experimental gun carriers of the British Vickers company that culminated in the Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus of 1914 . The main drawback of this type of aircraft was its lack of speed . Planners quickly realized that an aircraft intended to destroy its kind in the air had to be fast enough to catch its quarry . Another type of military aircraft was to form the basis for an effective `` fighter '' in the modern sense of the word . It was based on the small fast aircraft developed before the war for such air races as the Gordon Bennett Cup and Schneider Trophy . The military scout airplane was not expected to carry serious armament , but rather to rely on its speed to reach the scout or reconnoiter location and return quickly to report—essentially an aerial horse . British scout aircraft , in this sense , included the Sopwith Tabloid and Bristol Scout . French equivalents included the Morane-Saulnier N . Soon after the commencement of the war , pilots armed themselves with pistols , carbines , grenades , and an assortment of improvised weapons . Many of these proved ineffective as the pilot had to fly his airplane while attempting to aim a handheld weapon and make a difficult deflection shot . The first step in finding a real solution was to mount the weapon on the aircraft , but the propeller remained a problem since the best direction to shoot is straight ahead . Numerous solutions were tried . A second crew member behind the pilot could aim and fire a swivel-mounted machine gun at enemy airplanes ; however , this limited the area of coverage chiefly to the rear hemisphere , and effective coordination of the pilot 's maneuvering with the gunner 's aiming was difficult . This option was chiefly employed as a defensive measure on two-seater reconnaissance aircraft from 1915 on . Both the SPAD S.A and the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.9 added a second crewman ahead of the engine in a pod but this was both hazardous to the second crewman and limited performance . The Sopwith L.R.T.Tr . similarly added a pod on the top wing with no better luck . An alternative was to build a `` pusher '' scout such as the Airco DH.2 , with the propeller mounted behind the pilot . The main drawback was that the high drag of a pusher type 's tail structure made it slower than a similar `` tractor '' aircraft . A better solution for a single seat scout was to mount the machine gun ( rifles and pistols having been dispensed with ) to fire forwards but outside the propeller arc . Wing guns were tried but the unreliable weapons available required frequent clearing of jammed rounds and misfires and remained impractical until after the war . Mounting the machine gun over the top wing worked well and was used long after the ideal solution was found . The Nieuport 11 of 1916 and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 of 1918 both used this system with considerable success ; however , this placement made aiming difficult and the location made it difficult for a pilot to both maneuver and have access to the gun 's breech . The British Foster mounting was specifically designed for this kind of application , fitted with the Lewis Machine gun , which due to its design was unsuitable for synchronizing . The need to arm a tractor scout with a forward-firing gun whose bullets passed through the propeller arc was evident even before the outbreak of war and inventors in both France and Germany devised mechanisms that could time the firing of the individual rounds to avoid hitting the propeller blades . Franz Schneider , a Swiss engineer , had patented such a device in Germany in 1913 , but his original work was not followed up . French aircraft designer Raymond Saulnier patented a practical device in April 1914 , but trials were unsuccessful because of the propensity of the machine gun employed to hang fire due to unreliable ammunition . In December 1914 , French aviator Roland Garros asked Saulnier to install his synchronization gear on Garros ' Morane-Saulnier Type L. Unfortunately the gas-operated Hotchkiss machine gun he was provided had an erratic rate of fire and it was impossible to synchronize it with a spinning propeller . As an interim measure , the propeller blades were armored and fitted with metal wedges to protect the pilot from ricochets . Garros ' modified monoplane was first flown in March 1915 and he began combat operations soon thereafter . Garros scored three victories in three weeks before he himself was downed on 18 April and his airplane , along with its synchronization gear and propeller was captured by the Germans . Meanwhile , the synchronization gear ( called the Stangensteuerung in German , for `` pushrod control system '' ) devised by the engineers of Anthony Fokker 's firm was the first system to see production contracts , and would make the Fokker Eindecker monoplane a feared name over the Western Front , despite its being an adaptation of an obsolete pre-war French Morane-Saulnier racing airplane , with a mediocre performance and poor flight characteristics . The first victory for the Eindecker came on 1 July 1915 , when Leutnant Kurt Wintgens , flying with the Feldflieger Abteilung 6 unit on the Western Front , forced down a Morane-Saulnier Type L two-seat `` parasol '' monoplane just east of Luneville . Wintgens ' aircraft , one of the five Fokker M.5K/MG production prototype examples of the Eindecker , was armed with a synchronized , air-cooled aviation version of the Parabellum MG14 machine gun . The success of the Eindecker kicked off a competitive cycle of improvement among the combatants , both sides striving to build ever more capable single-seat fighters . The Albatros D.I and Sopwith Pup of 1916 set the classic pattern followed by fighters for about twenty years . Most were biplanes and only rarely monoplanes or triplanes . The strong box structure of the biplane provided a rigid wing that allowed the accurate lateral control essential for dogfighting . They had a single operator , who flew the aircraft and also controlled its armament . They were armed with one or two Maxim or Vickers machine guns , which were easier to synchronize than other types , firing through the propeller arc . Gun breeches were directly in front of the pilot , with obvious implications in case of accidents , but jams could be cleared in flight , while aiming was simplified . The use of metal aircraft structures was pioneered before World War I by Breguet but would find its biggest proponent in Anthony Fokker , who used chrome-molybdenum steel tubing for the fuselage structure of all his fighter designs , while the innovative German engineer Hugo Junkers developed two all-metal , single-seat fighter monoplane designs with cantilever wings : the strictly experimental Junkers J 2 private-venture aircraft , made with steel , and some forty examples of the Junkers D.I , made with corrugated duralumin , all based on his experience in creating the pioneering Junkers J 1 all-metal airframe technology demonstration aircraft of late 1915 . While Fokker would pursue steel tube fuselages with wooden wings until the late 1930s , and Junkers would focus on corrugated sheet metal , Dornier was the first to build a fighter ( The Dornier-Zeppelin D.I ) made with pre-stressed sheet aluminium and having cantelevered wings , a form that would replace all others in the 1930s . As collective combat experience grew , the more successful pilots such as Oswald Boelcke , Max Immelmann , and Edward Mannock developed innovative tactical formations and maneuvers to enhance their air units ' combat effectiveness . Allied and—before 1918—German pilots of World War I were not equipped with parachutes , so in-flight fires or structural failure were often fatal . Parachutes were well-developed by 1918 having previously been used by balloonists , and were adopted by the German flying services during the course of that year ( the famous Manfred von Richthofen `` Red Baron '' was wearing one when he was killed ) , but the allied command continued to oppose their use on various grounds . In April 1917 , during a brief period of German aerial supremacy a British pilot 's average life expectancy was 93 flying hours , or about three weeks of active service . More than 50,000 airmen from both sides died during the war . Inter-war period ( 1919–38 ) Fighter development stagnated between the wars , especially in the United States and the United Kingdom , where budgets were small . In France , Italy and Russia , where large budgets continued to allow major development , both monoplanes and all metal structures were common . By the end of the 1920s , however , those countries overspent themselves and were overtaken in the 1930s by those powers that had n't been spending heavily , namely the British , the Americans and the Germans . Given limited defense budgets , air forces tended to be conservative in their aircraft purchases , and biplanes remained popular with pilots because of their agility , and remained in service long after they had ceased to be competitive . Designs such as the Gloster Gladiator , Fiat CR.42 , and Polikarpov I-15 were common even in the late 1930s , and many were still in service as late as 1942 . Up until the mid-1930s , the majority of fighters in the US , the UK , Italy and Russia remained fabric-covered biplanes . Fighter armament eventually began to be mounted inside the wings , outside the arc of the propeller , though most designs retained two synchronized machine guns directly ahead of the pilot , where they were more accurate ( that being the strongest part of the structure , reducing the vibration to which the guns were subjected to ) . Shooting with this traditional arrangement was also easier for the further reason that the guns shot directly ahead in the direction of the aircraft 's flight , up to the limit of the guns range ; unlike wing-mounted guns which to be effective required to be harmonised , that is , preset to shoot at an angle by ground crews so that their bullets would converge on a target area a set distance ahead of the fighter . Rifle-caliber .30 and .303 in ( 7.62 mm ) caliber guns remained the norm , with larger weapons either being too heavy and cumbersome or deemed unnecessary against such lightly built aircraft . It was not considered unreasonable to use World War I-style armament to counter enemy fighters as there was insufficient air-to-air combat during most of the period to disprove this notion . The rotary engine , popular during World War I , quickly disappeared , its development having reached the point where rotational forces prevented more fuel and air from being delivered to the cylinders , which limited horsepower . They were replaced chiefly by the stationary radial engine though major advances led to inline engines , which gained ground with several exceptional engines—including the 1145 cuin V-12 Curtiss D-12 . Aircraft engines increased in power several-fold over the period , going from a typical 180 hp in the 1918 Fokker D.VII to 900 hp in the 1938 Curtiss P-36 . The debate between the sleek in-line engines versus the more reliable radial models continued , with naval air forces preferring the radial engines , and land-based forces often choosing in-line units . Radial designs did not require a separate ( and vulnerable ) cooling system , but had increased drag . In-line engines often had a better power-to-weight ratio , but there were radial engines that kept working even after having suffered significant battle damage . Some air forces experimented with `` heavy fighters '' ( called `` destroyers '' by the Germans ) . These were larger , usually twin-engined aircraft , sometimes adaptations of light or medium bomber types . Such designs typically had greater internal fuel capacity ( thus longer range ) and heavier armament than their single-engine counterparts . In combat , they proved vulnerable to more agile single-engine fighters . The primary driver of fighter innovation , right up to the period of rapid re-armament in the late 1930s , were not military budgets , but civilian aircraft racing . Aircraft designed for these races introduced innovations like streamlining and more powerful engines that would find their way into the fighters of World War II . The most significant of these was the Schneider Trophy races , where competition grew so fierce , only national governments could afford to enter . At the very end of the inter-war period in Europe came the Spanish Civil War . This was just the opportunity the German Luftwaffe , Italian Regia Aeronautica , and the Soviet Union 's Red Air Force needed to test their latest aircraft . Each party sent numerous aircraft types to support their sides in the conflict . In the dogfights over Spain , the latest Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters did well , as did the Soviet Polikarpov I-16 . The German design had considerably more room for development however and the lessons learned led to greatly improved models in World War II . The Russians , whose side lost , failed to keep up and despite newer models coming into service , I-16s were outfought by the improved Bf 109s in World War II , while remaining the most common Soviet front-line fighter into 1942 . For their part , the Italians developed several monoplanes such as the Fiat G.50 , but being short on funds , were forced to continue operating obsolete Fiat CR.42 biplanes . From the early 1930s the Japanese had been at war against both the Chinese Nationalists and the Russians in China , and used the experience to improve both training and aircraft , replacing biplanes with modern cantilever monoplanes and creating a cadre of exceptional pilots for use in the Pacific War . In the United Kingdom , at the behest of Neville Chamberlain , ( more famous for his 'peace in our time ' speech ) the entire British aviation industry was retooled , allowing it to change quickly from fabric covered metal framed biplanes to cantilever stressed skin monoplanes in time for the war with Germany . The period of improving the same biplane design over and over was now coming to an end , and the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire finally started to supplant the Gloster Gladiator and Hawker Fury biplanes but many of the former remained in front-line service well past the start of World War II . While not a combatant themselves in Spain , they absorbed many of the lessons learned in time to use them . The Spanish Civil War also provided an opportunity for updating fighter tactics . One of the innovations to result from the aerial warfare experience this conflict provided was the development of the `` finger-four '' formation by the German pilot Werner Mölders . Each fighter squadron ( German : Staffel ) was divided into several flights ( Schwärme ) of four aircraft . Each Schwarm was divided into two Rotten , which was a pair of aircraft . Each Rotte was composed of a leader and a wingman . This flexible formation allowed the pilots to maintain greater situational awareness , and the two Rotten could split up at any time and attack on their own . The finger-four would become widely adopted as the fundamental tactical formation over the course of World War . World War II World War II featured fighter combat on a larger scale than any other conflict to date . German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel noted the effect of airpower : `` Anyone who has to fight , even with the most modern weapons , against an enemy in complete command of the air , fights like a savage against modern European troops , under the same handicaps and with the same chances of success . '' Throughout the war , fighters performed their conventional role in establishing air superiority through combat with other fighters and through bomber interception , and also often performed roles such as tactical air support and reconnaissance . Fighter design varied widely among combatants . The Japanese and Italians favored lightly armed and armored but highly maneuverable designs such as the Japanese Nakajima Ki-27 , Nakajima Ki-43 and Mitsubishi A6M Zero and Italy 's Fiat G.50 and Macchi MC.200 . In contrast , designers in Great Britain , Germany , the Soviet Union , and the United States believed that the increased speed of fighter aircraft would create g-forces unbearable to pilots who attempted maneuvering dogfights typical of the First World War , and their fighters were instead optimized for speed and firepower . In practice , while light , highly maneuverable aircraft did possess some advantages in fighter-versus-fighter combat , those could usually be overcome by sound tactical doctrine , and the design approach of the Italians and Japanese made their fighters ill-suited as interceptors or attack aircraft . European theater During the invasion of Poland and the Battle of France , Luftwaffe fighters—primarily the Messerschmitt Bf 109—held air superiority , and the Luftwaffe played a major role in German victories in these campaigns . During the Battle of Britain , however , British Hurricanes and Spitfires proved roughly equal to Luftwaffe fighters . Additionally Britain 's use of radar and the advantages of fighting above Britain 's home territory allowed the RAF to deny Germany air superiority , saving Britain from possible German invasion and dealing the Axis a major defeat early in the Second World War . On the Eastern Front , Soviet fighter forces were overwhelmed during the opening phases of Operation Barbarossa . This was a result of the tactical surprise at the outset of the campaign , the leadership vacuum within the Soviet military left by the Great Purge , and the general inferiority of Soviet designs at the time , such as the obsolescent I-15 biplane and the I-16 . More modern Soviet designs , including the MiG-3 , LaGG-3 and Yak-1 , had not yet arrived in numbers and in any case were still inferior to the Messerschmitt Bf 109 . As a result , during the early months of these campaigns , Axis air forces destroyed large numbers of Red Air Force aircraft on the ground and in one-sided dogfights . In the later stages on the Eastern Front , Soviet training and leadership improved , as did their equipment . Late-war Soviet designs such as the Yakovlev Yak-3 and Lavochkin La-7 had performance comparable to the German Bf-109 and Focke-Wulf Fw 190 . Also , significant numbers of British , and later U.S. , fighter aircraft were supplied to aid the Soviet war effort as part of Lend-Lease , with the Bell P-39 Airacobra proving particularly effective in the lower-altitude combat typical of the Eastern Front . The Soviets were also helped indirectly by the American and British bombing campaigns , which forced the Luftwaffe to shift many of its fighters away from the Eastern Front in defense against these raids . The Soviets increasingly were able to challenge the Luftwaffe , and while the Luftwaffe maintained a qualitative edge over the Red Air Force for much of the war , the increasing numbers and efficacy of the Soviet Air Force were critical to the Red Army 's efforts at turning back and eventually annihilating the Wehrmacht . Meanwhile , air combat on the Western Front had a much different character . Much of this combat was centered around the strategic bombing campaigns of the RAF and the USAAF . Axis fighter aircraft focused on defending against Allied bombers while Allied fighters ' main role was as bomber escorts . The RAF raided German cities at night , and both sides developed radar-equipped night fighters for these battles . The Americans , in contrast , flew daylight bombing raids into Germany . Unescorted Consolidated B-24 Liberators and Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers , however , proved unable to fend off German interceptors ( primarily Bf-109s and FW-190s ) . With the later arrival of long range fighters , particularly the North American P-51 Mustang , American fighters were able to escort daylight raids

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Britain's first jet fighter, The Meteor was made by which company?

Tommy and Tuppence are two fictional detectives , recurring characters in the work of Agatha Christie . Their full names are Thomas Beresford and Prudence Beresford ( née Cowley ) . The first time Tommy and Tuppence appeared in a Christie novel was in The Secret Adversary ( 1922 ) . They started out their career as accidental blackmailers ( all in search of adventure and money ) , but the detecting life soon proved more profitable and much more exciting . Novels Tommy and Tuppence appear together in four full-length novels and one collection of short stories The collection of short stories is Partners in Crime , ( 1929 , each story reminiscent of another writer 's work ) ; the four novels are The Secret Adversary ( 1922 ) , N or M ? ( 1941 ) , By the Pricking of My Thumbs ( 1968 ) ; and Postern of Fate ( 1973 ) . Postern of Fate was the last novel Christie ever wrote , although not the last to be published . Detectives Tuppence appears as a charismatic , impulsive and intuitive person , while Tommy is less imaginative , and less likely to be diverted from the truth ( as their first adversary sums him up `` he is not clever , but it is hard to blind his eyes to the facts '' ) . They therefore make a good team . It is in this first book The Secret Adversary that they meet up after the war , and come to realise that , although they have been friends for most of their lives , they have now fallen in love with each other . Unlike many other recurring detective characters , including the better known Christie detectives , Tommy and Tuppence aged in time with the real world , being in their early twenties in The Secret Adversary and in their seventies in Postern of Fate . In their early appearances , they are portrayed as typical upper middle class `` bright young things '' of the 1920s , and the stories and settings have a more pronounced period-specific flavour than the stories featuring the better known Christie characters . As they age , they 're revealed to have raised three children – twins Deborah and Derek and an adopted daughter , Betty . Throughout the series they employ a man named Albert , who first appears as a lift boy who helps them in The Secret Adversary ; and subsequently , as a now married pub owner , renders vital assistance to the pair in N or M ? . In Partners in Crime , Albert becomes their hapless assistant at a private detective agency ; by Postern of Fate he 's their butler and has now been widowed . In Postern of Fate they also have a small dog named Hannibal . Adaptations In 1953 the BBC adapted Partners in Crime as a radio series starring Richard Attenborough and Sheila Sim . The Tommy and Tuppence characters have been portrayed on television by James Warwick and Francesca Annis , first in the feature-length The Secret Adversary ( 1982 ) , and then in the 10 episode series Agatha Christie 's Partners in Crime ( 1983 ) . The novel By the Pricking of My Thumbs was adapted in 2005 by the French director Pascal Thomas with the title Mon petit doigt m ' a dit .... The movie casts André Dussolier as Tommy ( renamed Bélisaire ) and Catherine Frot as Prudence Beresford . The action is transposed to Savoie in France . A second movie , Le crime est notre affaire , came out in 2008 . Le crime est notre affaire is named after Partners in Crime and stars the Beresfords , but its story is based on 4.50 From Paddington , which was originally a novel starring Miss Marple . A third film Associés contre le crime is very , very loosely based ( to the point of being unrecognisable ) on one of the stories in Partners in Crime . An adaptation of By the Pricking of My Thumbs appeared in 2006 as an episode of the Granada television series Marple even though Christie did not write Marple into the original story . In this version , Tommy and Tuppence were played by Anthony Andrews and Greta Scacchi respectively , but , unlike in the book , Miss Marple and Tuppence play the detective roles while Tommy is away on intelligence ( MI6 ) business . BBC television began broadcasting two adaptations , comprising six episodes in 2015 . Set in the 1950s and titled Partners in Crime , it starred David Walliams as Tommy and Jessica Raine as Tuppence .

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By what first name is the wife of Tommy Beresford known in the Partners in Crime stories by Agatha Christie, recently adapted by BBC TV?

The Open Championship , often referred to as The Open or the British Open , is the oldest of the four major championships in professional golf . Held in the United Kingdom , it is administered by The R & A and is the only major outside the United States . The Open is currently the third major of the year , between the U.S. Open and the PGA Championship , and is played in mid-July . The current champion is Henrik Stenson , who won the 145th Open at Royal Troon in 2016 with a record-breaking score of −20 . History The Open was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club in Scotland . The inaugural tournament was restricted to professionals and attracted a field of eight golfers who played three rounds of Prestwick 's twelve-hole course in a single day . Willie Park Sr. won with a score of 174 , beating Old Tom Morris , by two strokes . The following year the tournament was opened to amateurs ; eight of them joined ten professionals in the field . James Ogilvie Fairlie was the principal organiser of the first Open Championship held at Prestwick in 1860 . With the untimely death of Allan Robertson , aged 43 in 1859 , Prestwick members decided to conduct a challenge the following year that would determine the land ’ s greatest golfer . In a proposed competition for a `` Challenge Belt '' , Fairlie sent out a series of letters to Blackheath , Perth , Edinburgh , Musselburgh and St Andrews , inviting a player known as a `` respectable caddie '' to represent each of the clubs in a tournament to be held on 17 October 1860 . Originally , the trophy presented to the event 's winner was the Challenge Belt , a red leather belt with a silver buckle . The Challenge Belt was retired in 1870 , when Young Tom Morris was allowed to keep it for winning the tournament three consecutive times . Because no trophy was available , the tournament was cancelled in 1871 . In 1872 , after Young Tom Morris won again for a fourth time in a row , he was awarded a medal . The present trophy , The Golf Champion Trophy , better known by its popular name of the Claret Jug , was then created . Prestwick administered The Open from 1860 to 1870 . In 1871 , it agreed to organise it jointly with The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers . In 1892 the event was doubled in length from 36 to 72 holes , four rounds of what was by then the standard complement of 18 holes . The 1894 Open was the first held outside Scotland , at the Royal St George 's Golf Club in England . Because of an increasing number of entrants , a cut was introduced after two rounds in 1898 . In 1920 full responsibility for The Open Championship was handed over to The Royal & Ancient Golf Club . The early winners were all Scottish professionals , who in those days worked as greenkeepers , clubmakers , and caddies to supplement their modest winnings from championships and challenge matches . The Open has always been dominated by professionals , with only six victories by amateurs , all of which occurred between 1890 and 1930 . The last of these was Bobby Jones ' third Open and part of his celebrated Grand Slam . Jones was one of six Americans who won The Open between the First and Second World Wars , the first of whom had been Walter Hagen in 1922 . These Americans and the French winner of the 1907 Open , Arnaud Massy , were the only winners from outside Scotland and England up to 1939 . The first post-World War II winner was the American Sam Snead , in 1946 . In 1947 , Northern Ireland 's Fred Daly was victorious . While there have been many English and Scottish champions , Daly was the only winner from Ireland until the 2007 victory by Pádraig Harrington . There has never been a Welsh champion . In the early postwar years The Open was dominated by golfers from the Commonwealth , with South African Bobby Locke and Australian Peter Thomson winning the Claret Jug in eight of the 11 championships from 1948 and 1958 between them . During this period , The Open often had a schedule conflict with the match-play PGA Championship , which meant that Ben Hogan , the best American golfer at this time , competed in The Open just once , in 1953 at Carnoustie , a tournament he won . Another South African , Gary Player was Champion in 1959 . This was at the beginning of the `` Big Three '' era in professional golf , the three players in question being Player , Arnold Palmer , and Jack Nicklaus . Palmer first competed in 1960 , when he came second to the little-known Australian Kel Nagle , but he won the next two years . While he was far from being the first American to become Open Champion , he was the first that many Americans saw win the tournament on television , and his charismatic success is often credited with persuading leading American golfers to make The Open an integral part of their schedule , rather than an optional extra . The improvement of trans-Atlantic travel also increased American participation . Nicklaus ' victories came in 1966 , 1970 , and 1978 . Although his tally of three wins is the least of his majors , it greatly understates how prominent Nicklaus was at the Open throughout the 1960s and 1970s . He finished runner-up seven times , which is the record and had a total of sixteen top-5 finishes , which is tied most in Open history with John Henry Taylor and easily the most in the postwar era . Nicklaus also holds the records for most rounds under par ( 61 ) and most aggregates under par ( 14 ) . At Turnberry in 1977 he was involved in one of the most celebrated contests in golf history , when his duel with Tom Watson went to the final shot before Watson emerged as the champion for the second time with a record score of 268 ( 12 under par ) . Watson won five Opens , more than anyone else has since the 1950s , but his final win in 1983 brought down the curtain on an era of U.S. domination . In the next 11 years there was only one American winner , with the others coming from Europe and the Commonwealth . The European winners of this era , Spaniard Seve Ballesteros , Sandy Lyle , who was the first Scottish winner in over half a century , and the Englishman Nick Faldo , were also leading lights among the group of players who began to get the better of the Americans in the Ryder Cup during this period . In 1995 , John Daly 's playoff win over Italian Costantino Rocca began another era of American domination . Tiger Woods has won three Championships to date , two at St Andrews in 2000 and 2005 , and one at Hoylake in 2006 . There was a dramatic moment at St Andrews in 2000 , as the ageing Jack Nicklaus waved farewell to the crowds , while the young challenger to his crown watched from a nearby tee . Nicklaus later decided to play in The Open for one final time in 2005 , when the R & A announced St Andrews as the venue , giving his final farewell to the fans at the Home of Golf . There have also been wins by previously little known golfers , including Paul Lawrie 's playoff win after the 72nd-hole collapse of Jean van de Velde in 1999 , Ben Curtis in 2003 and Todd Hamilton in 2004 . In 2007 , the Europeans finally broke an eight-year drought in the majors when Pádraig Harrington of Ireland defeated Sergio García by one stroke in a four-hole playoff at Carnoustie . Harrington retained the Championship in 2008 . In 2009 , 59-year-old Tom Watson turned in one of the most remarkable performances ever seen at The Open . Leading the tournament through 71 holes and needing just a par on the last hole to become the oldest ever winner of a major championship , Watson bogeyed , setting up a four-hole playoff , which he would lose to Stewart Cink . In 2013 , Phil Mickelson won his first Open Championship at Muirfield . His victory meant that he had won 3 of the 4 majors in pursuit of the career grand slam , just needing the U.S. Open , where he has finished runner-up six times . In 2015 , Zach Johnson denied Jordan Spieth his chance of winning the Grand Slam by winning an aggregate playoff over Louis Oosthuizen and Marc Leishman at the Old Course at St Andrews . Format The Open is a 72-hole stroke play tournament contested over four days , Thursday through Sunday . Since 1979 it has been played in the week which includes the 3rd Friday in July . Currently , 156 players are in the field , mostly made up of the world 's leading professionals , who are given exemptions , along with winners of the top amateur championships . Further places are given to players , amateurs and professionals , who are successful in a number of qualifying events . There is a cut after 36 holes after which only the leading 70 players ( and ties ) play in the final 36 holes on the weekend . In the event of a tie after 72 holes , a four-hole aggregate playoff is held ; if two or more players are still tied , it continues as sudden-death until there is a winner . Timeline of format changes * 1860 : Contested over 36 holes , played on a single day * 1892 : Extended to 72 holes , played over two days * 1898 : Cut introduced after 36 holes . Those 20 or more strokes behind the leader were excluded * 1904 : Extended to a third day with 18 holes on each of the first two days . Cut rule unchanged * 1905 : Cut rule changed to exclude those 15 or more strokes behind the leader * 1907 : Qualifying introduced , replacing the 36-hole cut and the contest reduced again to two days * 1910 : Cut reintroduced instead of qualifying , play being extended to three days again . Top 60 and ties made the cut . * 1911 : With an increase in the number of entries , the first two rounds were spread over three days , with 36 holes on the fourth day * 1912 : Qualifying reintroduced to replace the cut . Contest reduced again to two days * 1926 : Cut reintroduced . First Open with both qualifying and a cut . Extended again to a third day with 18 holes on the first two days . Those 15 or more strokes behind the leader were excluded from the final day . Days standardised as Wednesday to Friday * 1929 : Cut rule changed to ensure that at least 60 made the cut even if 15 or more strokes behind the leader * 1930 : Cut rule changed to top 60 and ties * 1937 : Cut rule changed to top 40 and ties * 1938 : Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 40 players . Ties for 40th place did not make the cut * 1939 : Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 44 players . Ties for 44th place did not make the cut * 1946 : Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 40 players . Ties for 40th place did not make the cut * 1951 : Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 50 players . Ties for 50th place did not make the cut * 1957 : Leaders after 36 holes go off last , replacing the random draw * 1963 : Cut rule changed to top 45 and ties * 1964 : Playoff reduced from 36 holes to 18 , followed by sudden-death if still level * 1966 : Play extended to four days , 18 holes per day from Wednesday to Saturday . Cut rule changed to top 55 and ties * 1968 : Cut rule changed to top 70 and ties after 36 holes and then top 45 and ties after 54 holes * 1970 : Cut rule changed to top 80 and ties after 36 holes and then top 55 and ties after 54 holes * 1971 : Cut rule changed to top 80 and ties after 36 holes and then top 60 and ties after 54 holes * 1973 : Play in groups of three introduced for the first two rounds * 1974 : Use of `` bigger ball '' ( ) made compulsory * 1978 : `` 10-shot rule '' introduced so that players within 10 shots of the leader make the cut even if outside the top 80/60 * 1980 : Play from Thursday to Sunday * 1986 : 54-hole cut discontinued . Cut rule changed to top 70 and ties after 36 holes . Four-hole playoff introduced * 1996 : `` 10-shot rule '' dropped Trophies and medals There are a number of medals and trophies that are , or have been , given for various achievements during The Open . * The Challenge Belt – awarded to the winner from 1860 until 1870 , when Young Tom Morris won the belt outright by winning the Championship three years in a row . * The Golf Champion Trophy ( commonly known as the Claret Jug ) – replaced the Challenge Belt and has been awarded to the winner since 1873 although Young Tom Morris , the winner in 1872 , is the first name engraved on it . * Gold medal – awarded to the winner . First given out in 1872 when the Claret Jug was not yet ready , and since awarded to all champions . * Silver medal – awarded since 1949 to the leading amateur completing the final round . * Bronze medal – awarded since 1972 to all other amateurs completing the final round . The Professional Golfers ' Association of Great Britain and Ireland also mark the achievements of their own members in The Open . * Ryle Memorial Medal – awarded since 1901 to the winner if he is a PGA member . * Braid Taylor Memorial Medal – awarded since 1966 to the highest finishing PGA member . * Tooting Bec Cup – awarded since 1924 to the PGA member who records the lowest single round during the championship . The Braid Taylor Memorial Medal and the Tooting Bec Cup are restricted to members born in , or with a parent or parents born in , the UK or Republic of Ireland . Host courses The common factor in the venues is links courses . The Open has always been played in Scotland and northwest , southeast England , along with one course in Northern Ireland which will again stage the competition in 2019 . From 1860 to 1870 The Open was organised by and played at Prestwick Golf Club . From its revival in 1872 until 1891 it was played on three courses in rotation : Prestwick , The Old Course at St Andrews , and Musselburgh Links . In 1892 the newly built Muirfield replaced Musselburgh in the rotation . In 1893 two English courses , Royal St George 's and Royal Liverpool Golf Club , Hoylake , were invited to join the rotation with Royal St George 's being allocated the 1894 Open and Royal Liverpool having the 1897 event . At a meeting in 1907 Royal Cinque Ports Golf Club became the sixth course on the rota , being allocated the 1909 Open . With three courses in both England and Scotland , the meeting also agreed that the Championship was to be played in England and Scotland alternately . The alternation of venues in England and Scotland continued until the Second World War . The rotation of the six courses was reinstated after the First World War with Royal Cinque Ports hosting the first post-war Open in 1920 . It had been chosen as the venue for the cancelled 1915 Open . In 1923 Troon was used instead of Muirfield when `` some doubts exists as to the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers being desirous of their course being used for the event '' . Muirfield returned as the venue in 1929 . Serious overcrowding problems at Prestwick in 1925 meant that the course was never again used for the Open and was replaced by Carnoustie as the third Scottish course . While Royal St George 's and Royal Liverpool continued to be used at six year intervals the third English course varied . After Royal Cinque Ports in 1920 , Royal Lytham was used in 1926 and then Prince 's in 1932 . Royal Cinque Ports was intended as the venue in 1938 but in February of that year abnormal high tides caused severe flooding to the course leaving it like `` an inland sea several feet deep '' and the venue was switched to Royal St George 's . Birkdale was chosen as the venue for 1940 , although the event was cancelled because of the Second World War . There are nine courses in the current rota , four in Scotland , four in England and one in Northern Ireland . In recent times the Old Course has hosted the Open every five years . The remaining courses host the Open roughly every 10 years but the gaps between hosting Opens may be longer or shorter than this . In 2014 , it was announced by The R & A that Royal Portrush was returning to the active rota and in October 2015 Portrush was confirmed as the venue for the 2019 Open . The most recent course to be removed from the active rota was Muirfield in May 2016 , following the The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers refusal to permit female members to join their club . From 1894 ( when it was first played in England ) to 2016 , it has been played 62 times in Scotland , 49 times in England and once in Northern Ireland . It was not until 2011 and 2012 that England hosted consecutive Opens . Future venues Qualification The field for the Open is 156 , and golfers gain a place in a number of ways . Most of the field is made up of leading players who are given exemptions . Further places are given to players who are successful in The Open Qualifying Series and in Final Qualifying . Any remaining places , and places made available because qualified players are not competing , are made available to the highest ranked players in the Official World Golf Ranking . There are currently 26 exemption categories . Among the more significant are : * The top 50 on the Official World Golf Ranking . This category means that no member of the current elite of world golf will be excluded . * The top 30 in the previous season 's European Tour Race to Dubai and the PGA Tour FedEx Cup . Most of these players will also be in the World top 50 . * All previous Open Champions who will be age 60 or under on the final day of the tournament . Each year a number of past champions choose not to compete . * All players who have won one of the other three majors in the previous five years . * The top 10 from the previous year 's Open Championship . * The winners of The Amateur Championship and the U.S . Amateur ( provided the winners maintain their amateur status prior to the tournament ) . International qualifying is through the `` Open Qualifying Series '' which consists of ten events played outside the United Kingdom . A pre-allocated number of places are made available at these events ( from 1 to 4 ) which are given to the leading players in those events who are not , at that point , qualified for the Open , provided they finish in a high-enough position . A total of 32 places are available . Local qualifying was the traditional way for non-exempt players to win a place at The Open . In recent years it has comprised a number of `` Regional Qualifying '' competitions around Britain and Ireland with successful competitors , joined by those players exempt from regional qualifying , playing four 36-hole `` Final Qualifying '' tournaments . There are 12 places available through Final Qualifying , three at each of the four venues . Timeline of qualification changes Up to 1920 a variety of qualification systems were used . From 1921 to 1962 ( except 1926 ) local qualifying was used . All those who entered played 18 holes on one of two courses and then played 18 holes on the other course the following day . Qualifying took place immediately before the Championship itself . In 1963 a system of exemptions for the leading players was introduced with local qualifying continuing for the remaining players . Since then a large number of changes have been made to the exemption criteria and to the qualifying system for the remaining players . * 1907 : Qualifying introduced for the first time . Players play 36 holes on one of two days . Top 30 and ties qualify on each day * 1908 : Players play on either the first morning and second afternoon or the first afternoon and second morning . Top 30 and ties qualify from each group * 1909 : Same but each of the two groups has to contain at least 30 professionals * 1910 : Qualifying dropped * 1912 : Qualifying reintroduced . Players play 36 holes on one of three days . Top 20 and ties qualify on each day * 1914 . Qualifying over two days using two courses . Exactly 100 players qualify . 18-hole playoff the following day for those tied for final places . This was the first occasion on which qualifying did not take place on the championship course . * 1920 : Separate qualifying for amateur and professionals . Amateurs qualify at the Open venue ( total of 8 places with the Amateur Champion receiving automatic entry ) . Professionals qualified using two courses in Surrey . Top 72 and ties qualify * 1921 : Local qualifying reintroduced using two courses . Generally the Championship course is used together with a nearby course . Top 80 and ties qualify * 1926 : Regional qualifying used . Total of 101 and ties qualify at one of three venues ( southern , central , northern ) * 1927 : Local qualifying reintroduced . Top 100 and ties qualify * 1937 : Top 140 and ties qualify * 1938 : Maximum of 130 players qualify . Ties for 130th place did not qualify * 1946 : Maximum of 100 players qualify . Ties for 100th place did not qualify * 1961 : Maximum of 120 players qualify . Ties for 120th place did not qualify * 1963 : Exemption from qualifying introduced for the leading players including past 10 Open champions . Local qualifying continues for the remainder of the field but now two separate competitions are held with a preallocated number of places available . Two courses near the Open venue are used but not the Open venue itself . Playoff for those tied for final places . Total of 120 qualify * 1965 : Total of 130 qualify * 1968 : Exemption extended all previous Open champions * 1971 : Total of 150 qualify * 1984 : Exemption for previous Open champions aged under 65 * 1995 : Exemption for previous Open champions extended to those aged 65 or under * 2004 : International Final Qualifying introduced * 2008 : Exemption for previous Open champions restricted to those aged 60 or under ( with transitional arrangement for those born between 1942 and 1948 ) * 2014 : Open Qualifying Series introduced replacing International Final Qualifying Tournament name In Britain the tournament is best known by its official title , The Open Championship . The British media generally refer to it as the Open ( with `` the '' in lower case ) or as The Open Championship ( with each word capitalized ) . Outside the UK , the tournament is generally called the British Open , in part to distinguish the tournament from another of the four majors that has an 'open ' format , the U.S. Open , but mainly because other nations with similar 'open ' format golf events refer to their own nation 's open event as `` the Open '' . Until 2014 , the PGA Tour referred to the tournament as the British Open , and many American media outlets continue to do so . However , in 2014 , with the new Open Qualifying Series that selects players for the Open through finishes earned in various PGA Tour events , the PGA Tour has taken to referring to the event as The Open Championship for the first time . U.S. television rights-holder ESPN/ABC referred to the event as the British Open until 2004 . For the 2005 event at St Andrews , ESPN/ABC began referring to the tournament as The Open Championship , and have done so ever since , with Golf Channel and NBC continuing to acknowledge the same upon the assumption of American rights in 2016 . Tour status It has been an official event on the PGA Tour since 1995 , which means that the prize money won in The Open by PGA Tour members is included on the official money list . In addition , all Open Championships before 1995 have been retroactively classified as PGA Tour wins , and the list of leading winners on the PGA Tour has been adjusted to reflect this . The European Tour has recognised The Open as an official event since its first official season in 1972 and it is also an official money event on the Japan Golf Tour . Prize money The 2015 Open had a total prize money fund of £6.3 million and a first prize of £1.15 million . At the time of the Open these equated to about $ 9.8 million and $ 1.8 million respectively . The other three major championships in 2015 had prize money of $ 10.0 million and first prizes of $ 1.8 million , so that all four majors had similar prize money . Prize money is given to all professionals who make the cut and , since the number of professionals making the cut changes from year to year , the total prize money varies somewhat from the advertised number ( currently £6.3 million ) . In 2016 the total prize money fund was £6.5 million with a first prize of £1.175 million . This equated to about $ 8.6 million and $ 1.55 million respectively at the time of the Open . The other majors had prize money of at least $ 10.0 million and first prizes of at least $ 1.8 million . The relative decline in prize money , in dollar terms , was attributable to a fall in the £/ $ exchange rate . There was no prize money in the first three Opens . In 1863 , a prize fund of £10 was introduced , which was shared between the second- third- and fourth-placed professionals , with the champion keeping the belt for a year . Old Tom Morris won the first champion 's cash prize of £6 in 1864 . Records * Oldest winner : Old Tom Morris ( ) , 1867 . * Youngest winner : Young Tom Morris ( ) , 1868 . * Most victories : 6 , Harry Vardon ( 1896 , 1898 , 1899 , 1903 , 1911 , 1914 ) . * Most consecutive victories : 4 , Young Tom Morris ( 1868 , 1869 , 1870 , 1872 – there was no championship in 1871 ) . * Lowest score after 36 holes : 130 , Nick Faldo

sfq_13367--The_Open_Championship.txt

In which year did Nick Faldo win both the Open and the US Masters Championships?

Charles Edward Springall , known professionally as Charlie Drake ( 19 June 1925 – 23 December 2006 ) was an English comedian , actor , writer and singer . With his small stature ( 5 ' 1 '' /155 cm tall ) , curly red hair and liking for slapstick , he was a popular comedian with children in his early years , becoming nationally known for his `` Hello , my darlings ! '' catchphrase . Early life Born Charles Edward Springall in the Elephant and Castle , Southwark , South London , he took his mother 's maiden name for the stage and , later , television and film , achieving success as a comedian . Career Drake made his first appearance on stage at the age of eight , and after leaving school toured working men 's clubs . After serving in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War , Drake turned professional and made his television début in The Centre Show in 1953 . He then joined his wartime comrade Jack Edwardes to form a double act , named 'Mick and Montmorency ' . In 1954 he appeared with Bob Monkhouse in the film , Fast and Loose . He appeared in the television shows Laughter in Store ( 1957 ) , Drake 's Progress ( 1957–58 ) , Charlie Drake In… ( 1958 to 1960 ) and The Charlie Drake Show ( 1960 to 1961 ) , being remembered for his opening catchphrase `` Hello , my darlings ! '' The catchphrase came about because he was short , and so his eyes would often be naturally directly level with a lady 's bosom . Because of this and because in his television work he preferred appearing with big-busted women , the catchphrase was born . The later series was ended , however , by a serious accident that occurred in 1961 , during a live transmission . Drake had arranged for a bookcase to be set up in such a way that it would fall apart during a slapstick sketch in which he was pulled through it . It was later discovered that an over-enthusiastic workman had `` mended '' the bookcase before the broadcast . The actors working with him , unaware of what had happened , proceeded with the rest of the sketch which required that they pick him up and throw him through an open window . Drake fractured his skull and was unconscious for three days . It was two years before he returned to the screen . Television fame led to four films , none of them successful — Sands of the Desert ( 1960 ) , Petticoat Pirates ( 1961 ) , The Cracksman ( 1963 ) and Mister Ten Per Cent ( 1967 ) . He returned to television in 1963 with The Charlie Drake Show , a compilation of which won an award at the Montreux Festival in 1968 . The centrepiece of this was an extended sketch featuring an orchestra performing the 1812 Overture , in which Drake appeared to play all the instruments ; as well as conducting and one scene in which he was the player of a triangle waiting for his cue to play a single strike – which he subsequently missed . Through the series he played a gymnast doing a single arm twist from a high ring while a commentator counted eventually into the thousands and by the end of the series , Drake 's arm appeared to be 20 ft long . Other shows included Who is Sylvia ( 1967 ) and Slapstick and Old Lace ( 1971 ) , but it was The Worker ( 1965 to 1970 ) that gained most acclaim . He was the subject of This Is Your Life on two occasions , in December 1961 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews in a rehearsal room at the London Palladium , and in November 1995 , when Michael Aspel surprised him at the curtain call of the comedy play Funny Money at the Playhouse Theatre . The Worker In The Worker ( ATV/ITV , 1965–70 ) he played a perpetually unemployed labourer who , in every episode , was dispatched to a new job by the ever-frustrated clerk ( firstly Mr Whitaker in series one , played by Percy Herbert , and from series two onwards Mr Pugh , played by Henry McGee ) at the local labour exchange . All the jobs he embarked upon ended in disaster , sometimes with a burst of classic slapstick , sometimes with a bewildered Drake himself at the centre of incomprehensible actions by the people employing him . Bookending these sequences were the encounters between Drake and Pugh . Running jokes included Drake 's inability to manage Mr Pugh 's name , his mispronunciations ranging from a childish `` Mi'er Poo '' to `` Peeyooo '' . Drake sang the theme song himself , using an old music hall number . The series was briefly revived by London Weekend Television in 1978 . Recording career Drake made a number of records , most of them produced by George Martin for the Parlophone label . The first , `` Splish Splash '' , a cover version of a rock and roll song originally recorded by Bobby Darin , got into the Top 10 of the UK Singles Chart , reaching number 7 in 1958 . An edited version of `` My Boomerang Wo n't Come Back '' , became a mid-chart ( No . 14 UK charts ) , following on from `` Mr. Custer '' ( No . 12 UK charts ) hit . In 1972 Drake recorded a spoof song called 'Puckwudgie ' on Columbia records . It referred to a 2-or-3-foot-tall ( 0.61 or 0.91 m ) being from the Wampanoag folklore . It reached number 47 in the BBC Top 50 in early 1972 . Peter Gabriel , after leaving Genesis in late 1975 , produced a single `` You Never Know '' for Drake ( UK Charisma ) , it was not a chart success . Later career Drake turned to straight acting in the 1980s , winning acclaim for his role as Touchstone in Shakespeare 's As You Like It ( at the Ludlow Festival ) , and an award for his part in Harold Pinter 's The Caretaker at the Royal Exchange , Manchester , along with Michael Angelis . Drake also starred as Smallweed in the BBC adaptation of Bleak House ( 1985 ) , and Filipina Dreamgirls , a TV film for the BBC . His final appearances on stage were with Jim Davidson in Sinderella , his adult adaptation of Cinderella , as Baron Hard-on . A live recording of one of the dates on the tour of the pantomime was later adapted , and edited for video , and put out for sale nationwide . Personal life Drake was married twice and was survived by three sons . He was married to Heather Barnes ( born 1935 ) , a dancer , from 1953 until 1971 , and they had three sons . In 1976 Drake married his second wife , Elaine Bird ( born 1959 ) - also a dancer , but the marriage was dissolved in 1984 . Retirement Drake suffered a stroke in 1995 and retired , staying at Brinsworth House , a retirement home for actors and performers , run by the Entertainment Artistes ' Benevolent Fund , until his death on 23 December 2006 , after suffering multiple strokes the previous night . Discography Singles * `` Splish Splash '' / `` Hello My Darlings '' ( 1958 ) UK No . 7 * `` Volare '' / `` Itchy Twitchy Feeling '' ( 1958 ) UK No . 28 * `` Tom Thumb 's Tune '' / `` Goggle Eye Ghee '' ( 1958 ) * `` Sea Cruise '' / `` Starkle Starkle Little Twink '' ( 1959 ) * `` Naughty '' / `` Old Mr Shadow '' ( 1960 ) * `` Mr. Custer '' / `` Glow Worm '' ( 1960 ) UK No . 12 * `` My Boomerang Wo n't Come Back '' / `` She 's My Girl '' ( 1961 ) UK No . 14 ; US # 21 ; Australia No . 1 * `` Tanglefoot '' / `` Drake 's Progress '' ( 1962 ) * `` I Bent My Assegai '' / `` Sweet Freddy Green '' ( 1962 ) * `` I 've Lost The End of My Yodel '' / `` I Can , Ca n't I '' ( 1963 ) * `` I 'm Too Heavy for the Light Brigade '' / `` The Reluctant Tight-Rope Walker '' ( 1964 ) * `` Charles Drake 007 '' / `` Bumpanology '' ( 1964 ) * `` Only A Working Man '' / `` I 'm A Boy '' ( 1965 ) * `` Do n't Trim My Wick '' / `` Birds '' ( 1966 ) * `` Who Is Sylvia '' / `` I Wan na Be a Group '' ( 1967 ) * `` Puckwudgie '' / `` Toffee and Tears '' ( 1972 ) UK No . 47 * `` You Never Know '' ( 1976 ) ( produced by Peter Gabriel ) * `` Super Punk '' ( 1976 ) ( spoof record ) Some sources claim that Drake was responsible for the spoof `` Gim me That Punk Junk '' ( 1976 ) , recorded under the name The Water Pistols , but this may be due to confusion with his `` Super Punk '' ( 1976 ) ( spoof ) . Dave Goodman 's website refers to the two titles as separate entities . Theme Tune from The Worker Drake sang the theme song himself , based upon an old music hall song I gets up every mornin ' when the clock strikes eight I 'm always punctual , never never late With a nice cup of tea , a little round of toast The Sporting Life and the Winning Post . I gets all nice and tidy , then I toddles off to work I do the best I can Cos I 'm only a-doin ' what a bloke should do Cos I 'm only a workin ' man ! The song , `` Only A Working Man '' , written by Herbert Rule and Fred Holt in 1923 , was featured by Lily Morris on the music hall stage , and in the 1930 film , Elstree Calling , the original lyric being `` He 's only a workin ' man '' . Selected filmography * The Golden Link ( 1954 ) * Sands of the Desert ( 1960 ) * Petticoat Pirates ( 1961 ) * The Cracksman ( 1963 ) * Mister Ten Per Cent ( 1967 ) * Professor Popper 's Problem ( 1974 ) Notes

odql_13981--Charlie_Drake.txt

Which comedian, whose real name was Charles Springall, reached number one in 1958 with 'Splish, Splash'?

The Chakri Dynasty ( ; , , [ http : //www.forvo.com/word/ราชวงศ์จักรี/ # th Pronunciation ] ) is the current ruling royal house of the Kingdom of Thailand , while the Head of the house is the King of Thailand . The dynasty has ruled Thailand since the founding of the Rattanakosin Era and the city of Bangkok in 1782 following the end of King Taksin of Thonburi 's reign , when the capital of Siam shifted to Bangkok . The royal house was founded by King Rama I , an Ayutthayan military leader of Sino-Mon descent . Prior to the founding of the dynasty , King Rama I held for years the title Chakri , the title of the civil chancellor ( สมุหนายก ) . In founding the dynasty , King Rama I himself chose `` Chakri '' as the name for the dynasty . The emblem of the dynasty is composed of the discus ( Chakra ) and the trident ( Trisula ) , the celestial weapons of god Vishnu and Shiva , whom the Thai sovereign is seen as an incarnation . The current head of the house has been King Bhumibol Adulyadej since 1946 , while his heir apparent is Crown Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn . The house 's current dynastic seat is the Grand Palace in Bangkok . Royal Family of Thailand The present royal family of Thailand is descended from Prince Mahidol Adulyadej of Songkla ( 1891–1929 ) and Srinagarindra ( later Princess Mother ) ( 1900–95 ) forming the House of Mahidol ( ราชสกุลมหิดล ) ( a cadet branch of the dynasty ) . The Prince was a son of King Chulalongkorn and his wife Queen Savang Vadhana . The Prince was also the half-brother of both King Vajiravudh and King Prajadhipok . After the death of King Ananda Mahidol ( Prince Mahidol 's elder son ) , the present monarch , King Bhumibol Adulyadej ( the Prince 's younger son ) ascended the throne in 1946 . In 1949 the King married his first cousin once removed , Mom Rajawongse Sirikit Kitiyakara ( a daughter of Mom Chao Nakkhatra Mangkala Kitiyakara , a grandson of King Chulalongkorn ) . Members This is a list of current members of the royal family : * HM The King * HM The Queen ( the King 's consort ) * Princess Ubolratana Rajakanya ( the King 's eldest daughter ) * HRH The Crown Prince ( the King 's eldest son ) * * HRH Princess Bajrakitiyabha ( the Crown Prince 's eldest daughter ) * * HRH Princess Sirivannavari Nariratana ( the Crown Prince 's younger daughter ) * * HRH Prince Dipangkorn Rasmijoti ( the Crown Prince 's youngest son ) * HRH Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn ( the King 's second eldest daughter ) * HRH Princess Chulabhorn Walailak ( the King 's youngest daughter ) * * HRH Princess Siribhachudhabhorn ( Princess Chulabhorn 's eldest daughter ) * * HRH Princess Adityadhornkitikhun ( Princess Chulabhorn 's younger daughter ) Other Members * HRH Princess Soamsawali ( the Crown Prince 's former consort and mother of Princess Bajrakitiyabha ) * Khun Ploypailin Jensen ( Princess Ubolratana 's elder daughter ) * Khun Sirikitiya Jensen ( Princess Ubolratana 's younger daughter ) * Thanpuying Dhasanawalaya Sornsongkram ( the King 's niece , daughter of the late Princess Galyani Vadhana ) Other non-official members * HSH Prince Juthavachara Mahidol ( the Crown Prince 's first son , birth by his ex-wife ) * HSH Prince Vacharaesorn Mahidol ( the Crown Prince 's second son , birth by his ex-wife ) * HSH Prince Chakriwat Mahidol ( the Crown Prince 's third son , birth by his ex-wife ) * HSH Prince Vatchrawee Mahidol ( the Crown Prince 's fourth son , birth by his ex-wife ) Recently deceased members * HRH Princess Bejaratana Rajasuda , the King 's cousin ( the only daughter of King Vajiravudh ) ( 2011 ) * HRH Princess Galyani Vadhana , the Princess of Naradhiwas ( the King 's elder sister ) ( 2008 ) * Khun Bhumi Jensen ( Princess Ubolratana 's son ) ( 2004 ) * HRH Princess Srinagarindra , the Princess Mother ( the King 's mother , also mother of King Rama VIII ) ( 1995 ) History Monarchs Timeline ImageSize = width:1000 height : auto barincrement:25 PlotArea = top:20 bottom:20 right:10 left:10 AlignBars = late DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:1780 till:2015 TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:10 start:1782 Colors = id : king value : rgb ( 1,0.70,0 ) legend : King BarData = barset : PM PlotData= align : left fontsize : S shift : ( 3 , -4 ) anchor : from width:15 barset : PM from : start till : 1809 color : king text : '' Phutthayotfa Chulalok '' fontsize:9 from : 1809 till : 1824 color : king text : '' Buddha Loetla Nabhalai '' fontsize:9 from : 1824 till : 1851 color : king text : '' Nangklao '' fontsize:9 from : 1851 till : 1868 color : king text : '' Mongkut '' fontsize:9 from : 1868 till : 1910 color : king text : '' Chulalongkorn '' fontsize:9 from : 1910 till : 1925 color : king text : '' Vajiravudh '' fontsize:9 from : 1925 till : 1935 color : king text : '' Prajadhipok '' fontsize:9 from : 1935 till : 1946 color : king text : '' Ananda Mahidol '' fontsize:9 from : 1946 till : end color : king text : '' Bhumibol Adulyadej '' fontsize:9 Front Palaces The Maha Uparat ( มหาอุปราช ) or the Krom Phrarajawang Bavorn Sathan Mongkol ( Vice or Second King of Siam ) ( กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานมงคล ) was an office that was bestowed on the highest ranking prince , frequently the monarch 's younger brother or son . Until 1885 every Chakri monarch had appointed a prince to this office . The Uprarat and his miniature court would reside at the Front Palace ( วังหน้า ) ( a palace complex to the north of the Grand Palace , now the site of the National Museum ) . By tradition the Uparat was designated the heir to the throne , however only Prince Isarasundhorn was able to ascend the throne as King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai . The office was extremely prestigious and carried with it almost equal status to the king , this can be seen in Prince Chutamani ( younger brother of King Mongkut ) , who was elevated to King Pinklao in 1851 ( he carried with him the styles and titles of a King ) . The office was abolished by King Chulalongkorn when his Uparat and cousin Prince Bovorn Vichaicharn died . He then declared his oldest son the Crown Prince of Siam , but not Uparat . Rear Palace Krom Phrarajawang Boworn Sathan Phimuk ( กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานพิมุข ) or the Rear Palace , was another office inherited from the Kingdom of Ayutthaya . However , since the founding of the dynasty there has only been one rear palace . Prince Anurak Devesh was the nephew of King Buddha Yodfa Chualoke ( his mother Princess Thepsuthavadi was the king 's elder sister ) was appointed to the office in 1785 . Crown Princes The Crown Prince of Thailand or Sayam Makutrajakuman ( สยามมกุฎราชกุมาร ) is the designated and heir apparent to the throne and headship of the dynasty . The title was created in 1886 when King Chulalongkorn appointed his eldest son by Princess Consort Savang Vadhana , Prince Vajirunhis as Sayam Makutrajakuman . The title was copied directly from the Western tradition . Since then , there has only been three crown princes . The present crown prince is HRH Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn who was invested with the title in 1972 . The succession is governed by the 1924 Palace Law of Succession passed by King Vajiravudh . Royal consorts Family Tree Cadet Houses Royal Houses Viceregal Houses

tb_1360--Chakri_Dynasty.txt

Which country is currently ruled by the Chakri dynasty that has been in power since 1782?

Zeebrugge ( , from : Brugge aan zee meaning `` Bruges on Sea '' , ) is a village on the coast of Belgium and a subdivision of Bruges , for which it is the modern port . Zeebrugge serves as both the international port of Bruges-Zeebrugge and a seafront resort with hotels , cafés , a marina and a beach . Location Located on the coast of the North Sea , its central location on the Belgian coast , short distance to Great Britain and close vicinity to densely populated industrialised cities make Zeebrugge a crossroads for traffic from all directions . An expressway to Bruges connects Zeebrugge to the European motorway system ; one can also get to and from Zeebrugge by train or tram . It is Belgium 's most important fishing port and the wholesale fish market located there is one of the largest in Europe . Aside from being a passenger terminal with ferries to the United Kingdom , the harbour serves as the central port for Europe 's automotive industry , and it is important for the import , handling and storage of energy products , agriculture products and other general cargo . Zeebrugge has the largest LNG terminal complex in Europe . History The harbour was the site of the Zeebrugge Raid on 23 April 1918 , when the British Royal Navy temporarily put the German inland naval base at Bruges out of action . Admiral Roger Keyes planned and led the raid that stormed the German batteries and sank three old warships at the entrance to the canal leading to the inland port . This action blocked access to the port and prevented U-boats and other shipping from using it . The raid , although a morale boosting victory in Britain , was only a partial military success . Later , Zeebrugge 's harbour was the scene of disaster when in 1987 the MS Herald of Free Enterprise passenger ferry capsized killing 193 people . Passenger ferry routes * P & O Ferries to Hull , United Kingdom * Zeebrugge - Rosyth ferry service operated by Norfolkline to Rosyth , United Kingdom ( from May 2009 ) ( This service ended on 15 December 2010 )

qz_4151--Zeebrugge.txt

What was the name of the ferry that capsized after leaving Zeebrugge in 1987

Anthony Charles Lynton Blair ( born 6 May 1953 ) is a British politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007 and the Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007 . Together with then-US President George W. Bush , he initiated the Iraq War with the invasion of Iraq , an act which remains highly controversial . From 1983 to 2007 , Blair was the Member of Parliament for Sedgefield and was elected Labour Party leader in July 1994 , following the sudden death of his predecessor , John Smith . Under Blair 's leadership , the party used the phrase `` New Labour '' , to distance it from previous Labour policies and the traditional conception of socialism . Blair declared support for a new conception that he referred to as `` social-ism '' , involving politics that recognised individuals as socially interdependent , and advocated social justice , cohesion , equal worth of each citizen , and equal opportunity . Critics of Blair denounced him for having the Labour Party abandon genuine socialism and accepting capitalism . In May 1997 , the Labour Party won a landslide general election victory , the largest in its history , allowing Blair , at 43 years old , to become the youngest Prime Minister since Lord Liverpool in 1812 . In September 1997 , Blair attained early personal popularity , receiving a 93 % public approval rating , after his public response to the death of Diana , Princess of Wales . The Labour Party went on to win two more elections under his leadership : in 2001 , in which it won another landslide victory , and in 2005 , with a reduced majority . In the first years of the New Labour government , Blair 's government introduced the National Minimum Wage Act , Human Rights Act , and Freedom of Information Act . Blair 's government also carried out the devolution , the establishing of the Scottish Parliament , the National Assembly for Wales , and the Northern Ireland Assembly , thus fulfilling four of the promises in its 1997 manifesto . In Northern Ireland , Blair was involved in the 1998 Good Friday Agreement . Blair strongly supported the foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration , and ensured that British Armed Forces participated in the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and , more controversially , the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Blair has faced strong criticism for his role in the invasion of Iraq , including calls for having him tried for war crimes and waging a war of aggression . In 2016 the Iraq Inquiry strongly criticised his actions and described the invasion of Iraq as unjustified and unnecessary . Blair was succeeded as the leader of the Labour Party on 24 June 2007 , and as Prime Minister on 27 June 2007 by Gordon Brown . On the day that Blair resigned as Prime Minister , he was appointed the official Envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East , which he held until 27 May 2015 . He now runs a consultancy business and has set up various foundations in his own name , including the Tony Blair Faith Foundation . Early life Blair was born in Edinburgh , Scotland , on 6 May 1953 , the second son of Leo and Hazel ( Corscadden ) Blair . Leo Blair , the illegitimate son of two English actors , had been adopted as a baby by Glasgow shipyard worker James Blair and his wife , Mary . Hazel Corscadden was the daughter of George Corscadden , a butcher and Orangeman who moved to Glasgow in 1916 but returned to ( and later died in ) Ballyshannon , County Donegal in 1923 , where his wife , Sarah Margaret ( née Lipsett ) , gave birth to Blair 's mother , Hazel , above the family 's grocery shop . Blair has one elder brother , Sir William Blair , a High Court judge , and a younger sister , Sarah . Blair spent the first 19 months of his life at the family home in Paisley Terrace in the Willowbrae area of Edinburgh . During this period , his father worked as a junior tax inspector whilst also studying for a law degree from the University of Edinburgh . In the 1950s , his family spent three and a half years in Adelaide , South Australia , where his father was a lecturer in law at the University of Adelaide . The Blairs lived close to the university , in the suburb of Dulwich . The family returned to the UK in the late 1950s , living for a time with Hazel 's mother and stepfather ( William McClay ) at their home in Stepps , near Glasgow . He spent the remainder of his childhood in Durham , England , where his father Leo lectured at Durham University . Education After attending the Chorister School in Durham from 1961 to 1966 , Blair boarded at Fettes College , a prestigious independent school in Edinburgh , during which time he met Charlie Falconer ( a pupil at the rival Edinburgh Academy ) , whom he later appointed Lord Chancellor . Blair reportedly modelled himself on Mick Jagger . His teachers were unimpressed with him ; his biographer , John Rentoul , reported that `` All the teachers I spoke to when researching the book said he was a complete pain in the backside and they were very glad to see the back of him . '' After Fettes , Blair spent a year in London , where he attempted to find fame as a rock music promoter before reading Jurisprudence at St John 's College , at the University of Oxford . As a student , he played guitar and sang in a rock band called Ugly Rumours . He was influenced by fellow student and Anglican priest Peter Thomson , who awakened his religious faith and left-wing politics . While Blair was at Oxford , his mother Hazel died of cancer , which greatly affected him . After graduating from Oxford in 1975 with a Second-Class Honours B.A . in Jurisprudence , Blair became a member of Lincoln 's Inn , enrolled as a pupil barrister , and met his future wife , Cherie Booth ( daughter of the actor Tony Booth ) at the law chambers founded by Derry Irvine ( who was to be Blair 's first Lord Chancellor ) , 11 King 's Bench Walk Chambers . Early political career Blair joined the Labour Party shortly after graduating from Oxford in 1975 . In the early 1980s , he was involved in Labour politics in Hackney South and Shoreditch , where he aligned himself with the `` soft left '' of the party . He put himself forward as a candidate for the Hackney council elections of 1982 in Queensbridge ward , a safe Labour area , but was not selected.John Rentoul , Tony Blair , Warner Books , 1996 , p. 101 . In 1982 , Blair was selected as the Labour candidate in the safe Conservative seat of Beaconsfield , where there was a forthcoming by-election . Although Blair lost the Beaconsfield by-election and 10 % of the vote , he acquired a profile within the party . In contrast to his later centrism , Blair made it clear in a letter he wrote to Labour leader Michael Foot in July 1982 ( published in 2006 ) that he had `` come to Socialism through Marxism '' and considered himself on the left . Like Tony Benn , Blair believed that `` Labour right '' was bankrupt : `` Socialism ultimately must appeal to the better minds of the people . You can not do that if you are tainted overmuch with a pragmatic period in power . '' Yet , he saw the hard left as no better , saying : With a general election due , Blair had not been selected as a candidate anywhere . He was invited to stand again in Beaconsfield , and was initially inclined to agree but was advised by his head of chambers Derry Irvine to find somewhere else which might be winnable . The situation was complicated by the fact that Labour was fighting a legal action against planned boundary changes , and had selected candidates on the basis of previous boundaries . When the legal challenge failed , the party had to rerun all selections on the new boundaries ; most were based on existing seats , but unusually in County Durham a new Sedgefield constituency had been created out of Labour-voting areas which had no obvious predecessor seat.John Rentoul , Tony Blair , Warner Books , 1996 , p. 115 . The selection for Sedgefield did not begin until after the 1983 election was called . Blair 's initial inquiries discovered that the left was trying to arrange the selection for Les Huckfield , sitting MP for Nuneaton who was trying elsewhere ; several sitting MPs displaced by boundary changes were also interested in it . When he discovered the Trimdon branch had not yet made a nomination , Blair visited them and won the support of the branch secretary John Burton , and with Burton 's help was nominated by the branch . At the last minute , he was added to the shortlist and won the selection over Huckfield . It was the last candidate selection made by Labour before the election , and was made after the Labour Party had issued biographies of all its candidates ( `` Labour 's Election Who 's Who '' ) . John Burton became Blair 's election agent and one of his most trusted and longest-standing allies . Blair 's election literature in the 1983 UK general election endorsed left-wing policies that Labour advocated in the early 1980s . He called for Britain to leave the EEC as early as the 1970s , though he had told his selection conference that he personally favoured continuing membership and voted `` Yes '' in the 1975 referendum on the subject . He opposed the Exchange Rate Mechanism ( ERM ) in 1986 but supported the ERM by 1989 . He was a member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament , despite never strongly being in favour of unilateral nuclear disarmament . Blair was helped on the campaign trail by soap opera actress Pat Phoenix , his father-in-law 's girlfriend . Blair was elected as MP for Sedgefield despite the party 's landslide defeat in the general election . In his maiden speech in the House of Commons on 6 July 1983 , Blair stated , `` I am a socialist not through reading a textbook that has caught my intellectual fancy , nor through unthinking tradition , but because I believe that , at its best , socialism corresponds most closely to an existence that is both rational and moral . It stands for cooperation , not confrontation ; for fellowship , not fear . It stands for equality . '' Once elected , Blair 's political ascent was rapid . He received his first front-bench appointment in 1984 as assistant Treasury spokesman . In May 1985 , he appeared on BBC 's Question Time , arguing that the Conservative Government 's Public Order White Paper was a threat to civil liberties . Blair demanded an inquiry into the Bank of England 's decision to rescue the collapsed Johnson Matthey Bank in October 1985 . By this time , Blair was aligned with the reforming tendencies in the party ( headed by leader Neil Kinnock ) and was promoted after the 1987 election to the shadow Trade and Industry team as spokesman on the City of London . Leadership roles In 1987 , he stood for election to the Shadow Cabinet , receiving 71 votes . When Kinnock resigned after a further Conservative victory in the 1992 election , Blair became Shadow Home Secretary under John Smith . The old guard argued that trends showed they were regaining strength under Smith 's strong leadership . Meanwhile , the breakaway SDP faction had merged with the Liberal Party ; the resulting Liberal Democrats seemed to pose a major threat to the Labour base . Tony Blair had an entirely different vision . Blair , the leader of the modernising faction , argued that the long-term trends had to be reversed . The Party was too locked into a base that was shrinking , since it was based on the working-class , on trade unions , and on residents of subsidised council housing . The rapidly growing middle class was largely ignored , especially the more ambitious working-class families . They aspired to middle-class status , but accepted the Conservative argument that Labour was holding ambitious people back with its levelling down policies . They increasingly saw Labour in terms defined by the opposition , regarding higher taxes and higher interest rates . In order to present a fresh face and new policies to the elect , New Labour needed more than fresh leaders ; it had to jettison outdated policies . The first step was procedural , but essential . Calling on the slogan , `` One member , one vote '' Blair ( with some help from Smith ) defeated the union element and ended the block voting by which leaders of labour unions cast hundreds of thousands of votes on behalf of their members , and had an outsize voice in the party . Blair and the modernizers called for radical adjustment of Party goals by repealing `` Clause IV , '' the historic commitment to nationalisation of industry . That was achieved in 1995 . Opposition Leader John Smith died suddenly in 1994 of a heart attack . Blair beat John Prescott and Margaret Beckett in the subsequent leadership election and became Leader of the Opposition . As is customary for the holder of that office , Blair was appointed a Privy Councillor . Labour was seen by the The Guardian to be `` definitely socialistic '' since its first constitution was published in 1918 , saying that support for the `` common ownership of the means of production and exchange '' in Clause IV of the party 's constitution , was `` decisive '' in making Labour a socialist party . Blair announced at the end of his speech at the 1994 Labour Party conference that he intended to replace this clause of the party 's constitution with a new statement of aims and values . This involved the deletion of the party 's stated commitment to `` the common ownership of the means of production and exchange '' , which was widely interpreted as referring to wholesale nationalisation . At a special conference in April 1995 , the clause was replaced by a statement that the party is `` democratic socialist '' , and Blair also claimed to be a `` democratic socialist '' himself in the same year . However , the move away from nationalisation in the old Clause IV made many on the left of the Labour Party feel that Labour was moving away from traditional socialist principles of nationalisation set out in 1918 , and was seen by them as part of a shift of the party towards `` New Labour '' . He inherited the Labour leadership at a time when the party was ascendant over the Tories in the opinion polls since the Tory government 's reputation for monetary excellence was left in tatters by the Black Wednesday economic disaster of September 1992 . Blair 's election as leader saw Labour support surge higher still in spite of the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment that the Conservative government ( led by John Major ) had overseen since the end of the 1990–92 recession . At the 1996 Labour Party conference , Blair stated that his three top priorities on coming to office were `` education , education , and education '' . Aided by the unpopularity of John Major 's Conservative government ( itself deeply divided over the European Union ) , `` New Labour '' won a landslide victory in the 1997 general election , ending 18 years of Conservative Party government , with the heaviest Conservative defeat since 1906 . According to diaries released by Paddy Ashdown , during Smith 's leadership of the Labour Party , there were discussions with Ashdown about forming a coalition government if the next general election resulted in a hung parliament . Ashdown also claimed that Blair was a supporter of proportional representation ( PR ) . In addition to Ashdown , Liberal Democrat MPs Menzies Campbell and Alan Beith were earmarked for places in the cabinet if the coalition was formed . Blair was forced to back down on these proposals because John Prescott and Gordon Brown opposed the PR system , and many members of the shadow cabinet were worried about concessions being made towards the Lib Dems . However , after Blair became leader , these talks continued – despite virtually every opinion poll since late 1992 having shown Labour with enough support to form a majority . However , the scale of the Labour victory meant that there was ultimately never any need for a coalition . Prime Minister Blair became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 2 May 1997 , serving concurrently as First Lord of the Treasury , Minister for the Civil Service and Leader of the Labour Party . The 43-year-old Blair became the youngest person to become Prime Minister since Lord Liverpool became Prime Minister at the age of 42 in 1812 . With victories in 1997 , 2001 , and 2005 , Blair was the Labour Party 's longest-serving prime minister , the only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories . Northern Ireland His contribution towards assisting the Northern Ireland peace process by helping to negotiate the Good Friday Agreement ( after 30 years of conflict ) was widely recognised . Following the Omagh bombing on 15 August 1998 , by members of the Real IRA opposed to the peace process , which killed 29 people and wounded hundreds , Blair visited the County Tyrone town and met with victims at Royal Victoria Hospital , Belfast . Military intervention and the War on Terror In his first six years in office Blair ordered British troops into battle five times , more than any other prime minister in British history . This included Iraq in both 1998 and 2003 , Kosovo ( 1999 ) , Sierra Leone ( 2000 ) and Afghanistan ( 2001 ) . The Kosovo War , which Blair had advocated on moral grounds , was initially a failure when it relied solely on air strikes ; the threat of a ground offensive convinced Serbia 's Slobodan Milošević to withdraw . Blair had been a major advocate for a ground offensive , which Bill Clinton was reluctant to do , and ordered that 50,000 soldiers – most of the available British Army – should be made ready for action.Andrew Marr , A History of Modern Britain ( 2008 printing ) , p. 550 The following year , the limited Operation Palliser in Sierra Leone swiftly swung the tide against the rebel forces ; before deployment , the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone had been on the verge of collapse.Gberie , Lansana ( 2005 ) . A Dirty War in West Africa : the RUF and the Destruction of Sierra Leone , p. 176 . Indiana UP . Palliser had been intended as an evacuation mission but Brigadier David Richards was able to convince Blair to allow him to expand the role ; at the time , Richards ' action was not known and Blair was assumed to be behind it . Blair ordered Operation Barras , a highly successful SAS/Parachute Regiment strike to rescue hostages from a Sierra Leone rebel group . Historian Andrew Marr has argued that the success of ground attacks , real and threatened , over air strikes alone was influential on how Blair planned the Iraq War , and that the success of the first three wars Blair fought `` played to his sense of himself as a moral war leader '' .Andrew Marr , A History of Modern Britain ( 2008 printing ) ; p. 551 When asked in 2010 if the success of Palliser may have `` embolden [ ed ] British politicians '' to think of military action as a policy option , General Sir David Richards admitted there `` might be something in that '' . From the start of the War on Terror in 2001 , Blair strongly supported the foreign policy of George W. Bush , participating in the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq . The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial , as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair 's MPs opposed it . As a result , he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision . Alastair Campbell described Blair 's statement that the intelligence on WMDs was `` beyond doubt '' as his `` assessment of the assessment that was given to him . '' In 2009 , Blair stated that he would have supported removing Saddam Hussein from power even in the face of proof that he had no such weapons . Playwright Harold Pinter and former Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad accused Blair of war crimes . Testifying before the Iraq Inquiry on 29 January 2010 , Blair said Saddam was a `` monster and I believe he threatened not just the region but the world . '' Blair said that British and American attitude towards Saddam Hussein had `` changed dramatically '' after 11 September attacks . Blair denied that he would have supported the invasion of Iraq even if he had thought Saddam had no weapons of mass destruction . He said he believed the world was safer as a result of the invasion . He said there was `` no real difference between wanting regime change and wanting Iraq to disarm : regime change was US policy because Iraq was in breach of its UN obligations . '' In an October 2015 CNN interview with Fareed Zakaria , Blair apologised for his `` mistakes '' over Iraq War and admitted there were `` elements of truth '' to the view that the invasion helped promote the rise of ISIS . The Chilcot Inquiry report of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair 's role in the Iraq War , though the former prime minister again refused to apologise for his decision to back the US-led invasion . Relationship with Parliament One of his first acts as Prime Minister was to replace the then twice-weekly 15-minute sessions of Prime Minister 's Questions held on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a single 30-minute session on Wednesdays . In addition to PMQs , Blair held monthly press conferences at which he fielded questions from journalists and – from 2002 – broke precedent by agreeing to give evidence twice yearly before the most senior Commons select committee , the Liaison Committee . Blair was sometimes perceived as paying insufficient attention both to the views of his own Cabinet colleagues and to those of the House of Commons . His style was sometimes criticised as not that of a prime minister and head of government , which he was , but of a president and head of state – which he was not . Blair was accused of excessive reliance on spin . He is the first British Prime Minister to have been formally questioned by police , though not under caution , while still in office . Events before resignation As the casualties of the Iraq War mounted , Blair was accused of misleading Parliament , and his popularity dropped dramatically . Labour 's overall majority in the 2005 general election was reduced to 66 . As a combined result of the Blair–Brown pact , Iraq war and low approval ratings , pressure built up within the Labour party for Blair to resign . Over the summer of 2006 many MPs , including usually supportive MPs , criticised Blair for his failure to call for a ceasefire in the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict . On 7 September 2006 , Blair publicly stated he would step down as party leader by the time of the Trades Union Congress ( TUC ) conference held 10–13 September 2007 , having promised to serve a full term during the previous general election campaign . On 10 May 2007 , during a speech at the Trimdon Labour Club , Blair announced his intention to resign as Labour Party leader and Prime Minister . At a special party conference in Manchester on 24 June 2007 , he formally handed over the leadership of the Labour Party to Gordon Brown , who had been Chancellor of the Exchequer . Blair tendered his resignation on 27 June 2007 and Brown assumed office the same afternoon . Blair resigned his seat in the House of Commons in the traditional form of accepting the Stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds , to which he was appointed by Gordon Brown in one of the latter 's last acts as Chancellor of the Exchequer . The resulting Sedgefield by-election was won by Labour 's candidate , Phil Wilson . Blair decided not to issue a list of Resignation Honours , making him the first Prime Minister of the modern era not to do so . Policies Social reforms In 2001 , Blair said , `` We are a left of centre party , pursuing economic prosperity and social justice as partners and not as opposites '' . Blair rarely applies such labels to himself , but he promised before the 1997 election that New Labour would govern `` from the radical centre '' , and according to one lifelong Labour Party member , has always described himself as a social democrat . However , at least one left-wing commentator has said that Blair is to the right of centre . A YouGov opinion poll in 2005 found that a small majority of British voters , including many New Labour supporters , place Blair on the right of the political spectrum . The Financial Times on the other hand has argued that Blair is not conservative , but instead a populist . Critics and admirers tend to agree that Blair 's electoral success was based on his ability to occupy the centre ground and appeal to voters across the political spectrum , to the extent that he has been fundamentally at odds with traditional Labour Party values . Some left-wing critics have argued that Blair has overseen the final stage of a long term shift of the Labour Party to the right , and that very little now remains of a Labour Left . There is some evidence that Blair 's long term dominance of the centre forced his Conservative opponents to shift a long distance to the left to challenge his hegemony there . Leading Conservatives of the post-New Labour era hold Blair in high regard : George Osborne describes him as `` the master '' ; Michael Gove once exclaimed , `` I ca n't hold it back any more—I love Tony '' ; while David Cameron reportedly maintains Blair as an informal adviser . During his time as prime minister , Blair raised taxes ; introduced a National Minimum Wage and some new employment rights ( while keeping Margaret Thatcher 's trade union reforms ) ; introduced significant constitutional reforms ; promoted new rights for gay people in the Civil Partnership Act 2004 ; and signed treaties integrating Britain more closely with the EU . He introduced substantial market-based reforms in the education and health sectors ; introduced student tuition fees ; sought to reduce certain categories of welfare payments , and introduced tough anti-terrorism and identity card legislation . Under Blair 's government the amount of new legislation increased which attracted criticism . Blair increased police powers by adding to the number of arrestable offences , compulsory DNA recording and the use of dispersal orders . He did not reverse the privatisation of the railways enacted by his predecessor John Major and instead strengthened regulation ( by creating the Office of Rail Regulation ) and limited fare rises to inflation +1 % . Environmental record Blair has criticised other governments for not doing enough to solve global climate change . In a 1997 visit to the United States , he made a comment on `` great industrialised nations '' that fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . Again in 2003 , Blair went before the United States Congress and said that climate change `` can not be ignored '' , insisting `` we need to go beyond even Kyoto . '' Blair and his party promised a 20 % reduction in carbon dioxide

sfq_14898--Tony_Blair.txt

What is the title of Tony Blair's autobiography/memoir published in 2010, which covered events from 1994 to his resignation as Prime Minister?

George I ( George Louis ; ; 28 May 1660 – 11 June 1727 ) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death , and ruler of the Duchy and Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg ( Hanover ) in the Holy Roman Empire from 1698 . George was born in Hanover and inherited the titles and lands of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from his father and uncles . A succession of European wars expanded his German domains during his lifetime , and in 1708 he was ratified as prince-elector of Hanover . At the age of 54 , after the death of Queen Anne of Great Britain , George ascended the British throne as the first monarch of the House of Hanover . Although over fifty Roman Catholics bore closer blood relationships to Anne , the Act of Settlement 1701 prohibited Catholics from inheriting the British throne ; George was Anne 's closest living Protestant relative . In reaction , Jacobites attempted to depose George and replace him with Anne 's Catholic half-brother , James Francis Edward Stuart , but their attempts failed . During George 's reign , the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to the modern system of cabinet government led by a prime minister . Towards the end of his reign , actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole , now recognised as Britain 's first de facto prime minister . George died on a trip to his native Hanover , where he was buried . Early life George was born on 28 May 1660 in Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire . He was the eldest son of Ernest Augustus , Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg , and his wife , Sophia of the Palatinate . Sophia was the granddaughter of King James I of England through her mother , Elizabeth of Bohemia . For the first year of his life , George was the only heir to the German territories of his father and three childless uncles . In 1661 George 's brother , Frederick Augustus , was born and the two boys ( known as Görgen and Gustchen within the family ) were brought up together . Their mother was absent for almost a year ( 1664–65 ) during a long convalescent holiday in Italy , but she corresponded regularly with her sons ' governess and took a great interest in her sons ' upbringing , even more so on her return . After Sophia 's tour she bore Ernest Augustus another four sons and a daughter . In her letters , Sophia describes George as a responsible , conscientious child who set an example to his younger brothers and sisters . By 1675 George 's eldest uncle had died without issue , but his remaining two uncles had married , putting George 's inheritance in jeopardy as his uncles ' estates might pass to their own sons , should they have had any , instead of to George . George 's father took him hunting and riding , and introduced him to military matters ; mindful of his uncertain future , Ernest Augustus took the fifteen-year-old George on campaign in the Franco-Dutch War with the deliberate purpose of testing and training his son in battle . In 1679 another uncle died unexpectedly without sons and Ernest Augustus became reigning Duke of Calenberg-Göttingen , with his capital at Hanover . George 's surviving uncle , George William of Celle , had married his mistress in order to legitimise his only daughter , Sophia Dorothea of Celle , but looked unlikely to have any further children . Under Salic law , where inheritance of territory was restricted to the male line , the succession of George and his brothers to the territories of their father and uncle now seemed secure . In 1682 , the family agreed to adopt the principle of primogeniture , meaning George would inherit all the territory and not have to share it with his brothers . Marriage The same year , George married his first cousin , Sophia Dorothea of Celle , thereby securing additional incomes that would have been outside Salic laws . The marriage of state was arranged primarily as it ensured a healthy annual income and assisted the eventual unification of Hanover and Celle . His mother was at first against the marriage because she looked down on Sophia Dorothea 's mother ( who was not of royal birth ) , and because she was concerned by Sophia Dorothea 's legitimated status . She was eventually won over by the advantages inherent in the marriage . In 1683 , George and his brother , Frederick Augustus , served in the Great Turkish War at the Battle of Vienna , and Sophia Dorothea bore George a son , George Augustus . The following year , Frederick Augustus was informed of the adoption of primogeniture , meaning he would no longer receive part of his father 's territory as he had expected . It led to a breach between father and son , and between the brothers , that lasted until Frederick Augustus 's death in battle in 1690 . With the imminent formation of a single Hanoverian state , and the Hanoverians ' continuing contributions to the Empire 's wars , Ernest Augustus was made an Elector of the Holy Roman Empire in 1692 . George 's prospects were now better than ever as the sole heir to his father 's electorate and his uncle 's duchy . Sophia Dorothea had a second child , a daughter named after her , in 1687 , but there were no other pregnancies . The couple became estranged—George preferred the company of his mistress , Melusine von der Schulenburg , by whom he had two daughters in 1692 and 1693 respectively ; and Sophia Dorothea , meanwhile , had her own romance with the Swedish Count Philip Christoph von Königsmarck . Threatened with the scandal of an elopement , the Hanoverian court , including George 's brothers and mother , urged the lovers to desist , but to no avail . According to diplomatic sources from Hanover 's enemies , in July 1694 the Swedish count was killed , possibly with the connivance of George , and his body thrown into the river Leine weighted with stones . The murder was claimed to have been committed by four of Ernest Augustus 's courtiers , one of whom ( Don Nicolò Montalbano ) was paid the enormous sum of 150,000 thalers , which was about one hundred times the annual salary of the highest paid minister . Later rumours supposed that Königsmarck was hacked to pieces and buried beneath the Hanover palace floorboards . However , sources in Hanover itself , including Sophia , denied any knowledge of Königsmarck 's whereabouts . George 's marriage to Sophia Dorothea was dissolved , not on the grounds that either of them had committed adultery , but on the grounds that Sophia Dorothea had abandoned her husband . With the concurrence of her father , George had Sophia Dorothea imprisoned in Ahlden House in her native Celle , where she stayed until she died more than thirty years later . She was denied access to her children and father , forbidden to remarry and only allowed to walk unaccompanied within the mansion courtyard . She was , however , endowed with an income , establishment , and servants , and was allowed to ride in a carriage outside her castle , albeit under supervision . Electoral reign Ernest Augustus died on 23 January 1698 leaving all of his territories to George with the exception of the Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück , an office he had held since 1661 . George thus became Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg ( also known as Hanover , after its capital ) as well as Archbannerbearer and a Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire . His court in Hanover was graced by many cultural icons such as the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and the composers George Frideric Händel and Agostino Steffani . Shortly after George 's accession to his paternal dukedom , Prince William , Duke of Gloucester , who was second-in-line to the English and Scottish thrones , died . By the terms of the English Act of Settlement 1701 , George 's mother , Sophia , was designated as the heir to the English throne if the then reigning monarch ( William III ) and his sister-in-law , Princess Anne of Denmark ( later Queen Anne ) died without surviving issue . The succession was so designed because Sophia was the closest Protestant relative of the British royal family . Fifty-six Catholics with superior hereditary claims were bypassed . The likelihood of any of them converting to Protestantism for the sake of the succession was remote ; some had already refused . In August 1701 , George was invested with the Order of the Garter and , within six weeks , the nearest Catholic claimant to the thrones , the former king James II , died . William III died the following March and was succeeded by Anne . Sophia became heiress presumptive to the new Queen of England . Sophia was in her seventy-first year , older than Anne by thirty-five years , but she was very fit and healthy and invested time and energy in securing the succession either for herself or her son . However , it was George who understood the complexities of English politics and constitutional law , which required further acts in 1705 to naturalise Sophia and her heirs as English subjects , and to detail arrangements for the transfer of power through a Regency Council . In the same year , George 's surviving uncle died and he inherited further German dominions : the Principality of Lüneburg-Grubenhagen , centred at Celle . Shortly after George 's accession in Hanover , the War of the Spanish Succession broke out . At issue was the right of Philip , the grandson of King Louis XIV of France , to succeed to the Spanish throne under the terms of King Charles II of Spain 's will . The Holy Roman Empire , the United Dutch Provinces , England , Hanover and many other German states opposed Philip 's right to succeed because they feared that the French House of Bourbon would become too powerful if it also controlled Spain . As part of the war effort , George invaded his neighbouring state , Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel , which was pro-French , writing out some of the battle orders himself . The invasion succeeded with few lives lost . As a reward , the prior Hanoverian annexation of the Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg by George 's uncle was recognised by the British and Dutch . In 1706 , the Elector of Bavaria was deprived of his offices and titles for siding with Louis against the Empire . The following year , George was invested as an Imperial Field Marshal with command of the imperial army stationed along the Rhine . His tenure was not altogether successful , partly because he was deceived by his ally , the Duke of Marlborough , into a diversionary attack , and partly because Emperor Joseph I appropriated the funds necessary for George 's campaign for his own use . Despite this , the German princes thought that he had acquitted himself well . In 1708 they formally confirmed George 's position as a Prince-Elector in recognition of , or because of , his service . George did not hold Marlborough 's actions against him which he understood were part of a plan to lure French forces from the main attack . In 1709 , George resigned as field marshal , never to go on active service again . In 1710 , he was granted the dignity of Archtreasurer of the Empire , an office formerly held by the Elector Palatine—the absence of the Elector of Bavaria allowed a reshuffling of offices . The death of the Emperor in 1711 threatened to destroy the balance of power in the opposite direction , so the war ended in 1713 with the ratification of the Treaty of Utrecht . Philip was allowed to succeed to the Spanish throne but was removed from the French line of succession , and the Elector of Bavaria was restored . Accession in Great Britain Though both England and Scotland recognised Anne as their queen , only the English Parliament had settled on Sophia , Electress of Hanover , as the heir presumptive . The Parliament of Scotland ( the Estates ) had not formally settled the succession question for the Scottish throne . In 1703 , the Estates passed a bill that declared that their selection for Queen Anne 's successor would not be the same individual as the successor to the English throne , unless England granted full freedom of trade to Scottish merchants in England and its colonies . At first Royal Assent was withheld , but the following year Anne capitulated to the wishes of the Estates and assent was granted to the bill , which became the Act of Security 1704 . In response the English Parliament passed measures which threatened to restrict Anglo-Scottish trade and cripple the Scottish economy if the Estates did not agree to the Hanoverian succession . Eventually , in 1707 , both Parliaments agreed on an Act of Union which united England and Scotland into a single political entity , the Kingdom of Great Britain , and established the rules of succession as laid down by the Act of Settlement 1701 . The union created the largest free trade area in eighteenth-century Europe . Whig politicians believed Parliament had the right to determine the succession , and bestow it on the nearest Protestant relative of the Queen , while many Tories were more inclined to believe in the hereditary right of the Catholic Stuarts , who were nearer relations . In 1710 , George announced that he would succeed in Britain by hereditary right , as the right had been removed from the Stuarts , and he retained it . `` This declaration was meant to scotch any Whig interpretation that parliament had given him the kingdom [ and ] ... convince the Tories that he was no usurper . '' George 's mother , the Electress Sophia , died on 28 May 1714 at the age of 83 . She had collapsed in the gardens at Herrenhausen after rushing to shelter from a shower of rain . George was now Queen Anne 's direct heir . He swiftly revised the membership of the Regency Council that would take power after Anne 's death , as it was known that Anne 's health was failing and politicians in Britain were jostling for power . She suffered a stroke , which left her unable to speak , and died on 1 August 1714 . The list of regents was opened , the members sworn in , and George was proclaimed King of Great Britain and Ireland . Partly due to contrary winds , which kept him in The Hague awaiting passage , he did not arrive in Britain until 18 September . George was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 20 October . His coronation was accompanied by rioting in over twenty towns in England . George mainly lived in Great Britain after 1714 though he visited his home in Hanover in 1716 , 1719 , 1720 , 1723 and 1725 ; in total George spent about one fifth of his reign as King in Germany . A clause in the Act of Settlement that forbade the British monarch from leaving the country without Parliament 's permission was unanimously repealed in 1716 . During all but the first of the King 's absences power was vested in a Regency Council rather than his son , George Augustus , Prince of Wales . Wars and rebellions Within a year of George 's accession the Whigs won an overwhelming victory in the general election of 1715 . Several members of the defeated Tory Party sympathised with the Jacobites , who sought to replace George with Anne 's Catholic half-brother , James Francis Edward Stuart ( called `` James III and VIII '' by his supporters and `` the Pretender '' by his opponents ) . Some disgruntled Tories sided with a Jacobite rebellion , which became known as `` The Fifteen '' . James 's supporters , led by Lord Mar , an embittered Scottish nobleman who had previously served as a secretary of state , instigated rebellion in Scotland where support for Jacobitism was stronger than in England . `` The Fifteen '' , however , was a dismal failure ; Lord Mar 's battle plans were poor , and James arrived late with too little money and too few arms . By the end of the year the rebellion had all but collapsed . In February 1716 , faced with impending defeat , James and Lord Mar fled to France . After the rebellion was defeated , although there were some executions and forfeitures , George acted to moderate the Government 's response , showed leniency , and spent the income from the forfeited estates on schools for Scotland and paying off part of the national debt . George 's distrust of the Tories aided the passing of power to the Whigs . Whig dominance would grow to be so great under George that the Tories would not return to power for another half-century . After the election , the Whig-dominated Parliament passed the Septennial Act 1715 , which extended the maximum duration of Parliament to seven years ( although it could be dissolved earlier by the Sovereign ) . Thus Whigs already in power could remain in such a position for a greater period of time . After his accession in Great Britain , George 's relationship with his son ( which had always been poor ) worsened . George Augustus , Prince of Wales , encouraged opposition to his father 's policies , including measures designed to increase religious freedom in Britain and expand Hanover 's German territories at the expense of Sweden . In 1717 the birth of a grandson led to a major quarrel between George and the Prince of Wales . The King , supposedly following custom , appointed the Lord Chamberlain , the Duke of Newcastle , as one of the baptismal sponsors of the child . The King was angered when the Prince of Wales , disliking Newcastle , verbally insulted the Duke at the christening , which the Duke misunderstood as a challenge to a duel . The Prince was told to leave the royal residence , St. James 's Palace . The Prince 's new home , Leicester House , became a meeting place for the King 's political opponents . George and his son were later reconciled at the insistence of Robert Walpole and the desire of the Princess of Wales , who had moved out with her husband but missed her children who had been left in the care of the King . However , following the quarrel at the baptism , father and son would never again be on cordial terms . George was active in directing British foreign policy during his early reign . In 1717 he contributed to the creation of the Triple Alliance , an anti-Spanish league composed of Great Britain , France and the United Provinces . In 1718 the Holy Roman Empire was added to the body which became known as the Quadruple Alliance . The subsequent War of the Quadruple Alliance involved the same issue as the War of the Spanish Succession . The Treaty of Utrecht ( 1713 ) had recognised the grandson of King Louis XIV of France , Philip , as the King of Spain on the condition that he gave up his rights to succeed to the French throne . Upon the death of Louis XIV in 1715 , however , Philip sought to overturn the treaty . Spain supported a Jacobite-led invasion of Scotland in 1719 but stormy seas allowed only about three hundred Spanish troops to arrive in Scotland . A base was established at Eilean Donan Castle on the west Scottish coast in April , only for it to be destroyed by British ships a month later . Attempts by the Jacobites to recruit Scottish clansmen yielded a fighting force of only about a thousand men . The Jacobites were poorly equipped , and were easily defeated by British artillery at the Battle of Glen Shiel . The clansmen dispersed into the Highlands , and the Spaniards surrendered . The invasion never posed any serious threat to George 's government . With the French this time fighting against him in the War , Philip 's armies fared poorly . As a result , the Spanish and French thrones remained separate . Simultaneously Hanover gained from the resolution of the Great Northern War which had been caused by rivalry between Sweden and Russia for control of the Baltic . The Swedish territories of Bremen and Verden were ceded to Hanover in 1719 , with Hanover paying Sweden monetary compensation for the loss of territory . Ministries In Hanover , the King was absolute monarch . All government expenditure above 50 thalers ( between 12 and 13 British pounds ) , and the appointment of all army officers , all ministers , and even government officials above the level of copyist , was in his personal control . In contrast , in Great Britain George had to govern through Parliament . In 1715 when the Whigs came to power , George 's chief ministers included Sir Robert Walpole , Lord Townshend ( Walpole 's brother-in-law ) , Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland . In 1717 Lord Townshend was dismissed and Walpole resigned from the Cabinet over disagreements with their colleagues ; Lord Stanhope became supreme in foreign affairs , and Lord Sunderland the same in domestic matters . Lord Sunderland 's power began to wane in 1719 . He introduced a Peerage Bill which attempted to limit the size of the House of Lords by restricting new creations . The measure would have solidified Sunderland 's control of the House by preventing the creation of opposition peers but it was defeated after Walpole led the opposition to the bill by delivering what was considered `` the most brilliant speech of his career '' . Walpole and Townshend were reappointed as ministers the following year and a new , supposedly unified , Whig government formed . Greater problems arose over financial speculation and the management of the national debt . Certain government bonds could not be redeemed without the consent of the bondholder and had been issued when interest rates were high ; consequently each bond represented a long-term drain on public finances , as bonds were hardly ever redeemed . In 1719 the South Sea Company proposed to take over £31 million ( three fifths ) of the British national debt by exchanging government securities for stock in the company . The Company bribed Lord Sunderland , George 's mistress Melusine von der Schulenburg , and Lord Stanhope 's cousin , Charles Stanhope , who was Secretary of the Treasury , to support their plan . The Company enticed bondholders to convert their high-interest , irredeemable bonds to low-interest , easily tradeable stocks by offering apparently preferential financial gains . Company prices rose rapidly ; the shares had cost £128 on 1 January 1720 , but were valued at £500 when the conversion scheme opened in May . On 24 June the price reached a peak of £1050 . The company 's success led to the speculative flotation of other companies , some of a bogus nature , and the Government , in an attempt to suppress these schemes and with the support of the Company , passed the Bubble Act . With the rise in the market now halted , uncontrolled selling began in August , which caused the stock to plummet to £150 by the end of September . Many individuals—including aristocrats—lost vast sums and some were completely ruined . George , who had been in Hanover since June , returned to London in November—sooner than he wanted or was usual—at the request of the ministry . The economic crisis , known as the South Sea Bubble , made George and his ministers extremely unpopular . In 1721 Lord Stanhope , though personally innocent , collapsed and died after a stressful debate in the House of Lords , and Lord Sunderland resigned from public office . Sunderland , however , retained a degree of personal influence with George until his sudden death in 1722 allowed the rise of Sir Robert Walpole . Walpole became de facto Prime Minister , although the title was not formally applied to him ( officially , he was First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer ) . His management of the South Sea crisis , by rescheduling the debts and arranging some compensation , helped the return to financial stability . Through Walpole 's skilful management of Parliament , George managed to avoid direct implication in the Company 's fraudulent actions . Claims that George had received free stock as a bribe are not supported by evidence ; indeed receipts in the Royal Archives show that he paid for his subscriptions and that he lost money in the crash . Later years As requested by Walpole , George revived the Order of the Bath in 1725 , which enabled Walpole to reward or gain political supporters by offering them the honour . Walpole became extremely powerful and was largely able to appoint ministers of his own choosing . Unlike his predecessor , Queen Anne , George rarely attended meetings of the cabinet ; most of his communications were in private , and he only exercised substantial influence with respect to British foreign policy . With the aid of Lord Townshend , he arranged for the ratification by Great Britain , France and Prussia of the Treaty of Hanover , which was designed to counterbalance the Austro-Spanish Treaty of Vienna and protect British trade . George , although increasingly reliant on Walpole , could still have replaced his ministers at will . Walpole was actually afraid of being removed from office towards the end of George I 's reign , but such fears were put to an end when George died during his sixth trip to his native Hanover since his accession as king . He suffered a stroke on the road between Delden and Nordhorn on 9 June 1727 , and was taken by carriage to the Prince-Bishop 's palace at Osnabrück where he died in the early hours of 11 June 1727 . He was buried in the chapel of Leine Castle but his remains were moved to the chapel at Herrenhausen after World War II . George was succeeded by his son , George Augustus , who took the throne as George II . It was widely assumed , even by Walpole for a time , that George II planned to remove Walpole from office but was prevented from doing so by his queen , Caroline of Ansbach . However , Walpole commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George II had little choice but to retain him or risk ministerial instability . In subsequent reigns the power of the prime minister increased further at the expense of the power of the sovereign . Legacy George was ridiculed by his British subjects ; some of his contemporaries , such as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu , thought him unintelligent on the grounds that he was wooden in public . Though he was unpopular in Great Britain due to his supposed inability to speak English , such an inability may not have existed later in his reign as documents from that time show that he understood , spoke and wrote English . He certainly spoke fluent German and French , good Latin , and some Italian and Dutch . His treatment of his wife , Sophia Dorothea , became something of a scandal . The British perceived him as too German , and in the opinion of historian Ragnhild Hatton , wrongly assumed that he had a succession of German mistresses . However , in mainland Europe , he was seen as a progressive ruler supportive of the Enlightenment who permitted his critics to publish without risk of severe censorship , and provided sanctuary to Voltaire when the philosopher was exiled from Paris in 1726 . European and British sources agree that George was reserved , temperate and financially prudent ; George disliked to be in the public light at social events , avoided the royal box at the opera and often travelled incognito to the house of a friend to play cards . Despite some unpopularity , the Protestant George I was seen by most of his subjects as a better alternative to the Roman Catholic Pretender James . William Makepeace Thackeray indicates such ambivalent feelings as he wrote : Writers of the nineteenth century , such as Thackeray , Sir Walter

qb_292--George_I_of_Great_Britain.txt

Who was the first Hanover King of England?

The Nobel Prize ( , ; Swedish definite form , singular : Nobelpriset ; ) is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian committees in recognition of academic , cultural and/or scientific advances . The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895 . The prizes in Chemistry , Literature , Peace , Physics , and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901 . The related Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was established by Sweden 's central bank in 1968 . Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold , and later from 18 carat green gold plated with a 24 carat gold coating . Between 1901 and 2015 , the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 573 times to 900 people and organizations . With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once , this makes a total of 870 individuals ( 822 men and 48 women ) and 23 organizations . The prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm , Sweden , except for the peace prize which is held in Oslo , Norway and each recipient , or laureate , receives a gold medal , a diploma and a sum of money that has been decided by the Nobel Foundation . ( , each prize was worth SEK8 million or about , €0.93 million or £0.6 million . ) The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature , medicine , physics , chemistry , peace , and economics . The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in Physics , the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ; the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ; the Swedish Academy grants the Nobel Prize in Literature ; and the Nobel Peace Prize is awarded not by a Swedish organisation but by the Norwegian Nobel Committee . The prize is not awarded posthumously ; however , if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it , the prize may still be presented . Though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century , a prize may not be shared among more than three people . History Alfred Nobel ( ) was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm , Sweden , into a family of engineers . He was a chemist , engineer , and inventor . In 1894 , Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill , which he made into a major armaments manufacturer . Nobel also invented ballistite . This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives , especially the British smokeless powder cordite . As a consequence of his patent claims , Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite . Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime , with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions , of which dynamite is the most famous . In 1888 , Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary , titled The merchant of death is dead , in a French newspaper . As it was Alfred 's brother Ludvig who had died , the obituary was eight years premature . The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered . This inspired him to change his will . On 10 December 1896 , Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo , Italy , from a cerebral haemorrhage . He was 63 years old . Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime . He composed the last over a year before he died , signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895 . To widespread astonishment , Nobel 's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the `` greatest benefit on mankind '' in physics , chemistry , physiology or medicine , literature , and peace . [ http : //www.nobelprize.org/alfred_nobel/will/will-full.html Full text of Alfred Nobel´s Will ] Nobel bequeathed 94 % of his total assets , 31 million SEK ( c. US $ 186 million , €150 million in 2008 ) , to establish the five Nobel Prizes . Because of scepticism surrounding the will , it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway . The executors of Nobel 's will , Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist , formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel 's fortune and organise the award of prizes . Nobel 's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize , the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897 . Soon thereafter , the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established . These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June , the Swedish Academy on 9 June , and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June . The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded ; and , in 1900 , the Nobel Foundation 's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II . In 1905 , the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved . Nobel Foundation The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900 . Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes . In accordance with Nobel 's will , the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left . Robert and Ludwig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan and , according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren , who accessed the Nobel family archives , it was this `` decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred 's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established '' . Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes . The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates . In many ways , the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company , in that it invests Nobel 's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities . The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden ( since 1946 ) and from investment taxes in the United States ( since 1953 ) . Since the 1980s , the Foundation 's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007 , the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor ( c. US $ 560 million ) . According to the statutes , the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens , with its seat in Stockholm . The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council , with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions . An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members , a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council , and two deputies are appointed by the trustees . However , since 1995 , all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees , and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself . As well as the board , the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions ( the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute , the Swedish Academy , and the Norwegian Nobel Committee ) , the trustees of these institutions , and auditors . First prizes Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place , the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes . Subsequently they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions . The Nobel Committee 's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen 's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard 's work on cathode rays . The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize . In the last decades of the 19th century , many chemists had made significant contributions . Thus , with the Chemistry Prize , the Academy `` was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize . '' The Academy received 20 nominations , eleven of them for Jacobus va n't Hoff . Va n't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics . The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature . A group including 42 Swedish writers , artists and literary critics protested against this decision , having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded . Some , including Burton Feldman , have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet . Feldman 's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet . The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring . During the 1890s , von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria , which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year . The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention , and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy , founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization . Second World War In 1938 and 1939 , Adolf Hitler 's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany ( Richard Kuhn , Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt , and Gerhard Domagk ) from accepting their prizes . Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal . Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War , the prizes were awarded irregularly . In 1939 , the Peace Prize was not awarded . No prize was awarded in any category from 1940–42 , due to the occupation of Norway by Germany . In the subsequent year , all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace . During the occupation of Norway , three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile . The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property . Thus it was a safe haven from the German military , which was not at war with Sweden . These members kept the work of the Committee going , but did not award any prizes . In 1944 , the Nobel Foundation , together with the three members in exile , made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again . Prize in Economic Sciences In 1968 , Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honor of Nobel . The following year , the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time . The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates . The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch `` for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes . '' Although not a Nobel Prize , it is intimately identified with the other awards ; the laureates are announced with the Nobel Prize recipients , and the Prize in Economic Sciences is presented at the Swedish Nobel Prize Award Ceremony . The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition , it would allow no further new prizes . Award process The award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes ; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them . Nominations Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals , usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded . These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area . Regarding the Peace Prize , inquiries are also sent to governments , former Peace Prize laureates and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee . The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award . The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names . The nominees are not publicly named , nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize . All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize . Selection The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields . This , along with the list of preliminary candidates , is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions . The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote . Their decision , which can not be appealed , is announced immediately after the vote . A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award . Except for the Peace Prize , which can be awarded to institutions , the awards can only be given to individuals . If the Peace Prize is not awarded , the money is split among the scientific prizes . This has happened 19 times so far . Posthumous nominations Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted , individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize . This has occurred twice : the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt , and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld . Since 1974 , laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement . There has been one laureate , William Vickrey , who in 1996 died after the prize ( in Economics ) was announced but before it could be presented . On 3 October 2011 , the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced ; however , the committee was not aware that one of the laureates , Ralph M. Steinman , had died three days earlier . The committee was debating about Steinman 's prize , since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously . The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize `` was made in good faith '' , it would remain unchanged . Recognition time lag Nobel 's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made `` during the preceding year '' . Early on , the awards usually recognised recent discoveries . However , some of these early discoveries were later discredited . For example , Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer . To avoid repeating this embarrassment , the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time . According to Ralf Pettersson , former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine , `` the criterion 'the previous year ' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident . '' The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline . The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement . The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work . For example , 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts . However , they can also be awarded for specific recent events . For instance , Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations . Similarly Yasser Arafat , Yitzhak Rabin , and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award , about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords . Although Nobel 's will stated that prizes should be awarded for contributions made `` during the preceding year '' , awards for physics , chemistry , and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted . Sometimes , this takes decades – for example , Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution . Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised . Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died . Award ceremonies Except for the Peace Prize , the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm , Sweden , at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December , the anniversary of Nobel 's death . The recipients ' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony . The Peace Prize and its recipients ' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo , Norway , usually on 10 December . The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events . The Prizes awarded in Sweden 's ceremonies ' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall , with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall . The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute ( 1905–1946 ) , at the auditorium of the University of Oslo ( 1947–1989 ) and at Oslo City Hall ( 1990–present ) . The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden . In Oslo , the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway . At first King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners . It is said that his mind changed once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden . Nobel Banquet After the award ceremony in Sweden , a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall , which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests . The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony . Apart from the laureate , guests include the President of the Storting , the Prime Minister , and , since 2006 , the King and Queen of Norway . In total , about 250 guests attend . Nobel lecture According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation , each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize . The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format . These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week ( the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet , which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet ) , but this is not mandatory . The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize . Some have happened even later . For example , U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910 , after his term in office . The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates . Prizes Medals It was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five ( Swedish ) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB . Formerly , the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket ( the Swedish Mint ) from 1902 to 2010 . Myntverket , Sweden 's oldest company , ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years . In 2011 , the Mint of Norway , located in Kongsberg , made the medals . The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation . Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse . The medals for physics , chemistry , physiology or medicine , and literature have identical obverses , showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death . Nobel 's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize , but with a slightly different design . For instance , the laureate 's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal . The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize . The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design . [ http : //osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/pictures/nobel-chemistry-medal.html `` Nobel Prize for Chemistry . Front and back images of the medal . 1954 '' ] , `` Source : Photo by Eric Arnold . Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers . Honors and Awards , 1954h2.1 '' , `` All Documents and Media : Pictures and Illustrations '' , Linus Pauling and The Nature of the Chemical Bond : A Documentary History , the Valley Library , Oregon State University . Retrieved 7 December 2007 . All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold . Since then , they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold . The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold , but averages about 175 g for each medal . The diameter is 66 mm and the thickness varies between and . Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display , Nobel medals are subject to medal theft . During World War II , the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping . When Germany invaded Denmark , chemist George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia ( nitro-hydrochloric acid ) , to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders . After the war , the gold was recovered from solution , and the medals re-cast . Diplomas Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden or , in the case of the peace prize , the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee . Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them . The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize . None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas . Award money The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes , in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded . The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year . The purse has increased since the 1980s , when the prize money was 880 000 SEK ( c. 2.6 million SEK , US $ 350 000 or €295,000 today ) per prize . In 2009 , the monetary award was 10 million SEK ( US $ 1.4 million , €950,000 ) . In June 2012 , it was lowered to 8 million SEK . If there are two laureates in a particular category , the award grant is divided equally between the recipients . If there are three , the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally , or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others . It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific , cultural , or humanitarian causes . Controversies and criticisms Controversial recipients Among other criticisms , the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda , and of omitting more deserving candidates . They have also been accused of Eurocentrism , especially for the Literature Prize . ; Peace Prize Among the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ . This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members . Lê Đức Thọ declined the prize . Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973 . However , when the award was announced , both sides were still engaging in hostilities . Many critics were of the opinion that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite , responsible for widening the war . Yasser Arafat , Shimon Peres , and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine . Immediately after the award was announced , one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned . Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers . Another controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009 . Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President , but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months . Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award , or worthy of the company it would place him in . Past Peace Prize laureates were divided , some saying that Obama deserved the award , and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade . Obama 's award , along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore , also prompted accusations of a left-wing bias . ; Literature Prize The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy , Knut Ahnlund . Ahnlund resigned , alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused `` irreparable damage to all progressive forces , it has also confused the general view of literature as an art . '' He alleged that Jelinek 's works were `` a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure . '' The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism . According to The Washington Post many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work . This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric . ; Science prizes In 1949 , the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy . The previous year Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out . Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure , Freeman 's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics . Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine , leucotomy or `` lobotomy '' became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz 's receipt of the Prize . Overlooked achievements The Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937–39 , 1947 , and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948 . Later , members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize . Geir Lundestad , Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006 said , `` The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize . Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize . Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question '' . In 1948 , the year of Gandhi 's death , the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that `` there was no suitable living candidate '' that year . Later , when the Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989 , the chairman of the committee said that this was `` in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi . '' Other high profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out . Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt , Václav Havel , Ken Saro-Wiwa , Sari Nusseibeh and Corazon Aquino as people who `` never won the prize , but should have . `` . The physicist Arnold Sommerfeld was nominated 81 times

sfq_3828--Nobel_Prize.txt

Which Manchester born physicist won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1906 and is regarded as the founder of modern atomic physics?

A comic strip is a sequence of drawings arranged in interrelated panels to display brief humor or form a narrative , often serialized , with text in balloons and captions . Traditionally , throughout the 20th century and into the 21st , these have been published in newspapers and magazines , with horizontal strips printed in black-and-white in daily newspapers , while Sunday newspapers offered longer sequences in special color comics sections . With the development of the internet , they began to appear online as web comics . There were more than 200 different comic strips and daily cartoon panels in American newspapers alone each day for most of the 20th century , for a total of at least 7,300,000 episodes . Strips are written and drawn by a comics artist or cartoonist . As the name implies , comic strips can be humorous ( for example , `` gag-a-day '' strips such as Blondie , Bringing Up Father , Marmaduke , and Pearls Before Swine ) . Starting in the late 1920s , comic strips expanded from their mirthful origins to feature adventure stories , as seen in Popeye , Captain Easy , Buck Rogers , Tarzan , and The Adventures of Tintin . Soap-opera continuity strips such as Judge Parker and Mary Worth gained popularity in the 1940s . All are called , generically , comic strips , though cartoonist Will Eisner has suggested that `` sequential art '' would be a better genre-neutral name . In the UK and the rest of Europe , comic strips are also serialized in comic book magazines , with a strip 's story sometimes continuing over three pages or more . Comic strips have appeared in American magazines such as Liberty and Boys ' Life and also on the front covers of magazines , such as the Flossy Frills series on The American Weekly Sunday newspaper supplement . History Storytelling using a sequence of pictures has existed through history . One medieval European example in textile form is the Bayeux Tapestry . Printed examples emerged in 19th-century Germany and in 18th-century England , where some of the first satirical or humorous sequential narrative drawings were produced . William Hogarth 's 18th century English cartoons include both narrative sequences , such as A Rake 's Progress , and single panels . The Biblia pauperum ( `` Paupers ' Bible '' ) , a tradition of picture Bibles beginning in the later Middle Ages , sometimes depicted Biblical events with words spoken by the figures in the miniatures written on scrolls coming out of their mouths—which makes them to some extent ancestors of the modern cartoon strips . In China , with its traditions of block printing and of the incorporation of text with image , experiments with what became lianhuanhua date back to 1884 . Newspapers The first newspaper comic strips appeared in North America in the late 19th century . The Yellow Kid is usually credited as the first . However , the art form combining words and pictures developed gradually and there are many examples which led up to the comic strip . Swiss author and caricature artist Rodolphe Töpffer ( Geneva , 1799–1846 ) is considered the father of the modern comic strips . His illustrated stories such as Histoire de M. Vieux Bois ( 1827 ) , first published in the USA in 1842 as The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck or Histoire de Monsieur Jabot ( 1831 ) , inspired subsequent generations of German and American comic artists . In 1865 , German painter , author , and caricaturist Wilhelm Busch created the strip Max and Moritz , about two trouble-making boys , which had a direct influence on the American comic strip . Max and Moritz was a series of severely moralistic tales in the vein of German children 's stories such as Struwwelpeter ( `` Shockheaded Peter '' ) ; in one , the boys , after perpetrating some mischief , are tossed into a sack of grain , run through a mill , and consumed by a flock of geese . Max and Moritz provided an inspiration for German immigrant Rudolph Dirks , who created the Katzenjammer Kids in 1897 . Familiar comic-strip iconography such as stars for pain , sawing logs for snoring , speech balloons , and thought balloons originated in Dirks ' strip . Hugely popular , Katzenjammer Kids occasioned one of the first comic-strip copyright ownership suits in the history of the medium . When Dirks left William Randolph Hearst for the promise of a better salary under Joseph Pulitzer , it was an unusual move , since cartoonists regularly deserted Pulitzer for Hearst . In a highly unusual court decision , Hearst retained the rights to the name `` Katzenjammer Kids '' , while creator Dirks retained the rights to the characters . Hearst promptly hired Harold Knerr to draw his own version of the strip . Dirks renamed his version Hans and Fritz ( later , The Captain and the Kids ) . Thus , two versions distributed by rival syndicates graced the comics pages for decades . Dirks ' version , eventually distributed by United Feature Syndicate , ran until 1979 . In the United States , the great popularity of comics sprang from the newspaper war ( 1887 onwards ) between Pulitzer and Hearst . The Little Bears ( 1893–96 ) was the first American comic with recurring characters , while the first color comic supplement was published by the Chicago Inter-Ocean sometime in the latter half of 1892 , followed by the New York Journals first color Sunday comic pages in 1897 . On January 31 , 1912 , Hearst introduced the nation 's first full daily comic page in his New York Evening Journal . The history of this newspaper rivalry and the rapid appearance of comic strips in most major American newspapers is discussed by Ian Gordon . Numerous events in newspaper comic strips have reverberated throughout society at large , though few of these events occurred in recent years , owing mainly to the declining role of the newspaper comic strip as an entertainment form . The longest running American comic strips are : * 1 . Katzenjammer Kids ( 1897-present ) * 2 . Gasoline Alley ( 1918-present ) * 3 . Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! ( 1918-present ) * 4 . Barney Google and Snuffy Smith ( 1919-present ) * 5 . Thimble Theater/Popeye ( 1919-present ) * 6 . Little Orphan Annie ( 1924-2010 ) * 7 . Blondie ( 1930-present ) Newspaper comic strips come in two different types : daily strips and Sunday strips . Most newspaper comic strips are syndicated ; a syndicate hires people to write and draw a strip and then distributes it to many newspapers for a fee . A few newspaper strips are exclusive to one newspaper . For example , the Pogo comic strip by Walt Kelly originally appeared only in the New York Star in 1948 and was not picked up for syndication until the following year . In the United States , a daily strip appears in newspapers on weekdays , Monday through Saturday , as contrasted with a Sunday strip , which typically only appears on Sundays . Daily strips usually are printed in black and white , and Sunday strips are usually in color . However , a few newspapers have published daily strips in color , and some newspapers have published Sunday strips in black and white . The two conventional formats for newspaper comics are strips and single gag panels . The strips are usually displayed horizontally , wider than they are tall . Single panels are square , circular or taller than they are wide . Strips usually , but not always , are broken up into several smaller panels with continuity from panel to panel . A horizontal strip can also be used for a single panel with a single gag , as seen occasionally in Mike Peters ' Mother Goose and Grimm . During the 1930s , the original art for a daily strip could be drawn as large as 25 inches wide by six inches high . As strips have become smaller , the number of panels have been reduced . The popularity and accessibility of strips meant they were often clipped and saved ; authors including John Updike and Ray Bradbury have written about their childhood collections of clipped strips . Often posted on bulletin boards , clipped strips had an ancillary form of distribution when they were faxed , photocopied or mailed . The Baltimore Suns Linda White recalled , `` I followed the adventures of Winnie Winkle , Moon Mullins and Dondi , and waited each fall to see how Lucy would manage to trick Charlie Brown into trying to kick that football . ( After I left for college , my father would clip out that strip each year and send it to me just to make sure I didn ’ t miss it . ) '' Proof sheets were the means by which syndicates provided newspapers with black-and-white line art for the reproduction of strips ( which they arranged to have colored in the case of Sunday strips ) . Michigan State University Comic Art Collection librarian Randy Scott describes these as `` large sheets of paper on which newspaper comics have traditionally been distributed to subscribing newspapers . Typically each sheet will have either six daily strips of a given title or one Sunday strip . Thus , a week of Beetle Bailey would arrive at the Lansing State Journal in two sheets , printed much larger than the final version and ready to be cut apart and fitted into the local comics page . '' Comic strip historian Allan Holtz described how strips were provided as mats ( the plastic or cardboard trays in which molten metal is poured to make plates ) or even plates ready to be put directly on the printing press . He also notes that with electronic means of distribution becoming more prevalent printed sheets `` are definitely on their way out . '' Cartoon panels Single panels usually , but not always , are not broken up and lack continuity . The daily Peanuts is a strip , and the daily Dennis the Menace is a single panel . J. R. Williams ' long-run Out Our Way continued as a daily panel even after it expanded into a Sunday strip , Out Our Way with the Willets . Jimmy Hatlo 's They 'll Do It Every Time was often displayed in a two-panel format with the first panel showing some deceptive , pretentious , unwitting or scheming human behavior and the second panel revealing the truth of the situation . Early daily strips were large , often running the entire width of the newspaper , and were sometimes three or more inches high . [ http : //www.newspaperarchive.com Newspaper Archive ] Initially , a newspaper page included only a single daily strip , usually either at the top or the bottom of the page . By the 1920s , many newspapers had a comics page on which many strips were collected together . Over decades , the size of daily strips became smaller and smaller , until by the year 2000 , four standard daily strips could fit in an area once occupied by a single daily strip . NEA Syndicate experimented briefly with a two-tier daily strip , Star Hawks , but after a few years , Star Hawks dropped down to a single tier . [ http : //www.toonopedia.com/ Toonopedia ] In Flanders , the two-tier strip is the standard publication style of most daily strips like Spike and Suzy and Nero . They appear Monday through Saturday ; until 2003 there were no Sunday papers in Flanders . In the last decades , they have switched from black and white to color . Sunday comics Sunday newspapers traditionally included a special color section . Early Sunday strips , such as Thimble Theatre and Little Orphan Annie , filled an entire newspaper page , a format known to collectors as full page . Sunday pages during the 1930s and into the 1940s often carried a secondary strip by the same artist as the main strip . No matter whether it appeared above or below a main strip , the extra strip was known as the topper , such as The Squirrel Cage which ran along with Room and Board , both drawn by Gene Ahern . During the 1930s , the original art for a Sunday strip was usually drawn quite large . For example , in 1930 , Russ Westover drew his Tillie the Toiler Sunday page at a size of 17 '' × 37 '' . In 1937 , the cartoonist Dudley Fisher launched the innovative Right Around Home , drawn as a huge single panel filling an entire Sunday page . Full-page strips were eventually replaced by strips half that size . Strips such as The Phantom and Terry and the Pirates began appearing in a format of two strips to a page in full-size newspapers , such as the New Orleans Times Picayune , or with one strip on a tabloid page , as in the Chicago Sun-Times . When Sunday strips began to appear in more than one format , it became necessary for the cartoonist to allow for rearranged , cropped or dropped panels . During World War II , because of paper shortages , the size of Sunday strips began to shrink . After the war , strips continued to get smaller and smaller because of increased paper and printing costs . The last full-page comic strip was the Prince Valiant strip for 11 April 1971 . Comic strips have also been published in Sunday newspaper magazines . Russell Patterson and Carolyn Wells ' New Adventures of Flossy Frills was a continuing strip series seen on Sunday magazine covers . Beginning January 26 , 1941 , it ran on the front covers of Hearst 's American Weekly newspaper magazine supplement , continuing until March 30 of that year . Between 1939 and 1943 , four different stories featuring Flossy appeared on American Weekly covers . Sunday comics sections employed offset color printing with multiple print runs imitating a wide range of colors . Printing plates were created with four or more colors—traditionally , the CMYK color model : cyan , magenta , yellow and `` K '' for black . With a screen of tiny dots on each printing plate , the dots allowed an image to be printed in a halftone that appears to the eye in different gradations . The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create an optical effect of full-color imagery . Underground comic strips The decade of the 1960s saw the rise of underground newspapers , which often carried comic strips , such as Fritz the Cat and The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers . Zippy the Pinhead initially appeared in underground publications in the 1970s before being syndicated . Bloom County and Doonesbury began as strips in college newspapers under different titles , and later moved to national syndication . Underground comic strips covered subjects that are usually taboo in newspaper strips , such as sex and drugs . Many underground artists , notably Vaughn Bode , Dan O'Neill , Gilbert Shelton , and Art Spiegelman went on to draw comic strips for magazines such as Playboy , National Lampoon , and Pete Millar 's CARtoons . Jay Lynch graduated from undergrounds to alternative weekly newspapers to Mad and children 's books . Webcomic Webcomics , also known as online comics and internet comics , are comics that are available to read on the Internet . Many are exclusively published online , but the majority of traditional newspaper comic strips have some Internet presence . King Features Syndicate and other syndicates often provide archives of recent strips on their websites . Some , such as Scott Adams , creator of Dilbert , include an email address in each strip . Conventions and genres Most comic strip characters do not age throughout the strip 's life , but in some strips , like Lynn Johnston 's award-winning For Better or For Worse , the characters age as the years pass . The first strip to feature aging characters was Gasoline Alley . The history of comic strips also includes series that are not humorous , but tell an ongoing dramatic story . Examples include The Phantom , Prince Valiant , Dick Tracy , Mary Worth , Modesty Blaise , Little Orphan Annie , `` Flash Gordon '' , and Tarzan . Sometimes these are spin-offs from comic books , for example Superman , Batman , and The Amazing Spider-Man . A number of strips have featured animals ( 'funny animals ' ) as main characters . Some are non-verbal ( Marmaduke , The Angriest Dog in the World ) , some have verbal thoughts but are not understood by humans , ( Garfield , Snoopy in Peanuts ) , and some can converse with humans ( Bloom County , Calvin and Hobbes , Mutts , Citizen Dog , Buckles , Get Fuzzy , Pearls Before Swine , and Pooch Cafe ) . Other strips are centered entirely on animals , as in Pogo and Donald Duck . Gary Larson 's The Far Side was unusual , as there were no central characters . Instead The Far Side used a wide variety of characters including humans , monsters , aliens , chickens , cows , worms , amoebas , and more . John McPherson 's Close to Home also uses this theme , though the characters are mostly restricted to humans and real-life situations . Wiley Miller not only mixes human , animal , and fantasy characters , but also does several different comic strip continuities under one umbrella title , Non Sequitur . Bob Thaves 's Frank & Ernest began in 1972 and paved the way for some of these strips , as its human characters were manifest in diverse forms — as animals , vegetables , and minerals . Social and political influence The comics have long held a distorted mirror to contemporary society , and almost from the beginning have been used for political or social commentary . This ranged from the conservative slant of Little Orphan Annie to the unabashed liberalism of Doonesbury . Pogo used animals to particularly devastating effect , caricaturing many prominent politicians of the day as animal denizens of Pogo 's Okeefenokee Swamp . In a fearless move , Pogo 's creator Walt Kelly took on Joseph McCarthy in the 1950s , caricaturing him as a bobcat named Simple J. Malarkey , a megalomaniac who was bent on taking over the characters ' birdwatching club and rooting out all undesirables . Kelly also defended the medium against possible government regulation in the McCarthy era . At a time when comic books were coming under fire for supposed sexual , violent , and subversive content , Kelly feared the same would happen to comic strips . Going before the Congressional subcommittee , he proceeded to charm the members with his drawings and the force of his personality . The comic strip was safe for satire . During the early 20th century , comic strips were widely associated with publisher William Randolph Hearst , whose papers had the largest circulation of strips in the United States . Hearst was notorious for his practice of yellow journalism , and he was frowned on by readers of The New York Times and other newspapers which featured few or no comic strips . Hearst 's critics often assumed that all the strips in his papers were fronts for his own political and social views . Hearst did occasionally work with or pitch ideas to cartoonists , most notably his continued support of George Herriman 's Krazy Kat . An inspiration for Bill Watterson and other cartoonists , Krazy Kat gained a considerable following among intellectuals during the 1920s and 1930s . Some comic strips , such as Doonesbury and The Boondocks , may be printed on the editorial or op-ed page rather than the comics page because of their regular political commentary . For example , the August 12 , 1974 Doonesbury strip awarded a 1975 Pulitzer Prize for its depiction of the Watergate scandal . Dilbert is sometimes found in the business section of a newspaper instead of the comics page because of the strip 's commentary about office politics , and Tank McNamara often appears on the sports page because of its subject matter . Lynn Johnston 's For Better or for Worse created an uproar when one of its supporting characters came out of the closet and announced he was gay . Publicity and recognition The world 's longest comic strip is long and on display at Trafalgar Square as part of the London Comedy Festival . The London Cartoon Strip was created by 15 of Britain 's best known cartoonists and depicts the history of London . The Reuben , named for cartoonist Rube Goldberg , is the most prestigious award for U.S. comic strip artists . Reuben awards are presented annually by the National Cartoonists Society ( NCS ) . Today 's strip artists , with the help of the NCS , enthusiastically promote the medium , which is considered to be in decline due to fewer markets ( today few strips are published in newspapers outside the United States , the United Kingdom , and Canada , mainly because of the smaller interest there , with translated versions of popular strips - particularly in Spanish - are primarily read over the internet ) and ever-shrinking newspaper space . One particularly humorous example of such promotional efforts is the Great Comic Strip Switcheroonie , held in 1997 on April Fool 's Day , an event in which dozens of prominent artists took over each other 's strips . Garfield ’ s Jim Davis , for example , switched with Blondie ’ s Stan Drake , while Scott Adams ( Dilbert ) traded strips with Bil Keane ( The Family Circus ) . Even the United States Postal Service got into the act , issuing a series of commemorative stamps marking the comic-strip centennial in 1996 . While the Switcheroonie was a one-time publicity stunt , for one artist to take over a feature from its originator is an old tradition in newspaper cartooning ( as it is in the comic book industry ) . In fact , the practice has made possible the longevity of the genre 's more popular strips . Examples include Little Orphan Annie ( drawn and plotted by Harold Gray from 1924 to 1944 and thereafter by a succession of artists including Leonard Starr and Andrew Pepoy ) , and Terry and The Pirates , started by Milton Caniff in 1934 and picked up by George Wunder . A business-driven variation has sometimes led to the same feature continuing under a different name . In one case , in the early 1940s , Don Flowers ' Modest Maidens was so admired by William Randolph Hearst that he lured Flowers away from the Associated Press and to King Features Syndicate by doubling the cartoonist 's salary , and renamed the feature Glamor Girls to avoid legal action by the AP . The latter continued to publish Modest Maidens , drawn by Jay Allen in Flowers ' style . Issues in U.S. newspaper comic strips As newspapers have declined , the changes have affected comic strips . Jeff Reece , lifestyle editor of The Florida Times-Union , wrote , `` Comics are sort of the 'third rail ' of the newspaper . '' Size In the early decades of the 20th century , all Sunday comics received a full page , and daily strips were generally the width of the page . The competition between papers for having more cartoons than the rest from the mid-1920s , the growth of large-scale newspaper advertising during most of the thirties , paper rationing during World War II , the decline on news readership ( as television newscasts began to be more common ) and inflation ( which has caused higher printing costs ) beginning during the fifties and sixties led to Sunday strips being published on smaller and more diverse formats . Daily strips have suffered as well , in 1910 the strips had an unlimited amount of panels , covering the entire width page , while by 1930 most `` dailies '' had four or five panels covering six of the eight columns occupied by a traditional broadsheet paper , by 1958 those four panels would be narrower , and those would have half of the space a 1910 daily strip had , and by 1998 most strips would have three panels only ( with a few exceptions ) , or even two or one on an occasional basis , apart from strips being smaller , as most papers became slightly narrower . While most cartoonist decided to follow the tide , some cartoonists have complained about this , with Pogo ending in 1975 as a form of protest from its creators against the practice . Since then Calvin and Hobbes creator Bill Watterson has written extensively on the issue , arguing that size reduction and dropped panels reduce both the potential and freedom of a cartoonist . After a lengthy battle with his syndicator , Watterson won the privilege of making half page-sized Sunday strips where he could arrange the panels any way he liked . Many newspaper publishers and a few cartoonists objected to this , and some papers continued to print Calvin and Hobbes at small sizes . Opus won that same privilege years after Calvin and Hobbes ended , while Wiley Miller circumvented further downsizings by making his Non Sequitur Sunday strip available only in an extremely vertical ( near-page-long ) arrangement . Few newspapers still run half-page strips , as with Prince Valiant and Hägar the Horrible in the front page of the Reading Eagle Sunday comics section . Actually Universal Uclick and United Media practically have no half-page comics , with the remaining strips from both syndicates in this format are published only as `` thirds '' , `` fourths '' , and `` sixths '' ( also called `` third tabs '' ) . Format In an issue related to size limitations , Sunday comics are often bound to rigid formats that allow their panels to be rearranged in several different ways while remaining readable . Such formats usually include throwaway panels at the beginning , which some newspapers will omit for space . As a result , cartoonists have less incentive to put great efforts into these panels . Garfield and Mutts were known during the mid-to-late 80s and 1990s respectively for their throwaways on their Sunday strips , however both strips now run `` generic '' title panels . With the success of The Gumps during the 1920s , it became commonplace for strips ( comedy- and adventure-laden alike ) to have lengthy stories spanning weeks or months . The `` Monarch of Medioka '' story in Floyd Gottfredson 's Mickey Mouse comic strip ran from September 8 , 1937 to May 2 , 1938 . Between the 1960s and the late 1980s , as television news relegated newspaper reading to an occasional basis rather than daily , syndicators were abandoning long stories and urging cartoonists to switch to simple daily gags , or week-long `` storylines '' ( with six consecutive ( mostly unrelated ) strips following a same subject ) , with longer storylines being used mainly on adventure-based and dramatic strips . Strips begun during the mid-1980s or after ( such as Get Fuzzy , Over the Hedge , Monty , and others ) are known for their heavy use of storylines , lasting between one and three weeks in most cases . The writing style of comic strips changed as well after World War II . With an increase in the number of college-educated readers , there was a shift away from slapstick comedy and towards more cerebral humor . Slapstick and visual gags became more confined to Sunday strips , because as Garfield creator Jim Davis put it , `` Children are more likely to read Sunday strips than dailies . '' Second author Many older strips are no longer drawn by the original cartoonist , who has either died or retired . Such strips are known as `` zombie strips '' . A cartoonist , paid by the syndicate or sometimes a relative of the original cartoonist , continues writing the strip , a tradition that became commonplace in the early half of the 20th century . Hägar the Horrible and Frank and Ernest are both drawn by the sons of the creators . Some strips which are still in affiliation

qg_2852--Comic_strip.txt

A former software engineer, who created the comic strip character Dilbert?

William Shakespeare ( ; 26 April 1564 ( baptised ) – 23 April 1616 ) was an English : poet , : playwright , and actor , widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world 's pre-eminent dramatist . ; ; . He is often called England 's national poet , and the `` Bard of Avon '' . His extant works , including collaborations , consist of approximately 38 plays , 154 sonnets , two long narrative poems , and a few other verses , some of uncertain authorship . His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright . Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon , Warwickshire . At the age of 18 , he married Anne Hathaway , with whom he had three children : Susanna , and twins Hamnet and Judith . Sometime between 1585 and 1592 , he began a successful career in London as an actor , writer , and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , later known as the King 's Men . He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 , at age 49 , where he died three years later . Few records of Shakespeare 's private life survive , which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance , sexuality , and religious beliefs , and whether the works attributed to him were written by others . Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613 . His early plays were primarily comedies and histories , and these are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres . He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608 , including Hamlet , Othello , King Lear , and Macbeth , considered some of the finest works in the English language . In his last phase , he wrote tragicomedies , also known as romances , and collaborated with other playwrights . Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime . In 1623 , however , John Heminges and Henry Condell , two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare , published a more definitive text known as the First Folio , a posthumous collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare 's . It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson , in which Shakespeare is hailed , presciently , as `` not of an age , but for all time '' .The Norton Anthology of English Literature : Sixteenth/Early Seventeenth Century , Volume B , 2012 , pg . 1168 In the 20th and 21st centuries , his works have been repeatedly adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance . His plays remain highly popular , and are constantly studied , performed , and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world . Life Early life William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare , an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield , and Mary Arden , the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer . He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564 . His actual date of birth remains unknown , but is traditionally observed on 23 April , Saint George 's Day . This date , which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar 's mistake , has proved appealing to biographers , because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 . He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son . Although no attendance records for the period survive , most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King 's New School in Stratford , a free school chartered in 1553 , about a quarter-mile ( 400 m ) from his home . Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era , but grammar school curricula were largely similar : the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree , and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors . At the age of 18 , Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway . The consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582 . The next day , two of Hathaway 's neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage . The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste , since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times , and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter , Susanna , baptised 26 May 1583 . Twins , son Hamnet and daughter Judith , followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585 . Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596 . After the birth of the twins , Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592 . The exception is the appearance of his name in the `` complaints bill '' of a law case before the Queen 's Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589 . Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare 's `` lost years '' . Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories . Nicholas Rowe , Shakespeare 's first biographer , recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy . Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him . Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London . John Aubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster . Some 20th-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire , a Catholic landowner who named a certain `` William Shakeshafte '' in his will . Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death , and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area . London and theatrical career It is not known definitively when Shakespeare began writing , but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592 . By then , he was sufficiently known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in his Groats-Worth of Wit : ... there is an upstart Crow , beautified with our feathers , that with his Tiger 's heart wrapped in a Player 's hide , supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you : and being an absolute Johannes factotum , is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country . Scholars differ on the exact meaning of Greene 's words , ; . but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match such university-educated writers as Christopher Marlowe , Thomas Nashe and Greene himself ( the so-called `` university wits '' ) . The italicised phrase parodying the line `` Oh , tiger 's heart wrapped in a woman 's hide '' from Shakespeare 's Henry VI , Part 3 , along with the pun `` Shake-scene '' , clearly identify Shakespeare as Greene 's target . As used here , Johannes Factotum ( `` Jack of all trades '' ) refers to a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others , rather than the more common `` universal genius '' . Greene 's attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare 's work in the theatre . Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s , to just before Greene 's remarks . After 1594 , Shakespeare 's plays were performed only by the Lord Chamberlain 's Men , a company owned by a group of players , including Shakespeare , that soon became the leading playing company in London . After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603 , the company was awarded a royal patent by the new King James I , and changed its name to the King 's Men . In 1599 , a partnership of members of the company built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames , which they named the Globe . In 1608 , the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre . Extant records of Shakespeare 's property purchases and investments indicate that his association with the company made him a wealthy man , and in 1597 he bought the second-largest house in Stratford , New Place , and in 1605 , invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford . Some of Shakespeare 's plays were published in quarto editions beginning in 1594 , and by 1598 , his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages . Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright . The 1616 edition of Ben Jonson 's Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour ( 1598 ) and Sejanus His Fall ( 1603 ) . The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson 's Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end . The First Folio of 1623 , however , lists Shakespeare as one of `` the Principal Actors in all these Plays '' , some of which were first staged after Volpone , although we can not know for certain which roles he played . In 1610 , John Davies of Hereford wrote that `` good Will '' played `` kingly '' roles . In 1709 , Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet 's father . Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It , and the Chorus in Henry V , though scholars doubt the sources of that information . Throughout his career , Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford . In 1596 , the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford , Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen 's , Bishopsgate , north of the River Thames . He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599 , the same year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there . By 1604 , he had moved north of the river again , to an area north of St Paul 's Cathedral with many fine houses . There he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy , a maker of ladies ' wigs and other headgear . Later years and death Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition , repeated by Johnson , that Shakespeare retired to Stratford `` some years before his death '' .. He was still working as an actor in London in 1608 ; in an answer to the sharers ' petition in 1635 Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans , the King 's Men `` placed men players '' there , `` which were Heminges , Condell , Shakespeare , etc . `` . However it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609 . The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague ( a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610 ) , which meant there was often no acting work . Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time . Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614 . In 1612 , he was called as a witness in Bellott v. Mountjoy , a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy 's daughter , Mary . In March 1613 he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriars priory ; and from November 1614 he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law , John Hall . After 1610 , Shakespeare wrote fewer plays , and none are attributed to him after 1613 . His last three plays were collaborations , probably with John Fletcher , who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King 's Men . Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 , at the age of 52 . He died within a month of signing his will , a document which he begins by describing himself as being in `` perfect health '' . No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died . Half a century later , John Ward , the vicar of Stratford , wrote in his notebook : `` Shakespeare , Drayton and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and , it seems , drank too hard , for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted '' , not an impossible scenario , since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton . Of the tributes from fellow authors , one refers to his relatively sudden death : `` We wondered , Shakespeare , that thou went'st so soon/From the world 's stage to the grave 's tiring room . '' He was survived by his wife and two daughters . Susanna had married a physician , John Hall , in 1607 , and Judith had married Thomas Quiney , a vintner , two months before Shakespeare 's death . Shakespeare signed his last will and testament on 25 March 1616 ; the following day his new son-in-law , Thomas Quiney was found guilty of fathering an illegitimate son by Margaret Wheeler , who had died during childbirth . Thomas was ordered by the church court to do public penance , which would have caused much shame and embarrassment for the Shakespeare family . Shakespeare bequeathed the bulk of his large estate to his elder daughter Susanna under stipulations that she pass it down intact to `` the first son of her body '' . The Quineys had three children , all of whom died without marrying . The Halls had one child , Elizabeth , who married twice but died without children in 1670 , ending Shakespeare 's direct line . Shakespeare 's will scarcely mentions his wife , Anne , who was probably entitled to one third of his estate automatically . He did make a point , however , of leaving her `` my second best bed '' , a bequest that has led to much speculation . Some scholars see the bequest as an insult to Anne , whereas others believe that the second-best bed would have been the matrimonial bed and therefore rich in significance . Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of the Holy Trinity Church two days after his death . The epitaph carved into the stone slab covering his grave includes a curse against moving his bones , which was carefully avoided during restoration of the church in 2008 : Good frend for Iesvs sake forbeare , To digg the dvst encloased heare . Bleste be man spares thes stones , And cvrst be he moves my bones . ( Modern spelling : Good friend , for Jesus ' sake forbear , / To dig the dust enclosed here . / Blessed be the man that spares these stones , / And cursed be he that moves my bones . ) Sometime before 1623 , a funerary monument was erected in his memory on the north wall , with a half-effigy of him in the act of writing . Its plaque compares him to Nestor , Socrates , and Virgil . In 1623 , in conjunction with the publication of the First Folio , the Droeshout engraving was published . Shakespeare has been commemorated in many statues and memorials around the world , including funeral monuments in Southwark Cathedral and Poets ' Corner in Westminster Abbey . Plays Most playwrights of the period typically collaborated with others at some point , and critics agree that Shakespeare did the same , mostly early and late in his career . Some attributions , such as Titus Andronicus and the early history plays , remain controversial , while The Two Noble Kinsmen and the lost Cardenio have well-attested contemporary documentation . Textual evidence also supports the view that several of the plays were revised by other writers after their original composition . The first recorded works of Shakespeare are Richard III and the three parts of Henry VI , written in the early 1590s during a vogue for historical drama . Shakespeare 's plays are difficult to date , however , and studies of the texts suggest that Titus Andronicus , The Comedy of Errors , The Taming of the Shrew and The Two Gentlemen of Verona may also belong to Shakespeare 's earliest period . His first histories , which draw heavily on the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed 's Chronicles of England , Scotland , and Ireland , dramatise the destructive results of weak or corrupt rule and have been interpreted as a justification for the origins of the Tudor dynasty . The early plays were influenced by the works of other Elizabethan dramatists , especially Thomas Kyd and Christopher Marlowe , by the traditions of medieval drama , and by the plays of Seneca . The Comedy of Errors was also based on classical models , but no source for The Taming of the Shrew has been found , though it is related to a separate play of the same name and may have derived from a folk story . Like The Two Gentlemen of Verona , in which two friends appear to approve of rape , the Shrew 's story of the taming of a woman 's independent spirit by a man sometimes troubles modern critics and directors . Shakespeare 's early classical and Italianate comedies , containing tight double plots and precise comic sequences , give way in the mid-1590s to the romantic atmosphere of his most acclaimed comedies . A Midsummer Night 's Dream is a witty mixture of romance , fairy magic , and comic lowlife scenes . Shakespeare 's next comedy , the equally romantic Merchant of Venice , contains a portrayal of the vengeful Jewish moneylender Shylock , which reflects Elizabethan views but may appear derogatory to modern audiences . The wit and wordplay of Much Ado About Nothing , the charming rural setting of As You Like It , and the lively merrymaking of Twelfth Night complete Shakespeare 's sequence of great comedies . After the lyrical Richard II , written almost entirely in verse , Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late 1590s , Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 , and Henry V. His characters become more complex and tender as he switches deftly between comic and serious scenes , prose and poetry , and achieves the narrative variety of his mature work . This period begins and ends with two tragedies : Romeo and Juliet , the famous romantic tragedy of sexually charged adolescence , love , and death ; and Julius Caesar—based on Sir Thomas North 's 1579 translation of Plutarch 's Parallel Lives—which introduced a new kind of drama . According to Shakespearean scholar James Shapiro , in Julius Caesar `` the various strands of politics , character , inwardness , contemporary events , even Shakespeare 's own reflections on the act of writing , began to infuse each other '' . In the early 17th century , Shakespeare wrote the so-called `` problem plays '' Measure for Measure , Troilus and Cressida , and All 's Well That Ends Well and a number of his best known tragedies . Many critics believe that Shakespeare 's greatest tragedies represent the peak of his art . The titular hero of one of Shakespeare 's most famous tragedies , Hamlet , has probably been discussed more than any other Shakespearean character , especially for his famous soliloquy which begins `` To be or not to be ; that is the question '' . Unlike the introverted Hamlet , whose fatal flaw is hesitation , the heroes of the tragedies that followed , Othello and King Lear , are undone by hasty errors of judgement . The plots of Shakespeare 's tragedies often hinge on such fatal errors or flaws , which overturn order and destroy the hero and those he loves . In Othello , the villain Iago stokes Othello 's sexual jealousy to the point where he murders the innocent wife who loves him . In King Lear , the old king commits the tragic error of giving up his powers , initiating the events which lead to the torture and blinding of the Earl of Gloucester and the murder of Lear 's youngest daughter Cordelia . According to the critic Frank Kermode , `` the play-offers neither its good characters nor its audience any relief from its cruelty '' . In Macbeth , the shortest and most compressed of Shakespeare 's tragedies , uncontrollable ambition incites Macbeth and his wife , Lady Macbeth , to murder the rightful king and usurp the throne , until their own guilt destroys them in turn . In this play , Shakespeare adds a supernatural element to the tragic structure . His last major tragedies , Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus , contain some of Shakespeare 's finest poetry and were considered his most successful tragedies by the poet and critic T. S. Eliot . In his final period , Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays : Cymbeline , The Winter 's Tale and The Tempest , as well as the collaboration , Pericles , Prince of Tyre . Less bleak than the tragedies , these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the 1590s , but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors . Some commentators have seen this change in mood as evidence of a more serene view of life on Shakespeare 's part , but it may merely reflect the theatrical fashion of the day . Shakespeare collaborated on two further surviving plays , Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen , probably with John Fletcher . Performances It is not clear for which companies Shakespeare wrote his early plays . The title page of the 1594 edition of Titus Andronicus reveals that the play had been acted by three different troupes . After the plagues of 1592–3 , Shakespeare 's plays were performed by his own company at The Theatre and the Curtain in Shoreditch , north of the Thames . Londoners flocked there to see the first part of Henry IV , Leonard Digges recording , `` Let but Falstaff come , Hal , Poins , the rest ... and you scarce shall have a room '' . When the company found themselves in dispute with their landlord , they pulled The Theatre down and used the timbers to construct the Globe Theatre , the first playhouse built by actors for actors , on the south bank of the Thames at Southwark . The Globe opened in autumn 1599 , with Julius Caesar one of the first plays staged . Most of Shakespeare 's greatest post-1599 plays were written for the Globe , including Hamlet , Othello and King Lear . After the Lord Chamberlain 's Men were renamed the King 's Men in 1603 , they entered a special relationship with the new King James . Although the performance records are patchy , the King 's Men performed seven of Shakespeare 's plays at court between 1 November 1604 and 31 October 1605 , including two performances of The Merchant of Venice . After 1608 , they performed at the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer . The indoor setting , combined with the Jacobean fashion for lavishly staged masques , allowed Shakespeare to introduce more elaborate stage devices . In Cymbeline , for example , Jupiter descends `` in thunder and lightning , sitting upon an eagle : he throws a thunderbolt . The ghosts fall on their knees . '' The actors in Shakespeare 's company included the famous Richard Burbage , William Kempe , Henry Condell and John Heminges . Burbage played the leading role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare 's plays , including Richard III , Hamlet , Othello , and King Lear . The popular comic actor Will Kempe played the servant Peter in Romeo and Juliet and Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing , among other characters . He was replaced around 1600 by Robert Armin , who played roles such as Touchstone in As You Like It and the fool in King Lear . In 1613 , Sir Henry Wotton recorded that Henry VIII `` was set forth with many extraordinary circumstances of pomp and ceremony '' . On 29 June , however , a cannon set fire to the thatch of the Globe and burned the theatre to the ground , an event which pinpoints the date of a Shakespeare play with rare precision . Textual sources In 1623 , John Heminges and Henry Condell , two of Shakespeare 's friends from the King 's Men , published the First Folio , a collected edition of Shakespeare 's plays . It contained 36 texts , including 18 printed for the first time . Many of the plays had already appeared in quarto versions—flimsy books made from sheets of paper folded twice to make four leaves . No evidence suggests that Shakespeare approved these editions , which the First Folio describes as `` stol'n and surreptitious copies '' . Nor did Shakespeare plan or expect his works to survive in any form at all ; those works likely would have faded into oblivion but for his friends ' spontaneous idea , after his death , to create and publish the First Folio . Alfred Pollard termed some of the pre-1623 versions as `` bad quartos '' because of their adapted , paraphrased or garbled texts , which may in places have been reconstructed from memory . Where several versions of a play survive , each differs from the other . The differences may stem from copying or printing errors , from notes by actors or audience members , or from Shakespeare 's own papers . In some cases , for example Hamlet , Troilus and Cressida and Othello , Shakespeare could have revised the texts between the quarto and folio editions . In the case of King Lear , however , while most modern editions do conflate them , the 1623 folio version is so different from the 1608 quarto that the Oxford Shakespeare prints them both , arguing that they can not be conflated without confusion . Poems In 1593 and 1594 , when the theatres were closed because of plague , Shakespeare published two narrative poems on erotic themes , Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece . He dedicated them to Henry Wriothesley , Earl of Southampton . In Venus and Adonis , an innocent Adonis rejects the sexual advances of Venus ; while in The Rape of Lucrece , the virtuous wife Lucrece is raped by the lustful Tarquin . Influenced by Ovid 's Metamorphoses , the poems show the guilt and moral confusion that result from uncontrolled lust . Both proved popular and were often reprinted during Shakespeare 's lifetime . A third narrative poem , A Lover 's Complaint , in which a young woman laments her seduction by a persuasive suitor , was printed in the first edition of the Sonnets in 1609 . Most scholars now accept that Shakespeare wrote A Lover 's Complaint . Critics consider that its fine qualities are marred by leaden effects . The Phoenix and the Turtle , printed in Robert Chester 's 1601 Love 's Martyr , mourns the deaths of the legendary phoenix and his lover , the faithful turtle dove . In 1599 , two early drafts of sonnets 138 and 144 appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim , published under Shakespeare 's name but without his permission . Sonnets Published in 1609 , the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare 's non-dramatic works to be printed . Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed , but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership . Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599 , Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare 's `` sugred Sonnets among his private friends '' . Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare 's intended sequence . He seems to have planned two contrasting

dpql_2238--William_Shakespeare.txt

In which of Shakespeare’s plays does the fool Feste appear?

Harold Edward Holt , ( ; 5 August 1908 - 17 December 1967 ) , was an Australian politician and the 17th Prime Minister of Australia . He was born in Stanmore , New South Wales and won a scholarship to study law at the University of Melbourne . Holt went into business as a solicitor , during which time he joined the United Australia Party ( UAP ) . In 1935 , aged just 27 , he was elected for Fawkner . Holt spent 32 years in Parliament , including many years as a senior Cabinet Minister , but was Prime Minister for only 22 months before he disappeared in December 1967 while swimming at Cheviot Beach near Portsea , Victoria , and was presumed drowned . As Minister for Immigration ( 1949–1956 ) , Holt was responsible for the relaxation of the White Australia policy and as Treasurer under Menzies , he initiated major fiscal reforms including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia , and launched and guided the process to convert Australia to decimal currency . As Prime Minister , he oversaw landmark changes including the decision not to devalue the Australian dollar in line with the British pound , and the 1967 constitutional referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians . He controversially expanded Australia 's involvement in the Vietnam War , with the slogan `` All the way with LBJ '' . Early life Born in Stanmore , New South Wales on 5 August 1908 , Holt was the elder son of Thomas and Olive ( née Williams ) . He and his brother Cliff ( Clifford Thomas Holt , born 1910 ) , spent their early life in Sydney , attending three different schools . In 1918 , Thomas Holt divorced Olive and went to work with the Hugh D. McIntosh , manager of the Tivoli theatre circuit . He later became the Tivoli-J C Williamson representative in London and New York . Meanwhile , he enrolled his sons as boarders at Wesley College in Melbourne . In 1924 , when Holt was sixteen , his mother died and he did not attend her funeral . A formative event was his singing performance at his school 's annual Speech Night in December 1926 . None of his family were present , and he never forgot the loneliness he felt that night . Holt won a scholarship to Queen 's College at the University of Melbourne and began his law degree in 1927 . He excelled in many areas of university life – he won College 'Blues ' for cricket and Australian rules football , as well as the College Oratory and Essay Prize . A member of the Melbourne Inter-University Debating team and the United Australia Organization ' A ' Grade debating team , he was president of both the Sports and Social Club and the Law Students ' Society . Holt graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1930 . He was admitted to the Victorian Bar in November 1932 and served his articles with the Melbourne firm of Fink , Best & Miller , but the Great Depression meant that he was unable to find work as a barrister . His father , based in London at the time , wanted him to further his studies in England , but the worsening economy also made this impossible . Instead , in 1933 , Holt went into sole practice as a solicitor . He later entered into a partnership , which became the firm of Holt , Graham & Newman , which Holt remained with until 1963 . While at university , Holt had met Zara Kate Dickins . In 1934 they were contemplating marriage , but , after a quarrel , they split up . Zara travelled overseas , meeting Captain James Fell , a British Army officer stationed in India , whom she married in March 1935 . Her first son Nicholas was born in 1937 , followed by twin boys Sam and Andrew , born in 1939 . Author Tom Frame has suggested that Holt was the father of the twins . Zara and Fell subsequently divorced , and she married Holt in 1946 . Although they remained married until Holt 's death in 1967 , Zara later commented that Holt had had a number of extramarital affairs . Meanwhile , Thomas Holt married Lola Thring , the daughter of his business partner F. W. Thring , in 1936 . He died in 1945 . Early political career While developing his legal practice , Holt was drawn to politics and joined the Prahran branch of the United Australia Party ( UAP ) in 1933 . At the 1934 federal election , Holt unsuccessfully contested the safe Labor seat of Yarra for the UAP , running against former Prime Minister James Scullin . In March 1935 , he unsuccessfully contested the safe Victorian state Labor seat of Clifton Hill . Holt stood again for the federal House of Representatives on 17 August 1935 , at a by-election for the marginally conservative seat of Fawkner , this time successfully . At age 27 , he was one of Australia 's youngest-ever MPs . Holt opposed socialism , but favoured a more equitable distribution of resources . From his maiden speech onwards , he emphasised the importance of physical fitness . In 1939 , Holt 's mentor Robert Menzies became Prime Minister after the sudden death of the incumbent Joseph Lyons and the short-term caretaker ministry of Sir Earle Page . Holt 's energy , dedication and ability earned him rapid promotion and in April 1939 , he was appointed Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Supply and Development . In October 1939 , he became Minister in charge of Scientific and Industrial Research , and during November–December 1939 , he was Acting Minister for Air and Civil Aviation . In May 1940 , without resigning his seat , Holt joined the Second Australian Imperial Force as a gunner , but a few months later three Cabinet ministers and several of Australia 's top military staff were killed in an air crash in Canberra . Menzies recalled Holt from the army , appointing him Minister without Portfolio assisting the Minister for Trade and Customs , and his recall earned him the ironic nickname `` Gunner Holt . '' In October 1940 , Holt was elevated to Cabinet , becoming Minister for Labour and National Service , and one of his most significant achievements in this portfolio was the introduction of child endowment in 1941 . In August 1941 , a front-bench revolt forced Menzies to resign as Prime Minister . He was replaced by the Country Party leader Arthur Fadden . Holt was among those who withdrew their support , although he never revealed his reasons for doing so . In October 1941 , the UAP was ousted by a no-confidence vote ; the ALP leader John Curtin was invited to form a new government . By 1944 , the UAP had effectively disintegrated and in 1945 , Menzies formally established a new political party , the Liberal Party of Australia , and forged an enduring coalition with the Country Party . Holt was one of the first members to join the Liberal Party 's Prahran branch . Postwar ministerial career After eight years in opposition , the Coalition won the federal election of December 1949 and Menzies began his record-setting second term as Prime Minister . At this election , Holt saw his majority in Fawkner nearly disappear in the redistribution . He transferred to Higgins , one of several new seats created in the 1949 redistribution . The seat was created as a safe Liberal seat ; it had been carved out of the wealthier portions of Fawkner . Holt won it easily . He was appointed to the prestigious portfolios of Minister for Labour and National Service ( 1949–1958 ; he had previously served in this portfolio 1940–41 ) and Minister for Immigration ( 1949–1956 ) , by which time he was being touted in the press as a `` certain successor to Menzies and a potential Prime Minister '' . In Immigration , Holt continued and expanded the massive immigration program initiated by his ALP predecessor , Arthur Calwell . However , he displayed a more flexible and caring attitude than Calwell , who was a strong advocate of the White Australia policy . He also had ministerial responsibility for the Melbourne Olympics in 1956 . Holt excelled in the Labour portfolio and has been described as one of the best Labour ministers since Federation . Although the conditions were ripe for industrial unrest—Communist influence in the union movement was then at its peak , and the right-wing faction in Cabinet was openly agitating for a showdown with the unions—the combination of strong economic growth and Holt 's enlightened approach to industrial relations saw the number of working hours lost to strikes fall dramatically , from over two million in 1949 to just 439,000 in 1958 . Holt fostered greater collaboration between the government , the courts , employers and trade unions . He enjoyed good relationships with union leaders like Albert Monk , President of the Australian Council of Trade Unions ; and Jim Healy , leader of the radical Waterside Workers Federation ; and he gained a reputation for tolerance , restraint and a willingness to compromise , although his controversial decision to use troops to take control of cargo facilities during a waterside dispute in Bowen , Queensland in September 1953 provoked bitter criticism . Holt 's personal profile and political standing grew throughout the 1950s . He served on numerous committees and overseas delegations , he was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1953 , and in 1954 he was named one of Australia 's six best-dressed men . In 1956 , he was elected Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party and became Leader of the House , and from this point on , he was generally acknowledged as Menzies ' heir apparent . In December 1958 , following the retirement of Arthur Fadden , Holt succeeded him as Treasurer . Holt had little knowledge or interest in economics , but the job cemented his position as Menzies ' likely successor . As Treasurer , Holt relied strongly on the advice of Treasury secretary Roland Wilson . His achievements included major reforms to the banking system ( originated by Fadden ) - including the establishment of the Reserve Bank of Australia - and the planning and preparation for the introduction of decimal currency . It was Holt who convinced Cabinet to call the new currency the `` dollar '' rather than the `` royal '' . The economy Holt inherited was growing strongly , aided by the opening of new iron ore mines . However , in 1959 , inflation was running at 4.5 % and Treasury was alarmed . Holt was reluctant to act , but in November 1960 introduced a deflationary package of tax changes . He also reluctantly agreed to an interest rate rise by the Reserve Bank . These measures became known as the `` credit squeeze '' or the `` Holt jolt '' . The economy went into recession , but unemployment was still relatively low . The credit squeeze brought the Coalition dangerously close to losing the 1961 election , with the Coalition being returned with a precarious one-seat majority . There were calls for Holt to be sacked , but he retained Menzies ' support . He later described 1960–61 as `` my most difficult year in public life '' . Most of the deflationary measures were reversed in 1962 . In later budgets , Holt retreated to his Queensland holiday home while it was being prepared . After presenting the budget , he took an overseas trip . In contrast to his colleagues , he travelled widely in South-East Asia , which he believed was key to Australia 's future prosperity . Holt continued as federal Treasurer until January 1966 , when Menzies finally retired . With Menzies ' support , Holt was elected leader of the Liberal Party , thus becoming Prime Minister after having been an MP for almost 31 years . Holt as Prime Minister Holt was sworn in as Prime Minister on Australia Day , 26 January 1966 . His original Cabinet included : * John McEwen ( CP ) Deputy Prime Minister , leader of the Country Party , Minister for Trade and Industry ; * William McMahon ( LP ) , Treasurer ; * Paul Hasluck ( LP ) , Minister for External Affairs ; * Allen Fairhall ( LP ) , Minister for Defence ; * Charles Adermann ( CP ) Minister for Primary Industry ; * Charles Barnes ( CP ) , Minister for Territories ; * David Fairbairn ( LP ) , Minister for National Development ; * Senator John Gorton ( LP ) , Minister for Works and Minister in Charge of Commonwealth Activities in Education and Research ; * Senator Denham Henty ( LP ) , Minister for Supply ; * Alan Hulme ( LP ) , Postmaster-General ; * Les Bury ( LP ) , Minister for Labour ; * Malcolm Fraser ( LP ) , Minister for the Army . Holt 's term in office covered almost exactly the tumultuous calendar years of 1966–67 . His short tenure meant that he had limited personal and political impact as Prime Minister , and he is remembered mainly for the dramatic circumstances of his disappearance and presumed death . His untoward demise has tended to obscure the major events and political trends of his term in office , especially his role in maintaining and expanding Australia 's military commitment to the Vietnam War . The transfer of power from Menzies was smooth and unproblematic , and at the federal election later that year , the electorate overwhelmingly endorsed Holt , giving the Holt-McEwen Coalition government a 41-seat majority , the largest in Australian history up to that time . They also won 57 % of the two-party preferred vote , which is still the greatest winning margin at a federal election in Australian political history . Stylistically , Holt was more informal and contemporary than Menzies , and his wife accompanied him into the political spotlight . Political historian James Jupp says that , in domestic policy , Holt identified with the reformist wing of Victorian Liberalism . One of his most notable achievements was to initiate the process of breaking down the preferential White Australia policy by ending the distinction between Asian and European migrants and by permitting skilled Asians to settle with their families . He also established the Australian Council for the Arts ( later the Australia Council ) , which began the tradition of federal government support for Australian arts and artists , an initiative that was considerably expanded by Holt 's successor John Gorton . In the area of constitutional reform , undoubtedly the most significant event of Holt 's time as Prime Minister was the 1967 referendum in which an overwhelming majority of Australians voted in favour of giving the Commonwealth power to legislate specifically for indigenous Australians and to include them in the Commonwealth census . In 1967 the Holt government made the historic decision not to depreciate the Australian dollar in line with Britain 's depreciation of the pound sterling , a break with previous policy , which was strongly opposed by Country Party leader John McEwen . Holt and Vietnam During Holt 's term in office , the Vietnam War was the dominant foreign policy issue . The Holt government significantly increased Australia 's military involvement in the war and Holt vehemently defended U.S. policy in the region . He also forged a close relationship with U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson , whom he had first met in Melbourne in 1942 . Whilst Holt stated that his friendship with Johnson was reflected in the strong relationship between Australia and the US , former Australian diplomat and foreign-affairs expert Alan Renouf was more cynical in his assessment of the situation . In the chapter on Vietnam in The Frightened Country , his 1979 book on Australian foreign policy , Renouf bluntly suggested that Holt was in effect `` seduced '' by Johnson , and notes that the Johnson administration criticized the Holt government for not doing enough and repeatedly pressured Australia to increase its troop commitment in Vietnam . On taking office , Holt declared that Australia had no intention of increasing its commitment to the war , but just one month later , in December 1966 , he announced that Australia would treble its troop commitment to 4,500 , including 1,500 National Service conscripts , creating a single independent Australian task force based at Nui Dat . Five months later , in May , Holt was obliged to announce the death of the first National Service conscript in Vietnam , Private Errol Wayne Noack , aged 21 . Just before his disappearance , Holt approved a further increase in troop numbers , committing a third battalion to the war—a decision that was subsequently revoked by his successor , John Gorton . Holt visited the US in late June 1966 , where he gave a speech in Washington in the presence of President Johnson . Reported in The Australian on 1 July 1966 , Holt 's speech concluded with a remark which has come to be seen as encapsulating his unquestioning support for Johnson , for America 's Vietnam policy and for continued Australian military involvement in the Vietnam War : `` You have in us not merely an understanding friend but one staunch in the belief of the need for our presence in Vietnam . `` We are not there because of our friendship , we are there because , like you , we believe it is right to be there and , like you , we shall stay there as long as it seems necessary to achieve the purposes of the South Vietnamese Government and the purposes that we join in formulating and progressing together . `` And so , sir , in the lonelier and perhaps even more disheartening moments which come to any national leader , I hope there will be a corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend , a staunch friend that will be all the way with LBJ . '' Following his Washington visit Holt went on to London and in a speech there given on 7 July he was sharply critical of the UK , France and other U.S. allies that had refused to commit troops to the Vietnam War . On 20 October 1966 , President Johnson arrived in Australia at Holt 's invitation for a three-day state visit , the first to Australia by a serving U.S. President . The tour marked the first major anti-war demonstrations staged in Australia . In Sydney , protesters lay down in front of the car carrying Johnson and the Premier of New South Wales , Robert Askin ( prompting Askin 's notorious order to `` Run over the bastards '' ) . In Melbourne , a crowd estimated at 750,000 turned out to welcome Johnson , although a vocal anti-war contingent demonstrated against the visit by throwing paint bombs at Johnson 's car and chanting `` LBJ , LBJ , how many kids did you kill today ? `` . In December , Australia signed a controversial agreement with the United States that would allow the U.S. to establish a secret strategic communications facility at Pine Gap in the Northern Territory . On 20 December 1966 , Holt announced that Australia 's military force in Vietnam was to be increased again to 6,300 troops plus an additional twelve tanks , two minesweepers and eight bombers . 1966 general election Holt fought his first and only general election as Prime Minister on 26 November 1966 , focusing his campaign on the issue of Vietnam and the supposed Communist threat in Asia . Labor leader Arthur Calwell bitterly opposed Australia 's part in the war and promised that Australian troops would be brought home if Labor won office , and opposition to overseas service by Australian conscripts had long been part of ALP policy . Australia 's involvement in Vietnam still enjoyed majority popular support and Calwell 's anti-war campaign did not garner much positive reaction from voters . The Coalition scored a stunning victory over the ALP , winning many former ALP seats and sweeping back into power with the largest parliamentary majority since Federation . The Liberal Party increased its numbers from 52 to 61 , and the Country Party from 20 to 21 , with Labor dropping from 51 to 41 seats , and one Independent . Among the new members elected was future federal Treasurer Phillip Lynch . 1967 In early 1967 , Arthur Calwell retired as ALP leader and Gough Whitlam succeeded him . Whitlam proved a far more effective opponent , both in the media and in parliament , and Labor soon began to recover from its losses and gain ground , with Whitlam repeatedly besting Holt in Parliament . By this time , the long-suppressed tensions between the Coalition partners over economic and trade policies were also beginning to emerge . Throughout his reign as Liberal leader , Menzies had enforced strict party discipline but , once he was gone , dissension began to surface . Some Liberals soon became dissatisfied by what they saw as Holt 's weak leadership . Alan Reid asserts that Holt was being increasingly criticised within the party in the months before his death , that he was perceived as being `` vague , imprecise and evasive '' and `` nice to the point that his essential decency was viewed as weakness '' . Holt 's popularity and political standing was damaged by his perceived poor handling of a series of controversies that emerged during 1967 . In April , the ABC 's new nightly current affairs program This Day Tonight ran a story which criticised the government 's decision not to reappoint the Chair of the ABC Board , Sir James Darling . Holt responded rashly , questioning the impartiality of the ABC and implying political bias on the part of journalist Mike Willesee ( whose father Don Willesee was an ALP Senator and future Whitlam government minister ) , and his statement drew strong protests from both Willesee and the Australian Journalists ' Association . In May , increasing pressure from the media and within the Liberal Party forced Holt to announce a parliamentary debate on the question of a second inquiry into the 1964 sinking of HMAS Voyager to be held on 16 May . The debate included the maiden speech by newly elected NSW Liberal MP Edward St John QC , who used the opportunity to criticize the government 's attitude to new evidence about the disaster . An enraged Holt interrupted St John 's speech , in defiance of the parliamentary convention that maiden speeches are heard in silence ; his blunder embarrassed the government and further undermined Holt 's support in the Liberal Party . A few days later , Holt announced a new Royal Commission into the disaster . In June , Holt travelled to London via Canada , where on 6 June he opened the Australian Pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal ; on the return journey , the Holts stayed with the Johnsons at the presidential summer resort , Camp David , in Maryland . In October the government became embroiled in another embarrassing controversy over the alleged misuse of VIP aircraft , which came to a head when John Gorton ( Government Leader in the Senate ) tabled documents that showed that Holt had unintentionally misled Parliament in his earlier answers on the matter . Support for his leadership was eroded even further by his refusal to sack the Minister for Air , Peter Howson , in order to defuse the scandal , fuelling criticism from within the party that Holt was `` weak '' and lacked Menzies ' ruthlessness . Much of the blame for the episode within the Public Service was visited upon Sir John Bunting , Secretary of the Prime Minister 's Department , although other figures such as the Deputy Secretary Peter Lawler were able to protect themselves . One of John Gorton 's first acts upon becoming Prime Minister in January 1968 was to sideline Bunting by creating a separate Department of the Cabinet Office with Bunting as its head , and replaced him with Lenox Hewitt . In November 1967 , the government suffered a serious setback in the Senate election , winning just 42.8 per cent of the vote against Labor 's 45 per cent . The coalition also lost the seats of Corio and Dawson to Labor in by-elections . Alan Reid says that , within the party , the reversal was blamed on Holt 's mishandling of the VIP planes scandal . Disquiet was growing about his leadership style and possible health problems . Disappearance On the morning of Sunday 17 December 1967 , Holt , his neighbour and rumoured lover , Marjorie Gillespie , her daughter , Vyner , Vyner 's boyfriend , Martin Simpson , and a Gillespie family friend , Alan Stewart , drove down from Melbourne to see the lone British yachtsman Alec Rose sail through Port Phillip Heads . Around noon , the party drove to one of Holt 's favourite swimming and snorkelling spots , Cheviot Beach on Point Nepean near Portsea , on the eastern arm of Port Phillip Bay . Holt decided to go swimming , although the surf was high and fierce . Holt began swimming , but he soon disappeared from view . Fearing the worst , the others raised the alert . A large contingent of police , Royal Australian Navy divers , Royal Australian Air Force helicopters , Army personnel from nearby Point Nepean and local volunteers converged on the beach . This quickly escalated into one of the largest search operations in Australian history , but no trace of Holt could be found . Two days later , on 19 December 1967 , the government made an official announcement that Holt was thought to be dead . The Governor-General Lord Casey sent for the Country Party leader and Coalition Deputy Prime Minister John McEwen , and he was sworn in as caretaker Prime Minister until such time as the Liberals elected a new leader . Holt was a strong swimmer and an experienced skindiver , with what his biographer Tom Frame describes as `` incredible powers of endurance underwater '' . However , his health was far from perfect at the time of his death—he had collapsed in Parliament earlier in the year , apparently suffering from a vitamin deficiency , and this had raised fears among some senior Liberals that he might have a heart condition . In September 1967 , Holt had suffered a recurrence of an old shoulder injury , which reportedly caused him agonising pain , and for this he was prescribed strong painkillers . He ignored recent advice from his doctor Marcus de Laune Faunce not to play tennis or swim until the shoulder healed and reportedly obtained a prescription for morphine from another doctor . Tom Frame also records that Holt had already got into trouble twice while skindiving earlier in 1967—on the first occasion , while snorkelling at Portsea in May , he got into severe difficulties because of a leaking snorkel and had to be pulled from the water by friends , gasping for breath , blue in the face , and vomiting seawater . Memorial service A memorial service held at St Paul 's Anglican Cathedral in Melbourne on 22 December was attended by a number of international dignitaries including President Johnson , Charles , Prince of Wales , and British Prime Minister Harold Wilson . Among the many Asian leaders were Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , President of South Vietnam and Park Chung-hee , President of South Korea . It was also one of the first events to be transmitted from Australia to other countries via satellite . Speculation Media speculation focused on the possibility that Holt took his own life . Journalist Ray Martin made a documentary , Who Killed Harold Holt ? , screened in November 2007 , which suggested that Holt might have committed suicide . The Bulletin magazine featured a story supporting the suicide theory . In support of the view , The Bulletin quoted fellow cabinet minister Doug Anthony who spoke about Holt 's depression shortly before his death . The suggestion of

odql_9956--Harold_Holt.txt

Which Australian Prime Minister went for a swim in 1967, never to be seen again?

The Federalist ( later known as The Federalist Papers ) is a collection of 85 articles and essays written ( under the pseudonym Publius ) by Alexander Hamilton , James Madison , and John Jay promoting the ratification of the United States Constitution . Seventy-seven were published serially in The Independent Journal and The New York Packet between October 1787 and August 1788 . A compilation of these and eight others , called The Federalist ; or , The New Constitution , was published in two volumes in 1788 by J. and A. McLean . The collection 's original title was The Federalist ; the title The Federalist Papers did not emerge until the 20th century . Though the authors of The Federalist Papers foremost wished to influence the vote in favor of ratifying the Constitution , in Federalist No . 1 they explicitly set that debate in broader political terms : It has been frequently remarked , that it seems to have been reserved to the people of this country , by their conduct and example , to decide the important question , whether societies of men are really capable or not , of establishing good government from reflection and choice , or whether they are forever destined to depend , for their political constitutions , on accident and force . Highlights abound in the essays of The Federalist . Federalist No . 10 , in which Madison discusses the means of preventing rule by majority faction and advocates a large , commercial republic , is generally regarded as the most important of the 85 articles from a philosophical perspective ; it is complemented by Federalist No . 14 , in which Madison takes the measure of the United States , declares it appropriate for an extended republic , and concludes with a memorable defense of the constitutional and political creativity of the Federal Convention . In Federalist No . 84 , Hamilton makes the case that there is no need to amend the Constitution by adding a Bill of Rights , insisting that the various provisions in the proposed Constitution protecting liberty amount to a `` bill of rights '' . Federalist No . 78 , also written by Hamilton , lays the groundwork for the doctrine of judicial review by federal courts of federal legislation or executive acts . Federalist No . 70 presents Hamilton 's case for a one-man chief executive . In Federalist No . 39 , Madison presents the clearest exposition of what has come to be called `` Federalism '' . In Federalist No . 51 , Madison distills arguments for checks and balances in an essay often quoted for its justification of government as `` the greatest of all reflections on human nature . '' According to historian Richard B. Morris , they are an `` incomparable exposition of the Constitution , a classic in political science unsurpassed in both breadth and depth by the product of any later American writer . '' History Origins The Federal Convention sent the proposed Constitution to the Confederation Congress , which in turn submitted it to the states for ratification at the end of September 1787 . On September 27 , 1787 , `` Cato '' first appeared in the New York press criticising the proposition ; `` Brutus '' followed on October 18 , 1787 . These and other articles and public letters critical of the new Constitution would eventually become known as the `` Anti-Federalist Papers '' . In response , Hamilton decided to launch a measured defense and extensive explanation of the proposed Constitution to the people of the state of New York . He wrote in Federalist No . 1 that the series would `` endeavor to give a satisfactory answer to all the objections which shall have made their appearance , that may seem to have any claim to your attention . '' Hamilton recruited collaborators for the project . He enlisted John Jay , who after four strong essays ( Federalist Nos . 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 ) , fell ill and contributed only one more essay , Federalist No . 64 , to the series . He also distilled his case into a pamphlet in the spring of 1788 , [ http : //www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/exhibitions/constitution/address/address.html An Address to the People of the State of New-York ] ; Hamilton cited it approvingly in Federalist No . 85 . James Madison , present in New York as a Virginia delegate to the Confederation Congress , was recruited by Hamilton and Jay , and became Hamilton 's major collaborator . Gouverneur Morris and William Duer were also apparently considered ; Morris turned down the invitation , and Hamilton rejected three essays written by Duer . Duer later wrote in support of the three Federalist authors under the name `` Philo-Publius '' , or `` Friend of Publius '' . Hamilton chose `` Publius '' as the pseudonym under which the series would be written . While many other pieces representing both sides of the constitutional debate were written under Roman names , Albert Furtwangler contends that `` 'Publius ' was a cut above 'Caesar ' or 'Brutus ' or even 'Cato . ' Publius Valerius was not a late defender of the republic but one of its founders . His more famous name , Publicola , meant 'friend of the people . ' '' It was not the first time Hamilton had used this pseudonym : in 1778 , he had applied it to three letters attacking fellow Federalist Samuel Chase . Chase 's patriotism was questioned when Hamilton revealed that Chase had taken advantage of knowledge gained in Congress to try to dominate the flour market . Authorship At the time of publication the authorship of the articles was a closely guarded secret , though astute observers discerned the identities of Hamilton , Madison , and Jay . Following Hamilton 's death in 1804 , a list that he had drafted claiming fully two-thirds of the papers for himself became public , including some that seemed more likely the work of Madison ( No . 49–58 and 62–63 ) . The scholarly detective work of Douglass Adair in 1944 postulated the following assignments of authorship , corroborated in 1964 by a computer analysis of the text : * Alexander Hamilton ( 51 articles : No . 1 , 6–9 , 11–13 , 15–17 , 21–36 , 59–61 , and 65–85 ) * James Madison ( 26 articles : No . 10 , 14 , 37–58 and 62–63 ) * John Jay ( 5 articles : No . 2–5 and 64 ) . * No . 18–20 were the result of a collaboration between Madison and Hamilton . The authors used the pseudonym `` Publius '' , in honor of Roman consul Publius Valerius Publicola . Madison is now acknowledged as the father of the Constitution—despite his repeated rejection of this honor during his lifetime.Lance Banning , `` James Madison : Federalist , '' note 1 , [ http : //www.loc.gov/loc/madison/banning-paper.html ] . Madison became a leading member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia ( 1789–1797 ) , Secretary of State ( 1801–1809 ) , and ultimately the fourth President of the United States . Hamilton , who had been a leading advocate of national constitutional reform throughout the 1780s and represented New York at the Constitutional Convention , in 1789 became the first Secretary of the Treasury , a post he held until his resignation in 1795 . John Jay , who had been secretary for foreign affairs under the Articles of Confederation from 1784 through their expiration in 1789 , became the first Chief Justice of the United States in 1789 , stepping down in 1795 to accept election as governor of New York , a post he held for two terms , retiring in 1801 . Publication The Federalist Papers appeared in three New York newspapers : The Independent Journal , the New-York Packet , and the Daily Advertiser , beginning on October 27 , 1787 . Between them , Hamilton , Madison and Jay kept up a rapid pace , with at times three or four new essays by Publius appearing in the papers in a week . Garry Wills observes that the pace of production `` overwhelmed '' any possible response : `` Who , given ample time could have answered such a battery of arguments ? And no time was given . '' Hamilton also encouraged the reprinting of the essay in newspapers outside New York state , and indeed they were published in several other states where the ratification debate was taking place . However , they were only irregularly published outside New York , and in other parts of the country they were often overshadowed by local writers . Because the essays were initially published in New York , most of them begin with the same salutation : `` To the People of the State of New York '' . The high demand for the essays led to their publication in a more permanent form . On January 1 , 1788 , the New York publishing firm J . & A. McLean announced that they would publish the first thirty-six essays as a bound volume ; that volume was released on March 2 and was titled The Federalist . New essays continued to appear in the newspapers ; Federalist No . 77 was the last number to appear first in that form , on April 2 . A second bound volume containing the last forty-nine essays was released on May 28 . The remaining eight papers were later published in the newspapers as well . A 1792 French edition ended the collective anonymity of Publius , announcing that the work had been written by `` MM Hamilton , Maddisson E Gay '' , citizens of the State of New York . In 1802 , George Hopkins published an American edition that similarly named the authors . Hopkins wished as well that `` the name of the writer should be prefixed to each number , '' but at this point Hamilton insisted that this was not to be , and the division of the essays among the three authors remained a secret . The first publication to divide the papers in such a way was an 1810 edition that used a list left by Hamilton to associate the authors with their numbers ; this edition appeared as two volumes of the compiled `` Works of Hamilton '' . In 1818 , Jacob Gideon published a new edition with a new listing of authors , based on a list provided by Madison . The difference between Hamilton 's list and Madison 's formed the basis for a dispute over the authorship of a dozen of the essays . Both Hopkins 's and Gideon 's editions incorporated significant edits to the text of the papers themselves , generally with the approval of the authors . In 1863 , Henry Dawson published an edition containing the original text of the papers , see [ //en.wikisource.org/w/index.php ? titleThe_Federalist_ ( Dawson ) & oldid 2331531 The Federalist ( Dawson ) ] , arguing that they should be preserved as they were written in that particular historical moment , not as edited by the authors years later . Modern scholars generally use the text prepared by Jacob E. Cooke for his 1961 edition of The Federalist ; this edition used the newspaper texts for essay numbers 1–76 and the McLean edition for essay numbers 77–85 . Disputed essays The authorship of seventy-three of The Federalist essays is fairly certain . Twelve of these essays are disputed over by some scholars , though the modern consensus is that Madison wrote essays Nos . 49–58 , with Nos . 18–20 being products of a collaboration between him and Hamilton ; No . 64 was by John Jay . Some newer evidence suggests James Madison as the author . The first open designation of which essay belonged to whom was provided by Hamilton , who in the days before his ultimately fatal gun duel with Aaron Burr provided his lawyer with a list detailing the author of each number . This list credited Hamilton with a full sixty-three of the essays ( three of those being jointly written with Madison ) , almost three quarters of the whole , and was used as the basis for an 1810 printing that was the first to make specific attribution for the essays . Madison did not immediately dispute Hamilton 's list , but provided his own list for the 1818 Gideon edition of The Federalist . Madison claimed twenty-nine numbers for himself , and he suggested that the difference between the two lists was `` owing doubtless to the hurry in which [ Hamilton 's ] memorandum was made out . '' A known error in Hamilton 's list—Hamilton incorrectly ascribed No . 54 to John Jay , when in fact Jay wrote No . 64—provided some evidence for Madison 's suggestion . Statistical analysis has been undertaken on several occasions to try to ascertain the authorship question based on word frequencies and writing styles . Nearly all of the statistical studies show that the disputed papers were written by Madison , although a computer science study theorizes the papers were a collaborative effort . Influence on the ratification debates The Federalist Papers were written to support the ratification of the Constitution , specifically in New York . Whether they succeeded in this mission is questionable . Separate ratification proceedings took place in each state , and the essays were not reliably reprinted outside of New York ; furthermore , by the time the series was well underway , a number of important states had already ratified it , for instance Pennsylvania on December 12 . New York held out until July 26 ; certainly The Federalist was more important there than anywhere else , but Furtwangler argues that it `` could hardly rival other major forces in the ratification contests '' —specifically , these forces included the personal influence of well-known Federalists , for instance Hamilton and Jay , and Anti-Federalists , including Governor George Clinton . Further , by the time New York came to a vote , ten states had already ratified the Constitution and it had thus already passed—only nine states had to ratify it for the new government to be established among them ; the ratification by Virginia , the tenth state , placed pressure on New York to ratify . In light of that , Furtwangler observes , `` New York 's refusal would make that state an odd outsider . '' Only 19 Federalists were elected to New York 's ratification convention , compared to the Anti-Federalists ' 46 delegates . While New York did indeed ratify the Constitution on July 26 , the lack of public support for pro-Constitution Federalists has led historian John Kaminski to suggest that the impact of The Federalist on New York citizens was `` negligible '' . As for Virginia , which only ratified the Constitution at its convention on June 25 , Hamilton writes in a letter to Madison that the collected edition of The Federalist had been sent to Virginia ; Furtwangler presumes that it was to act as a `` debater 's handbook for the convention there , '' though he claims that this indirect influence would be a `` dubious distinction . '' Probably of greater importance to the Virginia debate , in any case , were George Washington 's support for the proposed Constitution and the presence of Madison and Edmund Randolph , the governor , at the convention arguing for ratification . Another purpose that The Federalist was supposed to serve was as a debater 's handbook during the ratification controversy , and indeed advocates for the Constitution in the conventions in New York and Virginia used the essays for precisely that purpose . Structure and content In Federalist No . 1 , Hamilton listed six topics to be covered in the subsequent articles : # `` The utility of the UNION to your political prosperity '' —covered in No . 2 through No . 14 # `` The insufficiency of the present Confederation to preserve that Union '' —covered in No . 15 through No . 22 # `` The necessity of a government at least equally energetic with the one proposed to the attainment of this object '' —covered in No . 23 through No . 36 # `` The conformity of the proposed constitution to the true principles of republican government '' —covered in No . 37 through No . 84 # `` Its analogy to your own state constitution '' —covered in No . 85 # `` The additional security which its adoption will afford to the preservation of that species of government , to liberty and to prosperity '' —covered in No . 85 . Furtwangler notes that as the series grew , this plan was somewhat changed . The fourth topic expanded into detailed coverage of the individual articles of the Constitution and the institutions it mandated , while the two last topics were merely touched on in the last essay . The papers can be broken down by author as well as by topic . At the start of the series , all three authors were contributing ; the first twenty papers are broken down as eleven by Hamilton , five by Madison and four by Jay . The rest of the series , however , is dominated by three long segments by a single writer : No . 21 through No . 36 by Hamilton , No . 37 through 58 by Madison , written while Hamilton was in Albany , and No . 65 through the end by Hamilton , published after Madison had left for Virginia . Opposition to the Bill of Rights The Federalist Papers ( specifically Federalist No . 84 ) are notable for their opposition to what later became the United States Bill of Rights . The idea of adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution was originally controversial because the Constitution , as written , did not specifically enumerate or protect the rights of the people , rather it listed the powers of the government and left all that remained to the states and the people . Alexander Hamilton , the author of Federalist No . 84 , feared that such an enumeration , once written down explicitly , would later be interpreted as a list of the only rights that people had . However , Hamilton 's opposition to a Bill of Rights was far from universal . Robert Yates , writing under the pseudonym Brutus , articulated this view point in the so-called Anti-Federalist No . 84 , asserting that a government unrestrained by such a bill could easily devolve into tyranny . References in The Federalist and in the ratification debates warn of demagogues of the variety who through divisive appeals would aim at tyranny . The Federalist begins and ends with this issue . In the final paper Hamilton offers `` a lesson of moderation to all sincere lovers of the Union , and ought to put them on their guard against hazarding anarchy , civil war , a perpetual alienation of the States from each other , and perhaps the military despotism of a successful demagogue '' . The matter was further clarified by the Ninth Amendment . Modern approaches and interpretations Judicial use Federal judges , when interpreting the Constitution , frequently use The Federalist Papers as a contemporary account of the intentions of the framers and ratifiers . They have been applied on issues ranging from the power of the federal government in foreign affairs ( in Hines v. Davidowitz ) to the validity of ex post facto laws ( in the 1798 decision Calder v. Bull , apparently the first decision to mention The Federalist ) . , The Federalist had been quoted 291 times in Supreme Court decisions . The amount of deference that should be given to The Federalist Papers in constitutional interpretation has always been somewhat controversial . As early as 1819 , Chief Justice John Marshall noted in the famous case McCulloch v. Maryland , that `` the opinions expressed by the authors of that work have been justly supposed to be entitled to great respect in expounding the Constitution . No tribute can be paid to them which exceeds their merit ; but in applying their opinions to the cases which may arise in the progress of our government , a right to judge of their correctness must be retained . '' Madison believed The Federalist Papers were the ideas of the Founders and not just mere expressions . In a letter to Thomas Ritchie in 1821 , he stated that `` the legitimate meaning of the Instrument must be derived from the text itself ; or if a key is to be sought elsewhere , it must be not in the opinions or intentions of the Body which planned & proposed the Constitution , but in the sense attached to it by the people in their respective State Conventions where it recd . all the authority which it possesses . '' Complete list The colors used to highlight the rows correspond to the author of the paper .

qg_2075--The_Federalist_Papers.txt

The principal author of the US Constitution and writer of over 1/3 of the Federalist Papers, which US President, the 4th, was CIC during the War of 1812?

BBC Radio 1 is a British radio station operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation which also broadcasts internationally , specialising in modern and current popular music and chart hits throughout the day . Radio 1 provides alternative genres after 7:00 pm , including electronic dance , hip hop , rock , indie or interviews . It is aimed primarily at the 15–29 age group , although the average age of the UK audience in 2008 was 33 . BBC Radio 1 started 24-hour broadcasting on 1 May 1991 . History First broadcast Radio 1 was established in 1967 ( along with the more middle of the road BBC Radio 2 ) as a successor to the BBC Light Programme , which had broadcast popular music and other entertainment since 1945 . Radio 1 was conceived as a direct response to the popularity of offshore pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline and Radio London , which had been outlawed by Act of Parliament . Radio 1 was launched at 7:00 am on Saturday 30 September 1967 . The first disc jockey to broadcast on the new station was Tony Blackburn , whose cheery style , first heard on Radio Caroline and Radio London , won him the prime slot on what became known as the `` Radio 1 Breakfast Show '' . The first words on Radio 1 – after a countdown by the Controller of Radios 1 and 2 , Robin Scott , and a jingle , recorded at PAMS in Dallas , Texas , beginning `` The voice of Radio 1 '' – were `` ... And , good morning everyone . Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1 '' . This was the first use of US-style jingles on BBC radio , but the style was familiar to listeners who were acquainted with Blackburn and other DJs from their days on pirate radio . The first complete record played on Radio 1 was `` Flowers in the Rain '' by The Move . The second single was `` Massachusetts '' by The Bee Gees . The breakfast show remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedule , with every change of breakfast show presenter exciting considerable media interest . The initial rota of staff included John Peel and a gaggle of others , some hired from pirates , such as Keith Skues , Ed Stewart , Mike Raven , David Ryder , Jim Fisher , Jimmy Young , Dave Cash , Kenny Everett , Simon Dee , Terry Wogan , Duncan Johnson , Doug Crawford , Tommy Vance , Chris Denning , Emperor Rosko , Pete Murray , and Bob Holness . Many of the most popular pirate radio voices , such as Simon Dee , had only a one-hour slot per week , ( `` Midday Spin . '' ) Annie Nightingale , who joined in 1970 , was Britain 's first female DJ and is now the longest serving presenter , having constantly evolved her musical tastes with the times . 1970s peak Initially , the station was unpopular with some of its target audience who , it is claimed , disliked the fact that much of its airtime was shared with Radio 2 and that it was less unequivocally aimed at a young audience than the offshore stations , with some DJs such as Jimmy Young being in their 40s . The very fact that it was part of an `` establishment '' institution such as the BBC was a turn-off for some , and needle time restrictions prevented it from playing as many records as offshore stations had . It also had limited finances ( partially because the BBC did not increase its licence fee to fund the new station ) and often , as in January 1975 , suffered disproportionately when the BBC had to make financial cutbacks , strengthening an impression that it was regarded as a lower priority by senior BBC executives . Despite this , it gained massive audiences , becoming the most listened to station in the world with audiences of over 10 million claimed for some of its shows ( up to 20 million for some of the combined Radio 1 and Radio 2 shows ) . In the early-mid-1970s Radio 1 presenters were rarely out of the British tabloids , thanks to the Publicity Department 's high profile work . The popularity of Radio 1 's touring summer live broadcasts the Radio 1 Roadshow - usually as part of the BBC 'Radio Weeks ' promotions that took Radio 1 , 2 and 4 shows on the road - drew some of the largest crowds of the decade . The station undoubtedly played a role in maintaining the high sales of 45 rpm single records although it benefited from a lack of competition , apart from Radio Luxembourg and Manx Radio in the Isle of Man . ( Independent Local Radio did not begin until October 1973 and took many years to cover virtually all of the UK ) . Alan Freeman 's 'Saturday Rock Show ' was voted 'Best Radio Show ' 5 years running by readers of a national music publication , and was then axed by controller Derek Chinnery . 1990s changes In his last few months as controller , Johnny Beerling commissioned a handful of new shows that in some ways set the tone for what was to come under Matthew Bannister . One of these `` Loud'n'proud '' was the UK 's first national radio series aimed at a gay audience ( made in Manchester and was aired from August 1993 ) . Far from being a parting quirk , the show was a surprise hit and led to the network 's first coverage of the large outdoor Gay Pride event in 1994 . Bannister took the reins fully in October 1993 . His aim was to rid the station of its 'Smashie and Nicey ' image and make it appeal to the under 25s . Although originally launched as a youth station , by the early 1990s , its loyal listeners ( and DJs ) had aged with the station over its 25-year history . Many long-standing DJs , such as Simon Bates , Dave Lee Travis , Alan Freeman , Bob Harris , Gary Davies , and later Steve Wright , Bruno Brookes and Johnnie Walker left the station or were sacked , and in January 1995 old music ( typically anything recorded before 1990 ) was banned from the daytime playlist . Many listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC ( notably Bannister and Trevor Dann 's former colleagues at the BBC 's London station , GLR ) with Emma Freud and Danny Baker . Another problem was that , at the time , Radio 2 was sticking resolutely to a format which appealed mainly to those who had been listening since the days of the Light Programme , and commercial radio , which was targeting the `` Radio 1 and a half '' audience , consequently enjoyed a massive increase in its audience share at the expense of Radio 1 . After the departure of Steve Wright , who had been unsuccessfully moved from his long-running afternoon show to the breakfast show in January 1994 , Bannister hired Chris Evans to present the prime morning slot in April 1995 . Evans was a popular but controversial presenter who was eventually sacked in 1997 after he demanded to present the breakfast show for only four days per week . Evans was replaced from 17 February 1997 by Mark and Lard – Mark Radcliffe ( along with his sidekick Marc Riley ) , who found the slick , mass-audience style required for a breakfast show did not come naturally to them . They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Kevin Greening eight months later in October 1997 , with Greening moving on and leaving Ball as solo presenter . The reinvention of the station happened at a fortuitous time , with the rise of Britpop in the mid-90s – bands like Oasis , Blur and Pulp were popular and credible at the time and the station 's popularity rose with them . Documentaries like John Peel 's `` Lost in Music '' which looked at the influence that the use of drugs have had over popular musicians received critical acclaim but were slated inside Broadcasting House . Later in the 1990s the Britpop boom declined , and manufactured chart pop ( boy bands and acts aimed at sub-teenagers ) came to dominate the charts . New-genre music occupied the evenings ( indie on weekdays and dance at weekends ) , with a mix of specialist shows and playlist fillers through late nights . The rise of rave culture through the late 1980s and early 1990s gave the station the opportunity to move into a controversial and youth-orientated movement by bringing in club DJ Pete Tong amongst others . There had been a dance music programme on Radio 1 since 1987 and Pete Tong was the second DJ to present an all dance music show . This quickly gave birth to the Essential Mix where underground DJs mix electronic and club based music in a two-hour slot . Dance music has been a permanent feature on Radio 1 since with club DJs such as Judge Jules , Danny Rampling and Seb Fontaine all having shows as well as Radio 1 hosting an annual weekend in Ibiza . 2000s Listening numbers continued to decline but the station succeeded in targeting a younger age-group and more cross gender groups . Eventually , this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to this day . Notably , the station has received praise for shows such as The Surgery with Aled , Bobby Friction and Nihal , The Evening Session with Steve Lamacq and its successor Zane Lowe . Its website has also been well received . However , the breakfast show and the UK Top 40 continued to struggle . In 2000 , Zoë Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow ladette Sara Cox , but , despite heavy promotion , listening figures for the breakfast show continued to fall . In 2004 Cox was replaced by Chris Moyles . The newly rebranded breakfast show was known as The Chris Moyles Show and it increased its audience , ahead of The Today Programme on Radio 4 as the second most popular breakfast show ( after The Chris Evans Breakfast Show hosted by Chris Evans ) . Moyles continued to use innovative ways to try to tempt listeners from the 'Wake up with Wogan ' show ; in 2006 , for example , creating a 'SAY NO TO WOGAN ' campaign live on-air . This angered the BBC hierarchy , though the row simmered down when it was clear that the 'campaign ' had totally failed to alter the listening trends of the time – Wogan still increased figures at a faster rate than Moyles . The chart show 's ratings fell after the departure of long-time host Mark Goodier , amid falling single sales in the UK . Ratings for the show fell in 2002 whilst Goodier was still presenting the show , meaning that commercial radio 's Network Chart overtook it in the ratings for the first time . However , the BBC denied he was being sacked . The BBC show now competes with networked commercial radio 's The Big Top 40 Show which is broadcast at the same time . Many DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure ( such as Johnnie Walker , Bob Harris and Steve Wright ) have joined Radio 2 which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK 's most popular radio station , using a style that Radio 1 had until the early 1990s . The success of Moyles ' show has come alongside increased success for the station in general . In 2006 , DJs Chris Moyles , Scott Mills and Zane Lowe all won gold Sony Radio Awards , while the station itself came away with the best station award . A new evening schedule was introduced in September 2006 , dividing the week by genre . Monday was mainly pop-funkrock-oriented , Tuesday was R & B and hip-hop , Thursdays and Fridays were primarily dance , with specialist R & B and reggae shows . Following the death of John Peel in October 2004 , Annie Nightingale is now the longest serving presenter , having worked there since 1970 . 2010s The licence-fee funding of Radio 1 , alongside Radio 2 , is often criticised by the commercial sector . In the first quarter of 2011 Radio 1 was part of an efficiency review conducted by John Myers . His role , according to Andrew Harrison , the chief executive of RadioCentre , was `` to identify both areas of best practice and possible savings . '' The controller of Radio 1 and sister station 1Xtra changed to Ben Cooper on 28 October 2011 , following the departure of Andy Parfitt . Ben Cooper answers to the Director of BBC Audio and Music , Tim Davie . On 7 December 2011 , Ben Cooper 's first major changes to the station were announced . Skream & Benga , Toddla T , Charlie Sloth and Friction replaced Judge Jules , Gilles Peterson , Kissy Sell Out and Fabio & Grooverider . A number of shows were shuffled to incorporate the new line up . On 28 February 2012 , further changes were announced . Greg James and Scott Mills swapped shows and Jameela Jamil , Gemma Cairney and Danny Howard joined the station . The new line up of DJs for In New DJs We Trust was also announced with B.Traits , Mosca , Jordan Suckley and Julio Bashmore hosting shows on a four weekly rotation . This new schedule took effect on Monday , 2 April 2012 . In September 2012 , Nick Grimshaw replaced Chris Moyles as host of `` Radio 1 's Breakfast Show '' . Grimshaw previously hosted Mon-Thurs 10pm-Midnight , Weekend Breakfast and Sunday evenings alongside Annie Mac . Grimshaw was replaced by Phil Taggart and Alice Levine on the 10pm-Midnight show . In November 2012 , another series of changes were announced . This included the departure of Reggie Yates and Vernon Kay . Jameela Jamil was announced as the new presenter of The Official Chart . Matt Edmondson will host a weekend morning show and Tom Deacon will return to present a Wednesday night show . Dan Howell and Phil Lester , famous YouTubers also joined the station . The changes took effect in January 2013 . Former breakfast presenter Sara Cox hosted her last show on Radio 1 in February 2014 before moving to Radio 2 . In March 2014 , Gemma Cairney left the weekend breakfast show to host the weekday early breakfast slot , swapping shows with Dev . In September 2014 , Radio 1 operated a series of changes to their output which saw many notable presenters leave the station - including Edith Bowman , Nihal and Rob da Bank . Huw Stephens gained a new show hosting 10pm-1am Mon-Wed with Alice Levine presenting weekends 1pm-4pm . Radio 1 's Residency also expanded with Skream joining the rotational line-up on Thursday nights 10pm-1am . In January 2015 , Clara Amfo replaced Jameela Jamil as host of The Official Chart on Sundays ( 4pm-7pm ) and in March , Zane Lowe left Radio 1 and was replaced by Annie Mac on the new music evening show . In May 2015 , Fearne Cotton left the station after almost 10 years . Her weekday morning show was taken over by Clara Amfo . Adele Roberts also joined the weekday schedule line-up , hosting the Early Breakfast show . In July 2015 , The Official Chart moved to a Friday from 4pm-5.45pm , hosted by Greg James . The move took place in order to take into account the changes to the release dates of music globally . Cel Spellman joined Radio 1 to host Sunday evenings 4pm-7pm . Broadcast Studios From inception for over 20 years , Radio 1 broadcast from an adjacent pair of continuity suites ( originally Con A and Con B ) in the main control room of Broadcasting House . These cons were configured to allow DJs to operate the equipment themselves and play their own records and jingle cartridges ( called self-op ) . This was a departure from traditional BBC practice , where a studio manager would play in discs from the studio control cubicle . Due to needle time restrictions , much of the music was played from tapes of BBC session recordings . The DJs were assisted by one or more technical operators ( TOs ) who would set up tapes and control sound levels during broadcasts . In 1985 , Radio 1 moved across the road from Broadcasting House to Egton House . The station moved to Yalding House in 1996 , and Egton House was demolished in 2003 to make way for extension to Broadcasting House . This extension would eventually be renamed the Egton Wing , and then the Peel Wing . Until recently , the studios were located in the basement of Yalding House ( near to BBC Broadcasting House ) which is on Great Portland Street in central London . They used to broadcast from two main studios in the basement ; Y2 and Y3 ( there is also a smaller studio , YP1 , used mainly for production ) . These two main studios ( Y2 and Y3 ) are separated by the `` Live Lounge '' , although it is mainly used as an office ; there are rarely live sets recorded from it , as Maida Vale Studios is used instead for larger set-ups . The studios are linked by webcams and windows through the `` Live Lounge '' , allowing DJs to see each other when changing between shows . Y2 is the studio from where The Chris Moyles Show was broadcast and is also the studio rigged with static cameras for when the station broadcasts on the `` Live Cam '' . The station moved there in 1996 from Egton House . In December 2012 Radio 1 moved from Yalding House to new studios on the 8th floor of the new BBC Broadcasting House , Portland Place , just a few metres away from the `` Peel Wing '' , formerly the `` Egton Wing '' , which occupies the land on which Egton House previously stood : it was renamed the `` Peel Wing '' in 2012 in honour of the long-serving BBC Radio 1 presenter , John Peel , who broadcast on the station from its launch in 1967 up until his death in 2004 . Programmes have also regularly been broadcast from other regions , notably The Mark and Lard Show , broadcast every weekday from New Broadcasting House , Oxford Road , Manchester for over a decade ( October 1993–March 2004 ) — the longest regular broadcast on the network from outside the capital . UK analogue frequencies Radio 1 originally broadcast on 1214 kHz medium wave ( or 247 metres ) . On 23 November 1978 , the latter was moved to 1053/1089 kHz ( 275/285 m ) , but did not broadcast nationally on its own FM frequencies until late 1987 . The BBC was allocated three FM frequency ranges in 1955 , for the then Light Programme ( now BBC Radio 2 ) , Third Programme ( now BBC Radio 3 ) and Home Service ( now BBC Radio 4 ) stations . This meant when Radio 1 was launched , there was no FM frequency range allocated for the station , the official reason being that there was no space even though no commercial stations had yet launched on FM . Because of this , from launch until the end of the 1980s Radio 1 was allowed to take over Radio 2 's FM transmitters for a few hours per week – Saturday afternoons , Sunday teatime and evening – most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons – 10:00 pm to midnight on weeknights including Sounds of the Seventies until 1975 , and thereafter the John Peel show ( Mon - Thurs ) and the Friday Rock Show . As well as most Bank Holiday afternoons when Radio 2 was broadcasting a bank holiday edition of Sport on 2 . To coincide Radio 1 's 20th birthday , the first full-time FM broadcast went live in the London area on the 31 October 1987 , but this was at low power on 104.8 MHz FM . In 1988 the FM frequencies became national when the existing police communication allocation changed , freeing up what is known today as 97-99 FM , which the BBC acquired . This was rolled out on 1 September 1988 , starting with Central Scotland , Midlands & the north of England areas . The engineering programme was initially completed in 1995 . Radio 1 made great efforts to promote its new FM service , renaming itself on-air initially to 'Radio 1 FM ' and also later on as '1FM ' until 1995 . The Conservative government decided that to increase competition on AM it would disallow the simulcast of services available on both AM and FM , affecting both BBC and ILR . Therefore , Radio 1 's old medium wave frequencies were reallocated to Talk Radio UK in 1994 ( now Talksport ) . Radio 1 's last broadcast on MW was on 1 July that year , with Stephen Duffy 's `` Kiss Me '' being the last record played on MW just before 9:00 am . In the initial months after this closure a pre-recorded message with Mark Goodier was played to warn listeners that Radio 1 was now an `` FM-only '' station . During this time Radio 1 began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on Sky Television 's analogue satellite service , initially in mono ( on UK Gold ) and later in stereo ( on UK Living ) . Digital distribution The BBC launched its national radio stations on DAB digital radio in 1995 , however the technology was expensive at the time and so was not marketed , instead used as a test for future technologies . DAB was `` officially '' launched in 2002 as sets became cheaper . Today it can also be heard on UK digital TV services Freeview , Virgin Media , Sky and the Internet as well as FM . In July 2005 , Sirius Satellite Radio began simulcasting Radio 1 across the United States as channel 11 on its own service and channel 6011 on Dish Network satellite TV . Sirius Canada began simulcasting Radio 1 when it was launched on 1 December 2005 ( also on channel 11 ) . The Sirius simulcasts were time shifted five hours to allow U.S. and Canadian listeners in the Eastern Time Zone to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners . On 12 November 2008 , Radio 1 made its debut on XM Satellite Radio in both the US and Canada on channel 29 , moving to XM 15 and Sirius 15 on 4 May 2011 . Until the full station was removed in August 2011 , Radio 1 was able to be heard by approximately 20.6 million listeners in North America on satellite radio alone . BBC Radio 1 can be heard on cable in the Netherlands at 105.10 FM . SiriusXM cancellation in North America At 12am on 9 August 2011 , Sirius XM ceased carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no prior warning . On 10 August 2011 the BBC issued the following statement : The BBC ’ s commercial arm BBC Worldwide has been in partnership with SIRIUS Satellite Radio to broadcast Radio 1 on their main network , since 2005 . This agreement has now unfortunately come to an end and BBC Worldwide are in current discussions with the satellite radio station to find ways to continue to bring popular music channel , BBC Radio 1 , to the US audience . We will keep you posted . Thousands of angry Sirius XM customers began a campaign on Facebook and other social media to reinstate BBC Radio 1 on Sirius XM Radio . One week later , Sirius and the BBC agreed on a new carriage agreement that saw Radio 1 broadcast on a time-shifted format on the Sirius XM Internet Radio platform only , on channel 815 . The channel is still unavailable on the satellite platform of the service . Starting on 15 January 2012 , The Official Chart Show began broadcasting on SiriusXM 20on20 channel 3 , at 4pm and 9pm Eastern Standard Time . On 19 August 2014 , SiriusXM again stopped carrying BBC Radio 1 programming with no advanced notice . The stream is no longer available on the Internet Radio platform . Regionalisation From 1999 until 2012 , Radio 1 split the home nations for localised programming in Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland , to allow the broadcast of a showcase programme for regional talent . Most recently , these shows were under the BBC Introducing brand . Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland had their own shows , which were broadcast on a 3-week rotational basis in England . From January 2011 until June 2012 Scotland 's show was presented by Ally McCrae . Previously it was hosted by Vic Galloway ( who also presents for BBC Radio Scotland ) ; who had presented the show solo since 2004 , after his original co-host Gill Mills departed . Wales 's show was hosted by Jen Long between January 2011 until May 2012 . Previously Bethan Elfyn occupied the slot , who had at one time hosted alongside Huw Stephens , until Stephens left to join the national network ( Stephens still broadcasts a show for the Wales region , a Welsh-language music show on BBC Radio Cymru , on a Monday evening between 7pm-10pm . ) Phil Taggart presented the Northern Irish programme between November 2011 and May 2012 . The show was formerly presented by Rory McConnell . Before joining the national network , Colin Murray was a presenter on the Session in Northern Ireland , along with Donna Legge ; after Murray 's promotion to the network Legge hosted alone for a time , and on her departure McConnell took her place . The regional opt-outs originally went out from 8:00 pm to 10:00 pm on Thursdays ( the Evening Session 's time slot ) and were known as the Session in the Nations ( the 'Session ' tag was later dropped due to the demise of the Evening Session ) ; they later moved to run from 7:30 pm to 9:00 pm , with the first half-hour of Zane Lowe 's programme going out across the whole of the UK . On 18 October 2007 the regional programmes moved to a Wednesday night/Thursday morning slot from 12:00 am to 2:00 am under the BBC Introducing banner , allowing Lowe 's Thursday show to be aired across the network ; prior to this change Huw Stephens had presented the Wednesday midnight show nationally . In January 2011 , BBC Introducing was moved to the new time slot of 00:00 to 02:00 on Monday mornings , and the Scottish and Welsh shows were given new presenters in the form of Ally McCrae and Jen Long . The opt-outs were only available to listeners on the FM frequencies . Because of the way the DAB and digital TV services of Radio 1 are broadcast ( a single-frequency network on DAB and a single broadcast feed of Radio 1 on TV platforms ) , the digital version of the station was not regionalised . The BBC Trust announced in May 2012 that the regional music programmes on Radio 1 would be replaced with a single programme offering a UK-wide platform for new music as part of a series of cost-cutting measures across the BBC . In June 2012 , the regional shows ended and were replaced by a single BBC Introducing show presented by Jen Long and Ally McCrae . Content Music Because of its youth-orientated nature , Radio 1 plays a mix of current songs , including independent/alternative , rap , hip hop , rock , house , electronica , dance , drum and bass , dubstep and pop . Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 ( the `` needle time '' limitation ) the station has recorded many live performances . Studio sessions ( recordings of about four tracks made in a single day ) ,

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In 1967, who was the first DJ on Radio 1?

Charles John Huffam Dickens ( ; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870 ) was an English writer and social critic . He created some of the world 's best-known fictional characters and is regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era .. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime , and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius . His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity . Born in Portsmouth , Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors ' prison . Despite his lack of formal education , he edited a weekly journal for 20 years , wrote 15 novels , five novellas , hundreds of short stories and non-fiction articles , lectured and performed extensively , was an indefatigable letter writer , and campaigned vigorously for children 's rights , education , and other social reforms . Dickens 's literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers . Within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity , famous for his humour , satire , and keen observation of character and society . His novels , most published in monthly or weekly instalments , pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction , which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication . The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience 's reaction , and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback . For example , when his wife 's chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities , Dickens improved the character with positive features . His plots were carefully constructed , and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives . Masses of the illiterate poor chipped in ha'pennies to have each new monthly episode read to them , opening up and inspiring a new class of readers . Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age . His 1843 novella , A Christmas Carol , remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre . Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted , and , like many of his novels , evoke images of early Victorian London . His 1859 novel , A Tale of Two Cities , set in London and Paris , is his best-known work of historical fiction . Dickens 's creative genius has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for its realism , comedy , prose style , unique characterisations , and social criticism . On the other hand , Oscar Wilde , Henry James , and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of psychological depth , loose writing , and a vein of saccharine sentimentalism . The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings , such as poor social conditions or comically repulsive characters . Early years Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 , at 1 Mile End Terrace ( now 393 Commercial Road ) , Landport in Portsea Island ( Portsmouth ) , the second of eight children of John Dickens ( 1785–1851 ) and Elizabeth Dickens ( née Barrow ; 1789–1863 ) . His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district . He asked Christopher Huffam , rigger to His Majesty 's Navy , gentleman , and head of an established firm , to act as godfather to Charles . Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey , the owner of a shipping company in Dickens 's eponymous Dombey and Son ( 1848 ) . In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London , and the family moved to Norfolk Street , Fitzrovia . When Charles was four , they relocated to Sheerness , and thence to Chatham , Kent , where he spent his formative years until the age of 11 . His early life seems to have been idyllic , though he thought himself a `` very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy '' . Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously , including the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding , as well as Robinson Crusoe and Gil Blas . He read and reread The Arabian Nights and the Collected Farces of Elizabeth Inchbald . He retained poignant memories of childhood , helped by an excellent memory of people and events , which he used in his writing . His father 's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education , first at a dame school , and then at a school run by William Giles , a dissenter , in Chatham . This period came to an end in June 1822 , when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at Somerset House , and the family—minus Charles , who stayed behind to finish his final term of work—moved to Camden Town in London . The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts , and , living beyond his means , John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the Marshalsea debtors ' prison in Southwark , London in 1824 . His wife and youngest children joined him there , as was the practice at the time . Charles , then 12 years old , boarded with Elizabeth Roylance , a family friend , at 112 College Place , Camden Town . Roylance was `` a reduced [ impoverished ] old lady , long known to our family '' , whom Dickens later immortalised , `` with a few alterations and embellishments '' , as `` Mrs. Pipchin '' in Dombey and Son . Later , he lived in a back-attic in the house of an agent for the Insolvent Court , Archibald Russell , `` a fat , good-natured , kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife '' and lame son , in Lant Street in Southwark . They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in The Old Curiosity Shop . On Sundays—with his sister Frances , free from her studies at the Royal Academy of Music—he spent the day at the Marshalsea . Dickens later used the prison as a setting in Little Dorrit . To pay for his board and to help his family , Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten-hour days at Warren 's Blacking Warehouse , on Hungerford Stairs , near the present Charing Cross railway station , where he earned six shillings a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking . The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays , becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio-economic and labour conditions , the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor . He later wrote that he wondered `` how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age '' . As he recalled to John Forster ( from The Life of Charles Dickens ) : The blacking-warehouse was the last house on the left-hand side of the way , at old Hungerford Stairs . It was a crazy , tumble-down old house , abutting of course on the river , and literally overrun with rats . Its wainscoted rooms , and its rotten floors and staircase , and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars , and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times , and the dirt and decay of the place , rise up visibly before me , as if I were there again . The counting-house was on the first floor , looking over the coal-barges and the river . There was a recess in it , in which I was to sit and work . My work was to cover the pots of paste-blacking ; first with a piece of oil-paper , and then with a piece of blue paper ; to tie them round with a string ; and then to clip the paper close and neat , all round , until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary 's shop . When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection , I was to paste on each a printed label , and then go on again with more pots . Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down-stairs on similar wages . One of them came up , in a ragged apron and a paper cap , on the first Monday morning , to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot . His name was Bob Fagin ; and I took the liberty of using his name , long afterwards , in Oliver Twist .. When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart , busy district of Covent Garden the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street and little audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens biographer Simon Callow 's estimation , the public display was `` a new refinement added to his misery '' . A few months after his imprisonment , John Dickens 's paternal grandmother , Elizabeth Dickens , died and bequeathed him £450 . On the expectation of this legacy , Dickens was released from prison . Under the Insolvent Debtors Act , Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors , and he and his family left Marshalsea , for the home of Mrs Roylance . Charles 's mother , Elizabeth Dickens , did not immediately support his removal from the boot-blacking warehouse . This influenced Dickens 's view that a father should rule the family , and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home : `` I never afterwards forgot , I never shall forget , I never can forget , that my mother was warm for my being sent back '' . His mother 's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women . Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works , and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite , and most autobiographical , novel , David Copperfield : `` I had no advice , no counsel , no encouragement , no consolation , no assistance , no support , of any kind , from anyone , that I can call to mind , as I hope to go to heaven ! '' Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy in Camden Town , where he remained until March 1827 , having spent about two years there . He did not consider it to be a good school : `` Much of the haphazard , desultory teaching , poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster 's sadistic brutality , the seedy ushers and general run-down atmosphere , are embodied in Mr. Creakle 's Establishment in David Copperfield . `` . Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore , attorneys , of Holborn Court , Gray 's Inn , as a junior clerk from May 1827 to November 1828 . He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him : clients , lawyers , and clerks . He went to theatres obsessively—he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every single day . His favourite actor was Charles Mathews , and Dickens learnt his monopolylogues , ( farces in which Mathews played every character ) , by heart . Then , having learned Gurney 's system of shorthand in his spare time , he left to become a freelance reporter . A distant relative , Thomas Charlton , was a freelance reporter at Doctors ' Commons , and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years . This education was to inform works such as Nicholas Nickleby , Dombey and Son , and especially Bleak House—whose vivid portrayal of the machinations and bureaucracy of the legal system did much to enlighten the general public and served as a vehicle for dissemination of Dickens 's own views regarding , particularly , the heavy burden on the poor who were forced by circumstances to `` go to law '' . In 1830 , Dickens met his first love , Maria Beadnell , thought to have been the model for the character Dora in David Copperfield . Maria 's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris . Journalism and early novels In 1832 , at age 20 , Dickens was energetic and increasingly self-confident . He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment , lacked a clear , specific sense of what he wanted to become , and yet knew he wanted fame . Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of the Garrick —he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden , where the manager George Bartley and the actor Charles Kemble were to see him . Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews , but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold . Before another opportunity arose , he had set out on his career as a writer . In 1833 he submitted his first story , `` A Dinner at Poplar Walk '' , to the London periodical Monthly Magazine .. William Barrow , a brother of his mother , offered him a job on The Mirror of Parliament and he worked in the House of Commons for the first time early in 1832 . He rented rooms at Furnival 's Inn and worked as a political journalist , reporting on Parliamentary debates , and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle . His journalism , in the form of sketches in periodicals , formed his first collection of pieces , published in 1836 : Sketches by Boz—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years . Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname `` Moses '' , which he had given to his youngest brother Augustus Dickens , after a character in Oliver Goldsmith 's The Vicar of Wakefield . When pronounced by anyone with a head cold , `` Moses '' became `` Boses '' —later shortened to Boz . Dickens 's own name was considered `` queer '' by a contemporary critic , who wrote in 1849 : `` Mr Dickens , as if in revenge for his own queer name , does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations . '' He contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career . In January 1835 the Morning Chronicle launched an evening edition , under the editorship of the Chronicles music critic , George Hogarth . Hogarth invited Dickens to contribute Street Sketches and Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house , excited by Hogarth 's friendship with a hero of his , Walter Scott , and enjoying the company of Hogarth 's three daughters—Georgina , Mary , and nineteen-year-old Catherine . Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially . He began a friendship with William Harrison Ainsworth , the author of the highwayman novel Rookwood ( 1834 ) , whose bachelor salon in Harrow Road had become the meeting place for a set that included Daniel Maclise , Benjamin Disraeli , Edward Bulwer-Lytton , and George Cruikshank . All these became his friends and collaborators , with the exception of Disraeli , and he met his first publisher , John Macrone , at the house . The success of Sketches by Boz led to a proposal from publishers Chapman and Hall for Dickens to supply text to match Robert Seymour 's engraved illustrations in a monthly letterpress . Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment , and Dickens , who wanted to write a connected series of sketches , hired `` Phiz '' to provide the engravings ( which were reduced from four to two per instalment ) for the story . The resulting story became The Pickwick Papers , and though the first few episodes were not successful , the introduction of the Cockney character Sam Weller in the fourth episode ( the first to be illustrated by Phiz ) marked a sharp climb in its popularity . The final instalment sold 40,000 copies . In November 1836 Dickens accepted the position of editor of Bentley 's Miscellany , a position he held for three years , until he fell out with the owner . In 1836 as he finished the last instalments of The Pickwick Papers , he began writing the beginning instalments of Oliver Twist—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work on Bentley 's and also writing four plays , the production of which he oversaw . Oliver Twist , published in 1838 , became one of Dickens 's better known stories , and was the first Victorian novel with a child protagonist . On 2 April 1836 , after a one-year engagement , and between episodes two and three of The Pickwick Papers , Dickens married Catherine Thomson Hogarth ( 1816–1879 ) , the daughter of George Hogarth , editor of the Evening Chronicle . They were married in St. Luke 's Church , Chelsea , London . After a brief honeymoon in Chalk in Kent the couple returned to lodgings at Furnival 's Inn . The first of their ten children , Charley , was born in January 1837 , and a few months later the family set up home in Bloomsbury at 48 Doughty Street , London , ( on which Charles had a three-year lease at £80 a year ) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839 . Dickens 's younger brother Frederick and Catherine 's 17-year-old sister Mary , moved in with them . Dickens became very attached to Mary , and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837 . Unusually for Dickens , as a consequence of his shock , he stopped working , and he and Kate stayed at a little farm on Hampstead Heath for a fortnight . Dickens idealised Mary , - the character he fashioned after her , Rose Maylie , he found he could not now kill , as he had planned , in his fiction and according to Ackroyd he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of Little Nell and Florence Dombey . His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of Pickwick Papers and had to cancel the Oliver Twist instalment that month as well . The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop and Forster soon became his unofficial business manager , and the first to read his work . His success as a novelist continued . The young Queen Victoria read both Oliver Twist and Pickwick , staying up until midnight to discuss them . Nicholas Nickleby ( 1838–39 ) , The Old Curiosity Shop and , finally , his first historical novel , Barnaby Rudge : A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty , as part of the Master Humphrey 's Clock series ( 1840–41 ) , were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books . In the midst of all his activity during this period there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off , while Richard Bentley signed over all his rights in Oliver Twist . Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerge—in Broadstairs he flirted with Eleanor Picken , the young fiancée of his solicitor 's best friend , and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea . He declared they were both to drown there in the `` sad sea waves '' . She finally got free but afterwards kept her distance . In June 1841 he precipitately set out on a two-month tour of Scotland and then , in September 1841 , telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America . Master Humphrey 's Clock was shut down , though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine , a form he liked , a liking that had begun with his childhood reading of the eighteenth-century magazines Tatler and The Spectator . First visit to the United States In 1842 , Dickens and his wife made their first trip to the United States and Canada . At this time Georgina Hogarth , another sister of Catherine , joined the Dickens household , now living at Devonshire Terrace , Marylebone , to care for the young family they had left behind . She remained with them as housekeeper , organiser , adviser , and friend until Dickens 's death in 1870 . He described his impressions in a travelogue , American Notes for General Circulation . Dickens includes in Notes a powerful condemnation of slavery , which he had attacked as early as The Pickwick Papers , correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters . In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America , some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens ' views on racial inequality , for instance , he has been criticized for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor Eyre 's harsh crackdown during the 1860s Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it . From Richmond , Virginia , Dickens returned to Washington , D.C. , and started a trek westward to St. Louis , Missouri . While there , he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east . A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie , a trip 30 miles into Illinois . During his American visit , Dickens spent a month in New York City , giving lectures , raising the question of international copyright laws and the pirating of his work in America . He persuaded a group of twenty-five writers , headed by Washington Irving , to sign a petition for him to take to Congress , but the press were generally hostile to this , saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated . The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self-perception according to critic Kate Flint , who writes the he `` found himself a cultural commodity , and its circulation had passed out his control '' , causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels . She writes that he assumed a role of `` influential commentator '' , publicly and in his fiction , evident in his next few books . Soon after his return to England , Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories , A Christmas Carol , written in 1843 , which was followed by The Chimes in 1844 and The Cricket on the Hearth in 1845 . Of these , A Christmas Carol was most popular and , tapping into an old tradition , did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America . The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens 's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there . This , along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane Ragged School , caused Dickens to resolve to `` strike a sledge hammer blow '' for the poor . As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest , Dickens became engrossed in the book . He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he `` wept and laughed , and wept again '' as he `` walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed . '' After living briefly in Italy ( 1844 ) , Dickens travelled to Switzerland ( 1846 ) , where he began work on Dombey and Son ( 1846–48 ) . This and David Copperfield ( 1849–50 ) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens 's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works . At about this time he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother , Augustus , worked ( John Chapman & Co. ) . It had been carried out by Thomas Powell ( 1809-1887 ) , a clerk , who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work . Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day . After further fraudulent activities , Powell fled to New York and published a book called The Living Authors of England with a chapter on Charles Dickens , who was not amused by what Powell had written . One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey ( Dombey and Son ) , on Thomas Chapman , one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately fired off a letter to Lewis Gaylord Clark , editor of the New York literary magazine The Knickerbocker , saying that Powell was a forger and thief . Clark published the letter in the New-York Tribune and several other papers picked up on the story . Powell started proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested . Dickens , realising that he had acted in haste , contacted John Chapman & Co. to seek written confirmation of Powell ’ s guilt . Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell 's embezzlement , but once the directors realised this information may have to be produced in court they refused to make further disclosures . Due to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations , Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court . Philanthropy In May 1846 Angela Burdett Coutts , heir to the Coutts banking fortune , approached Dickens about setting up a home for the redemption of fallen women of the working class . Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores . After initially resisting , Dickens eventually founded the home , named `` Urania Cottage '' , in the Lime Grove section of Shepherds Bush , which he managed for ten years , setting the house rules , reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents . Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens 's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage , from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859 . Religious views As a young man Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organized religion . In 1836 , in a pamphlet titled Sunday Under Three Heads , he defended the people 's right to pleasure , opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays . `` Look into your churches- diminished congregations and scanty attendance . People have grown sullen and obstinate , and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this , once in every seven . They display their feeling by staying away [ from church ] . Turn into the streets [ on a Sunday ] and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around '' Dickens honoured the figure of though some claim he may have denied his divinity . Notwithstanding , Dickens has been characterized as a professing Christian . His son , Henry Fielding Dickens , described Dickens as someone who `` possessed deep religious convictions '' . Though in the early 1840s Dickens had showed an interest in Unitarian Christianity , the writer Gary Colledge has asserted that he `` never strayed from his attachment to popular lay Anglicanism '' . He also wrote a religious work called The Life of Our Lord ( 1849 ) , which was a short book about the life of Jesus Christ , written with the purpose of inculcating his faith to his children and family . Dickens disapproved of Roman Catholicism and 19th-century evangelicalism , and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like spiritualism , all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity . Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky referred to Dickens as ``

sfq_5913--Charles_Dickens.txt

In which Charles Dickens novel does the character Mr M Choakumchild appear?

Georgia ( ; , tr . Sakartvelo , ) is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia . Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe , it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea , to the north by Russia , to the south by Turkey and Armenia , and to the southeast by Azerbaijan . The capital and largest city is Tbilisi . Georgia covers a territory of 69700 km² , and its 2015 population is about 3.75 million . Georgia is a unitary , semi-presidential republic , with the government elected through a representative democracy . During the classical era , several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia . The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century . A unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 11th–12th centuries . Thereafter the area was dominated by various large empires for centuries , including the Mongols , the Ottoman Empire , and successive dynasties of Iran . In the late 18th century , the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti forged an alliance with the Russian Empire , and the area was annexed by Russia in 1801 . The latter 's rule over Georgia was confirmed in 1813 through the Treaty of Gulistan with Qajar Iran . Following the Russian Revolution in 1917 , Georgia obtained independence , though only briefly , and established its first-ever republic under German and British protection , only to be invaded by Soviet Russia in 1921 and subsequently absorbed into the Soviet Union as the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic . After restoring its independence once again in 1991 , post-communist Georgia suffered from civil and economic crisis for most of the 1990s . This lasted until the peaceful Rose Revolution , when Georgia pursued a strongly pro-Western foreign policy , introducing a series of democratic and economic reforms aimed at NATO and European integration . The country 's Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia , culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War . Georgia is a member of the Council of Europe and the GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development . It contains two de facto independent regions , Abkhazia and South Ossetia , which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War . Georgia and a major part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgia 's sovereign territory under Russian military occupation . Etymology `` Georgia '' probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān , in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān and Arabic ĵurĵan/ĵurzan . Lore based theories were given by he traveller Jacques de Vitry , who explained the name 's origin by the popularity of St. George amongst Georgians , while traveller Jean Chardin thought that `` Georgia '' came from Greek γεωργός ( `` tiller of the land '' ) . As Prof. Alexander Mikaberidze adds , these century-old explanations for the word Georgia/Georgians are rejected by the scholarly community , who point to the Persian word gurğ/gurğān ( `` wolf '' ) as the root of the word . Starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān , the word was later adopted in numerous other languages , including Slavic and West European languages . This term itself might have been established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region , which was referred to as Gorgan ( `` land of the wolves '' ) . The native name is Sakartvelo ( საქართველო ; `` land of Kartvelians '' ) , derived from the core central Georgian region of Kartli , recorded from the 9th century , and in extended usage referring to the entire medieval Kingdom of Georgia by the 13th century . The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi ( ქართველები , i.e . `` Kartvelians '' ) The medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians , Kartlos , a great-grandson of Japheth . However , scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts , the latter being one of the proto-Georgian tribes that emerged as a dominant group in ancient times . The name Sakartvelo ( საქართველო ) consists of two parts . Its root , kartvel-i ( ქართველ-ი ) , specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli , or Iberia as it is known in sources of the Eastern Roman Empire . Ancient Greeks ( Strabo , Herodotus , Plutarch , Homer , etc . ) and Romans ( Titus Livius , Tacitus , etc . ) referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians ( Iberoi in some Greek sources ) . History Prehistory The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era . The proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC . Archaeological finds and references in ancient sources reveal elements of early political and state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th century BC and beyond . In fact , early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC , associated with the Shulaveri-Shomu culture . The earliest evidence of wine to date has been found in Georgia , where 8000-year old wine jars were uncovered . Archaeological finds and references in ancient sources also reveal elements of early political and state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th century BC and beyond . In fact , early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC , associated with the Shulaveri-Shomu culture . Antiquity The classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states , the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east . In the 4th century BC , a unified kingdom of Georgia – an early example of advanced state organization under one king and an aristocratic hierarchy – was established . In Greek mythology , Colchis was the location of the Golden Fleece sought by Jason and the Argonauts in Apollonius Rhodius ' epic tale Argonautica . The incorporation of the Golden Fleece into the myth may have derived from the local practice of using fleeces to sift gold dust from rivers . Known to its natives as Egrisi or Lazica , Colchis was also the battlefield of the Lazic War fought between the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Persia . After the Roman Republic completed its brief conquest of what is now Georgia in 66 BC , what is now Georgia became a primary objective of what would eventually turn out to be over 700 years of protracted Irano-Roman geo-political rivalry and warfare . From the first centuries A.D , the cult of Mithras , pagan beliefs , and Zoroastrianism were commonly practised in Georgia . In 337 AD King Mirian III declared Christianity as the state religion , giving a great stimulus to the development of literature , arts , and ultimately playing a key role in the formation of the unified Georgian nation , The acceptance led to the slow but sure decline of Zoroastrianism , which until the 5th century AD , appeared to have become something like a second established religion in Iberia ( eastern Georgia ) , and was widely practised there . In the ensuing period , until the course of the 7th century , what is now Georgia remained dominated by the Romans and Sasanians . Middle Ages up to Early Modern Period Located on the crossroads of protracted Roman-Persian Wars , the early Georgian kingdoms disintegrated into various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages . This made it easy for the remaining Georgian realms to fall prey to the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century . Despite the capture of Tbilisi in 645 AD by Muslims , Kartli-Iberia retained considerable independence under local rulers . The Kingdom of Georgia reached its zenith in the 12th to early 13th centuries . This period during the reigns of David IV ( called David the Builder , r. 1089–1125 ) and his granddaughter Tamar ( r. 1184–1213 ) has been widely termed as Georgia 's Golden Age or the Georgian Renaissance . This early Georgian renaissance , which preceded its Western European analogue , was characterized by impressive military victories , territorial expansion , and a cultural renaissance in architecture , literature , philosophy and the sciences . The Golden age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals , romantic poetry and literature , and the epic poem `` The Knight in the Panther 's Skin '' , the latter which is considered a national epic . David suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized the power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign threats . In 1121 , he decisively defeated much larger Turkish armies during the Battle of Didgori and liberated Tbilisi . At the height of its dominance , the Kingdom 's influence spanned from the south of modern-day Ukraine , to the northern provinces of Persia , while also maintaining religious possessions in the Holy Land and Greece . The 29-year reign of Tamar , the first female ruler of Georgia , is considered the most successful in Georgian history . Tamar was given the title `` king of kings '' ( mepe mepeta ) . She succeeded in neutralizing opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzantium . Supported by a powerful military élite , Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated the Caucasus , and extended over large parts of present-day Azerbaijan , Armenia , and eastern Turkey as well as parts of northern Iran , until its collapse under the Mongol attacks within two decades after Tamar 's death in 1213 . The revival of the Kingdom of Georgia was set back after Tbilisi was captured and destroyed by the Khwarezmian leader Jalal ad-Din in 1226 . The Mongols were expelled by George V of Georgia , son of Demetrius II of Georgia , who was named `` Brilliant '' for his role in restoring the country 's previous strength and Christian culture . George V was the last great king of the unified Georgian state . After his death , different local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule , until the total disintegration of the Kingdom in the 15th century . Georgia was further weakened by several disastrous invasions by Tamerlane . Invasions continued , giving the kingdom no time for restoration , with both Black and White sheep Turkomans constantly raiding its southern provinces . As a result , the Kingdom of Georgia collapsed into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent kingdoms and five semi-independent principalities . Neighboring large empires subsequently exploited the internal division of the weakened country , and beginning in the 16th century up to the late 18th century , Safavid Iran ( and successive Iranian Afsharid and Qajar dynasties ) and Ottoman Turkey subjugated the eastern and western regions of Georgia , respectively . The rulers of regions that remained partly autonomous organized rebellions on various occasions . However , subsequent Iranian and Ottoman invasions further weakened local kingdoms and regions . As a result of incessant wars and deportations , the population of Georgia dwindled to 250,000 inhabitants at the end of the 18th century . Eastern Georgia ( the larger part of Georgia ) , composed of the regions of Kartli and Kakheti , had been under Iranian suzerainty since 1555 following the Peace of Amasya signed with neighbouring rivalling Ottoman Turkey . With the death of Nader Shah in 1747 , both kingdoms broke free of Iranian control and were reunified through a personal union under the energetic king Heraclius ( Erekle ) II in 1762 . Erekle , who had risen to prominence through the Iranian ranks , was awarded the crown of Kartli by Nader himself in 1744 for his loyal service to him . Erekle nevertheless stabilized Eastern Georgia to a degree in the ensuing period and was able to guarantee its autonomy throughout the Iranian Zand period . In 1783 , Russia and the eastern Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk , by which Georgia abjured any dependence on Persia or another power , and made the kingdom a protectorate of Russia , which guaranteed Georgia 's territorial integrity and the continuation of its reigning Bagrationi dynasty in return for prerogatives in the conduct of Georgian foreign affairs . However , despite this commitment to defend Georgia , Russia rendered no assistance when the Iranians invaded in 1795 , capturing and sacking Tbilisi while massacring its inhabitants , as the new heir to the throne sought to reassert Iranian hegemony over Georgia . Despite a punitive campaign subsequently launched against Qajar Iran in 1796 , this period culminated in the 1801 Russian violation of the Treaty of Georgievsk and annexation of eastern Georgia , followed by the abolition of the royal Bagrationi dynasty , as well as the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church . Pyotr Bagration , one of the descendants of the abolished house of Bagrationi , would later join the Russian army and rise to be a prominent general in the Napoleonic wars . Georgia in the Russian Empire On 22 December 1800 , Tsar Paul I of Russia , at the alleged request of the Georgian King George XII , signed the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia ( Kartli-Kakheti ) within the Russian Empire , which was finalized by a decree on 8 January 1801 , and confirmed by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801 . The Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor Prince Kurakin . In May 1801 , under the oversight of General Carl Heinrich von Knorring , Imperial Russia transferred power in eastern Georgia to the government headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lazarev . The Georgian nobility did not accept the decree until , on 12 April 1802 , when Knorring assembled the nobility at the Sioni Cathedral and forced them to take an oath on the Imperial Crown of Russia . Those who disagreed were temporarily arrested . In the summer of 1805 , Russian troops on the Askerani River near Zagam defeated the Iranian army during the Russo-Persian War ( 1804-1813 ) and saved Tbilisi from reconquest now that it was officially part of the Imperial territories . Russian suzerainty over eastern Georgia was officially finalized with Iran in 1813 following the Treaty of Gulistan . Following the annexation of eastern Georgia , the western Georgian kingdom of Imereti was annexed by Tsar Alexander I . The last Imeretian king and the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler , Solomon II , died in exile in 1815 , after attempts to rally people against Russia and to enlist foreign support against the latter , had been in vain . From 1803 to 1878 , as a result of numerous Russian wars now against Ottoman Turkey , several of Georgia 's previously lost territories – such as Adjara – were recovered , and also incorporated into the empire . The principality of Guria was abolished and incorporated into the Empire in 1829 , while Svaneti was gradually annexed in 1858 . Mingrelia , although a Russian protectorate since 1803 , was not absorbed until 1867 . Declaration of independence After the Russian Revolution of 1917 , Georgia declared independence on 26 May 1918 , in the midst of the Russian Civil War . The Menshevik Georgian Social-Democratic Party won the parliamentary election . Its leader , Noe Zhordania , became prime minister . The 1918 Georgian–Armenian War , which erupted over parts of Georgian provinces populated mostly by Armenians , ended because of British intervention . In 1918–1919 , Georgian general Giorgi Mazniashvili led an attack against the White Army led by Moiseev and Denikin in order to claim the Black Sea coastline from Tuapse to Sochi and Adler for independent Georgia . The country 's independence did not last long . Georgia was under British protection from 1918–1920 . Georgia in the Soviet Union In February 1921 , Georgia was attacked by the Red Army . The Georgian army was defeated and the Social-Democratic government fled the country . On 25 February 1921 , the Red Army entered Tbilisi and installed a communist government loyal to Moscow , led by Georgian Bolshevik Filipp Makharadze . Nevertheless , there remained significant opposition to the Bolsheviks , and this culminated in the August Uprising of 1924 . Soviet rule was firmly established only after this uprising was suppressed . Georgia was incorporated into the Transcaucasian SFSR , which united Georgia , Armenia and Azerbaijan . Later , in 1936 , the TSFSR was disaggregated into its component elements and Georgia became the Georgian SSR . Joseph Stalin , an ethnic Georgian born Ioseb Besarionis Dze Jugashvili ( იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი ) in Gori , was prominent among the Bolsheviks . Stalin was to rise to the highest position , leading the Soviet Union from 3 April 1922 until his death on 5 March 1953 . Georgia after restoration of independence On 9 April 1991 , shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union , Georgia declared independence . On 26 May 1991 , Gamsakhurdia was elected as the first President of independent Georgia . Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian nationalism and vowed to assert Tbilisi 's authority over regions such as Abkhazia and South Ossetia that had been classified as autonomous oblasts under the Soviet Union . He was soon deposed in a bloody coup d'état , from 22 December 1991 to 6 January 1992 . The coup was instigated by part of the National Guards and a paramilitary organization called `` Mkhedrioni '' ( `` horsemen '' ) . The country became embroiled in a bitter civil war , which lasted until nearly 1995 . Eduard Shevardnadze ( Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1985 to 1991 ) returned to Georgia in 1992 and joined the leaders of the coup — Tengiz Kitovani and Jaba Ioseliani — to head a triumvirate called `` The State Council '' . Simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia , Abkhazia and South Ossetia , between local separatists and the majority Georgian populations , erupted into widespread inter-ethnic violence and wars . Supported by Russia , Abkhazia , and South Ossetia achieved de facto independence from Georgia , with Georgia retaining control only in small areas of the disputed territories . In 1995 , Shevardnadze was officially elected as president of Georgia . Roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians were massacred or expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasian volunteers ( including Chechens ) in 1992–1993 . Around 23,000 Georgians fled South Ossetia as well , and many Ossetian families were forced to abandon their homes in the Borjomi region and moved to Russia . In 2003 , Shevardnadze ( who won re-election in 2000 ) was deposed by the Rose Revolution , after Georgian opposition and international monitors asserted that the November 2 parliamentary elections were marred by fraud . The revolution was led by Mikheil Saakashvili , Zurab Zhvania and Nino Burjanadze , former members and leaders of Shevardnadze 's ruling party . Mikheil Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004 . Following the Rose Revolution , a series of reforms were launched to strengthen the country 's military and economic capabilities . The new government 's efforts to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic of Ajaria led to a major crisis early in 2004 . Success in Ajaria encouraged Saakashvili to intensify his efforts , but without success , in breakaway South Ossetia . These events , along with accusations of Georgian involvement in the Second Chechen War , resulted in a severe deterioration of relations with Russia , fuelled also by Russia 's open assistance and support to the two secessionist areas . Despite these increasingly difficult relations , in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral agreement by which Russian military bases ( dating back to the Soviet era ) in Batumi and Akhalkalaki were withdrawn . Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment from these sites by December 2007 while failing to withdraw from the Gudauta base in Abkhazia , which it was required to vacate after the adoption of the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty during the 1999 Istanbul summit . Russo-Georgian War and since Political tensions between Georgia and Russia began escalating in April 2008 . On 1 August 2008 South Ossetian separatists blew up a Georgian military vehicle injuring five Georgian peacekeepers , which Georgian snipers responded to by killing six South Ossetian militiamen . Low-level skirmishes followed , with South Ossetian forces shelling some villages under Georgian control , eliciting responses from Georgian peacekeepers . On 7 August 2008 , Georgian forces began shelling the South Ossetian capital , Tskhinvali ; this was followed , on 8 August 2008 , by an advance of Georgian Army infantry , tanks , and police commandos into South Ossetia ; the action was supported by artillery and air support , leading to the capture of a number of key South Ossetian towns and retreat of Russian peacekeepers and South Ossetian forces . However , after a Russian peacekeepers ' base was shelled and personnel killed , units of the Russian 58th Army , supported by irregular forces , entered South Ossetia through the Roki Tunnel , thus leading to a three-day battle which left the city of Tskhinvali in ruins . Georgian forces were subsequently forced to retreat and the Russian Air Force began launching airstrikes against Georgian forces in South Ossetia , and multiple targets inside Georgia proper . The Georgian Air Force resisted and later continued to carry out air strikes against Russian troops . A second front was opened when the separatist Republic of Abkhazia , with Russian support , launched an offensive against Georgian troops in the Kodori Valley . Georgian troops offered minimal resistance and soon withdrew . Russian paratroopers launched raids against military bases in Senaki , Georgia , from Abkhazia , whilst the Russian Navy stationed a task force off the coast of Abkhazia , and sank a Georgian Coast Guard cutter . Russian forces , upon crossing into Georgia proper , soon entered Gori where Georgian forces had earlier regrouped before retreating to Tbilisi . Irregulars such as Ossetians , Chechens and Cossacks followed ; looting , killing , and arson was reported . Russian troops removed military equipment abandoned by retreating Georgian troops in Gori and the port of Poti , where several naval and coast guard vessels moored in the harbour were scuttled . On August 12 , 2008 , President Medvedev announced a halt to further Russian military operations in Georgia and ordered a gradual withdrawal from Gori , Poti and other established checkpoints . Despite this Russian forces remained in South Ossetia and Abkhazia , the independence of which it soon recognized . Because of the intensive fighting in South Ossetia , there were many disputed reports about the number of casualties on both sides , which targets had fallen under aerial attacks , the status of troop movements , and the most current location of the front line between the Georgian and Russian-Ossetian units . Since the war , South Ossetian and Russian officials have made a number of claims that the Georgian Army was responsible for killing 1,400–2,000 South Ossetian civilians . Human Rights Watch and European Union investigators in South Ossetia have subsequently accused Russia of exaggerating the scale of such casualties . All sides sustained casualties , with Georgia accounting for the greatest number of military casualties with 170 confirmed dead or missing . Since the war , Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and South Ossetia are under Russian occupation and remain , legally , part of Georgia . Georgia has gained much international support for this position although attempts at limiting international access to and enforcing an economic embargo of the two break-away regions have produced mixed results . Government and politics Georgia is a representative democratic semi-presidential republic , with the President as the head of state , and Prime Minister as the head of government . The executive branch of power is made up of the President and the Cabinet of Georgia . The Cabinet is composed of ministers , headed by the Prime Minister , and appointed by the President . Notably , the ministers of defense and interior are not members of the Cabinet and are subordinated directly to the President of Georgia . Giorgi Margvelashvili is the current President of Georgia after winning 62.12 % of the vote in the 2013 election . Since 2013 , Irakli Garibashvili has been the prime minister of Georgia . Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of Georgia . It is unicameral and has 150 members , known as deputies , of whom 75 are elected by plurality to represent single-member district , and 75 are chosen to represent parties by proportional representation . Members of parliament are elected for four-year terms . Five parties and electoral blocs had representatives elected to the parliament in the 2008 elections : the United National Movement ( governing party ) , The Joint Opposition , the Christian-Democrats , the Labour Party and Republican Party . On 26 May 2012 , Saakashvili inaugurated a new Parliament building in the western city of Kutaisi , in an effort to decentralise power and shift some political control closer to Abkhazia . The elections in October 2012 resulted in the victory for the opposition `` Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia '' coalition , which President Saakashvili acknowledged on the following day . Although considerable progress was made since the Rose revolution , former President Mikheil Saakashvili stated in 2008 that Georgia is still not a `` full-fledged , very well-formed , crystalized society . '' The political system remains in the process of transition , with frequent adjustments to the balance of power between the President and Parliament , and opposition proposals ranging from transforming the country into parliamentary republic to re-establishing the monarchy . Observers note the deficit of trust in relations between the Government and the opposition . Different opinions exist regarding the degree of political freedom in Georgia . Saakashvili believed in 2008 that the country is `` on the road to becoming a European democracy . '' Freedom House lists Georgia as a partly free country . In preparation for 2012 parliamentary elections , Parliament adopted a new electoral code on 27 December 2011 that incorporated many recommendations from non-governmental organizations ( NGOs ) and the Venice Commission . However , the new code failed to address the Venice Commission ’ s primary recommendation to strengthen the equality of the vote by reconstituting single-mandate election districts to be comparable in size . On December 28 , Parliament amended the Law on Political Unions to regulate campaign and political party financing . Local and international observers raised concerns about several amendments , including the vagueness of the criteria for determining political bribery and which individuals and organizations would be subject to the law . As of March 2012 , Parliament was discussing further amendments to address these concerns . Foreign relations Georgia maintains good relations with its direct neighbours ( Armenia , Azerbaijan , and Turkey ) and is a member of the United Nations , the Council of Europe , the World Trade Organization , the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation , the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe , the Community of Democratic Choice , the GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development , and the Asian Development Bank . Georgia also maintains political , economic , and military relations with Japan , Uruguay , South Korea , Israel , Sri Lanka , Ukraine , and many other countries . The growing U.S. and European Union influence in Georgia , notably through proposed EU and NATO membership , the U.S . Train and Equip military assistance program , and the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline have frequently strained Tbilisi 's relations with Moscow . Georgia 's decision to boost its presence in the coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative . Georgia is currently working to become a full member of NATO . In August 2004 , the Individual Partnership Action Plan of Georgia was submitted officially to NATO . On 29 October 2004 , the North Atlantic Council of NATO approved the Individual Partnership Action Plan ( IPAP ) of Georgia , and Georgia moved on to the second stage of Euro-Atlantic Integration . In 2005 , by the

tb_951--Georgia_(country).txt

Perhaps foreshadowing recent events in Ukraine, over what region of the Southern Caucasus did Russia and Georgia go to war in 2008?

Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and , along with the related wasps and bees , belong to the order Hymenoptera . Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the Cretaceous period , about 99 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants . More than 12,500 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified . They are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists . Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies that may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals . Larger colonies consist mostly of sterile , wingless females forming castes of `` workers '' , `` soldiers '' , or other specialised groups . Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called `` drones '' and one or more fertile females called `` queens '' . The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity , collectively working together to support the colony . Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth . The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands . Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form 15–25 % of the terrestrial animal biomass . Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats , tap resources , and defend themselves . Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic , commensal , parasitic , and mutualistic relationships.Hölldobler & Wilson ( 1990 ) , p. 471 Ant societies have division of labour , communication between individuals , and an ability to solve complex problems . These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study . Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine , medication , and rituals . Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents . Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans , however , as they can damage crops and invade buildings . Some species , such as the red imported fire ant ( Solenopsis invicta ) , are regarded as invasive species , establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally . Etymology The word `` ant '' is derived from ' , ' of Middle English which are derived from ' of Old English , and is related to the dialectal Dutch ' and the Old High German ' , hence the modern German ' . All of these words come from West Germanic * , and the original meaning of the word was `` the biter '' ( from Proto-Germanic * , `` off , away '' + * `` cut '' ) . The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin ' ( `` ant '' ) from which the words in other Romance languages , such as the Portuguese ' , Italian ' , Spanish ' , Romanian ' , and French ' are derived . It has been hypothesised that a Proto-Indo-European word * morwi- was used , cf . Sanskrit vamrah , Latin formīca , Greek μύρμηξ mýrmēx , Old Church Slavonic mraviji , Old Irish moirb , Old Norse maurr , Dutch mier . Taxonomy and evolution The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera , which also includes sawflies , bees , and wasps . Ants evolved from a lineage within the aculeate wasps , and a 2013 study suggests that they are a sister group of the Apoidea . In 1966 , E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant ( Sphecomyrma ) that lived in the Cretaceous period . The specimen , trapped in amber dating back to around 92 million years ago , has features found in some wasps , but not found in modern ants . Sphecomyrma possibly was a ground forager , while Haidomyrmex and Haidomyrmodes , related genera in subfamily Sphecomyrminae , are reconstructed as active arboreal predators . Older ants in the genus Sphecomyrmodes have been found in 99 million year-old amber from Myanmar . After the rise of flowering plants about 100 million years ago they diversified and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago . Some groups , such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae , are suggested to have diversified from early primitive ants that were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil . During the Cretaceous period , a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent ( the Northern Hemisphere ) . They were scarce in comparison to the populations of other insects , representing only about 1 % of the entire insect population . Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleogene period . By the Oligocene and Miocene , ants had come to represent 20–40 % of all insects found in major fossil deposits . Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch , around one in 10 genera survive to the present . Genera surviving today comprise 56 % of the genera in Baltic amber fossils ( early Oligocene ) , and 92 % of the genera in Dominican amber fossils ( apparently early Miocene ) .Hölldobler & Wilson ( 1990 ) , pp . 23–24 Termites , although sometimes called 'white ants ' , are not ants . They belong to the sub-order Isoptera within the order Blattodea . Termites are more closely related to cockroaches and mantids . Termites are eusocial , but differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction . The similarity of their social structure to that of ants is attributed to convergent evolution . Velvet ants look like large ants , but are wingless female wasps . Distribution and diversity Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica , and only a few large islands , such as Greenland , Iceland , parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species . Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exploit many different food resources as direct or indirect herbivores , predators and scavengers . Most ant species are omnivorous generalists , but a few are specialist feeders . Their ecological dominance is demonstrated by their biomass : ants are estimated to contribute 15–20 % ( on average and nearly 25 % in the tropics ) of terrestrial animal biomass , exceeding that of the vertebrates . Ants range in size from , Hölldobler & Wilson ( 1990 ) , p. 589 the largest species being the fossil Titanomyrma giganteum , the queen of which was 6 cm long with a wingspan of 15 cm . Ants vary in colour ; most ants are red or black , but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic lustre . More than 12,000 species are currently known ( with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22,000 ) ( see the article List of ant genera ) , with the greatest diversity in the tropics . Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants . Online databases of ant species , including AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server , help to keep track of the known and newly described species . The relative ease with which ants may be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies . Morphology Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having elbowed antennae , metapleural glands , and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node-like petiole . The head , mesosoma , and metasoma are the three distinct body segments . The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma ( thorax plus the first abdominal segment , which is fused to it ) and gaster ( abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole ) . The petiole may be formed by one or two nodes ( the second alone , or the second and third abdominal segments ) . Like other insects , ants have an exoskeleton , an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles , in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates . Insects do not have lungs ; oxygen and other gases , such as carbon dioxide , pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles . Insects also lack closed blood vessels ; instead , they have a long , thin , perforated tube along the top of the body ( called the `` dorsal aorta '' ) that functions like a heart , and pumps haemolymph toward the head , thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids . The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body , with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages . Head An ant 's head contains many sensory organs . Like most insects , ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together . Ant eyes are good for acute movement detection , but do not offer a high resolution image . They also have three small ocelli ( simple eyes ) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarization . Compared to vertebrates , most ants have poor-to-mediocre eyesight and a few subterranean species are completely blind . However , some ants , such as Australia 's bulldog ant , have excellent vision and are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a metre away . Two antennae ( `` feelers '' ) are attached to the head ; these organs detect chemicals , air currents , and vibrations ; they also are used to transmit and receive signals through touch . The head has two strong jaws , the mandibles , used to carry food , manipulate objects , construct nests , and for defence . In some species , a small pocket ( infrabuccal chamber ) inside the mouth stores food , so it may be passed to other ants or their larvae . Legs All six legs are attached to the mesosoma ( `` thorax '' ) and terminate in a hooked claw . Wings Only reproductive ants , queens , and males , have wings . Queens shed their wings after the nuptial flight , leaving visible stubs , a distinguishing feature of queens . In a few species , wingless queens ( ergatoids ) and males occur . Metasoma The metasoma ( the `` abdomen '' ) of the ant houses important internal organs , including those of the reproductive , respiratory ( tracheae ) , and excretory systems . Workers of many species have their egg-laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests . Polymorphism In the colonies of a few ant species , there are physical castes—workers in distinct size-classes , called minor , median , and major workers . Often , the larger ants have disproportionately larger heads , and correspondingly stronger mandibles . Such individuals are sometimes called `` soldier '' ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting , although they still are workers and their `` duties '' typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers . In a few species , the median workers are absent , creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors . Weaver ants , for example , have a distinct bimodal size distribution . Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers . The smallest and largest workers in Pheidologeton diversus show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry-weights . Workers can not mate ; however , because of the haplodiploid sex-determination system in ants , workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile , haploid males . The role of workers may change with their age and in some species , such as honeypot ants , young workers are fed until their gasters are distended , and act as living food storage vessels . These food storage workers are called repletes . For instance , these replete workers develop in the North American honeypot ant Myrmecocystus mexicanus . Usually the largest workers in the colony develop into repletes ; and , if repletes are removed from the colony , other workers become repletes , demonstrating the flexibility of this particular polymorphism . This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers initially was thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones that led to different developmental paths ; however , genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in Acromyrmex sp . These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes ; differences in a single gene of Solenopsis invicta can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens . The Australian jack jumper ant ( Myrmecia pilosula ) has only a single pair of chromosomes ( with the males having just one chromosome as they are haploid ) , the lowest number known for any animal , making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects . Life cycle The life of an ant starts from an egg . If the egg is fertilised , the progeny will be female diploid ; if not , it will be male haploid . Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larva stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult . The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers . Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis , a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop . This is also how adults share food , stored in the `` social stomach '' . Larvae , especially in the later stages , may also be provided solid food , such as trophic eggs , pieces of prey , and seeds brought by workers . The larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage . The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa . The differentiation into queens and workers ( which are both female ) , and different castes of workers , is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain . Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment are complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research . Winged male ants , called drones , emerge from pupae along with the usually winged breeding females . Some species , such as army ants , have wingless queens . Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development , and so often , are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony . A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young . She then graduates to digging and other nest work , and later to defending the nest and foraging . These changes are sometimes fairly sudden , and define what are called temporal castes . An explanation for the sequence is suggested by the high casualties involved in foraging , making it an acceptable risk only for ants who are older and are likely to die soon of natural causes . Ant colonies can be long-lived . The queens can live for up to 30 years , and workers live from 1 to 3 years . Males , however , are more transitory , being quite short-lived and surviving for only a few weeks . Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times as long as solitary insects of a similar size . Ants are active all year long in the tropics , but , in cooler regions , they survive the winter in a state of dormancy or inactivity . The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state , ( diapause ) , while in others , the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity . Reproduction A wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species . Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis . Secretions from the male accessory glands in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re-mating . Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate . Contrary to popular belief , some ant nests have multiple queens , while others may exist without queens . Workers with the ability to reproduce are called `` gamergates '' and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies ; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right . Drones can also mate with existing queens by entering a foreign colony . When the drone is initially attacked by the workers , it releases a mating pheromone . If recognized as a mate , it will be carried to the queen to mate . Males may also patrol the nest and fight others by grabbing them with their mandibles , piercing their exoskeleton and then marking them with a pheromone . The marked male is interpreted as an invader by worker ants and is killed . Most ants are univoltine , producing a new generation each year . During the species-specific breeding period , new reproductives , females , and winged males leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight . The nuptial flight usually takes place in the late spring or early summer when the weather is hot and humid . Heat makes flying easier and freshly fallen rain makes the ground softer for mated queens to dig nests . Males typically take flight before the females . Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground , for example , a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge . Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow . Males will mount females in the air , but the actual mating process usually takes place on the ground . Females of some species mate with just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males , storing the sperm in their spermathecae . Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony . There , they break off their wings and begin to lay and care for eggs . The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce workers . The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers , but they begin to serve the colony immediately . They enlarge the nest , forage for food , and care for the other eggs . Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site , a process akin to swarming in honeybees . Behaviour and ecology Communication Ants communicate with each other using pheromones , sounds , and touch . The use of pheromones as chemical signals is more developed in ants , such as the red harvester ant , than in other hymenopteran groups . Like other insects , ants perceive smells with their long , thin , and mobile antennae . The paired antennae provide information about the direction and intensity of scents . Since most ants live on the ground , they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants . In species that forage in groups , a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony ; this trail is followed by other ants , these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony . When the food source is exhausted , no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates . This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment . For instance , when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle , the foragers leave the path to explore new routes . If an ant is successful , it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return . Successful trails are followed by more ants , reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path . Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails . A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away . Several ant species even use `` propaganda pheromones '' to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves . Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour 's glands , poison glands and glands on the hindgut , pygidium , rectum , sternum , and hind tibia . Pheromones also are exchanged , mixed with food , and passed by trophallaxis , transferring information within the colony . This allows other ants to detect what task group ( e.g. , foraging or nest maintenance ) other colony members belong to . In ant species with queen castes , when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone , workers begin to raise new queens in the colony.Hölldobler & Wilson ( 1990 ) , p. 354 Some ants produce sounds by stridulation , using the gaster segments and their mandibles . Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species . Defence See also Insect defences Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and , in many species , by stinging , often injecting or spraying chemicals , such as formic acid in the case of formicine ants , alkaloids and piperidines in fire ants , and a variety of protein components in other ants . Bullet ants ( Paraponera ) , located in Central and South America , are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect , although it is usually not fatal to humans . This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index . The sting of jack jumper ants can be fatal , and an antivenom has been developed for it . Fire ants , Solenopsis spp. , are unique in having a venom sac containing piperidine alkaloids . Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people . Trap-jaw ants of the genus Odontomachus are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws , which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom . One study of Odontomachus bauri recorded peak speeds of between 126 and , with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average . The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat . Before striking , the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism . Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles . The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks . Trap-jaws also are seen in the following genera : Anochetus , Orectognathus , and Strumigenys , plus some members of the Dacetini tribe , which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution . A Malaysian species of ant in the Camponotus cylindricus group has enlarged mandibular glands that extend into their gaster . When disturbed , workers rupture the membrane of the gaster , causing a burst of secretions containing acetophenones and other chemicals that immobilise small insect attackers . The worker subsequently dies . Suicidal defences by workers are also noted in a Brazilian ant , Forelius pusillus , where a small group of ants leaves the security of the nest after sealing the entrance from the outside each evening . In addition to defence against predators , ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens . Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or necrophory , the disposal of dead nest-mates . Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behaviour in Atta mexicana while workers of Linepithema humile react to the absence of characteristic chemicals ( dolichodial and iridomyrmecin ) present on the cuticle of their living nestmates to trigger similar behaviour . Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture . Workers of Cataulacus muticus , an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows , respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest , and excreting it outside . Camponotus anderseni , which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats , deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration . Learning Many animals can learn behaviours by imitation , but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed . A knowledgeable forager of Temnothorax albipennis will lead a naive nest-mate to newly discovered food by the process of tandem running . The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor . The leader is acutely sensitive to the progress of the follower and slows down when the follower lags and speeds up when the follower gets too close . Controlled experiments with colonies of Cerapachys biroi suggest that an individual may choose nest roles based on her previous experience . An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled . One group was continually rewarded with prey , while it was made certain that the other failed . As a result , members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out fewer and fewer times . A month later , the successful foragers continued in their role while the others had moved to specialise in brood care . Nest construction Complex nests are built by many ant species , but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures . Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees . These nests may be found in the ground , under stones or logs , inside logs , hollow stems , or even acorns . The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter , and ants carefully select their nest sites ; Temnothorax albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants , as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease . They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats . The army ants of South America , such as the Eciton burchellii species , and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests , but instead , alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest ( bivouac ) from their own bodies , by holding each other together . Weaver ant ( Oecophylla spp . ) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together , first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges . Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis . Formica polyctena , among other ant species , constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae . The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location , nest materials , controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation , worker activity and metabolism , and in some moist nests , microbial activity in the nest materials . Some ant species , such as those that use natural cavities , can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro-climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures . Cultivation of food Most ants are generalist predators , scavengers , and indirect herbivores , but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition . It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivory rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut microbes to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions , such as rainforrest canopies . Leafcutter ants ( Atta and Acromyrmex ) feed exclusively on a fungus

qw_7538--Ant.txt

What is the substance that causes irritation from a sting by a nettle or an ant?

A motorcycle ( also called a motorbike , bike , or cycle ) is a two- > or three-wheeled motor vehicle . Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes : long distance travel , commuting , cruising , sport including racing , and off-road riding . Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies . In 1894 , Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle , and the first to be called a motorcycle . In 2014 , the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda , Yamaha ( both from Japan ) , and Hero MotoCorp ( India ) . Motorcycles are usually a luxury good in the developed world , where they are used mostly for recreation , as a lifestyle accessory or a symbol of personal identity . In developing countries , motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy . Of all the motorcycles in the world , 58 % are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions , excluding car-centric Japan . According to the United States Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars . Types The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction ( see # Legal definitions and restrictions ) . There are three major types of motorcycle : street , off-road , and dual purpose . Within these types , there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes . There is often a racing counterpart to each type , such as road racing and street bikes , or motocross and dirt bikes . Street bikes include cruisers , sportbikes , scooters and mopeds , and many other types . Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas . Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well . Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability , and each design creates a different riding posture . History Experimentation and invention The first internal combustion , petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen . It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt , Germany in 1885 . This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no fork offset , and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier . Instead , it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning . The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen ( `` riding car '' ) . It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine , rather than a true prototype vehicle . The first commercial design for a self-propelled cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle , conceived of Edward Butler in England in 1884 . He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884 . The vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich , in 1888 . The Butler Petrol Cycle was a three-wheeled vehicle , with the rear wheel directly driven by a 5/8hp ( 466W ) 600 cc ( 40 in3 ; 2¼×5-inch { 57×127-mm } ) flat twin four stroke engine ( with magneto ignition replaced by coil and battery ) equipped with rotary valves and a float-fed carburettor ( five years before Maybach ) and Ackermann steering , all of which were state of the art at the time . Starting was by compressed air . The engine was liquid-cooled , with a radiator over the rear driving wheel . Speed was controlled by means of a throttle valve lever . No braking system was fitted ; the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever ; the weight of the machine was then borne by two small castor wheels . The driver was seated between the front wheels . It was n't , however , a success , as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing . Many authorities have excluded steam powered , electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle ' , and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world 's first motorcycle . Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide , defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles ' is increasingly problematic . If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle , then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filled in December 1868 , constructed around the same time as the American Roper steam velocipede , built by Sylvester H. Roper Roxbury , Massachusetts . who demonstrated his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. in 1867 , Roper built about 10 steam cars and cycles from the 1860s until his death in 1896 . Summary of early inventions First motorcycle companies In 1894 , Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle , and the first to be called a motorcycle ( ) . Excelsior Motor Company , originally a bicycle manufacturing company based in Coventry , England , began production of their first motorcycle model in 1896 . The first production motorcycle in the US was the Orient-Aster , built by Charles Metz in 1898 at his factory in Waltham , Massachusetts . In the early period of motorcycle history , many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine . As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins , the number of motorcycle producers increased . Many of the nineteenth century inventors who worked on early motorcycles often moved on to other inventions . Daimler and Roper , for example , both went on to develop automobiles . At the turn of the century the first major mass-production firms were set up . In 1898 , Triumph Motorcycles in England began producing motorbikes , and by 1903 it was producing over 500 bikes . Other British firms were Royal Enfield , Norton and Birmingham Small Arms Company who began motorbike production in 1899 , 1902 and 1910 , respectively . Indian began production in 1901 and Harley-Davidson was established two years later . By the outbreak of the First World War , the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian , producing over 20,000 bikes per year . First World War During the First World War , motorbike production was greatly ramped up for the war effort to supply effective communications with front line troops . Messengers on horses were replaced with despatch riders on motorcycles carrying messages , performing reconnaissance and acting as a military police . American company Harley-Davidson was devoting over 50 % of its factory output toward military contract by the end of the war . The British company Triumph Motorcycles sold more than 30,000 of its Triumph Type H model to allied forces during the war . With the rear wheel driven by a belt , the Model H was fitted with a air-cooled four-stroke single-cylinder engine . It was also the first Triumph without pedals . The Model H in particular , is regarded by many as having been the first `` modern motorcycle '' . Introduced in 1915 it had a 550 cc side-valve four-stroke engine with a three-speed gearbox and belt transmission . It was so popular with its users that it was nicknamed the `` Trusty Triumph . '' Postwar By 1920 , Harley-Davidson was the largest manufacturer , with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries . By the late 1920s or early 1930s , DKW in Germany took over as the largest manufacturer . In the 1950s , streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the `` dustbin fairing '' held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design . NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development , both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time . NSU produced the most advanced design , but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons , they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing . Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines , and by 1957 nearly all the Grand Prix races were being won by streamlined machines . The following year , 1958 , full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns . From the 1960s through the 1990s , small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide , partly as a result of East German Walter Kaaden 's engine work in the 1950s . Today In the 21st century , the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by the Chinese motorcycle industry and by Japanese motorcycle companies . In addition to the large capacity motorcycles , there is a large market in smaller capacity ( less than 300 cc ) motorcycles , mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries and produced in China and India . A Japanese example is the 1958 Honda Super Cub , which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time , with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008 . Today , this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero MotoCorp emerging as the world 's largest manufacturer of two wheelers . Its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date . Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors . Technical aspects Construction Motorcycle construction is the engineering , manufacturing , and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance , cost , and aesthetics desired by the designer . With some exceptions , construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame , telescopic forks holding the front wheel , and disc brakes . Some other body parts , designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added . A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders ( and less commonly , up to eight cylinders ) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain , driveshaft or belt . Fuel economy Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style ranging from a low of 29 mpgus reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider , to 107 mpgus reported for the Verucci Nitro 50 cc scooter . A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved 470 mpgus `` on real highways - in real conditions . '' Due to low engine displacements ( 100 cc–200 cc ) , and high power-to-mass ratios , motorcycles offer good fuel economy . Under conditions of fuel scarcity like 1950s Britain and modern developing nations , motorcycles claim large shares of the vehicle market . Electric motorcycles Very high fuel economy equivalents are often derived by electric motorcycles . Electric motorcycles are nearly silent , zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles . Operating range and top speed are limited by battery technology . Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric drive system . Reliability A 2013 survey of 4,424 readers of the US Consumer Reports magazine collected reliability data on 4,680 motorcycles purchased new from 2009 to 2012 . The most common problem areas were accessories , brakes , electrical ( including starters , charging , ignition ) , and fuel systems , and the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring , off road/dual sport , sport-touring , and cruisers . There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for a statistically significant conclusion , though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers . These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings , luggage , and auxiliary lighting , which are frequently added to touring , adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes . Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage , and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance . Of the five brands with enough data to draw conclusions , Honda , Kawasaki and Yamaha were statistically tied , with 11 to 14 % of those bikes in the survey experiencing major repairs . Harley-Davidsons had a rate of 24 % , while BMWs did worst , with 30 % of those needing major repairs . There were not enough Triumph and Suzuki motorcycles surveyed for a statistically sound conclusion , though it appeared Suzukis were as reliable as the other three Japanese brands while Triumphs were comparable to Harley-Davidson and BMW . Three fourths of the repairs in the survey cost less than US $ 200 and two thirds of the motorcycles were repaired in less than two days . In spite of their relatively worse reliability in this survey , Harley-Davidson and BMW owners showed the greatest owner satisfaction , and three fourths of them said they would buy the same bike again , followed by 72 % of Honda owners and 60 to 63 % of Kawasaki and Yamaha owners . Dynamics Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions . For example , one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances . Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling . Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns . This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering , in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn . This practice is counterintuitive and therefore often confusing to novices - and even many experienced motorcyclists . With such short wheelbase , motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel , and enough stopping force at the front wheel , to lift the opposite wheel off the road . These actions , if performed on purpose , are known as wheelies and stoppies ( or endos ) respectively . Accessories Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM ( factory-fitted ) or aftermarket . Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle 's appearance , safety , performance , or comfort , and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers . Safety Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles or trucks and buses . United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars , 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles . For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles - four times higher than for cars . The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars , whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 which is 28 times higher than for cars ( 37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007 ) . Furthermore , for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s , while the rates have dropped for passenger cars . The two major causes of motorcycle accidents in the United States are : motorists pulling out or turning in front of motorcyclists and violating their rights-of-way , and motorcyclists running wide through turns . The former is sometimes called a , an acronym formed from the motorists ' common response of `` Sorry mate , I did n't see you '' . The latter is more commonly caused by operating a motorcycle while intoxicated . Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training , increasing their visibility to other traffic , keeping the speed limits , and not consuming alcohol or other drugs before riding . The United Kingdom has several organisations dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training beyond what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle licence test . These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists ( IAM ) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents ( RoSPA ) . Along with increased personal safety , riders with these advanced qualifications may benefit from reduced insurance costs In South Africa , the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country 's roads . The campaign , while strongest in the Gauteng province , has representation in Western Cape , KwaZulu Natal and the Free State . It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run . Motorcycle safety education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations . Most states use the courses designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation ( MSF ) , while Oregon and Idaho developed their own . All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course , an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course . In Ireland , since 2010 , in the UK and some Australian jurisdictions , such as Victoria , New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory , Tasmania and the Northern Territory , it is compulsory to complete a basic rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence , after which they can ride on public roads . In Canada , motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only , but all provinces and territories have graduated licence programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience . Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province . The Canada Safety Council , a non-profit safety organisation , offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council . Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums . Motorcycle rider postures The motorcyclist 's riding position depends on rider body-geometry ( anthropometry ) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself . These factors create a set of three basic postures . * Sport - the rider leans forward into the wind and the weight of the upper torso is supported by the rider 's core at low speed and air pressure at high speed ( e.g. , above 50 mph ) . The footpegs are below the rider or to the rear . The reduced frontal area cuts wind resistance and allows higher speeds . At low-speed this position throws the weight of the rider onto the arms , which can tire the rider 's wrists . * Standard - the rider sits upright or leans forward slightly . The feet are below the rider . These are motorcycles that are not specialised to one task , so they do not excel in any particular area . The standard posture is used with touring and commuting as well as dirt and dual-sport bikes , and may offer advantages for beginners . * Cruiser - the rider sits at a lower seat height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly rearward . Legs are extended forwards , sometimes out of reach of the regular controls on cruiser pegs . The low seat height can be a consideration for new or short riders . Handlebars tend to be high and wide . The emphasis is on comfort , while compromising cornering ability because of low ground clearance and the greater likelihood of scraping foot pegs , floor boards , or other parts if turns are taken at the speeds other motorcycles can more readily accomplish . Factors of a motorcycle 's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height , angle and location of footpegs , seat and handlebars . Factors in a rider 's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso , arm , thigh and leg length , and overall rider height . Legal definitions and restrictions A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration , taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle . Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful , larger vehicles ( scooters do not count as a separate category ) . Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheeled cars as motorcycles . Environmental impact Motorcycles and scooters ' low fuel consumption has attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those whom increased fuel prices affect . Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a `` Vespanomics '' website and platform , claiming lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile ( 113 g/km ) less than the average car , a 65 % reduction , and better fuel economy . However , a motorcycle 's exhaust emissions may contain 10–20 times more oxides of nitrogen ( NOx ) , carbon monoxide , and unburned hydrocarbons than exhaust from a similar-year passenger car or SUV . This is because many motorcycles lack a catalytic converter , and the emission standard is much more permissive for motorcycles than for other vehicles . While catalytic converters have been installed in most gasoline-powered cars and trucks since 1975 in the United States , they can present fitment and heat difficulties in motorcycle applications . United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles ( which also includes scooters ) , the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734 . The average `` Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions '' for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531 . 54 % of the tested 2007-model motorcycles were equipped with a catalytic converter . United States emissions limits The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbons , oxides of nitrogen , and carbon monoxide for new motorcycles sold in the United States with 280 cc or greater piston displacement . The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles ( 50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively ) sold in the United States are as follows : Europe European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars . New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards , while cars must meet Euro V standards . Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015 .

qb_5285--Motorcycle.txt

Which motorcycle company introduced the Jet Ski in 1972?

Dombey and Son is a novel by Charles Dickens , published in monthly parts from 1 October 1846 to 1 April 1848 and in one volume in 1848 . Its full title is Dealings with the Firm of Dombey and Son : Wholesale , Retail and for Exportation . Dickens started writing the book in Lausanne , Switzerland , before returning to England , via Paris , to complete it . Illustrations were provided by Hablot Knight Browne ( 'Phiz ' ) . There is some concern with the railways and the novel 's conception , and writing , belong to the years of the railway boom , 1844–47 . The sea , meanwhile , becomes the image of things of 'an older fashion yet ' , 'the dark and unknown ... that rolls round all the world . ' Plot summary The story concerns Paul Dombey , the wealthy owner of the shipping company of the book 's title , whose dream is to have a son to continue his business . The book begins when his son is born , and Dombey 's wife dies shortly after giving birth . Following the advice of Mrs Louisa Chick , his sister , Dombey employs a wet nurse named Mrs Richards ( Toodle ) . Dombey already has a six-year-old daughter Florence but , bitter at her not having been the desired boy , he neglects her continually . One day , Mrs Richards , Florence and her maid , Susan Nipper , secretly pay a visit to Mrs Richard 's house in Staggs 's Gardens so that Mrs Richards can see her children . During this trip , Florence becomes separated from them and is kidnapped for a short time by Good Mrs Brown , before being returned to the streets . She makes her way to Dombey and Son 's offices in the City and there is found and brought home by Walter Gay , an employee of Mr Dombey , who first introduces her to his uncle , the navigation instrument maker Solomon Gills , at his shop the Wooden Midshipman . The child , named Paul after his father , is a weak and sickly child , who does not socialise normally with others ; adults call him `` old fashioned '' . He is intensely fond of his sister Florence , who is deliberately neglected by her father as irrelevant and a distraction . He is sent to the seaside at Brighton for his health , where he and Florence lodge with the ancient and acidic Mrs Pipchin . Finding his health beginning to improve there , Mr Dombey keeps him at Brighton and has him educated there at Dr and Mrs Blimber 's school , where he and the other boys undergo both an intense and arduous education under the tutelage of Mr Feeder , B.A . and Cornelia Blimber . It is here that Paul is befriended by a fellow pupil , the amiable but weak-minded Mr Toots . Here , Paul 's health declines even further in this 'great hothouse ' and he finally dies , still only six years old . Dombey pushes his daughter away from him after the death of his son , while she futilely tries to earn his love . In the meantime , young Walter sent off to fill a junior position in the firm 's counting house at Barbados through the manipulations of Mr Dombey 's confidential manager , Mr James Carker , 'with his white teeth ' , who sees him as a potential rival , through his association with Florence . His boat is reported lost and he is presumed drowned . Walter 's uncle leaves to go in search of Walter , leaving his great friend Captain Edward Cuttle in charge of the Midshipman . Meanwhile , Florence is now left alone with few friends to keep her company . Dombey goes to Leamington Spa with a new friend , Major Joseph B. Bagstock . The Major deliberately sets out to befriend Dombey to spite his neighbour in Princess 's Place , Miss Tox , who has turned cold towards him owing to her hopes – through her close friendship with Mrs Chick – of marrying Mr Dombey . At the spa , Dombey is introduced via the Major to Mrs Skewton and her widowed daughter , Mrs Edith Granger . Mr Dombey , on the lookout for a new wife since his son 's death , considers Edith a suitable match due to her accomplishments and family connections ; he is encouraged by both the Major and the avaricious mother , but obviously feels no affection for her . After they return to London , Dombey remarries , effectively 'buying ' the beautiful but haughty Edith as she and her mother are in a poor financial state . The marriage is loveless ; his wife despises Dombey for his overbearing pride and herself for being shallow and worthless . Her love for Florence initially prevents her from leaving , but finally she conspires with Mr Carker to ruin Dombey 's public image by running away together to Dijon . They do so after her final argument with Dombey in which he once again attempts to subdue her to his will . When he discovers that she has left him , he blames Florence for siding with her stepmother , striking her on the breast in his anger , and she is forced to run away from home . Highly distraught , she finally makes her way to The Midshipman where she lodges with Captain Cuttle as he attempts to restore her to health . They are visited frequently by Mr Toots and his prizefighter companion , the Chicken , since Mr Toots has been desperately in love with Florence since their time together in Brighton . Dombey sets out to find his wife . He is helped by Mrs Brown and her daughter , Alice , who , as it turns out , was a former lover of Mr Carker . After being transported as a convict for criminal activities , which Mr. Carker had involved her in , she is seeking her revenge against him now that she has returned to England . Going to Mrs Brown 's house , Dombey overhears the conversation between Rob the Grinder – who is in the employment of Mr Carker – and the old woman as to the couple 's whereabouts and sets off in pursuit . In the meantime , in Dijon , Mrs Dombey informs Carker that she sees him in no better a light than she sees Dombey , that she will not stay with him and she flees their apartment . Distraught , with both his financial and personal hopes lost , Carker flees from his former employer 's pursuit . He seeks refuge back in England , but being greatly overwrought , accidentally falls under a train and is killed . After Carker 's death , it is discovered that he had been running the firm far beyond its means . This information is gleaned by Carker 's brother and sister , John and Harriet , from Mr Morfin , the assistant manager at Dombey and Son , who sets out to help John Carker . He often overheard the conversations between the two brothers in which James , the younger , often abused John , the older , who was just a lowly clerk and who is sacked by Dombey because of his filial relationship to the former manager . As his nearest relations , John and Harriet inherit all Carker 's ill-gotten gains , to which they feel they have no right . Consequently , they surreptitiously give the proceeds to Mr Dombey , through Mr Morphin , who is instructed to let Dombey believe that they are merely something forgotten from the general wreck of his fortunes . Meanwhile , back at the Midshipman , Walter reappears , having been saved by a passing ship after floating adrift with two other sailors on some wreckage . After some time , he and Florence are finally reunited – not as 'brother ' and 'sister ' but as lovers , and they marry prior to sailing for China on Walter 's new ship . This is also the time when Sol Gills returns to the Midshipman . As he relates to his friends , he received news whilst in Barbados that a homeward-bound China trader had picked up Walter and so had returned to England immediately . He said he had sent letters whilst in the Caribbean to his friend Ned Cuttle c/o Mrs MacStinger at Cuttle 's former lodgings , and the bemused Captain recounts how he fled the place , thus never receiving them . Florence and Walter depart and Sol Gills is entrusted with a letter , written by Walter to her father , pleading for him to be reconciled towards them both . A year passes and Alice Brown has slowly been dying despite the tender care of Harriet Carker . One night Alice 's mother reveals that Alice herself is the illegitimate cousin of Edith Dombey ( which accounts for their similarity in appearance when they both meet ) . In a chapter entitled 'Retribution ' , Dombey and Son goes bankrupt . Dombey retires to two rooms in his house and all its contents are put up for sale . Mrs Pipchin , for some time the housekeeper , dismisses all the servants and she herself returns to Brighton , to be replaced by Mrs Richards . Dombey spends his days sunk in gloom , seeing no-one and thinking only of his daughter : He thought of her as she had been that night when he and his bride came home . He thought of her as she had been in all the home events of the abandoned house . He thought , now , that of all around him , she alone had never changed . His boy had faded into dust , his proud wife had sunk into a polluted creature , his flatterer and friend had been transformed into the worst of villains , his riches had melted away , the very walls that sheltered him looked on him as a stranger ; she alone had turned the same , mild gentle look upon him always . Yes , to the latest and the last . She had never changed to him – nor had he ever changed to her – and she was lost . However , one day Florence returns to the house with her baby son , Paul , and is lovingly reunited with her father . Dombey accompanies his daughter to her and Walter 's house where he slowly starts to decline , cared for by Florence and also Susan Nipper , now Mrs Toots . They receive a visit from Edith 's Cousin Feenix who takes Florence to Edith for one final time – Feenix sought Edith out in France and she returned to England under his protection . Edith gives Florence a letter , asking Dombey to forgive her her crime before her departure to the South of Italy with her elderly relative . As she says to Florence , ' I will try , then to forgive him his share of the blame . Let him try to forgive me mine ! ' The final chapter ( LXII ) sees Dombey now a white-haired old man , 'whose face bears heavy marks of care and suffering ; but they are traces of a storm that has passed on for ever , and left a clear evening in its track ' . Sol Gills and Ned Cuttle are now partners at the Midshipman , a source of great pride to the latter , and Mr and Mrs Toots announce the birth of their third daughter . Walter is doing well in business , having been appointed to a position of great confidence and trust , and Dombey is the proud grandfather of both a grandson and granddaughter whom he dotes on , and the book ends with the highly moving lines : 'Dear grandpapa , why do you cry when you kiss me ? ' He only answers , 'Little Florence ! Little Florence ! ' and smooths away the curls that shade her earnest eyes . Critical appreciation Dombey and Son was conceived first and foremost as a continuous novel . A letter from Dickens to Forster on 26 July 1846 shows the major details of the plot and theme already substantially worked out . According to the critic George Gissing , 'Dombey was begun at Lausanne , continued at Paris , completed in London , and at English seaside places ; whilst the early parts were being written , a Christmas story , The Battle of Life , was also in hand , and Dickens found it troublesome to manage both together . That he overcame the difficulty—that , soon after , we find him travelling about England as member of an amateur dramatic company—that he undertook all sorts of public engagements and often devoted himself to private festivity—Dombey going on the while , from month to month—is matter enough for astonishment to those who know anything about artistic production . But such marvels become commonplaces in the life of Charles Dickens . ' There is some evidence to suggest that Dombey and Son was inspired by the life of Christopher Huffam , Rigger to His Majesty 's Navy , a gentleman and head of an established firm , Huffam & Son . Charles Dickens ' father , John Dickens , at the time a clerk in the Navy Pay Office , asked the wealthy , well-connected Huffam to act as godfather to Charles . This same Huffam family appeared later in Charles Palliser 's 1989 The Quincunx , an ambitious homage to the Dickensian novel form . As with most of Dickens ' work , a number of socially significant themes are to be found in this book . In particular the book deals with the then-prevalent common practice of arranged marriages for financial gain . Other themes to be detected within this work include child cruelty ( particularly in Dombey 's treatment of Florence ) , familial relationships , and as ever in Dickens , betrayal and deceit and the consequences thereof . Another strong central theme , which the critic George Gissing elaborates on in detail in his 1925 work The Immortal Dickens , is that of pride and arrogance , of which Paul Dombey senior is the extreme exemplification in Dickens ' work . Gissing makes a number of points about certain key inadequacies in the novel , not the least that Dickens 's central character is largely unsympathetic and an unsuitable vehicle and also that after the death of the young Paul Dombey the reader is somewhat estranged from the rest of what is to follow . He notes that 'the moral theme of this book was Pride—pride of wealth , pride of place , personal arrogance . Dickens started with a clear conception of his central character and of the course of the story in so far as it depended upon that personage ; he planned the action , the play of motive , with unusual definiteness , and adhered very closely in the working to this well-laid scheme ' . However , he goes on to write that , Dombey and Son is a novel which in its beginning promises more than its progress fulfils ' and gives the following reasons why : Impossible to avoid the reflection that the death of Dombey 's son and heir marks the end of a complete story , that we feel a gap between Chapter XVI and what comes after ( the author speaks of feeling it himself , of his striving to `` transfer the interest to Florence '' ) and that the narrative of the later part is ill-constructed , often wearisome , sometimes incredible . We miss Paul , we miss Walter Gay ( shadowy young hero though he be ) ; Florence is too colourless for deep interest , and the second Mrs. Dombey is rather forced upon us than accepted as a natural figure in the drama . Dickens 's familiar shortcomings are abundantly exemplified . He is wholly incapable of devising a plausible intrigue , and shocks the reader with monstrous improbabilities such as all that portion of the denouement in which old Mrs. Brown and her daughter are concerned . A favourite device with him ( often employed with picturesque effect ) was to bring into contact persons representing widely severed social ranks ; in this book the `` effect '' depends too often on `` incidences of the boldest artificiality , '' as nearly always we end by neglecting the story as a story , and surrendering ourselves to the charm of certain parts , the fascination of certain characters . ' Characters in the novel Karl Ashley Smith , in his introduction to Wordsworth Classics ' edition of Dombey and Son , makes some reflections on the novel 's characters . He believes that Dombey ’ s power to disturb comes from his belief that human relationships can be controlled by money , giving the following examples to support this viewpoint : He tries to prevent Mrs Richards from developing an attachment to Paul by emphasising the wages he pays her . Mrs Pipchin ’ s small talk satisfies him as ‘ the sort of thing for which he paid her so much a quarter ’ ( p.132 ) . Worst of all , he effectively buys his second wife and expects that his wealth and position in society will be enough to keep her in awed obedience to him . Paul ’ s questions about money are only the first indication of the naivety of his outlook ' . However , he also believes that the satire against this man is tempered with compassion . Smith also draws attention to the fact that certain characters in the novel 'develop a pattern from Dickens 's earlier novels , whilst pointing the way to future works ' . One such character is Little Paul who is a direct descendant of Little Nell . Another is James Carker , the ever-smiling manager of Dombey and Son . Smith notes there are strong similarities between him and the likes of Jaggers in Great Expectations and , even more so , the evil barrister , Mr Tulkinghorn , in Bleak House : From Fagin ( Oliver Twist ) onwards , the terrifying figure exerting power over others by an infallible knowledge of their secrets becomes one of the author ’ s trademarks ... James Carker 's gentlemanly businesslike respectability marks him out as the ancestor of Tulkinghorn in Bleak House and even of Jaggers in Great Expectations . And his involvements in the secrets of others leads him to as sticky an end as Tulkinghorn ’ s . The fifty-fifth chapter , where he is forced to flee his outraged employer , magnificently continues the theme of the guilt-hunted man from Bill Sikes in Oliver Twist and Jonas ’ s restless sense of pursuit in Martin Chuzzlewit . There is always a strong sense in Dickens of the narrative drive of discovery catching up with those who deal in darkness ... ' Gissing looks at some of the minor characters in the novel and is particularly struck by that of Edward ( Ned ) Cuttle.Captain Cuttle has a larger humanity than his roaring friend [ Captain Bunsby ] , he is the creation of humour . That the Captain suffered dire things at the hands of Mrs. MacStinger is as credible as it is amusing , but he stood in no danger of Bunsby 's fate ; at times he can play his part in a situation purely farcical , but the man himself moves on a higher level . He is one of the most familiar to us among Dickens 's characters , an instance of the novelist 's supreme power , which ( I like to repeat ) proves itself in the bodying forth of a human personality henceforth accepted by the world . His sentences have become proverbs ; the mention of his name brings before the mind 's eye an image of flesh and blood – rude , tending to the grotesque , but altogether lovable . Captain Cuttle belongs to the world of Uncle Toby , with , to be sure , a subordinate position . Analyse him as you will , make the most of those extravagances which pedants of to-day can not away with , and in the end you will still be face to face with something vital – explicable only as the product of genius . The growth of the railways One theme is the destruction and degradation , of both people and places , caused by industrialisation , illustrated in particular by the building of the new railway through Camden Town ( assumed to represent the London and Birmingham Railway constructed between 1833 and 1837 ) . The novel reflects to some extent Dickens ' concerns with railway travel and the 'railway mania ' , ' a fascination which had a strong ingredient of fear in it ' , and reflects ambivalence towards the effects of the railways – they generated prosperity and employment , but undermined older ways of living and encouraged speculation . In 1865 , many years after this novel was published , Dickens was involved in a train crash . Soon after this incident he wrote two short stories , Mugby Junction and The Signal-Man , which projected a morbid view of the railways . Final thoughts Gissing refers to Dickens 's instinctive genius for reflecting the thoughts and morals of the common man in his writing . He observes that the author was in constant communication with Forster , ... as to the feeling of his readers about some proposed incident or episode ; not that he feared , in any ignoble sense , to offend his public , but because his view of art involved compliance with ideals of ordinary simple folk . He held that view as a matter of course . Quite recently it has been put forth with prophetic fervour by Tolstoy , who cites Dickens among the few novelists whose work will bear this test . An instinctive sympathy with the moral ( and therefore the artistic ) prejudices of the everyday man guided Dickens throughout his career , teaching him when , and how far , he might strike at things he thought evil , yet never defeat his prime purpose of sending forth fiction acceptable to the multitude . Himself , in all but his genius , a representative Englishman of the middle-class , he was able to achieve this task with unfailing zeal and with entire sincerity . Karl Smith , in his turn , gives his specific reasons for what makes Dombey and Son – and the works of Dickens as a whole – worth reading again and again . He observes that this is based in part on Dickens 's 'recognition that solemn themes require humour and verbal vigour to accompany and complement them ' and goes on to conclude : Grim psychological realism , social commentary , comic absurdity and symbolic transcendence are here brought together more than in any previous novel with the possible exception of Oliver Twist . Dombey and Son not only prepares the ground for Dickens ’ s later masterpieces , but demands to be enjoyed for its own energy and richness . Characters in `` Dombey and Son '' * Mr Paul Dombey – the main character . Mr. Dombey is a widower with two children ; however , he only considers his son , Paul , to be worthy of his attention . His daughter , Florence , is merely a `` bad boy . '' Paul was to carry on the family name , but died of an illness that shattered Mr. Dombey 's hopes for an heir . Dombey 's neglect of his daughter Florence caused problems his second wife , Edith , whom he essentially purchased . Due to Edith 's hatred for him and Dombey 's misplaced trust in James Carker , Dombey loses his business and his wealth . Dombey finally realised that his daughter was the only person who truly cared for him , even when he had nothing left . He reconnects with Florence in his later years and gains an heir through his son-in-law . * Edith Granger – proud widowed daughter of Mrs Skewton , becomes second Mrs Dombey * Mrs Fanny Dombey – Mr Dombey 's first wife , mother of Florence and Paul , dies soon after Paul is born * Master Paul Dombey ( Little Dombey ) – the son , is weak and often ill * Miss Florence ( Floy ) Dombey – the elder daughter whom Mr Dombey neglects . She marries Walter and has two children . * Mrs Louisa Chick – Mr Dombey 's sister * Mr Chick – husband of Mrs Chick * Miss Lucretia Tox – friend of Mrs Chick , great admirer of Mr Dombey , and neighbour of Major Joseph Bagstock * James Carker ( Mr Carker the Manager ) – devious manager in Mr Dombey 's business * John Carker ( Mr Carker the Junior ) – disgraced older brother of James , lower level employee in Dombey 's business * Miss Harriet Carker – sister of James and John * Mr Morfin – assistant manager in Mr Dombey 's business * Mr Perch – messenger in Mr Dombey 's business * Solomon ( Uncle Sol ) Gills – ships ' instrument maker and owner of the `` Wooden Midshipman '' , a shop * Walter Gay – nephew of Gills , friend to Florence , employee of Mr Dombey , sent away by Carker the Manager * Captain Edward ( Ned ) Cuttle – retired hook-handed sea captain ; friend of Solomon Gills * Major Joseph Bagstock ( Josh , Joe , J.B. , Old Joe ) – conceited retired army major , admirer of Miss Tox , friend of Mr Dombey until his downfall * The Native - Bagstock 's servant who comes from an unspecified country , presumably a British colony , and has 'no particular name ' * Briggs – schoolmate of Paul 's * Tozer – schoolmate of Paul 's * Mr P. Toots – schoolmate of Paul 's , later a dandy in love with Florence * The Game Chicken – rowdy companion of Mr Toots * Miss Susan Nipper – Florence 's loyal nurse , later marries Mr. Toots * Mrs Skewton ( Cleopatra ) – Edith Dombey 's infirm mother * Mr Toodle – a railway engineer * Polly Toodle ( Richards ) – wife of Mr Toodle , engaged as nurse to Paul under the name Mrs Richards ( by Mr Dombey 's order ) * Robin Toodle ( Rob the Grinder , Biler ) – son of Mr Toodle and Polly , sent to Charitable Grinders school , later engaged in service to Captain Cuttle and Mr Carker the Manager * Good Mrs Brown – an elderly rag dealer * Alice – daughter of Brown , former lover of Carker 's , recently returned from transportation * Jack Bunsby – commander of a ship , and regarded as an oracle by Captain Cuttle ; eventually wedded to Mrs MacStinger * Mrs MacStinger – Captain Cuttle 's landlady and nemesis * Mrs Pipchin – stern widow who keeps an 'infantine Boarding-House of a very select description ' in Brighton , where Paul is sent for his health * Master Bitherstone – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin 's , much later a student at Doctor Blimber 's * Miss Pankey – a fellow-boarder at Mrs. Pipchin 's * Sir Barnet Skettles – * Lady Skettles – * Master Skettles – Brighton school pupil * Doctor Blimber – runs a school in Brighton which Paul briefly attends * Mrs Blimber – Doctor Blimber 's wife * Miss Cornelia Blimber – Doctor Blimber 's daughter , teacher at the school , later married to Mr Feeder * Mr Feeder , B.A . – Doctor Blimber 's assistant , teacher at the school and later its owner * Diogenes ( Di ) – A dog from the school , befriended by Paul and adopted by Florence after Paul 's death Film , TV or theatrical adaptations Theatre : * 1848 - a play adaptation by John Brougham that premiered at Burton 's Theatre in July 1848 with William Evans Burton as Captain Cuttle Television : * 1969 miniseries – starring John Carson as Paul Dombey and Derek Seaton as Walter Gay * 1974 – Dombi i syn a Soviet teleplay starring Valentin Gaft as Paul Dombey and Konstantin Raikin as Walter Gay *

odql_13686--Dombey_and_Son.txt

Which Charles Dickens novel has two title characters, both called 'Paul' and a full title that ends with the words: 'Wholesale, Retail and for Exportation'?

Madeira Airport ( ) , informally Funchal Airport ( ) , is an international airport in the municipality/civil parish of Santa Cruz , in the Portuguese archipelago of Madeira . The airport is located east-northeast of the regional capital Funchal after which it is sometimes informally named . On 2016 , it was announced that the airport will be renamed as Cristiano Ronaldo Airport ( ) in honour of Madeira native football player Cristiano Ronaldo . The airport was once infamous for its short runway which , surrounded by high mountains and the ocean , made it a tricky landing for even the most experienced of pilots . Its innovative solution allowed Funchal to receive the Outstanding Structure Award in 2004 by the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering , which aims at recognizing the most remarkable , innovative , creative or otherwise stimulating structure completed within the last few years . Nevertheless , it is still considered one of the most peculiarly perilous airports in the world . History Madeira Airport was officially opened on 18 July 1964 , with two 1600 m runways . The first flight ever to land was a TAP Air Portugal Lockheed Constellation with 80 passengers on board . In 1972 , the popularity of visiting the island of Madeira increased , so the runway had to be extended to allow modern and larger aircraft to land . Considered the Kai Tak of Europe because of its singular approach to runway 05 , the decision was made to extend the existing runway , instead of building a new one . In the meantime , a brand new terminal was built at the airport in 1973 , handling 500,000 passengers . Between 1982 and 1986 , Madeira 's runway was successfully extended by 200 m to a total of 1800 m , and also four gates were opened . The original runway was only 1600 m long , but was extended by 200 m 8 years after the TAP Portugal Flight 425 crash of 1977 . In 2000 , the runway was again extended this time to 2781 m almost doubling the size of the original runway . As landfill was not a realistic option , the extension was built on a platform , partly over the ocean , supported by 180 columns , each about 70 m tall . The extension of Madeira Airport was conducted by the Brazilian construction company Andrade Gutierrez , and is recognized worldwide as one of the most difficult to achieve due to the type of terrain and orography . The new runway and terminal were inaugurated on 6 October 2002 , and to mark the occasion , an Air-Atlantic Iceland Boeing 747-267B , registration TF-ABA , landed at the airport . Although this was a rare event , some TAP Portugal flights make scheduled stops at Madeira with wide bodied A330-200 aircraft on the Lisbon-Caracas-Lisbon route . In 2004 , Dr. Manabu Ito , President of the International Association of Bridge and Structural Engineering ( IABSE ) , presented the IABSE Outstanding Structure Award in Shanghai : the enlargement of the new runway at Funchal Airport won the 2004 Outstanding Structure Award ( considered the Oscars of worldwide structural engineering ) by the IABSE . The History Channel program Most Extreme Airports ranked it as the 9th most dangerous airport in the world , and the third most dangerous in Europe after Gibraltar International Airport and Courchevel Altiport . On 23 July 2016 , it was announced that the airport will be renamed after famous footballer , Cristiano Ronaldo . Terminal The airport has a single terminal which opened in 1973 . The terminal has 40 check-in desks , 16 boarding gates and 7 baggage belts . There are no air-bridges so passengers either walk the short distance to the terminal or are taken by shuttle bus . The terminal itself is mostly underground . Airlines and destinations Busiest routes Accidents and incidents * On 5 March 1973 , an Aviaco Sud Caravelle 10R ( Registration EC-BID ) crashed into the sea during the landing approach , losing the aircraft and three crew . * On 19 November 1977 , TAP Portugal Flight TP425 , a Boeing 727-200 ( Registration CS-TBR ) was traveling from Brussels to Madeira via Lisbon . After a go-around , the aircraft attempted to land in poor weather conditions . It landed long on runway 24 ( now runway 23 ) and plunged over a steep bank . It then struck a stone bridge and the right wing was torn off , and then crashed hard onto a beach . A fire then broke out , setting the aircraft alight . Out of the 164 on board , 131 lost their lives . * On 18 December 1977 , SA de Transport Aérien Flight 730 , a Sud Caravelle 10R ( registration HB-ICK ) was cleared for approach on runway 06 ( now runway 05 ) , but descended below causing the aircraft to crash into the sea . 36 people died out of the 57 on board .

sfq_17764--Madeira_Airport.txt

If you landed at 'Santa Catarina Airport on which Island would you be in?

Roman historiography is indebted to the Greeks , who invented the form . The Romans had great models to base their works upon , such as Herodotus ( c. 484 – 425 BCE ) and Thucydides ( c. 460 – c. 395 BCE ) . Roman historiographical forms are different from the Greek ones however , and voice very Roman concerns . Unlike the Greeks , Roman historiography did not start out with an oral historical tradition . The Roman style of history was based on the way that the Annals of the Pontifex Maximus , or the Annales Maximi , were recorded . The Annales Maximi include a wide array of information , including religious documents , names of consuls , deaths of priests , and various disasters throughout history . Also part of the Annales Maximi are the White Tablets , or the “ Tabulae Albatae , ” which consist of information on the origin of the republic . History of Roman historiography The foundation of Roman historiography The most well-known originator of Roman historiography was Quintus Fabius Pictor , also known as the “ Founder of Historiography ” . Before the second Punic war , there was no historiography in Rome , but after , it was needed to commemorate this important occasion . Q. Fabius Pictor took up the task and wrote a history of Rome in Greek , not Latin . This choice of writing about the war in Greek arose from a need to address the Greeks and counter another author , Timaeus , who also wrote a history of Rome until the Second Punic War . Timaeus wrote with a negative view of Rome . Therefore , in defense of the Roman state , Q. Fabius Pictor wrote in Greek , using Olympiad dating and a Hellenistic style . Q. Fabius Pictor ’ s style of writing history defending the Roman state and its actions , and using propaganda heavily , eventually became a defining characteristic of Roman historiography . Q. Fabius Pictor is known for the establishment of the “ ab urbe condita ” tradition of historiography which is writing history “ from the founding of the city. ” After Q. Fabius Pictor wrote , many other authors followed his lead , inspired by the new literary form : Lucius Cincius Alimentus , Gaius Acilius , Aulus Postumius Albinus , and Cato the Elder . Cato the Elder is credited as the first historian to write in Latin . His work , the Origines , was written to teach Romans what it means to be Roman . Like Q. Fabius Pictor , Cato the Elder wrote ab urbe condita , and the early history is filled with legends illustrating Roman virtues . The Origines also spoke of how not only Rome , but the other Italian towns were venerable , and that the Romans were indeed superior to the Greeks . The Romans enjoyed serious endeavors and so the writing of historiography became very popular for upper class citizens who wanted to spend their time on worthwhile , virtuous , “ Roman ” activities . As leisure time was looked down upon by the Romans , writing history became an acceptable way to spend retirement . Almost as soon as historiography started being used by the Romans , it split into two traditions : the annalistic tradition and the monographic tradition . The annalistic tradition The authors who used the Annalistic tradition wrote histories year-by-year , from the beginning , which was most frequently from the founding of the city , usually up until the time that they were living in . Some annalistic authors : * Gnaeus Gellius ( c. 140 BC ) wrote his history from Aeneas until 146 BC . * Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi ( c. 133 BC ) wrote trying to figure out why the Roman society had begun to decline . His history chronicled Rome from the foundation until 154 BC , when he believed that the society had hit its lowest point . * Publius Mucius Scaevola ( c. 133 BC ) wrote a history from the foundation of the city in 80 books . * Sempronius Asellio ( c. 100 BC ) wrote a history from the Punic Wars until c. 100 BC . * Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius wrote that all Roman wars are just , and that the Senate and all Roman dealings were honorable , in annalistic form . The monographic tradition Monographs are more similar to the history books that we are used to today ; they are usually on a single topic , but most importantly , they do not tell history from the beginning , and they are not even necessarily annalistic . An important sub category that emerged from the monographic tradition was the biography . Some monographic authors : * Gaius Gracchus wrote a biography of his brother , Tiberius Gracchus . * Gaius Fannius also wrote a biography of Tiberius Gracchus , but showed him in a negative light . * Lucius Coelius Antipater wrote a monograph on the Second Punic War . * Sallust wrote two monographs : Bellum Catilinae ( also known as De Catilinae Coniuratione ) , which is about the Catilinarian conspiracy from 66-63 BC , and the Bellum Jugurthinum , which is about the war with Jugurtha which took place from 111 - 105 BC . Factionalized history Often , especially in times of political unrest or social turmoil , historians re-wrote history to suit their particular views of the age . So , there were many different historians each rewriting history a little bit to bolster their case . This was especially evident in the 70s BC when the social wars were going on between the populists led by Marius , and the senatorials led by Sulla . Several authors wrote histories during this time , each taking a side . Gaius Licinius Macer was anti-Sullan and wrote his history , based on Gnaeus Gellius in 16 books , from the founding of the city until the 3rd century BC , whereas Valerius Antias who was pro-Sulla , wrote a history in 75 books , from the founding of the city until 91 BC . Overview The historiography we most readily identify with the Romans , coming from sources such as Caesar , Sallust , Livy , Tacitus , and other minor authors , owes much to its early roots and Greek predecessors . However , contrary to the Greek form , the Roman form included various attitudes and concerns that were considered strictly Roman . As the recording of Roman history began to evolve and take shape , many characteristics came to define what we know today as Roman historiography , most notably the strong defense of and allegiance to the Roman state and its wide variety of moral ideals , the factional nature of some histories , the splitting of historiography into two distinct categories , the Annals and the Monograph , and the rewriting of history to suit the author ’ s needs . Characteristics Annals are a year-by-year arrangement of historical writing . In Roman historiography , annals generally begin at the founding of Rome . Proper annals include whatever events were of importance for each year , as well as other information such as the names of that year ’ s consuls , which was the basis by which Romans generally identified years . The Annal seems originally to have been used by the priesthood to keep track of omens and portents . The Annales Maximi were a running set of annals kept by the Pontifex Maximus . The Annales Maximi contained such information as names of the magistrates of each year , public events , and omens such as eclipses and monstrous births . The Annales Maximi covers the period from the early Roman Republic to around the time of the Gracchi . Gracchan Annalist seems to refer to the writers of history in annalistic form who began writing after the time of the Gracchi . Compared to other forms of annalistic history , these seem more fictionalized as Roman historians used their histories to illustrate points about their own time , and were not necessarily out to produce hard fact . Still , Gracchan annalists have produced interesting insight into the writer ’ s own time , if not necessarily into the time on which they wrote . Sallust and Tacitus are fair examples of Gracchan Annalists . A monograph is a comprehensive work on a single subject . The monograph could be written about a single event , a technique , rhetoric , or one of any number of other subjects . For example , Pliny the Elder once published a monograph on the use of the throwing-spear by cavalry . Monographs were among the most common historical works found in Roman writings . Ab urbe condita , literally “ From the founding of the city ” , describes the Roman tradition of beginning histories at the founding of the city of Rome . For examples , see Tacitus , Livy , Sallust , et al . In Livy ’ s Ab Urbe Condita , much time is spent on the early history of Rome , and on the founding of the city itself . In Sallust ’ s histories , the founding and early history of Rome is almost reduced to a single sentence . Thus , the ab urbe condita form is extremely variable while continuing to mold Roman histories . “ Senatorial History ” describes history written by or with information from a Roman Senator . Senatorial histories are generally particularly informative due to their “ insider ’ s ” perspective . A general pattern of Senatorial histories is that they seem to invariably contain a reason that the author is writing histories instead of remaining involved in politics . Sullan annalists politicized their past . They were partisans of the Sullan faction who carried on the Marius and Sulla conflict through their histories , often rewriting them to fit their own agenda . Some Sullan annalists may have been sources for Livy . Valerius Antias ( fl . 80-60 BC ) was a Sullan annalist but he was not viewed as a credible historian . He seems to have been trying to counter the Marian historian , C. Licinius Macer . Antias ’ history , written in seventy-six books , is melodramatic and often filled with exaggerations and lies . In his history , anyone named Cornelius is considered a hero and anyone named Claudius is an enemy and the opposition to the populares never went by a consistent name but were instead called “ boni , ” “ optime ” or “ optimates , ” implying that they were the good guys . Roman historiography is also very well known for subversive writing styles . The information in the ancient Roman histories is often communicated by suggestion , innuendo , implication and insinuation because their attitudes would not always be well received . Tacitus opposed the emperors and believed that they were one of the reasons for the decline of Rome . Tacitus even wrote disparagingly of Augustus the most celebrated and beloved of the emperors . Of course these opinions had to be veiled since they would not have gone over very well . In Roman historiography commentarii is simply a raw account of events often not intended for publication . It was not considered traditional “ history ” because it lacked the necessary speeches and literary flourishes . Commentarii was usually turned into “ history ” later on . Many think Caesar ’ s account of the Gallic Wars , Commentarii Rerum Gestarum ( Commentaries on Things Done ) , was called commentarii for propagandistic purposes . They believe that it is actually “ history ” since it is so well written , pro-Roman and fits the traditional patterns of historiography . Ancient Roman historians did not write for the sake of writing , they wrote in an effort to convince their audiences . Propaganda is ever present and is the function of Roman historiography . Ancient Roman historians traditionally had personal and political baggage and were not disinterested observers . Their accounts were written with the specific moral and political agendas . For example , Q. Fabius Pictor started the tradition of historiography that was concerned with both morality and history and affirmed the prestige of Roman state and its people . Ancient Roman historians wrote pragmatic histories in order to benefit future statesmen . The philosophy of pragmatic history treats historical happenings with special reference to causes , conditions and results . In Roman Historiography the facts and an impression of what the facts mean are presented . Interpretation is always a part of historiography ; Romans never made any pretense about it . Conflict between the facts and the interpretation of those facts indicate a good historian . Polybius , who wrote in Greek , was the first pragmatic historian . His histories have an aristocratic ethos and reveal his opinions on honor , wealth and war . Tacitus was also a pragmatic . His histories have literary merit and interpretations of facts and events . He was not purely objective , rather his judgments served a moral function . Major extant historians Caesar Julius Caesar was born on July 12 , 100 BC into a patrician family . As a young man , he was given the position of the Flamen Dialis by his father-in-law , Cornelius Cinna . When that position was taken away by Sulla , Caesar spent a decade in Asia , earning a great reputation in the military . Upon his return to Rome , he was both elected tribunus militium and given the title of pontifex . During his time in these positions , Caesar befriended Pompey and Crassus , the two men with whom he would later form the First Triumvirate . As the years went on , recognition for Caesar ’ s political , military , and oratory skills grew and he easily earned the positions of praetor and consul . After his consulship , Caesar gained control of the provinces of Illyricum and Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul . In 58 BC , trouble arose in the Gallic provinces , sparking one of the most important wars of Caesar ’ s career . The De Bello Gallico is Caesar ’ s account of the Gallic Wars . As the Wars were raging on , Caesar fell victim to a great deal of criticisms from Rome . De Bello Gallico is a response to these criticisms , and a way for Caesar to justify these Wars . His argument is that the Wars were both just and pious , and that he and his army attacked Gaul in self-defense . The Helvetians were forming a massive migration straight through the provinces . When a group of neighboring allies came to Caesar himself asking for help against these invading Helvetians , that was all the justification Caesar needed to gather his army . By creating an account that portrays himself as a superb military hero , Caesar was able to clear all doubts in Rome about his abilities as a leader . While it is obvious that Caesar used this account for his own gain , it is not to say that the De Bello Gallico is at all unreliable . Many of the victories that Caesar has written about did , in fact , occur . Smaller details , however , may have been altered , and the word choice makes the reader more sympathetic to Caesar ’ s cause . De Bello Gallico is an excellent example of the ways in which retellings of actual events can be spun to a person ’ s advantage . For this reason , De Bello Gallico is often looked at as a commentary , rather than a piece of actual historiography . Livy Titus Livius , commonly known as Livy , was a Roman historian best known for his work entitled Ab Urbe Condita , which is a history of Rome “ from the founding of the city. ” He was born in Patavium , which is modern day Padua , in 59 BC and he died there in 17 AD . Others referred to his writing as having “ patavinitas. ” Little is known about his life , but based on an epitaph found in Padua , he had a wife and two sons . We also know that he was on good terms with Augustus and he also encouraged Claudius to write history . Ab Urbe Condita covered Roman history from its founding , commonly accepted as 753 BC , to 9 BC . It consisted of 142 books , though only books 1-10 and 21-45 survive in whole , although summaries of the other books and a few other fragments exist . The books were referred to as `` decades '' because Livy organized his material into groups of ten books . The decades were further split in pentads : * Books 1-5 cover from the founding to 390 BC . * Books 6-10 cover 390-293 BC . * Though we do not have books 11-20 , evidence suggests that books 11-15 discussed Pyrrhus and books 16-20 dealt with the First Punic War . * Books 21-30 cover the Second Punic War : * * 21-25 deal with Hannibal . * * 26-30 deal with Scipio Africanus . * The wars against Philip V in Greece are discussed in books 31-35 . * The wars against Antiochus III in the east in books 36-40 . * The Third Macedonian War is dealt with in books 40-45 . * Books 45-121 are missing . * Books 121-142 deal with the events from 42 through 9 BC . The purpose of writing Ab Urbe Condita was twofold : the first was to memorialize history and the second was to challenge his generation to rise to that same level . He was preoccupied with morality , using history as a moral essay . He connects a nation ’ s success with its high level of morality , and conversely a nation ’ s failure with its moral decline . Livy believed that there had been a moral decline in Rome , and he lacked the confidence that Augustus could reverse it . Though he shared Augustus ’ ideals , he was not a “ spokesman for the regime ” . He believed that Augustus was necessary , but only as a short term measure . According to Quintillian , Livy wrote lactea ubertas , or “ with milky richness. ” He used language to embellish his material , including the use of both poetical and archaic words . He included many anachronisms in his work , such as tribunes having power that they did not have until much later . Livy also used rhetorical elaborations , such as attributing speeches to characters whose speeches could not possibly be known . Though he was not thought of as a first-rate historian , his work was so extensive that other histories were abandoned for Livy . It is unfortunate that these other histories were abandoned , especially since much of Livy ’ s work is now gone , leaving holes in our knowledge of Roman history . Sallust C. Sallustius Crispus , more commonly known as Sallust , was a Roman historian of the 1st century BC , born c. 86 BC in the Sabine community of Amiternum . There is some evidence that Sallust ’ s family belonged to a local aristocracy , but we do know that he did not belong to Rome ’ s ruling class . Thus he embarked on a political career as a “ novus homo , ” serving as a military tribune in the 60s BC , quaestor from 55 to 54 BC , and tribune of the plebs in 52 BC . Sallust was expelled from the senate in 50 BC on moral grounds , but quickly revived his career by attaching himself to Julius Caesar . He served as quaestor again in 48 BC , as praetor in 46 BC , and governed the new province in the former Numidian territory until 44 BC . Sallust ’ s political career ended upon his return to Rome and Caesar ’ s assassination in 44 BC . We possess in full two of the historical works that have been convincingly ascribed to Sallust , the monographs , Bellum Catilinae and Bellum Jugurthinum . We have only fragments of the third work , the Historiae . There is less agreement about the authorship of some other works that have , at times , been attributed to him . In Bellum Catilinae , Sallust outlines the conspiracy of Catiline , a brash and ambitious patrician who tried to seize power in Rome in 63 BC . In his other monograph , Sallust used the Jugurthine War as a backdrop for his examination of the development of party struggles in Rome in the 1st century BC . The Historiae describe in general the history of the years 78-67 BC . Although Sallust ’ s purposes in writing have been debated over the years , it seems logical to classify him as a senatorial historian who adopted the attitude of a censor . The historical details outlined in his monographs serve as paradigms for Sallust . In Bellum Catilinae , Sallust uses the figure of Catiline as a symbol of the corrupt Roman nobility . Indeed , much of what Sallust writes in this work does not even concern Catiline . The content of Bellum Jugurthinum also suggests that Sallust was more interested in character studies ( e.g . Marius ) than the details of the war itself . With respect to writing style , the main influences on Sallust ’ s work were Thucydides and Cato the Elder . Evidence of the former ’ s influence includes emphasis on politics , use of archaisms , character analysis , and selective omission of details . The use of such devices as asyndeton , anaphora , and chiasmus reflect preference for the old-fashioned Latin style of Cato to the Ciceronian periodic structure of his own era . Whether Sallust is considered a reliable source or not , he is largely responsible for our current image of Rome in the late republic . He doubtless incorporates elements of exaggeration in his works and has at times been described as more of an artist or politician than historian . But our understanding of the moral and ethical realities of Rome in the 1st century BC would be much weaker if Sallust ’ s works did not survive . Tacitus Tacitus was born c. 56 AD in , most likely , either Cisalpine or Narbonese Gaul . Upon arriving in Rome , which would have happened by 75 , he quickly began to lay down the tracks for his political career . By 88 , he was made praetor under Domitian , and he was also a member of the quindecimviri sacris faciundis . From 89 to 93 , Tacitus was away from Rome with his newly married wife , the daughter of the general Agricola . 97 saw Tacitus being named the consul suffectus under Nerva . It is likely that Tacitus held a proconsulship in Asia . His death is datable to c. 118 . There is much scholarly debate concerning the order of publication of Tacitus ’ works ; traditional dates are given here . * 98 – Agricola ( De vita Iulii Agricolae ) . This was a laudation of the author ’ s father-in-law , the aforementioned general Cn . Iulius Agricola . More than a biography , however , can be garnered from the Agricola : Tacitus includes sharp words and poignant phrases aimed at the emperor Domitian . * 98 – Germania ( De origine et situ Germanorum ) . `` belongs to a literary genre , describing the country , peoples and customs of a race '' ( Cooley 2007 ) . * c. 101/102– Dialogus ( Dialogus de oratoribus ) . This is a commentary on the state of oratory as Tacitus sees it . * c. 109 – Histories . This work spanned the end of the reign of Nero to the death of Domitian . Unfortunately , the only extant books of this 12-14 volume work are 1-4 and a quarter of book 5 . * Unknown – Annales ( Ab excessu divi Augusti ) . This is Tacitus ’ largest and final work . Some scholars also regard this as his most impressive work . The date of publication and whether it was completed at all are unknown . The Annales covered the reigns of Tiberius , Caligula , Claudius , and Nero . Like the Histories , parts of the Annales are lost : most of book 5 , books 7-10 , part of book 11 , and everything after the middle of 16 . Tacitus ’ familiar invective is also present in this work . Tacitus ’ style is very much like that of Sallust . Short , sharp phrases cut right to the point , and Tacitus makes no bones about conveying his point . His claim that he writes history `` sine ira et studio '' ( “ without anger and partiality ” ) ( Annales I.1 ) is not exactly one that is true . Many of his passages ooze with hatred towards the emperors . Despite this seemingly obvious partisan style of writing , much of what is said can go under the radar , which is as Tacitus wanted things to be . His skill as an orator , which was praised by his good friend Pliny , no doubt contributes to his supreme mastery of the Latin language . Not one to mince words , Tacitus does not waste time with a history of Rome ab urbe condita . Rather , he gives a brief synopsis of the key points before he begins a lengthier summary of the reign of Augustus . From there , he launches into his scathing account of history from where Livy would have left off . Suetonius Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( Suetonius ) is most famous for his biographies of the Julio-Claudian and Flavian emperors and other notable historical figures . He was born around 69 to an equestrian family . Living during the times of the Emperor Trajan and having a connection to Pliny the Younger , Suetonius was able to begin a rise in rank in the imperial administration . In c. 102 , he was appointed to a military tribune position in Britain , which he did not actually accept . He was , though , among the staff for Pliny ’ s command in Bithynia . During the late period of Trajan ’ s rule and under Hadrian , he held various positions , until he was discharged . He had a close proximity to the government as well as access to the imperial archives , which can be seen in his historical biographies . Suetonius wrote a large number of biographies on important literary figures of the past ( De Viris Illustribus ) . Included in the collection were notable poets , grammarians , orators , historians , and philosophers . This collection , like his other works , was not organized chronologically . Not all of it has survived to the present day , but there are a number of references in other sources to attribute fragments to this collection . His most famous work , though , is the De Vita Caesarum . This collection of twelve biographies tells the lives of the Julio-Claudian and Flavian Emperors , spanning from Julius Caesar to Domitian . Other than an introduction genealogy and a short summary of the subject ’ s youth and death , the biographies do not follow a chronological pattern . Rather than chronicling events as they happened in time , Suetonius presents them thematically . This style allowed him to compare the achievements and downfalls of each emperor using various examples of imperial responsibilities , such as building projects and public entertainment . However , it makes dating aspects of each emperor ’ s life and the events of the early Roman Empire difficult . It also completely removes the ability to extrapolate a causal sequence from the works . Suetonius ’ s purpose was not a historical recount of events , though , but rather an evaluation of the emperors themselves . Suetonius ’ s style is simple ; he often quotes directly from sources that were used , and artistic organization and language does not seem to exist . He addresses points directly , without flowery or misleading language , and quotes from his sources often . However , he is often criticized that he

sfq_23893--Roman_historiography.txt

Which Roman historian was the son-in-law of Agricola the Roman Governor of Britain?

Alexander III of Macedon ( 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC ) , commonly known as Alexander the Great ( , Aléxandros ho Mégas ) , was a King ( Basileus ) of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty . Born in Pella in 356 BC , Alexander succeeded his father , Philip II , to the throne at the age of twenty . He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa , and by the age of thirty he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world , stretching from Greece to northwestern India . He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history 's most successful military commanders . During his youth , Alexander was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle until the age of 16 . After Philip 's assassination in 336 BC , Alexander succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army . Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father 's Panhellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia . In 334 BC , he invaded the Achaemenid Empire , ruled Asia Minor , and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years . Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles , most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela . He subsequently overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety . At that point , his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River . Seeking to reach the `` ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea '' , he invaded India in 326 BC , but was eventually forced to turn back at the demand of his troops . Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC , the city he planned to establish as his capital , without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia . In the years following his death , a series of civil wars tore his empire apart , resulting in several states ruled by the Diadochi , Alexander 's surviving generals and heirs . Alexander 's legacy includes the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered , such as Greco-Buddhism . He founded some twenty cities that bore his name , most notably Alexandria in Egypt . Alexander 's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization , aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s . Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles , and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures . He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves , and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics . He is often ranked among the most influential people in human history , along with his teacher Aristotle . Early life Lineage and childhood Alexander was born on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion , which probably corresponds to 20July 356 BC , although the exact date is not known , in Pella , the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon . He was the son of the king of Macedon , Philip II , and his fourth wife , Olympias , the daughter of Neoptolemus I , king of Epirus . Although Philip had seven or eight wives , Olympias was his principal wife for some time , likely a result of giving birth to Alexander . Several legends surround Alexander 's birth and childhood . According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch , Olympias , on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip , dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt , causing a flame that spread `` far and wide '' before dying away . Some time after the wedding , Philip is said to have seen himself , in a dream , securing his wife 's womb with a seal engraved with a lion 's image . Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams : that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage , indicated by the sealing of her womb ; or that Alexander 's father was Zeus . Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander 's divine parentage , variously claiming that she had told Alexander , or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious . On the day Alexander was born , Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice . That same day , Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies , and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games . It was also said that on this day , the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus , one of the Seven Wonders of the World , burnt down . This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away , attending the birth of Alexander . Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king , and possibly at his own instigation , to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception . In his early years , Alexander was raised by a nurse , Lanike , sister of Alexander 's future general Cleitus the Black . Later in his childhood , Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas , a relative of his mother , and by Lysimachus of Acarnania . Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths , learning to read , play the lyre , ride , fight , and hunt . When Alexander was ten years old , a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse , which he offered to sell for thirteen talents . The horse refused to be mounted and Philip ordered it away . Alexander however , detecting the horse 's fear of its own shadow , asked to tame the horse , which he eventually managed . Plutarch stated that Philip , overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition , kissed his son tearfully , declaring : `` My boy , you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions . Macedon is too small for you '' , and bought the horse for him . Alexander named it Bucephalas , meaning `` ox-head '' . Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India . When the animal died ( due to old age , according to Plutarch , at age thirty ) , Alexander named a city after him , Bucephala . Adolescence and education When Alexander was 13 , Philip began to search for a tutor , and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus , the latter offering to resign to take up the post . In the end , Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom . In return for teaching Alexander , Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle 's hometown of Stageira , which Philip had razed , and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves , or pardoning those who were in exile . Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles , such as Ptolemy , Hephaistion , and Cassander . Many of these students would become his friends and future generals , and are often known as the 'Companions ' . Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine , philosophy , morals , religion , logic , and art . Under Aristotle 's tutelage , Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer , and in particular the Iliad ; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy , which Alexander later carried on his campaigns . Philip 's heir Regency and ascent of Macedon At age 16 , Alexander 's education under Aristotle ended . Philip waged war against Byzantion , leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent . During Philip 's absence , the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia . Alexander responded quickly , driving them from their territory . He colonized it with Greeks , and founded a city named Alexandropolis . Upon Philip 's return , he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace . Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus , Alexander is reported to have saved his father 's life . Meanwhile , the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi , a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs . Still occupied in Thrace , he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in Greece . Concerned that other Greek states might intervene , Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead . During this turmoil , the Illyrians invaded Macedonia , only to be repelled by Alexander . Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC , and they marched south through Thermopylae , taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison . They went on to occupy the city of Elatea , only a few days ' march from both Athens and Thebes . The Athenians , led by Demosthenes , voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia . Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes ' favor , but Athens won the contest . Philip marched on Amphissa ( ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League ) , capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city 's surrender . Philip then returned to Elatea , sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes , who both rejected it . As Philip marched south , his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea , Boeotia . During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea , Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left , accompanied by a group of Philip 's trusted generals . According to the ancient sources , the two sides fought bitterly for some time . Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat , counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow , thus breaking their line . Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines , followed by Philip 's generals . Having damaged the enemy 's cohesion , Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them . With the Athenians lost , the Thebans were surrounded . Left to fight alone , they were defeated . After the victory at Chaeronea , Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese , welcomed by all cities ; however , when they reached Sparta , they were refused , but did not resort to war . At Corinth , Philip established a `` Hellenic Alliance '' ( modeled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars ) , which included most Greek city-states except Sparta . Philip was then named Hegemon ( often translated as `` Supreme Commander '' ) of this league ( known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth ) , and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire . Exile and return When Philip returned to Pella , he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice , the niece of his general Attalus . The marriage made Alexander 's position as heir less secure , since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir , while Alexander was only half-Macedonian . During the wedding banquet , a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir . Alexander fled Macedon with his mother , dropping her off with her brother , King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona , capital of the Molossians . He continued to Illyria , where he sought refuge with the Illyrian king and was treated as a guest , despite having defeated them in battle a few years before . However , it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son . Accordingly , Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend , Demaratus , who mediated between the two parties . In the following year , the Persian satrap ( governor ) of Caria , Pixodarus , offered his eldest daughter to Alexander 's half-brother , Philip Arrhidaeus . Olympias and several of Alexander 's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir . Alexander reacted by sending an actor , Thessalus of Corinth , to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter 's hand to an illegitimate son , but instead to Alexander . When Philip heard of this , he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian , explaining that he wanted a better bride for him . Philip exiled four of Alexander 's friends , Harpalus , Nearchus , Ptolemy and Erigyius , and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains . King of Macedon Accession In summer 336 BC , while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias 's brother , Alexander I of Epirus , Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards , Pausanias . As Pausanias tried to escape , he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers , including two of Alexander 's companions , Perdiccas and Leonnatus . Alexander was proclaimed king by the nobles and army at the age of 20 . Consolidation of power Alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne . He had his cousin , the former Amyntas IV , executed . He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed , but spared a third , Alexander Lyncestes . Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa , her daughter by Philip , burned alive . When Alexander learned about this , he was furious . Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus , who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra 's uncle . Attalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes , regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens . Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander , and following Cleopatra 's murder , Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive . Alexander spared Arrhidaeus , who was by all accounts mentally disabled , possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias . News of Philip 's death roused many states into revolt , including Thebes , Athens , Thessaly , and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon . When news of the revolts reached Alexander , he responded quickly . Though advised to use diplomacy , Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly . He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa , and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa . When the Thessalians awoke the next day , they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered , adding their cavalry to Alexander 's force . He then continued south towards the Peloponnese . Alexander stopped at Thermopylae , where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth . Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels . The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander 's stay in Corinth . When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him , the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side , as he was blocking the sunlight . This reply apparently delighted Alexander , who is reported to have said `` But verily , if I were not Alexander , I would like to be Diogenes . '' At Corinth , Alexander took the title of Hegemon ( `` leader '' ) and , like Philip , was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia . He also received news of a Thracian uprising . Balkan campaign Before crossing to Asia , Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders . In the spring of 335 BC , he advanced to suppress several revolts . Starting from Amphipolis , he traveled east into the country of the `` Independent Thracians '' ; and at Mount Haemus , the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights . The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi , and defeated their army near the Lyginus river ( a tributary of the Danube ) . Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube , encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore . Crossing the river at night , he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish . News then reached Alexander that Cleitus , King of Illyria , and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against his authority . Marching west into Illyria , Alexander defeated each in turn , forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops . With these victories , he secured his northern frontier . While Alexander campaigned north , the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again . Alexander immediately headed south . While the other cities again hesitated , Thebes decided to fight . The Theban resistance was ineffective , and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities . The end of Thebes cowed Athens , leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace . Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign , leaving Antipater as regent . Conquest of the Persian Empire Asia Minor Alexander 's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers , 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000 , drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states , mercenaries , and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace , Paionia , and Illyria . ( However , Arrian , who used Ptolemy as a source , said that Alexander crossed with more than 5,000 horse and 30,000 foot ; Diodorus quoted the same totals , but listed 5,100 horse and 32,000 foot . Diodorus also referred to an advance force already present in Asia , which Polyaenus , in his Stratagems of War ( 5.44.4 ) , said numbered 10,000 men . ) He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods . This also showed Alexander 's eagerness to fight , in contrast to his father 's preference for diplomacy . After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus , Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis ; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast , granting autonomy and democracy to the cities . Miletus , held by Achaemenid forces , required a delicate siege operation , with Persian naval forces nearby . Further south , at Halicarnassus , in Caria , Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege , eventually forcing his opponents , the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria , Orontobates , to withdraw by sea . Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty , Ada , who adopted Alexander . From Halicarnassus , Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain , asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases . From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland . At Termessos , Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city . At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium , Alexander `` undid '' the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot , a feat said to await the future `` king of Asia '' . According to the story , Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword . The Levant and Syria In spring 333 BC , Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia . After a long pause due to illness , he marched on towards Syria . Though outmanoeuvered by Darius ' significantly larger army , he marched back to Cilicia , where he defeated Darius at Issus . Darius fled the battle , causing his army to collapse , and left behind his wife , his two daughters , his mother Sisygambis , and a fabulous treasure . He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost , and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family . Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia , it was he alone who decided territorial divisions . Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria , and most of the coast of the Levant . In the following year , 332 BC , he was forced to attack Tyre , which he captured after a long and difficult siege . Alexander massacred the men of military age and sold the women and children into slavery . Egypt When Alexander destroyed Tyre , most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated . A later tradition recorded his entry into Jerusalem : according to Josephus , Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel 's prophecy , presumably chapter 8 , which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire . He spared Jerusalem and pushed south into Egypt . However , Alexander met with resistance at Gaza . The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill , requiring a siege . When `` his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt '' . After three unsuccessful assaults , the stronghold fell , but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound . As in Tyre , men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery . Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC , where he was regarded as a liberator . He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert . Henceforth , Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father , and after his death , currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity . During his stay in Egypt , he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt , which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death . Assyria and Babylonia Leaving Egypt in 331 BC , Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia ( now northern Iraq ) and again defeated Darius , at the Battle of Gaugamela . Darius once more fled the field , and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela . Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two . Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana ( modern Hamedan ) , while Alexander captured Babylon . Persia From Babylon , Alexander went to Susa , one of the Achaemenid capitals , and captured its treasury . He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road . Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city . He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates ( in the modern Zagros Mountains ) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury . On entering Persepolis , Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days . Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months . During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes and spread to the rest of the city . Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes I . Years later upon revisiting the city he had burnt , Alexander would regret the burning of Persepolis . Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes the Great as if it were a live person : Fall of the Empire and the East Alexander then chased Darius , first into Media , and then Parthia . The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny , and was taken prisoner by Bessus , his Bactrian satrap and kinsman . As Alexander approached , Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius ' successor as Artaxerxes V , before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander . Alexander buried Darius ' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral . He claimed that , while dying , Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne . The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius . Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him . This campaign , initially against Bessus , turned into a grand tour of central Asia . Alexander founded a series of new cities , all called Alexandria , including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan , and Alexandria Eschate ( `` The Furthest '' ) in modern Tajikistan . The campaign took Alexander through Media , Parthia , Aria ( West Afghanistan ) , Drangiana , Arachosia ( South and Central Afghanistan ) , Bactria ( North and Central Afghanistan ) , and Scythia . Spitamenes , who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana , in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy , one of Alexander 's trusted companions , and Bessus was executed . However , when , at some point later , Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army , Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt . Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes , defeating him in the Battle of Gabai . After the defeat , Spitamenes was killed by his own men , who then sued for peace . Problems and plots During this time , Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court , notably the custom of proskynesis , either a symbolic kissing of the hand , or prostration on the ground , that Persians showed to their social superiors . The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it . This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen , and he eventually abandoned it . A plot against his life was revealed , and one of his officers , Philotas , was executed for failing to alert Alexander . The death of the son necessitated the death of the father , and thus Parmenion , who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana , was assassinated at Alexander 's command , to prevent attempts at vengeance . Most infamously , Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus , Cleitus the Black , during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda ( modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan ) , in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgemental mistakes and most especially , of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle . Later , in the Central Asian campaign , a second plot against his life was revealed , this one instigated by his own royal pages . His official historian , Callisthenes of Olynthus , was implicated in the plot ; however , historians have yet to reach a consensus regarding this involvement . Callisthenes had fallen out of favor by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis . Macedon in Alexander 's absence When Alexander set out for Asia , he left his general Antipater , an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II 's `` Old Guard '' , in charge of Macedon . Alexander 's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence . The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC , whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis . Antipater referred the Spartans

sfq_8650--Alexander_the_Great.txt

When Alexander the Great had an Empire to which Asian Country did it stretch?

Apollo ( Attic , Ionic , and Homeric Greek : , Apollōn ( ) ; Doric : , Apellōn ; Arcadocypriot : , Apeilōn ; Aeolic : , Aploun ; ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology . The ideal of the kouros ( a beardless , athletic youth ) , Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music , truth and prophecy , healing , the sun and light , plague , poetry , and more . Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto , and has a twin sister , the chaste huntress Artemis . Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu . As the patron of Delphi ( Pythian Apollo ) , Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle . Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo , whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius , yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague . Amongst the god 's custodial charges , Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists , and as the patron defender of herds and flocks . As the leader of the Muses ( Apollon Musegetes ) and director of their choir , Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry . Hermes created the lyre for him , and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo . Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans . In Hellenistic times , especially during the 3rd century BCE , as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios , Titan god of the sun , and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene , Titan goddess of the moon . In Latin texts , on the other hand , Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century , not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII ( 161–215 ) . Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE . Etymology The name of Apollo itself—though not Paean , a possible name of a precursor god to or epithet of him—is generally considered to be absent from the Linear B ( Mycenean Greek ) texts although it is possible that the name is in fact attested in the lacunose form ] pe-rjo- [ ( Linear B : ] - [ ) on the KN E 842 tablet . The etymology of the name is uncertain . The spelling ( in Classical Attic ) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era , but the Doric form Apellon ( ) , is more archaic , derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios ( ) , and the offerings apellaia ( ) at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai ( ) . According to some scholars the words are derived from the Doric word apella ( ) , which originally meant `` wall , '' `` fence for animals '' and later `` assembly within the limits of the square . `` The word usually appears in plural : Hesychius : ( apellai ) , ( `` folds '' ) , ( `` assemblies '' ) , ( `` elections '' ) : Nilsson , Vol . I , p. 556 Apella ( ) is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta , corresponding to the ecclesia ( ) . R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun apellai and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form * Apalyun . Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors . Thus , the Greeks most often associated Apollo 's name with the Greek verb ( apollymi ) , `` to destroy '' . Plato in Cratylus connects the name with ( apolysis ) , `` redemption '' , with ( apolousis ) , `` purification '' , and with ( [ h ] aploun ) , `` simple '' , in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name , , and finally with ( aeiballon ) , `` ever-shooting '' . Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric ( apella ) , which means `` assembly '' , so that Apollo would be the god of political life , and he also gives the explanation ( sekos ) , `` fold '' , in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds . In the Ancient Macedonian language ( pella ) means `` stone , '' and some toponyms may be derived from this word : ( Pella , the capital of Ancient Macedonia ) and ( Pellēnē/Pallene ) . A number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name , The Hittite form Apaliunas ( d ) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter , perhaps related to Hurrian ( and certainly the Etruscan ) Aplu , a god of plague , in turn likely from Akkadian Aplu Enlil meaning simply `` the son of Enlil '' , a title that was given to the god Nergal , who was linked to Shamash , Babylonian god of the sun . The role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus ( `` mouse Apollo '' ) by Chryses , the Trojan priest of Apollo , with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks ( the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is of course apotropaic , meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague ) . The Hittite testimony reflects an early form ' , which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric . A Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo `` The One of Entrapment '' , perhaps in the sense of `` Hunter '' . Greco-Roman epithets Apollo , like other Greek deities , had a number of epithets applied to him , reflecting the variety of roles , duties , and aspects ascribed to the god . However , while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth , only a few occur in Latin literature , chief among them Phoebus ( ; , Phoibos , literally `` bright '' ) , which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo 's role as the god of light . As sun-god and god of light , Apollo was also known by the epithets Aegletes ( ; Αἰγλήτης , Aiglētēs , from , `` light of the sun '' ) , Helius ( ; , Helios , literally `` sun '' ) , Phanaeus ( ; , Phanaios , literally `` giving or bringing light '' ) , and Lyceus ( ; , Lykeios , from Proto-Greek * , `` light '' ) . The meaning of the epithet `` Lyceus '' later became associated with Apollo 's mother Leto , who was the patron goddess of Lycia ( ) and who was identified with the wolf ( ) , earning him the epithets Lycegenes ( ; , Lukēgenēs , literally `` born of a wolf '' or `` born of Lycia '' ) and Lycoctonus ( ; , Lykoktonos , from , `` wolf '' , and , `` to kill '' ) . As god of the sun , Apollo was called Sol ( , literally `` sun '' in Latin ) by the Romans . In association with his birthplace , Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos , Apollo was called Cynthius ( ; , Kunthios , literally `` Cynthian '' ) , Cynthogenes ( ; , Kynthogenēs , literally `` born of Cynthus '' ) , and Delius ( ; Δήλιος , Delios , literally `` Delian '' ) . As Artemis 's twin , Apollo had the epithet Didymaeus ( ; , Didymaios , from δίδυμος , `` twin '' ) . Apollo was worshipped as Actiacus ( ; , Aktiakos , literally `` Actian '' ) , Delphinius ( ; , Delphinios , literally `` Delphic '' ) , and Pythius ( ; , Puthios , from Πυθώ , Pythō , the area around Delphi ) , after Actium ( ) and Delphi ( Δελφοί ) respectively , two of his principal places of worship . An etiology in the Homeric hymns associated the epithet `` Delphinius '' with dolphins . He was worshipped as Acraephius ( ; , Akraiphios , literally `` Acraephian '' ) or Acraephiaeus ( ; , Akraiphiaios , literally `` Acraephian '' ) in the Boeotian town of Acraephia ( ) , reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus ; and as Smintheus ( ; , Smintheus , `` Sminthian '' —that is , `` of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe '' ) . near the Troad town of Hamaxitus . The epithet `` Smintheus '' has historically been confused with , `` mouse '' , in association with Apollo 's role as a god of disease . For this he was also known as Parnopius ( ; , Parnopios , from , `` locust '' ) and to the Romans as Culicarius ( ; from Latin culicārius , `` of midges '' ) . In Apollo 's role as a healer , his appellations included Acesius ( ; , Akesios , from , `` healing '' ) , Acestor ( ; , Akestōr , literally `` healer '' ) , Paean ( ; , Paiān , from , `` to touch '' ) , and Iatrus ( ; , Iātros , literally `` physician '' ) . Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis , where he had a temple in the agora . The Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus ( ; literally `` physician '' in Latin ) in this respect . A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome , probably next to the temple of Bellona . As a protector and founder , Apollo had the epithets Alexicacus ( ; , Alexikakos , literally `` warding off evil '' ) , Apotropaeus ( ; , Apotropaios , from , `` to avert '' ) , and Epicurius ( ; , Epikourios , from , `` to aid '' ) , and Archegetes ( ; , Arkhēgetēs , literally `` founder '' ) , Clarius ( ; , Klārios , from Doric , `` allotted lot '' ) , and Genetor ( ; , Genetōr , literally `` ancestor '' ) . To the Romans , he was known in this capacity as Averruncus ( ; from Latin āverruncare , `` to avert '' ) . He was also called Agyieus ( ; , Aguīeus , from , `` street '' ) for his role in protecting roads and homes ; and Nomius ( ; , Nomios , literally `` pastoral '' ) and Nymphegetes ( ; , Numphēgetēs , from , `` Nymph '' , and , `` leader '' ) for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life . In his role as god of prophecy and truth , Apollo had the epithets Manticus ( ; , Mantikos , literally `` prophetic '' ) , Leschenorius ( ; , Leskhēnorios , from , `` converser '' ) , and Loxias ( ; , Loxias , from , `` to say '' ) . The epithet `` Loxias '' has historically been associated with , `` ambiguous '' . In this respect , the Romans called him Coelispex ( ; from Latin coelum , `` sky '' , and specere , `` to look at '' ) . The epithet Iatromantis ( ; , Iātromantis , from , `` physician '' , and , `` prophet '' ) refers to both his role as a god of healing and of prophecy . As god of music and arts , Apollo had the epithet Musagetes ( ; Doric , Mousāgetās ) or Musegetes ( ; , Mousēgetēs , from , `` Muse '' , and , `` leader '' ) . As a god of archery , Apollo was known as Aphetor ( ; , Aphētōr , from , `` to let loose '' ) or Aphetorus ( ; , Aphētoros , of the same origin ) , Argyrotoxus ( ; , Argyrotoxos , literally `` with silver bow '' ) , Hecaërgus ( ; , Hekaergos , literally `` far-shooting '' ) , and Hecebolus ( ; , Hekēbolos , literally `` far-shooting '' ) . The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens ( ; `` bow-carrying '' ) . Apollo was called Ismenius ( ; , Ismēnios , literally `` of Ismenus '' ) after Ismenus , the son of Amphion and Niobe , whom he struck with an arrow . Celtic epithets and cult titles Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire . In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god . He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character . * Apollo Atepomarus ( `` the great horseman '' or `` possessing a great horse '' ) . Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières ( Indre ) . Horses were , in the Celtic world , closely linked to the sun . * Apollo Belenus ( 'bright ' or 'brilliant ' ) . This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul , Northern Italy and Noricum ( part of modern Austria ) . Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god . * Apollo Cunomaglus ( 'hound lord ' ) . A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub , Wiltshire . May have been a god of healing . Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god . * Apollo Grannus . Grannus was a healing spring god , later equated with Apollo . * Apollo Maponus . A god known from inscriptions in Britain . This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus . * Apollo Moritasgus ( 'masses of sea water ' ) . An epithet for Apollo at Alesia , where he was worshipped as god of healing and , possibly , of physicians . * Apollo Vindonnus ( 'clear light ' ) . Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois , near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy . He was a god of healing , especially of the eyes . * Apollo Virotutis ( 'benefactor of mankind ? ' ) . Apollo Virotutis was worshipped , among other places , at Fins d'Annecy ( Haute-Savoie ) and at Jublains ( Maine-et-Loire ) . Origins The cult centers of Apollo in Greece , Delphi and Delos , date from the 8th century BCE . The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis , Apollo 's twin sister . At Delphi , Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho . For the Greeks , Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods . In archaic Greece he was the prophet , the oracular god who in older times was connected with `` healing '' . In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music , but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil . Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship , which he termed `` a Dorian-northwest Greek component , a Cretan-Minoan component , and a Syro-Hittite component . '' From his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of `` symbols and omina '' ( σημεία και τέρατα : semeia kai terata ) , and of the observation of the omens of the days . The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia . The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning . The Greeks created the legalism , the supervision of the orders of the gods , and the demand for moderation and harmony . Apollo became the god of shining youth , the protector of music , spiritual-life , moderation and perceptible order . The improvement of the old Anatolian god , and his elevation to an intellectual sphere , may be considered an achievement of the Greek people . Healer and god-protector from evil The function of Apollo as a `` healer '' is connected with Paean ( ) , the physician of the Gods in the Iliad , who seems to come from a more primitive religion . Paeοn is probably connected with the Mycenean pa-ja-wo-ne ( Linear B : ) , At Google Books . but this is not certain . He did not have a separate cult , but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease . Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song `` paean '' ( ) . The magicians were also called `` seer-doctors '' ( ) , and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles . In the Iliad , Apollo is the healer under the gods , but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows , similar to the function of the terrible Vedic god of disease Rudra . He sends a terrible plague ( ) to the Achaeans . The god who sends a disease can also prevent from it ; therefore , when it stops , they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil . When the oath of his priest appeases , they pray and with a song they call their own god , the beautiful Paean . Some common epithets of Apollo as a healer are `` paion '' ( , literally `` healer '' or `` helper '' ) `` epikourios '' ( , `` help '' ) , `` oulios '' ( , `` healed wound '' , also a `` scar '' ) and `` loimios '' ( , `` plague '' ) . In classical times , his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil , and was therefore called `` apotropaios '' ( , `` divert '' , `` deter '' , `` avert '' ) and `` alexikakos '' ( from v. + n. , `` defend from evil '' ) . In later writers , the word , usually spelled `` Paean '' , becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing . Homer illustrated Paeon the god , and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph . Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo , and afterwards to other gods : to Dionysus , to Apollo Helios , to Apollo 's son Asclepius the healer . About the 4th century BCE , the paean became merely a formula of adulation ; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune , or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered . It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music . Apollo 's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory ; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle , when a fleet left the harbour , and also after a victory had been won . Dorian origin The connection with Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars , but it can explain only the Doric type of the name , which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word `` pella '' ( Pella ) , stone . Stones played an important part in the cult of the god , especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi ( Omphalos ) . The `` Homeric hymn '' represents Apollo as a Northern intruder . His arrival must have occurred during the `` Dark Ages '' that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization , and his conflict with Gaia ( Mother Earth ) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python . The earth deity had power over the ghostly world , and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle . The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated . A female dragon named Delphyne ( , `` womb '' ) , who is obviously connected with Delphi and Apollo Delphinios , and a male serpent Typhon ( , `` to smoke '' ) , the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy , who the narrators confused with Python . Python was the good daemon ( ἀγαθὸς δαίμων ) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion , but she was represented as a dragon , as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East . Apollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows . The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings , or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology . In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader ( , `` hegemon '' ) of the nymphs , who had similar functions with the Nordic Elves . The `` elf-shot '' originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves , but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people , and also for healing rituals . The Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo . The terrible god is called `` The Archer '' , and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva . Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows , but he was able to free people of them , and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god . However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens , exorcisms , and with the oracular cult . Minoan origin It seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean ages . In historical times , the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden , `` the double-axe men '' , which indicates Minoan origin . The double-axe , labrys , was the holy symbol of the Cretan labyrinth . The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi , where they evidently transferred their religious practices . Apollo Delphinios was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands , and his name indicates his connection with Delphi and the holy serpent Delphyne ( `` womb '' ) . Apollo 's sister Artemis , who was the Greek goddess of hunting , is identified with Britomartis ( Diktynna ) , the Minoan `` Mistress of the animals '' . In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the `` Mister of the animals '' , a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute . His original name is unknown , but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo , who stood by the virgin `` Mistress of the Animals '' , becoming her brother . The old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood , and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple . This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries , according to the local tradition . In that regard , the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolian origin , with her ecstatic art , looks unrelated to the oracle itself . However , the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves , which seem to be confirmed by recent studies . Plato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women , obsessed by `` mania '' ( , `` frenzy '' ) , a Greek word he connected with mantis ( , `` prophet '' ) . Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC . Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC , there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages . It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece . Anatolian origin A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship . The name of Apollo 's mother Leto has Lydian origin , and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor . The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia , which is the origin of Sibyl , and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines . Omens , symbols , purifications , and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts , and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites . In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain `` purification '' . A similar story is mentioned by Plutarch . He writes that the Cretan seer Epimenides purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae , and that the seer 's expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state . The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia , and proves , together with the Homeric hymn , that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times . It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece , and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia . Homer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans , fighting against the Achaeans , during the Trojan War . He is pictured as a terrible god , less trusted by the Greeks than other gods . The god seems to be related to Appaliunas , a tutelary god of Wilusa ( Troy ) in Asia Minor , but the word is not complete . The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo . The Greeks gave to him the name agyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil , and his symbol was a tapered stone or column . However , while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon , all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month , and the emphasis given to that day ( sibutu ) indicates a Babylonian origin . The Late Bronze Age ( from 1700 to 1200 BCE ) Hittite and Hurrian Aplu was a god of plague , invoked during plague years . Here we have an apotropaic situation , where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it . Aplu , meaning the son of , was a title given to the god Nergal , who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash . Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god ( ) who brings death and disease with his arrows , but who can also heal , possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods . In Iliad , his priest prays to Apollo Smintheus , the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats . All these functions , including the function of the healer-god Paean , who seems to have Mycenean origin , are fused in the cult of Apollo . Oracular cult Unusually among the Olympic deities , Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence : Delos and Delphi . In cult practice , Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo ( the Apollo of Delphi ) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality . Apollo 's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced , about 650 BCE . Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period , and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity . Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites . In the 2nd and 3rd century CE , those at Didyma and Clarus pronounced the so-called `` theological oracles '' , in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing , highest deity . `` In the 3rd century , Apollo fell silent . Julian the Apostate (

bb_3822--Apollo.txt

What hero from Greek mythology was killed by a discus thrown by Apollo, who then named a flower after him, made from his spilled blood?

The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed inland body of water on Earth by area , variously classed as the world 's largest lake or a full-fledged sea . It is in an endorheic basin ( it has no outflows ) located between Europe and Asia . It is bounded to the northeast by Kazakhstan , to the northwest by Russia , to the west by Azerbaijan , to the south by Iran , and to the southeast by Turkmenistan . The Caspian Sea lies to the east of the Caucasus Mountains and to the west of the vast steppe of Central Asia . Its northern part , the Caspian Depression , is one of the lowest points on Earth . The ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived the Caspian Sea as an ocean , probably because of its saltiness and large size . The sea has a surface area of ( not including its detached lagoon of Garabogazköl Aylagy ) and a volume of . It has a salinity of approximately 1.2 % ( 12 g/l ) , about a third of the salinity of most seawater . Etymology The word Caspian is derived from the name of the Caspi , an ancient people who lived to the southwest of the sea in Transcaucasia . Strabo wrote that `` to the country of the Albanians belongs also the territory called Caspiane , which was named after the Caspian tribe , as was also the sea ; but the tribe has now disappeared '' . Moreover , the Caspian Gates , which is the name of a region in Iran 's Tehran province , possibly indicates that they migrated to the south of the sea . The Iranian city of Qazvin shares the root of its name with that of the sea . In fact , the traditional Arabic name for the sea itself is Bahr al-Qazwin ( Sea of Qazvin ) . In classical antiquity among Greeks and Persians it was called the Hyrcanian Ocean . In Persian antiquity , as well as in modern Iran , it is known as the , Daryā-e Khazar ; it is also sometimes referred to as Mazandaran Sea ( ) in Iran . Ancient Arabic sources refer to it as Baḥr Gīlān ( بحر گیلان ) meaning `` the Gilan Sea '' . Turkic languages refer to the lake as Khazar Sea . In Turkmen , the name is , in Azeri , it is , and in modern Turkish , it is . In all these cases , the second word simply means `` sea '' , and the first word refers to the historical Khazars who had a large empire based to the north of the Caspian Sea between the 7th and 10th centuries . An exception is Kazakh , where it is called , Kaspiy teñizi ( Caspian Sea ) . Old Russian sources call it the Khvalyn or Khvalis Sea ( Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море ) after the name of Khwarezmia . In modern Russian , it is called , Kaspiyskoye more . Physical characteristics Formation The Caspian Sea , like the Aral Sea , Black Sea , and Lake Urmia , is a remnant of the ancient Paratethys Sea . It became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to tectonic uplift and a fall in sea level . During warm and dry climatic periods , the landlocked sea almost dried up , depositing evaporitic sediments like halite that were covered by wind-blown deposits and were sealed off as an evaporite sink when cool , wet climates refilled the basin . ( Comparable evaporite beds underlie the Mediterranean . ) Due to the current inflow of fresh water , the Caspian Sea is a freshwater lake in its northern portions . It is more saline on the Iranian shore , where the catchment basin contributes little flow . Currently , the mean salinity of the Caspian is one third that of Earth 's oceans . The Garabogazköl embayment , which dried up when water flow from the main body of the Caspian was blocked in the 1980s but has since been restored , routinely exceeds oceanic salinity by a factor of 10 . Geography The Caspian Sea is the largest inland body of water in the world and accounts for 40 to 44 % of the total lacustrine waters of the world . The coastlines of the Caspian are shared by Azerbaijan , Iran , Kazakhstan , Russia , and Turkmenistan . The Caspian is divided into three distinct physical regions : the Northern , Middle , and Southern Caspian . The Northern–Middle boundary is the Mangyshlak Threshold , which runs through Chechen Island and Cape Tiub-Karagan . The Middle–Southern boundary is the Apsheron Threshold , a sill of tectonic origin between the Eurasian continent and an oceanic remnant , that runs through Zhiloi Island and Cape Kuuli . The Garabogazköl Bay is the saline eastern inlet of the Caspian , which is part of Turkmenistan and at times has been a lake in its own right due to the isthmus that cuts it off from the Caspian . Differences between the three regions are dramatic . The Northern Caspian only includes the Caspian shelf , and is very shallow ; it accounts for less than 1 % of the total water volume with an average depth of only 5 - . The sea noticeably drops off towards the Middle Caspian , where the average depth is 190 m. The Southern Caspian is the deepest , with oceanic depths of over 1000 m , greatly exceeding the depth of other regional seas , such as the Persian Gulf . The Middle and Southern Caspian account for 33 % and 66 % of the total water volume , respectively . The northern portion of the Caspian Sea typically freezes in the winter , and in the coldest winters ice forms in the south as well . Over 130 rivers provide inflow to the Caspian , with the Volga River being the largest . A second affluent , the Ural River , flows in from the north , and the Kura River flows into the sea from the west . In the past , the Amu Darya ( Oxus ) of Central Asia in the east often changed course to empty into the Caspian through a now-desiccated riverbed called the Uzboy River , as did the Syr Darya farther north . The Caspian also has several small islands ; they are primarily located in the north and have a collective land area of roughly 2000 km2 . Adjacent to the North Caspian is the Caspian Depression , a low-lying region 27 m below sea level . The Central Asian steppes stretch across the northeast coast , while the Caucasus mountains hug the western shore . The biomes to both the north and east are characterized by cold , continental deserts . Conversely , the climate to the southwest and south are generally warm with uneven elevation due to a mix of highlands and mountain ranges ; the drastic changes in climate alongside the Caspian have led to a great deal of biodiversity in the region . The Caspian Sea has numerous islands throughout , all of them near the coasts ; none in the deeper parts of the sea . Ogurja Ada is the largest island . The island is 37 km long , with gazelles roaming freely on it . In the North Caspian , the majority of the islands are small and uninhabited , like the Tyuleniy Archipelago , an Important Bird Area ( IBA ) , although some of them have human settlements . Hydrology The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and lakes . It is often listed as the world 's largest lake , although it is not a freshwater lake . It contains about 3.5 times more water , by volume , than all five of North America 's Great Lakes combined . The Caspian was once part of the Tethys Ocean , but became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago due to plate tectonics . The Volga River ( about 80 % of the inflow ) and the Ural River discharge into the Caspian Sea , but it has no natural outflow other than by evaporation . Thus the Caspian ecosystem is a closed basin , with its own sea level history that is independent of the eustatic level of the world 's oceans . The level of the Caspian has fallen and risen , often rapidly , many times over the centuries . Some Russian historians claim that a medieval rising of the Caspian , perhaps caused by the Amu Darya changing its inflow to the Caspian from the 13th century to the 16th century , caused the coastal towns of Khazaria , such as Atil , to flood . In 2004 , the water level was 28 m ( 92 ft ) below sea level . Over the centuries , Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga , which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin . Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior , and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic Oscillation . Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic thousands of miles to the northwest . The last short-term sea-level cycle started with a sea-level fall of 3 m from 1929 to 1977 , followed by a rise of 3 m from 1977 until 1995 . Since then smaller oscillations have taken place . Environmental degradation The Volga River , the largest in Europe , drains 20 % of the European land area and is the source of 80 % of the Caspian 's inflow . Its lower reaches are heavily developed with numerous unregulated releases of chemical and biological pollutants . Although existing data are sparse and of questionable quality , there is ample evidence to suggest that the Volga is one of the principal sources of transboundary contaminants into the Caspian . The magnitude of fossil fuel extraction and transport activity in the Caspian also poses a risk to the environment . The island of Vulf off Baku , for example , has suffered ecological damage as a result of the petrochemical industry ; this has significantly decreased the number of species of marine birds in the area . Existing and planned oil and gas pipelines under the sea further increase the potential threat to the environment . Nature Fauna Sturgeons , including the beluga sturgeon , the largest freshwater fish in the world , inhabit the Caspian Sea in great numbers and yield roe ( eggs ) that are processed into caviar . Overfishing has depleted a number of the historic fisheries including the economic exhaustion of the tuna fishery . In recent years , overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population to the point that environmentalists advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers . The high price of sturgeon caviar , however , allows fishermen to afford bribes to ensure the authorities look the other way , making regulations in many locations ineffective . Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks , since it targets reproductive females . Reptiles native to the sea include spur-thighed tortoise ( Testudo graeca buxtoni ) and Horsfield 's tortoise . The Caspian turtle ( Mauremys caspica ) , although found in neighbouring areas , is a wholly freshwater species . The zebra mussel and the common carp are native to the Caspian and Black Seas , but have become invasive species elsewhere , when introduced . The area has given its name to several species , including the Caspian gull and the Caspian tern . The Caspian seal ( Pusa caspica ) is the only aquatic mammal and is endemic to the Caspian Sea , being one of very few seal species that live in inland waters , but is different from those inhabiting freshwaters due to the hydrological environment of the Caspian Sea . There are several species and subspecies of fish endemic to the Caspian Sea , including the kutum ( also known as the Caspian white fish ) , Caspian marine shad , Caspian roach , Caspian bream ( some report that the bream occurring in the Aral Sea is the same subspecies ) , and a Caspian `` salmon '' ( a subspecies of trout , Salmo trutta caspiensis ) , which is critically endangered . Archeological studies of Gobustan petroglyphs indicate that there once had been dolphins and porpoises , or a certain species of beaked whales , and a whaling scene indicates large baleen whales likely being present in the Caspian Sea at least until the Quaternary period . Although the rock art on Kichikdash Mountain , assumed to be of a dolphin or of a beaked whale , might instead represent the famous beluga sturgeon due to its size ( 430 cm in length ) , fossil records suggest certain ancestors of modern dolphins and whales , such as Macrokentriodon morani ( bottlenose dolphins ) and Balaenoptera sibbaldina ( blue whales ) , were presumably larger than their present descendants . From the same artworks , auks such as Brunnich ’ s guillemot could also have been in the sea ; the existence of current endemic , oceanic species and these petroglyphs suggests marine inflow between the current Caspian Sea and the Arctic Ocean , the North Sea , or the Black Sea . Flora Many rare and endemic plant species of Russia are associated with the tidal areas of the Volga delta and riparian forests of the Samur River delta . The shoreline is also a unique refuge for plants adapted to the loose sands of the Central Asian Deserts . The principal limiting factors to successful establishment of plant species are hydrological imbalances within the surrounding deltas , water pollution , and various land reclamation activities . The water level change within the Caspian Sea is an indirect reason for which plants may not get established . This affects aquatic plants of the Volga delta , such as Aldrovanda vesiculosa and the native Nelumbo caspica . About 11 plant species are found in the Samur River delta , including the unique liana forests that date back to the Tertiary period . The rising level of the Caspian Sea between 1994–96 reduced the number of habitats for rare species of aquatic vegetation . This has been attributed to a general lack of seeding material in newly formed coastal lagoons and water bodies . History The earliest hominid remains found around the Caspian Sea are from Dmanisi dating back to around 1.8 Ma and yielded a number of skeletal remains of Homo erectus or Homo ergaster . More later evidence for human occupation of the region come from a number of caves in Georgia and Azerbaijan such as Kudaro and Azykh Caves . There is evidence for Lower Palaeolithic human occupation south of the Caspian from western Alburz . These are Ganj Par and Darband Cave sites . Neanderthal remains also have been discovered at a cave site in Georgia . Discoveries in the Huto cave and the adjacent Kamarband cave , near the town of Behshahr , Mazandaran south of the Caspian in Iran , suggest human habitation of the area as early as 11,000 years ago . The Caspian area is rich in energy resources . Wells were being dug in the region as early as the 10th century . [ http : //www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/42_folder/42_articles/42_socarkhoshbakht.html The Development of the Oil and Gas Industry in Azerbaijan ] SOCAR By the 16th century , Europeans were aware of the rich oil and gas deposits around the area . English traders Thomas Bannister and Jeffrey Duckett described the area around Baku as `` a strange thing to behold , for there issueth out of the ground a marvelous quantity of oil , which serveth all the country to burn in their houses . This oil is black and is called nefte . There is also by the town of Baku , another kind of oil which is white and very precious ( i.e. , petroleum ) . `` [ http : //www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/63_folder/63_articles/63_adams.html Back to the Future : Britain , Baku Oil and the Cycle of History ] SOCAR In the 18th century , during the rule of Peter I the Great , Fedor I. Soimonov , hydrographer and pioneering explorer of the Caspian Sea charted the until then little known body of water . Soimonov drew a set of four maps and wrote the 'Pilot of the Caspian Sea ' , the first report and modern maps of the Caspian , that were published in 1720 by the Russian Academy of Sciences . Today , oil and gas platforms are abounding along the edges of the sea . Cities Ancient * Hyrcania , ancient state in the north of Iran * Anzali , Gilan Province of Iran * Astara , Gilan Province of Iran * Astarabad , Mazandaran Province of Iran * Tamisheh , Mazandaran Province of Iran * Atil , Khazaria * Khazaran * Baku , Azerbaijan * Derbent , Dagestan , Russia * Xacitarxan , modern-day Astrakhan Modern * Iran : * * Ali Abad * * Astaneh-ye Ashrafiyeh * * Astara * * Babolsar * * Bandar Anzali * * Bandar-e-gaz * * Bandar Torkaman * * Behshahr * * Chaloos * * Fenderesk * * Gomishan * * Gonbad-e Kavus * * Gorgan * * Jooybar * * Kordkuy * * Lahijan * * Langrud * * MahmudAbad * * Neka * * Nowshahr * * Nur * * Ramsar * * Rasht * * Rudbar * * Rudsar * * Sari * * Tonekabon * Azerbaijan : * * Astara * * Baku * * Gobustan * * Khudat * * Khachmaz * * Lankaran * * Masalli * * Nabran * * Neftchala * * Shabran * * Siyazan * * Oil Rocks * * Sumqayit * Kazakhstan : * * Atyrau ( formerly Guriev ) * * Aqtau ( formerly Shevchenko ) * Russia : * * Astrakhan * * Dagestanskiye Ogni * * Derbent * * Izberbash * * Kaspiysk * * Makhachkala * Turkmenistan : * * Türkmenbaşy ( formerly Krasnovodsk ) * * Hazar ( formerly Çeleken ) * * Esenguly * * Garabogaz ( formerly Bekdaş ) Oil extraction The world 's first offshore wells and machine-drilled wells were made in Bibi-Heybat Bay , near Baku , Azerbaijan . In 1873 , exploration and development of oil began in some of the largest fields known to exist in the world at that time on the Absheron peninsula near the villages of Balakhanli , Sabunchi , Ramana and Bibi Heybat . Total recoverable reserves were more than 500 million tons . By 1900 , Baku had more than 3,000 oil wells , 2,000 of which were producing at industrial levels . By the end of the 19th century , Baku became known as the `` black gold capital '' , and many skilled workers and specialists flocked to the city . By the beginning of the 20th century , Baku was the centre of international oil industry . In 1920 , when the Bolsheviks captured Azerbaijan , all private property – including oil wells and factories – was confiscated . Afterwards , the republic 's entire oil industry came under the control of the Soviet Union . By 1941 , Azerbaijan was producing a record 23.5 million tons of oil , and the Baku region supplied nearly 72 % of all oil extracted in the entire USSR . In 1994 , the `` Contract of the Century '' was signed , signaling the start of major international development of the Baku oil fields . The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline , a major pipeline allowing Azerbaijan oil to flow straight to the Turkish Mediterranean port of Ceyhan , opened in 2006 . Political issues Many of the islands along the Azerbaijani coast continue to hold significant geopolitical and economic importance because of the potential oil reserves found nearby . Bulla Island , Pirallahı Island , and Nargin , which was used as a former Soviet base and is the largest island in the Baku bay , all hold oil reserves . The collapse of the USSR and subsequent opening of the region has led to an intense investment and development scramble by international oil companies . In 1998 , Dick Cheney commented that `` I ca n't think of a time when we 've had a region emerge as suddenly to become as strategically significant as the Caspian . '' A key problem to further development in the region is the status of the Caspian Sea and the establishment of the water boundaries among the five littoral states . The current disputes along Azerbaijan 's maritime borders with Turkmenistan and Iran could potentially affect future development plans . Much controversy currently exists over the proposed Trans-Caspian oil and gas pipelines . These projects would allow Western markets easier access to Kazakh oil and , potentially , Uzbek and Turkmen gas as well . Russia officially opposes the project on environmental grounds . However , analysts note that the pipelines would bypass Russia completely , thereby denying the country valuable transit fees , as well as destroying its current monopoly on westward-bound hydrocarbon exports from the region . Recently , both Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have expressed their support for the Trans-Caspian Pipeline . U.S. diplomatic cables disclosed by WikiLeaks revealed that BP covered up a gas leak and blowout incident in September 2008 at an operating gas field in the Azeri-Chirag-Guneshi area of the Azerbaijan Caspian Sea . Territorial status , negotiations related to the demarcation of the Caspian Sea had been going on for nearly a decade among the states bordering the Caspian – Azerbaijan , Russia , Kazakhstan , Turkmenistan , and Iran . The status of the Caspian Sea is the key problem . Access to mineral resources ( oil and natural gas ) , access for fishing , and access to international waters ( through Russia 's Volga river and the canals connecting it to the Black Sea and Baltic Sea ) all depend upon the outcomes of negotiations . Access to the Volga River is particularly important for the landlocked states of Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , and Turkmenistan . This concerns Russia , because the potential traffic would utilise its inland waterways . If a body of water is labeled as a sea , then there would be some precedents and international treaties obliging the granting of access permits to foreign vessels . If a body of water is labeled merely as a lake , then there are no such obligations . Environmental issues are also somewhat connected to the status and borders issue . All five Caspian littoral states maintain naval forces on the sea . According to a treaty signed between Iran and the Soviet Union , the Caspian Sea is technically a lake and was divided into two sectors ( Iranian and Soviet ) , but the resources ( then mainly fish ) were commonly shared . The line between the two sectors was considered an international border in a common lake , like Lake Albert . The Soviet sector was sub-divided into the four littoral republics ' administrative sectors . Russia , Kazakhstan , and Azerbaijan have bilateral agreements with each other based on median lines . Because of their use by the three nations , median lines seem to be the most likely method of delineating territory in future agreements . However , Iran insists on a single , multilateral agreement between the five nations ( as this is the only way for it to achieve a one-fifth share of the sea ) . Azerbaijan is at odds with Iran over some oil fields that both states claim . Occasionally , Iranian patrol boats have fired at vessels sent by Azerbaijan for exploration into the disputed region . There are similar tensions between Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan ( the latter claims that the former has pumped more oil than agreed from a field , recognized by both parties as shared ) . The Caspian littoral states ' meeting in 2007 signed an agreement that bars any ship not flying the national flag of a littoral state from entering the sea . Cross-border inflow UNECE recognizes several rivers that cross international borders which flow into the Caspian Sea . These are : Transport Although the Caspian Sea is endorheic , its main tributary , the Volga , is connected by important shipping canals with the Don River ( and thus the Black Sea ) and with the Baltic Sea , with branch canals to Northern Dvina and to the White Sea . Another Caspian tributary , the Kuma River , is connected by an irrigation canal with the Don basin as well . Several scheduled ferry services ( including train ferries ) operate on the Caspian Sea , including : * a line between Türkmenbaşy , Turkmenistan ( formerly Krasnovodsk ) and Baku . * a line between Baku and Aktau . * several lines between cities in Iran and Russia . The ferries are mostly used for cargo , only the Baku – Aktau and Baku – Türkmenbaşy routes accept passengers . Canals As an endorheic basin , the Caspian Sea basin has no natural connection with the ocean . Since the medieval period , traders reached the Caspian via a number of portages that connected the Volga and its tributaries with the Don ( which flows into the Sea of Azov ) and various rivers that flow into the Baltic . Primitive canals connecting the Volga Basin with the Baltic have been constructed as early as the early 18th century ; since then , a number of canal projects have been completed . The two modern canal systems connecting the Volga basin with the ocean are the Volga–Baltic Waterway and the Volga–Don Canal . The proposed Pechora-Kama Canal was a project that was widely discussed between the 1930s and 1980s . Shipping was a secondary consideration ; its main goal was to redirect some of the water of the Pechora River ( which flows into the Arctic Ocean ) via the Kama into the Volga . The goals were both irrigation and stabilizing the water level in the Caspian , which was thought to be falling dangerously fast at the time . In 1971 some construction experiments were conducted using nuclear explosions . In June 2007 , in order to boost his oil-rich country 's access to markets , Kazakhstan 's President Nursultan Nazarbaev proposed a 700 km link between the Caspian and Black seas . It is hoped that the `` Eurasia Canal '' ( Manych Ship Canal ) would transform landlocked Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries into maritime states , enabling them to significantly increase trade volume . Although the canal would traverse Russian territory , it would benefit Kazakhstan through its Caspian Sea ports . The most likely route for the canal , the officials at the Committee on Water Resources at Kazakhstan 's Agriculture Ministry say , would follow the Kuma-Manych Depression , where currently a chain of rivers and lakes is already connected by an irrigation canal ( Kuma-Manych Canal ) . Upgrading the Volga–Don Canal would be another option .

qw_16389--Caspian_Sea.txt

Which city is sited on the Absheron Peninsula which juts into the Caspian Sea?

Punchestown Racecourse is located in the parish of Eadestown , between the R410 and R411 regional roads near Naas , County Kildare , in Ireland . It is known as the home of Irish Jumps Racing and plays host to the annual Punchestown Irish National Hunt Festival . The racecourse itself is right handed with an undulating hurdle and steeplechase track . The hurdle course is one mile six furlongs in distance while the chase course is 2 miles . Punchestown Racecourse also has the only cross country banks course in Ireland . As well as horse racing , Punchestown hosts several music events , including the annual Oxegen festival , while AC/DC , Bon Jovi and Eminem are among the artists to have played sold out concerts on the racecourse . In 1982 U2 played to over 16,000 people supported by Phil Lynott , Rory Gallagher and Simple Minds . this was part of Hot Press fifth Anniversary . Dick O'Sullivan has been General Manager since 2003 . Punchestown Festival The Punchestown Festival is the major horse racing festival of the Irish National Hunt Season and is usually held annually in April . The Punchestown Festival is held over five days , between Tuesday and Saturday inclusive . It is seen by many as the Irish version of the Cheltenham Festival and is run in a very similar format . The major races at the Festival are the Champion Chase , Ryanair Novice Chase , Champion Hurdle , World Series Hurdle , Herald Champion Novice Hurdle , Tattersalls Ireland Champion Novice Hurdle , Growise Champion Novice Chase , Champion Four Year Old Hurdle , Champion INH Flat Race and the Punchestown Gold Cup . Punchestown is also the home of Ireland 's best known International Three Day Event . Run under the title of `` Punchestown International Three Day Event and Horse Show , '' the annual event incorporates a CCI * * * Three Day Event , National Showjumping and Showing as well as a Young Event Horse Class . Punchestown hosted the European Eventing Championships in 1991 and 2003 . The 2008 event was cancelled at an early stage due to problems with the ground . History Punchestown Races were reorganised and reconstituted as `` Kildare and National Hunt Steeplechases '' in 1861 . The first day of the 1868 meeting attracted 1 spectator . Notable races Music events As well as horse racing , Punchestown is a noted venue for its music festivals . These include Creamfields - held in 2000 , 2001 and 2002 ; the Ozzfest - a few times ; Witnness - held in 2000 , 2001 , 2002 and 2003 ; and the current favourite Oxegen held there each year since 2004 . Maximum capacity for concerts is usually 80,000 people . Eminem played two dates there in 2003 , selling out both . They included his first ever Irish concert on 26 June 2003 . He did not return to Ireland again until 2010 when he topped the bill at Oxegen 2010 , also held at Punchestown Racecourse . American rock band Bon Jovi played there on Saturday 7 June 2008 . Australian rock band AC/DC played there on 28 June 2009 , in front of 69,354 people . The concert was controversial , with long queues , lack of lighting at exits and too few stewards reported , barriers being pushed over and fans , forced into walking 10 kilometres to the concert , later expressing their rage against organisers MCD Productions for failing to ensure roads were clear . Scouting Jamboree 2008 Punchestown was the site of Jamboree 2008 , Scouting Ireland 's first national Scout Jamboree from August 2–10 , 2008 . Bad weather forced the cancellation of visitors ' day , with those who were to come being ordered to stay away . Thousands of people from around the world attempted to break a world hand-shaking record .

qb_7187--Punchestown_Racecourse.txt

Punchestown Racecourse is in which European country?

is a plant of the Brassicaceae family , which includes cabbages , horseradish , and mustard . It is also called Japanese horseradish , although horseradish is a different plant ( which is generally used as a substitute for wasabi , due to the scarcity of the wasabi plant ) . Its stem is used as a condiment and has an extremely strong pungency more akin to hot mustard than the capsaicin in a chili pepper , producing vapours that stimulate the nasal passages more than the tongue . The plant grows naturally along stream beds in mountain river valleys in Japan . The two main cultivars in the marketplace are E. japonicum 'Daruma ' and 'Mazuma ' , but there are many others . The origin of wasabi cuisine has been clarified from the oldest historical records ; it takes its rise in Nara prefecture . Uses Wasabi is generally sold either as a stem , which must be very finely grated before use , as dried powder in large quantities , or as a ready-to-use paste in tubes similar to travel toothpaste tubes . Because it grows mostly submerged , it is a common misconception to refer to the part used for wasabi as a root or sometimes even a rhizome : it is in fact the stem of the plant , with the characteristic leaf scar where old leaves fell off or were collected . In some high-end restaurants , the paste is prepared when the customer orders , and is made using a grater to grate the stem ; once the paste is prepared , it loses flavour in 15 minutes if left uncovered . In sushi preparation , sushi chefs usually put the wasabi between the fish and the rice because covering wasabi until served preserves its flavor . Fresh wasabi leaves can be eaten , having the spicy flavor of wasabi stems . Legumes ( peanuts , soybeans , or peas ) may be roasted or fried , then coated with wasabi powder mixed with sugar , salt , or oil and eaten as a crunchy snack . Surrogates Wasabi is difficult to cultivate , and that makes it quite expensive . Outside Japan , it is rare to find real wasabi plants . Due to its high cost , a common substitute is a mixture of horseradish , mustard , starch and green food coloring or spinach powder . Often packages are labeled as wasabi while the ingredients do not actually include wasabi plant . Wasabi and horseradish are similar in taste and pungency due to similar isothiocyanate levels . The primary difference between the two is color with Wasabi being naturally green . In Japan , horseradish is referred to as . In the United States , true wasabi is generally found only at specialty grocers and high-end restaurants . Chemistry The chemical in wasabi that provides for its initial pungency is the volatile allyl isothiocyanate , which is produced by hydrolysis of natural thioglucosides ( conjugates of the sugar glucose , and sulfur-containing organic compounds ) ; the hydrolysis reaction is catalyzed by myrosinase and occurs when the enzyme is released on cell rupture caused by maceration – e.g. , grating – of the plant . The same compound is responsible for the pungency of horseradish and mustard . The unique flavor of wasabi is a result of complex chemical mixtures from the broken cells of the plant , including those resulting from the hydrolysis of thioglucosides into glucose and methylthioalkyl isothiocyanates : * 6-methylthiohexyl isothiocyanate * 7-methylthioheptyl isothiocyanate * 8-methylthiooctyl isothiocyanate Research has shown that such isothiocyanates inhibit microbe growth , perhaps with implications for preserving food against spoilage and suppressing oral bacterial growth . Because the burning sensations of wasabi are not oil-based , they are short-lived compared to the effects of chili peppers , and are washed away with more food or liquid . The sensation is felt primarily in the nasal passage and can be quite painful depending on the amount consumed . Inhaling or sniffing wasabi vapor has an effect like smelling salts , a property exploited by researchers attempting to create a smoke alarm for the deaf . One deaf subject participating in a test of the prototype awoke within 10 seconds of wasabi vapor sprayed into his sleeping chamber . The 2011 Ig Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to the researchers for determining the ideal density of airborne wasabi to wake people in the event of an emergency . Nutritional information Cultivation Few places are suitable for large-scale wasabi cultivation , and cultivation is difficult even in ideal conditions . In Japan , wasabi is cultivated mainly in these regions : * Izu peninsula , in Shizuoka prefecture * Nagano prefecture including the Daio Wasabi Farm in Azumino ; a popular tourist attraction and the world 's largest commercial wasabi farm . * Iwate prefecture There are also numerous artificial cultivation facilities as far north as Hokkaido and as far south as Kyushu . As the demand for real wasabi is very high , Japan imports an amount from China , Taiwan , and New Zealand . In North America , a handful of companies and small farmers cultivate Wasabia japonica . Preparation Wasabi is often grated with a metal oroshigane , but some prefer to use a more traditional tool made of dried sharkskin with fine skin on one side and coarse skin on the other . A hand-made grater with irregular teeth can also be used . If a shark-skin grater is unavailable , ceramic is usually preferred . Etymology The two kanji characters `` '' and `` '' do not correspond to their pronunciation : as such it is an example of gikun ( meaning , not sound ) . The two characters actually refer to the mountain Asarum , as the plant 's leaves resemble those of a member of Asarum species , in addition to its ability to grow on shady hillsides . The word , in the form , appeared in 918 in The Japanese Names of Medical Herbs ( Honzō Wamyō ) . Spelled in this way , the particular kanji are used for their phonetic values only , known as ateji ( sound , not meaning – opposite of gikun ) .

bb_2843--Wasabi.txt

The Japanese condiment wasabi is produced from what part of the the wasabi plant?

Lolita is a novel by Vladimir Nabokov , written in English and published in 1955 in Paris , in 1958 in New York City , and in 1959 in London . Nabokov 's own translation of the book into Russian was published by Phaedra Publishers in New York in 1967 . The novel is notable for its controversial subject : the protagonist and unreliable narrator , a middle-aged literature professor called Humbert Humbert , is obsessed with the 12-year-old Dolores Haze , with whom he becomes sexually involved after he becomes her stepfather . `` Lolita '' is his private nickname for Dolores . Lolita quickly attained a classic status ; it is today regarded as one of the prime achievements in 20th century literature , though also among the most controversial . The novel was adapted into a film by Stanley Kubrick in 1962 , and again in 1997 by Adrian Lyne . It has also been adapted several times for the stage and has been the subject of two operas , two ballets , and an acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful Broadway musical . Its assimilation into popular culture is such that the name `` Lolita '' has been used to imply that a young girl is sexually precocious . Lolita is included on TIME magazine 's list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005 . It is also fourth on the Modern Library 's 1998 list of the 100 best novels of the 20th century , and holds a place in the Bokklubben World Library , a 2002 collection of the most celebrated books in history . Plot summary Humbert Humbert , a European literary scholar , describes the premature death of his childhood sweetheart , Annabel Leigh . He suggests his unconsummated love for her caused his fixation with nymphets ( girls aged 9–14 ) and indulges in his sexual fantasies by pretending to read a book in a public park and being aroused by nymphets playing near him , as well as by visiting a prostitute who he believes is 16 or 17 , and imagining her to be three years younger . After a misadventure when he requests a nymphet-aged girl from a pimp , Humbert marries an adult woman with childish mannerisms , Valeria , to allay suspicion . His marriage with Valeria dissolves , after she admits to having an affair with a Russian taxi driver . Humbert wants to kill her , but Valeria and the taxi driver leave before he gets the chance . After another visit to a psychiatric ward after a mental breakdown , he moves to the small New England town of Ramsdale to write . Humbert fantasizes about meeting and eventually molesting the 12-year-old daughter of an impoverished family , the McCoos , from whom he agreed to rent an apartment . Upon his arrival in Ramsdale , however , he discovers that their house has burned down . A landlady named Mrs. Charlotte Haze offers to accommodate him instead , and Humbert visits her residence out of politeness . Humbert plans to decline Charlotte 's offer until he sees her 12-year-old daughter , Dolores ( born 1935 ) , known as `` Lo , '' `` Lola , '' or `` Dolly '' . He becomes infatuated with her , in part because of her uncanny resemblance to Annabel , and agrees to stay at Charlotte 's house only to be near her daughter , whom he privately nicknames `` Lolita . '' Humbert starts a diary in which he keeps detailed descriptions of Lolita 's characteristics , along with moments that they spend together . The diary also contains hateful comments about Charlotte , along with a description of a picture in a magazine of a playwright ( Clare Quilty ) , who Lolita has a crush on and who Humbert resembles . Charlotte , Lolita , her friend Mary , and Humbert plan to go to Hourglass Lake for a picnic one Sunday . However , Mary 's mother phones to tell them that Mary is running a fever and that she ca n't go . Mrs. Haze postpones the picnic and , as a result , Lolita refuses to go to church with her . Mrs. Haze leaves for church and Humbert and Lolita are left alone . While the two sing a song , Humbert secretly ejaculates in his pants as Lolita sits on his lap . She does not notice and leaves for the movies . After returning from a lunch in town , Charlotte tells Humbert that Lolita is going to camp Thursday and she wo n't return until the next school year . That Thursday , before getting in the car , Lolita runs back into the house and kisses Humbert goodbye . As Charlotte , who has fallen in love with Humbert , drives Lolita to summer camp , the housemaid delivers a letter to Humbert from Charlotte telling him that he must either marry her or move out to avoid embarrassment . To continue living near Lolita , Humbert agrees to marry Charlotte . After finding Humbert 's diary and learning his true feelings , Charlotte confronts him , calling him a `` detestable , abominable , criminal fraud . '' As Humbert goes into the kitchen to get them drinks , Charlotte runs out of the house with the letters that she had just written , but is killed by a passing car before she can mail them . A little girl gives Humbert the letters , and he later examines them : one was to Lolita telling her they were moving , another to a boarding school in which Lolita was to be enlisted , and a third to Humbert that suggested a possible reuniting between him and Charlotte in the future . Humbert retrieves Lolita from camp , lying that Charlotte has been hospitalized , and takes Lolita to a hotel , where he plans to use a sleeping pill on Lolita and rape her while she is unconscious . As he waits for the pill to take effect , he wanders through the hotel and meets a man ( Quilty ) who inquires about Lolita . Humbert excuses himself from the strange conversation and returns to the hotel room . There , he finds that the sedative was too mild after seeing Lolita drifting in and out of sleep . He lies next to her all night , fantasizing about him and her together . However , it is she who initiates sex in the morning , showing him what she had learned at summer camp . On their way to the fake hospital that Charlotte was supposed to be staying at , Humbert tells Lolita that her mother is dead . Thereafter Lolita and Humbert drive around the country , moving from state to state and motel to motel . To keep Lolita from going to the police , Humbert tells her that if he is arrested , she will become a ward of the state and lose all her clothes and belongings . He also bribes her with food , money , or permission to attend fun events in return for sexual favors . After a year of touring North America , the two settle in another New England town , where Lolita is enrolled in a girls ' school . Humbert becomes very possessive and strict , forbidding Lolita to take part in after-school activities or to associate with boys . The headmistress of the school sees his strictness as the concern of a loving , though old-fashioned , parent . Humbert reluctantly grants Lolita permission to join the school play in exchange for more sexual favors . The play she joins is written by Mr. Clare Quilty , but Humbert does n't know it . Just before opening night , Lolita and Humbert have a ferocious argument , and Lolita runs away . Humbert searches frantically until he finds her bike next to the phone booth she was using . She brushes the phone call off and reconciles with him , saying she wants to go on another road trip with him , only this time she gets to choose where they go . As Lolita and Humbert drive westward again , Humbert becomes suspicious that someone is following them , first thinking it 's a cop and then later one of Lolita 's admirers from school . Lolita falls ill and must convalesce in a hospital , while Humbert stays in a nearby motel . The hospital staff tells Humbert in the morning that her uncle checked her out . Humbert embarks upon a frantic search to find Lolita and her abductor , retracing his steps to every hotel that they 'd been to thus far , but fails to track them . During his search , Humbert has a two-year relationship ( ending in 1952 ) with a woman named Rita , whom he describes as a `` kind , good sport '' who `` solemnly approve [ s ] '' of his search for Lolita , while knowing none of the details . Humbert receives a letter from Lolita , now 17 , who tells him that she is married , pregnant , and in desperate need of money . Humbert tracks down the address and finds Lolita , but her husband is not the man that kidnapped her . He promises to give her money in exchange for the name of the man who abducted her . She reveals that Clare Quilty checked her out of the hospital and tried to make her star in one of his pornographic films ; but expelled her upon refusal because she only wanted to be with Quilty . She worked odd jobs before meeting and marrying her husband , Dick , who knows nothing about her past . Although she looks much older now , Humbert realizes that he still loves Lolita and repeatedly asks her to leave Dick and go with him , which she refuses . He gives her $ 4,000 , which is much more than what she asked for , and then leaves . As he leaves , she smiles and shouts goodbye as if he was her own father . Humbert tracks down the dentist who knows where to find Quilty , and later kills Quilty in his own mansion . Shortly afterwards , he is arrested for driving on the wrong side of the road and running a red light . The narrative closes with Humbert 's final words to Lolita in which he wishes her well , and reveals the novel in its metafiction to be the memoirs of his life , only to be published after he and Lolita have both died . The novel 's fictional foreword states that Humbert dies of coronary thrombosis after completing the manuscript , just one or two months after getting arrested . It also states that `` Mrs. Richard F. Schiller '' ( Lolita ) died giving birth to a stillborn girl on Christmas Day , 1952 , at the age of 17 , a month after Humbert 's death on November 16 , 1952 . Character descriptions * Clarence Choate Clark , Esq . - Humbert ’ s lawyer and cousin of John Ray , Jr. , now working in the District of Columbia . He 's mentioned in the Foreword . * John Ray , Jr. , Ph.D. - Narrator of the Foreword of Lolita . He 's the cousin of Clarence Clark , who asked him to edit the memoir of Humbert Humbert . He was recently awarded the Poling Prize for the book , “ Do the Senses make Sense ? ” Ray does n't want to glorify HH , but believes that Lolita can be described by the word “ offensive '' which is `` a synonym for ‘ unusual ’ ; and a great work of art is of course always original . ” * Humbert Humbert ( H.H . ) - Lolita 's protagonist and narrator . He was born in Paris 1910 and died November 16 , 1952 of heart failure , a few days before his trial . His father was French and Austrian , a Swiss citizen , and owner of a hotel on the Riviera . His mother was English and died at a picnic by lightning when he was three . He fell in love in his teens with a girl named Annabel and her death scarred , cursing him to always love girls in that age group . After many women , he finally finds the 12-year-old girl that he loves , Lolita . He does n't become self-aware of his crimes until the end of the novel . He writes his memoir , Lolita , in a prison cell , while awaiting his trial for murdering Clare Quilty . * Annabel Leigh - Humbert 's first love when he was 13 . She was half-English , half-Dutch . She stayed at Humbert 's father 's hotel during one summer with her strict parents . She and Humbert almost had intercourse on two separate occasions , but both were interrupted . At the end of the summer , she left with her family and four months later she died of Typhus in Corfu . * Monique - H.H. ’ s 16 to 17-year-old prostitute that had intercourse with Humbert three times . Out of all the sexual events with prostitutes in his life , she brought him the most pleasure , due to her nymphic echo . He canceled their last encounter because she seemed to be getting older each time he saw her , and he wanted to preserve his memory of her in that state . * Valeria - Daughter of a Polish doctor , who treats H.H . for dizziness and tachycardia . Valeria is in her late twenties to early thirties ( Humbert 's not particularly sure due to a bad passport ) . Humbert decides to marry her because he feels like a wife would flower within him morals that he lacks and keep his sex drive under control . She acts like a little girl , which Humbert likes , however , she is still a woman and he does n't like having sex with her unless there is an extreme need . Their marriage lasts from 1935-1939 . After Humbert tells Valeria they 're moving to America , Valeria admits that she was having an affair with a taxi driver , who she runs off with . She dies in 1945 while giving childbirth . * Maximovich - A taxi driver and Valeria ’ s fling . He 's a `` stocky White Russian ex-colonel with a bushy mustache and a crew cut , '' says Humbert , “ short but broad-shouldered Maximovich seemed made of pig iron. ” He is very courteous and polite to Humbert as he takes Valeria away . Much later in life , he and Valeria move to California and participate in a well-paid , year-long experiment conducted by an American ethnologist , where they , along with other participants , had to eat bananas and dates in a constant position on all fours . Humbert was pleased by this news . * The McCoo Family - Humbert 's cousins who were going to let Humbert live with them in America after he got out of rehab to relax . Humbert was also excited to get to know their nymphet daughter . When he arrived in their small town of Ramsdale , however , he found that the McCoo 's house had been burned down and that he 'd have to live with a neighbor , Mrs. Haze . * Louise - The Haze 's housemaid . * Mrs. Haze or Charlotte Haze - Lolita 's mom . A woman in her mid-thirties with simple but not unattractive features , who resembles Marlene Dietrich and also smokes like her . She and Lolita have only lived in Ramsdale for about two years . She 's very strict with Lolita and does n't seem to like her around the house , especially with Humbert there . She sends Lolita to summer camp and proposes boarding school . Charlotte falls in love with Humbert because of his European charm , and they get married after she gives him the ultimatum to either staying and getting married or leave and never come back . She also wants to know every woman that H.H . has ever been with because she is jealous . Even after finding out Humbert is a pedophile , Charlotte explains in one of three letters that she might consider reuniting with him one day . As she runs across the road to send these letters , she is killed by a car . Charlotte appears to have always wanted to be a sophisticated European , but she was stuck in an American body and mind . * Frederick Beale , Jr. - The man that hit Charlotte with his car and killed her . He explains to Humbert that it was all her fault because she ran in front of him . * Dolores Haze ( Lolita ) - The object of Humbert 's obsession . She 's a 12-year-old nymphet , daughter of Charlotte Haze , flirty , and playful . Humbert falls in love with her at first sight in the Haze 's piazza , where she 's half-naked wearing sunglasses . She initially has a crush on Humbert . However , she goes to summer camp and almost forgets about Humbert while fooling around with a boy named Charlie . She also has a huge crush on a playwright , Clare Quilty . After Humbert picks her up from camp , she seduces Humbert at a hotel called The Enchanted Hunters . When she finds out her mother has died , she realizes she 's trapped with Humbert and goes on a road trip around the country with him . She ca n't tell the authorities about Humbert because Humbert says they 'd put her in foster home . Humbert eventually enrolls her into an all girls school to give her an education . As time goes by , she gets to know girls her own age and starts to act out , asking for more money and more freedoms in exchange for sexual favors for Humbert . She eventually escapes Humbert with Quilty , and then later marries Dick Schiller , who she gets pregnant with at the age of 17 . She dies on Christmas Day of 1952 during childbirth . Her child is a stillborn . * Mona Dahl - Another girl that goes to Lolita 's Beardsely School for Girls and is also in the play with Lolita . She appears to have a crush on Humbert whenever they interact and is said to have already been with a marine . She never gives away Lolita 's secrets to Humbert . In the Foreword , it 's revealed that many years later she is a student in Paris . * Mrs. Pratt - The Beardsely School for Girls headmistress . She explains to Humbert that Lolita appears to not be sexually developing correctly and asks that he informs her and lets her join the school 's play . * Gaston Godin - He 's a well-liked French professor at Beardsley College . He plays chess with Humbert in his room full of pictures of little boys . No one seems to notice the boys except for Humbert . Humbert does n't think he 's very smart . * Clare Quilty - He 's an American dramatist , born in Ocean City , New Jersey , 1911 . Lolita has had a crush on him for a while . His family knows her family . He is also a pornographer and asks Lolita to participate after stealing her away from Humbert . He is murdered by Humbert in his own mansion . He is known to be H.H . 's doppelganger , sophisticated and a nymphet lover alike . His importance is not revealed until the end of the book . * Rita - Humbert meets her after losing Lolita . She is a drinker and very self-conscious . She believe that one day Humbert will leave her like all men do , and after two years , he does . It says in the Foreword that she later married a proprietor of a hotel in Florida . * Ivor Quilty - Clare Quilty ’ s uncle , and a dentist . He 's always known the Haze family , which is how Clare Quilty got to know Lolita at such a young age . Humbert tricks Ivor by engaging him in small talk while appearing to be getting dental work done and immediately leaves after Ivor tells him where Clare lives . Erotic motifs and controversy Lolita is frequently described as an `` erotic novel '' , both by some critics but also in a standard reference work on literature Facts on File : Companion to the American Short Story . The Great Soviet Encyclopedia called Lolita `` an experiment in combining an erotic novel with an instructive novel of manners '' . The same description of the novel is found in Desmond Morris 's reference work The Book of Ages . A survey of books for Women 's Studies courses describes it as a `` tongue-in-cheek erotic novel '' . Books focused on the history of erotic literature such as Michael Perkins ' The Secret Record : Modern Erotic Literature also so classify Lolita . More cautious classifications have included a `` novel with erotic motifs '' or one of `` a number of works of classical erotic literature and art , and to novels that contain elements of eroticism , like ... Ulysses and Lady Chatterley 's Lover '' . However , this classification has been disputed . Malcolm Bradbury writes `` at first famous as an erotic novel , Lolita soon won its way as a literary one—a late modernist distillation of the whole crucial mythology . '' Samuel Schuman says that Nabokov `` is a surrealist , linked to Gogol , Dostoyevsky , and Kafka . Lolita is characterized by irony and sarcasm . It is not an erotic novel . '' Lance Olsen writes : `` The first 13 chapters of the text , culminating with the oft-cited scene of Lo unwittingly stretching her legs across Humbert 's excited lap ... are the only chapters suggestive of the erotic . '' Nabokov himself observes in the novel 's afterword that a few readers were `` misled . [ by the opening of the book ] ... into assuming this was going to be a lewd book ... [ expecting ] the rising succession of erotic scenes ; when these stopped , the readers stopped , too , and felt bored . '' Style and interpretation The novel is a tragicomedy narrated by Humbert , who riddles the narrative with word play and his wry observations of American culture . His humor provides an effective counterpoint to the pathos of the tragic plot . The novel 's flamboyant style is characterized by double entendres , multilingual puns , anagrams , and coinages such as nymphet , a word that has since had a life of its own and can be found in most dictionaries , and the lesser-used `` faunlet '' . The name of one of the novel 's characters , `` Vivian Darkbloom '' , is an anagram of the author 's name . Several times , the narrator begs the reader to understand that he is not proud of his rape of Lolita and is filled with remorse . At one point he listens to the sounds of children playing outdoors and is stricken with guilt at the realization that he robbed Lolita of her childhood . When he is reunited with the 17-year-old Lolita , he realizes that he still desires her , even though she no longer is the nymphet of his dreams . Most writers see Humbert as an unreliable narrator and credit Nabokov 's powers as an ironist . For Richard Rorty , in his interpretation of Lolita in Contingency , Irony , and Solidarity , Humbert is a `` monster of incuriosity . '' Nabokov himself described Humbert as `` a vain and cruel wretch '' and `` a hateful person . '' Critics have further noted that , since the novel is a first person narrative by Humbert , the novel gives very little information about what Lolita is personally like , that in effect she has been silenced by not being the book 's narrator . Nomi Tamir-Ghez writes `` Not only is Lolita 's voice silenced , her point of view , the way she sees the situation and feels about it , is rarely mentioned and can be only surmised by the reader ... since it is Humbert who tells the story ... throughout most of the novel , the reader is absorbed in Humbert 's feelings '' . Similarly Mica Howe and Sarah Appleton Aguiar write that the novel silences and objectifies Lolita . Christine Clegg notes that this is a recurring theme in criticism of the novel in the 1990s . Actor Brian Cox , who played Humbert in a 2009 one-man stage monologue based on the novel , stated that the novel is `` not about Lolita as a flesh and blood entity . It 's Lolita as a memory '' . He concluded that a stage monologue would be truer to the book than any film could possibly be . Elizabeth Janeway writing in The New York Times Book Review holds `` Humbert is every man who is driven by desire , wanting his Lolita so badly that it never occurs to him to consider her as a human being , or as anything but a dream-figment made flesh '' . Clegg sees the novel 's non-disclosure of Lolita 's feelings as directly linked to the fact that her `` real '' name is Dolores and ( in the novel but not the film ) only Humbert refers to her as Lolita . Humbert also states he has effectively `` solipsized '' Lolita early in the novel . Eric Lemay of Northwestern University writes : In 2003 , Iranian expatriate Azar Nafisi published the memoir Reading Lolita in Tehran about a covert women 's reading group . In an NPR interview Nafisi contrasts the sorrowful and seductive sides of Dolores/Lolita 's character . She notes `` Because her name is not Lolita , her real name is Dolores which as you know in Latin means dolour , so her real name is associated with sorrow and with anguish and with innocence , while Lolita becomes a sort of light-headed , seductive , and airy name . The Lolita of our novel is both of these at the same time and in our culture here today we only associate it with one aspect of that little girl and the crassest interpretation of her . '' Following Nafisi 's comments , the NPR interviewer , Madeleine Brand , lists as embodiments of the latter side of Lolita , `` the Long Island Lolita , Britney Spears , the Olsen twins , and Sue Lyon in Stanley Kubrick 's Lolita '' . For Nafisi , the essence of the novel is Humbert 's solipsism and his erasure of Lolita 's independent identity . She writes : `` Lolita was given to us as Humbert 's creature [ … ] To reinvent her , Humbert must take from Lolita her own real history and replace it with his own ... Yet she does have a past . Despite Humbert 's attempts to orphan Lolita by robbing her of her history , that past is still given to us in glimpses . '' One of the novel 's early champions , Lionel Trilling , warned in 1958 of the moral difficulty in interpreting a book with so eloquent and so self-deceived a narrator : `` we find ourselves the more shocked when we realize that , in the course of reading the novel , we have come virtually to condone the violation it presents ... we have been seduced into conniving in the violation , because we have permitted our fantasies to accept what we know to be revolting . '' A minority of critics have accepted Humbert 's version of events at face value . In 1958 , Dorothy Parker described the novel as `` the engrossing , anguished story of a man , a man of taste and culture , who can love only little girls '' and Lolita as `` a dreadful little creature , selfish , hard , vulgar , and foul-tempered '' . In 1959 , novelist Robertson Davies excused the narrator entirely , writing that the theme of Lolita is `` not the corruption of an innocent child by a cunning adult , but the exploitation of a weak adult by a corrupt child . This is no pretty theme , but it is one with which social workers , magistrates and

dpql_277--Lolita.txt

Which title character was named Dolores Haze?

The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose ( sugar ) present in the blood of a human or animal . The body naturally tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis . With some exceptions , glucose is the primary source of energy for the body 's cells , and blood lipids ( in the form of fats and oils ) are primarily a compact energy store . Glucose is transported from the intestines or liver to body cells via the bloodstream , and is made available for cell absorption via the hormone insulin , produced by the body primarily in the pancreas . Glucose levels are usually lowest in the morning , before the first meal of the day ( termed `` the fasting level '' ) , and rise after meals for an hour or two by a few millimolar . Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition . A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia ; low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia . Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes , and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation . Intake of alcohol causes an initial surge in blood sugar , and later tends to cause levels to fall . Also , certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels . Units The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels are in terms of a molar concentration , measured in mmol/L ( millimoles per litre ; or millimolar , abbreviated mM ) . In the United States , West-Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/dL ( milligrams per decilitre ) . Since the molecular weight of glucose C6H12O6 is 180 , for the measurement of glucose , the difference between the two scales is a factor of 18 , so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/dL . —— Normal values in humans Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories . Many factors affect a person 's blood sugar level . A body 's homeostatic mechanism , when operating normally , restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L ( 79.2 to 110 mg/dL ) ( as measured by a fasting blood glucose test ) . The normal blood glucose level ( tested while fasting ) for non-diabetics , should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L ( 70 to 100 mg/dL ) . The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L ( 100 mg/dL ) ; [ http : //www.faqs.org/faqs/diabetes/faq/part1/section-9.html What are mg/dl and mmol/l ? How to convert ? Glucose ? Cholesterol ? ] Advameg , Inc. however , this level fluctuates throughout the day . Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L ( 125 mg/dL ) . The blood glucose target range for diabetics , according to the American Diabetes Association , should be 5–7.2 mmol/l ( 90–130 mg/dL ) before meals , and less than 10 mmol/L ( 180 mg/dL ) after meals ( as measured by a blood glucose monitor ) . Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load , human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range . However , shortly after eating , the blood glucose level may rise , in non-diabetics , temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L ( 140 mg/dL ) or slightly more . For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control ' , the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L ( 180 mg/dL ) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L ( 70–130 mg/dL ) . The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small . In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters , a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L ( 100 mg/dL ) amounts to 5g , slightly less than two typical American restaurant sugar packets for coffee or tea . Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that , to maintain an influx of glucose into cells , enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it . Animals In general , ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals . However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids . For serum glucose in mg/dL , reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows , 44 to 81 for sheep , and 48 to 76 for goats , but 61 to 124 for cats ; 62 to 108 for dogs , 62 to 114 for horses , 66 to 116 for pigs , 75 to 155 for rabbits , and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported . A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/dL has been reported for captured mountain goats ( Oreamnos americanus ) , where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident . For beluga whales , the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/dL . For the white rhinoceros , one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/dL . For harp seals , a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [ i.e . 88 to 218 mg/dL ] has been reported ; for hooded seals , a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [ i.e . about 135 to 283 mg/dL ] has been reported . Regulation The body 's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range . It is composed of several interacting systems , of which hormone regulation is the most important . There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels : * catabolic hormones ( such as glucagon , cortisol and catecholamines ) which increase blood glucose ; * and one anabolic hormone ( insulin ) , which decreases blood glucose . Abnormality in blood sugar levels High blood sugar If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term . Long-term hyperglycemia causes many of the long-term health problems including heart disease , eye , kidney , and nerve damage . The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes . When diabetes is the cause , physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment . From the perspective the majority of patients , treatment with an old , well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest , most effective , least expensive , most comfortable route to managing the condition . Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes . Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects . Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication . In clinical and laboratory practices , many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value . This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood , postprandial ( PP ) glucose level should be higher than fasting ( F ) glucose level . The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result . Low blood sugar If blood sugar levels drop too low , a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops . Symptoms may include lethargy , impaired mental functioning ; irritability ; shaking , twitching , weakness in arm and leg muscles ; pale complexion ; sweating ; loss of consciousness . Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia ( below 40 mg/dl ) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose : confusion or unsteadiness and , in the extreme ( below 15 mg/dl ) loss of consciousness and seizures . Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia , especially in the long-term ( diabetes or pre-diabetes , obesity or overweight , hyperlipidemia , hypertension , etc . ) , it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose- especially if levels are very low- in the blood than too much , at least temporarily , because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body 's organs . This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant , regulated supply of blood sugar ( the liver and brain are examples ) . In healthy individuals , blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective , and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment , and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption ( of various causes ) , and conditions such as anorexia . Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time , both in severity and swiftness of onset . For severe cases , prompt medical assistance is essential , as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels . Glucose measurement Sample source In a fasting individual , glucose levels are comparable in arterial , venous , and capillary blood . But following meals , capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels . This is because tissue cells consume some of the glucose in the blood as it passes from arteries through the capillary bed and into the veins . Although these differences vary widely , one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose , `` the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35 % . '' Sample type Glucose is measured in whole blood , plasma or serum . Historically , blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood , but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels . Because red blood cells ( erythrocytes ) have a higher concentration of protein ( e.g. , hemoglobin ) than serum , serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood . To convert from whole-blood glucose , multiplication by 1.15 has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level . Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation . Red blood cells , for instance , do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood . Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample , with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly . Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels . At refrigerator temperatures , glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample . Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes ( i.e. , gray-top ) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis . However , these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement . Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells . To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids , particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted . Alternatively , blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes , and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein . Inattention can lead to large errors , since as little as 10 % contamination with a 5 % glucose solution ( D5W ) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/dL or more . Remember that the actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low , even in the hyperglycemic . Measurement techniques Two major methods have been used to measure glucose . The first , still in use in some places , is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced . Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties ( e.g. , urea , which can be abnormally high in uremic patients ) , this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations ( 5 to 15 mg/dL has been reported ) . The more recent technique , using enzymes specific to glucose , is less susceptible to this kind of error . The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase . In either case , the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter , and then has a blood sample applied . Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and can not be interchanged . Formerly , some test strips were read ( after timing and wiping away the blood sample ) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label . Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings , but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete . Their error rates were , in any case , much higher . More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory , using hexokinase , glucose oxidase , or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes . Urine glucose readings , however taken , are much less useful . In properly functioning kidneys , glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded . This is substantially above any normal glucose level , and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition . However , as urine is stored in the bladder , any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied . Since metabolic conditions change rapidly , as a result of any of several factors , this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition . Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable , both clinically and for home monitoring by patients . Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965 by Hans Renschler . Clinical correlation The fasting blood glucose level , which is measured after a fast of 8 hours , is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis , largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided . Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below . Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation . The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load . In addition , the glucose tolerance test , consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake , is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes . Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary , depending on laboratories , and on the methods used . Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips ( from airborne or finger borne contamination , perhaps ) or interference ( e.g. , tinting contaminants ) with light source or the light sensor . Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors , though not to others . In home use , the most important issue is not accuracy , but trend . Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10 % , there will be little consequence , as long as changes ( e.g. , due to exercise or medication adjustments ) are properly tracked . In the US , home use blood test meters must be approved by the Federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold . Finally , there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake . Infection , for instance , tends to change blood glucose levels , as does stress either physical or psychological . Exercise , especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal , will have an effect as well . In the typical person , maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective . Etymology and use of term In a physiological context , the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose , yet other sugars besides glucose are always present . Food contains several different types ( e.g. , fructose ( largely from fruits/table sugar/industrial sweeteners ) , galactose ( milk and dairy products ) , as well as several food additives such as sorbitol , xylose , maltose , etc . ) . But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system ( i.e. , that controlled by insulin secretion ) , since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation , the term has gained currency , and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike . The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field .

tc_2901--Blood_sugar.txt

What is secreted by the pancreas to regulate blood sugar levels?

Dundee ( ; ) , officially the City of Dundee , is Scotland 's fourth largest city and the 51st most populous built-up area in the United Kingdom . At the 2011 census , Dundee had a population density of 8,541.8/sq mi ( 3,298.0/km2 ) , the second highest of any Scottish city . The mid-year population estimate for 2014 is 148,260 . It lies within the eastern central Lowlands on the north bank of the Firth of Tay , which feeds into the North Sea . Under the name of Dundee City , it forms one of the 32 council areas used for local government in Scotland . Historically part of Angus , the city developed into a burgh in medieval times , and expanded rapidly in the 19th century largely due to the jute industry . This , along with its other major industries gave Dundee its epithet as city of `` jute , jam and journalism '' . Dundee 's recorded population reached a peak of 182,204 at the 1971 census . Today , Dundee is promoted as 'One City , Many Discoveries ' in honour of Dundee 's history of scientific activities and of the RRS Discovery , Robert Falcon Scott 's Antarctic exploration vessel , which was built in Dundee and is now berthed in the city harbour . Biomedical and technological industries have arrived since the 1980s , and the city now accounts for 10 % of the United Kingdom 's digital-entertainment industry . Dundee has two universities—the University of Dundee and the Abertay University . In 2014 Dundee was recognised by the United Nations as the UK 's first UNESCO City of Design for its diverse contributions to fields including medical research , comics and video games . A unique feature of Dundee is that its two professional football clubs have stadiums all but adjacent to each other . A £1 billion master plan to regenerate and to reconnect the Waterfront to the city centre which started in 2001 is expected to be completed within a 30-year period , with the Dundee Victoria & Albert Museum opening by 2018 at a cost of £80 million . History The name `` Dundee '' is made up of two parts : the common Celtic place-name element dun , meaning fort ; and a second part that may derive from a Celtic element , cognate with the Gaelic dè , meaning 'fire ' . While earlier evidence for human occupation is abundant , Dundee 's success and growth as a seaport town arguably came as a result of William the Lion 's charter , granting Dundee to his younger brother , David ( later Earl of Huntingdon ) in the late 12th century . The situation of the town and its promotion by Earl David as a trading centre led to a period of prosperity and growth . The earldom was passed down to David 's descendants , amongst whom was John Balliol . The town became a Royal Burgh on John 's coronation as king in 1292 . The town and its castle were occupied by English forces for several years during the First War of Independence and recaptured by Robert the Bruce in early 1312 . The original Burghal charters were lost during the occupation and subsequently renewed by Bruce in 1327 . The burgh suffered considerably during the conflict known as the Rough Wooing of 1543 to 1550 , and was occupied by the English forces of Andrew Dudley from 1547 . In 1548 , unable to defend the town against an advancing Scottish force , Dudley ordered that the town be burnt to the ground . In 1645 , during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , Dundee was again besieged , this time by the Royalist Marquess of Montrose . The town was finally destroyed by Parliamentarian forces led by George Monck in 1651 . The town played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Jacobite cause when John Graham of Claverhouse , 1st Viscount Dundee raised the Stuart standard on the Dundee Law in 1689 . The town was held by the Jacobites in the 1715–16 rising , and on 6 January 1716 the Jacobite claimant to the throne , James VIII and III ( the Old Pretender ) , made a public entry into the town . Many in Scotland , including many in Dundee , regarded him as the rightful king . The economy of mediaeval Dundee centred on the export of raw wool , with the production of finished textiles being a reaction to recession in the 15th century . Two government Acts in the mid 18th century had a profound effect on Dundee 's industrial success : the textile industry was revolutionised by the introduction of large four-storey mills , stimulated in part by the 1742 Bounty Act which provided a government-funded subsidy on Osnaburg linen produced for export . Expansion of the whaling industry was triggered by the second Bounty Act , introduced in 1750 to increase Britain 's maritime and naval skill base . Dundee , and Scotland more generally , saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century , with the city 's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821 . The phasing out of the linen export bounty between 1825 and 1832 stimulated demand for cheaper textiles , particularly for cheaper , tough fabrics . The discovery that the dry fibres of jute could be lubricated with whale oil ( of which Dundee had a surfeit , following the opening of its gasworks ) to allow it to be processed in mechanised mills resulted in the Dundee mills rapidly converting from linen to jute , which sold at a quarter of the price of flax . Interruption of Prussian flax imports during the Crimean War and of cotton during the American Civil War resulted in a period of inflated prosperity for Dundee and the jute industry dominated Dundee throughout the latter half of the 19th century . Unprecedented immigration , notably of Irish workers , led to accelerated urban expansion , and at the height of the industry 's success , Dundee supported 62 jute mills , employing some 50,000 workers . Cox Brothers , who owned the massive Camperdown Works in Lochee , were one of the largest jute manufacturers in Europe and employed more than 5,000 workers . The rise of the textile industries brought with it an expansion of supporting industries , notably of the whaling , maritime and shipbuilding industries , and extensive development of the waterfront area started in 1815 to cope with increased demand for port capacity . At its height , 200 ships per year were built there , including Robert Falcon Scott 's Antarctic research vessel , the RRS Discovery . This ship is now on display at Discovery Point in the city . A significant whaling industry was also based in Dundee , largely existing to supply the jute mills with whale oil . Whaling ceased in 1912 and shipbuilding ceased in 1981 . While the city 's economy was dominated by the jute industry , it also became known for smaller industries . Most notable among these were James Keiller 's and Sons , established in 1795 , which pioneered commercial marmalade production , and the publishing firm DC Thomson & Co. , which was founded in the city in 1905 and remains the largest employer after the health and leisure industries . Dundee was said to be built on the 'three Js ' : Jute , Jam and Journalism . The town was also the location of one of the worst rail disasters in British history , the Tay Bridge disaster . The first Tay Rail Bridge was opened in 1878 . It collapsed some 18 months later during a storm , as a passenger train passed over it , resulting in the loss of 75 lives . The most destructive fire in the city 's history came in 1906 , reportedly sending `` rivers of burning whisky '' through the street . The jute industry fell into decline in the early 20th century , partly due to reduced demand for jute products and partly due to an inability to compete with the emerging industry in Calcutta . This gave rise to unemployment levels far in excess of the national average , peaking in the inter-war period , but major recovery was seen in the post-war period , thanks to the arrival first of American light engineering companies like Timex and NCR , and subsequent expansion into microelectronics . A £1 billion master plan to regenerate Dundee Waterfront is expected to last for a 30-year period between 2001 and 2031 . The aims of the project are to reconnect the city centre to the waterfront ; to improve facilities for walking , cyclists and buses ; to replace the existing inner ring road with a pair of east/west tree-lined boulevards ; and to provide a new civic square and a regenerated railway station and arrival space at the western edge . A new Victoria and Albert museum is also being built , set for completion by 2018 . Governance Dundee was granted Royal Burgh status on the coronation of John Balliol as King of Scotland in 1292 . The city has two mottos— ( Gift of God ) and Prudentia et Candore ( With Thought and Purity ) although usually only the latter is used for civic purposes . Prior to 1996 , Dundee was governed by the City of Dundee District Council . This was formed in 1975 , implementing boundaries imposed in the Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1973 . Under these boundaries , the Angus burgh and district of Monifieth , and the Perth electoral division of Longforgan ( which included Invergowrie ) were annexed to the county of the city of Dundee . In 1996 , the Dundee City unitary authority was created following implementation of the Local Government etc . ( Scotland ) Act 1994 . This placed Monifieth and Invergowrie in the unitary authorities of Angus and Perth and Kinross , largely reinstating the pre-1975 county boundaries . Some controversy has ensued as a result of these boundary changes , with Dundee city councillors arguing for the return of Monifieth and Invergowrie . Local government Dundee is one of 32 council areas of Scotland , and is represented by the Dundee City Council – a local council composed of 29 elected councillors . Previously the city was a county of a city and later a district of the Tayside region . Council meetings take place in the City Chambers , which opened in 1933 in City Square . The civic head and chair of the council is known as the Lord Provost , a position similar to that of mayor in other cities . Dundee House , the new headquarters for the city council on North Lindsay Street , opened in August 2011 . This has replaced Tayside House which was demolished in 2013 as part of the Dundee Waterfront improvements . Elections to the council are on a four-year cycle , the most recent being on 3 May 2012 . Since 2007 , the Local Governance ( Scotland ) Act 2004 has meant that there are eight multi-member wards which elect three or four councillors by single transferable vote , to produce a form of proportional representation . The 2012 elections gave the SNP overall control of the council . Scotland 's longest-serving councillor , Ian Borthwick , sits on the council . Westminster and Holyrood For elections to the British House of Commons at Westminster , the city area and portions of the Angus council area are divided in two constituencies . The constituencies of Dundee East and Dundee West are as of 2015 represented by Stewart Hosie ( Scottish National Party ) and Chris Law ( Scottish National Party ) , respectively . For elections to the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood , the city area is divided between three constituencies . The Dundee East ( Holyrood ) constituency and the Dundee West ( Holyrood ) constituency are entirely within the city area . The Angus South ( Holyrood ) constituency includes north-eastern and north-western portions of the city area . All three constituencies are within the North East Scotland electoral region : Shona Robison ( SNP ) is the Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) for the Dundee East constituency ; Joe Fitzpatrick ( SNP ) is the current MSP for the Dundee West constituency and Graeme Dey ( SNP ) is the current MSP for the Angus South constituency . Dundee is also part of the pan-Scotland European Parliament constituency which elects seven Members of the European Parliament ( MEP ) s using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation . Scotland returns two Labour MEPs , two SNP MEPs , one Conservative and Unionist MEP and one UKIP MEP , to the European Parliament . Winston Churchill served as the MP for Dundee from 1908-1922 . 2014 Scottish Referendum On 18 September 2014 , Dundee was one of four council areas to vote `` Yes '' in the Scottish Independence Referendum , with 57.3 % voting `` Yes '' on a 78.8 % turnout . With the highest Yes vote for any local authority in Scotland , some in the Yes Scotland campaign nicknamed Dundee the 'Yes City ' , including former First Minister Alex Salmond . Geography Dundee sits on the north bank of the Firth of Tay on the eastern , North Sea Coast of Scotland . The city lies NNE of Edinburgh and NNW of London . The built-up area occupies a roughly rectangular shape long by wide , aligned in an east to west direction and occupies an area of 60 km2 . The town is bisected by a line of hills stretching from Balgay Hill ( elevation of 143 m ) in the west end of the city , through the Dundee Law ( 174 m ) which occupies the centre of the built up area , to Gallow Hill ( 83 m ) , between Baxter Park and the Eastern Cemetery . North of this ridge lies a valley through which cuts the Dighty Water burn , the elevation falling to around 45 m. North of the Dighty valley lie the Sidlaw Hills , the most prominent hill being Craigowl Hill ( 455 m ) . The western and eastern boundaries of the city are marked by two burns that are tributaries of the River Tay . On the western-most boundary of the city , the Lochee burn meets the Fowlis burn , forming the Invergowrie burn , which meets the Tay at Invergowrie basin . The Dighty Water enters Dundee from the village of Strathmartine and marks the boundaries of a number of northern districts of the city , joining the Tay between Barnhill and Monifieth . The Scouring burn in the west end of the city and Dens Burn in the east , both of which played important roles in the industrial development of the city , have now been culverted over . Geology The city lies within the Sidlaw-Ochil anticline , and the predominant bedrock type is Old Red Sandstone of the Arbuthnott-Garvock group . ; Differential weathering of a series of igneous intrusions has yielded a number of prominent hills in the landscape , most notably the Dundee Law ( a late Silurian/early Devonian Mafic rock intrusion ) and Balgay hill ( a Felsic rock intrusion of similar age ) . In the east of the city , in Craigie and Broughty Ferry , the bedrock geology is of extrusive rocks , including mafic lava and tuff . The land surrounding Dundee , particularly that in the lower lying areas to the west and east of the city , bears high quality soil that is particularly suitable for arable farming . It is predominantly of a brown forest soil type with some gleying , the lower parts being formed from raised beach sands and gravels derived from Old Red Sandstone and lavas . Location Urban environment Very little of pre-Reformation Dundee remains , the destruction suffered in the War of the Rough Wooing being almost total , with only scattered , roofless shells remaining . The area occupied by the medieval burgh of Dundee extends between East Port and West Port , which formerly held the gates to the walled city . The shoreline has been altered considerably since the early 19th century through development of the harbour area and land reclamation . Several areas on the periphery of the burgh saw industrial development with the building of textile mills from the end of the 18th century . Their placement was dictated by the need for a water supply for the modern steam powered machinery , and areas around the Lochee Burn ( Lochee ) , Scouring Burn ( Blackness ) and Dens Burn ( Dens Road area ) saw particular concentrations of mills . The post war period saw expansion of industry to estates along the Kingsway . Working class housing spread rapidly and without control throughout the Victorian era , particularly in the Hawkhill , Blackness Road , Dens Road and Hilltown areas . Despite the comparative wealth of Victorian Dundee as a whole , living standards for the working classes were very poor . A general lack of town planning coupled with the influx of labour during the expansion of the jute industry resulted in insanitary , squalid and cramped housing for much of the population . While gradual improvements and slum clearance began in the late 19th century , the building of the groundbreaking Logie housing estate marked the beginning of Dundee 's expansion through the building of planned housing estates , under the vision of city architect James Thomson , whose legacy also includes the housing estate of Craigiebank and the beginnings of an improved transport infrastructure by planning the Kingsway bypass . Modernisation of the city centre continued in the post-war period . The mediaeval Overgate was demolished in the early 1960s to make way for a shopping centre , followed by construction of the inner ring road and the Wellgate Shopping Centre . The Tay Road Bridge , completed in 1966 had as its northern landfall the docklands of central Dundee , and the new associated road system resulted in the city centre being cut off from the river . An acute shortage of housing in the late 1940s was addressed by a series of large housing estates built in the northern environs including the Fintry , Craigie , Charleston and Douglas areas in the 1950s and early 1960s . These were followed by increasingly cost-effective and sometimes poorly planned housing in throughout the 1960s . Much of this , in particular the high rise blocks of flats at Lochee , Kirkton , Trottick , Whitfield , Ardler and Menzieshill , and the prefabricated Skarne housing blocks at Whitfield , have been demolished since the 1990s or are scheduled for future demolition . Climate The climate , like the rest of lowland Scotland , is Oceanic ( Köppen-Geiger classification Cfb ) . Mean temperature and rainfall are typical for the east coast of Scotland , and with the city 's sheltered estuarine position , mean daily maxima are slightly higher than coastal areas to the North , particularly in spring and summer . The summers are still chilly when compared with similar latitudes in continental Europe , something compensated for by the mild winters , similar to the rest of the British Isles . The nearest official Met Office weather station is Mylnefield , Invergowrie which is about 4 mi west of the City Centre . A record high of was recorded in August 1995 . The warmest month was July 2006 , with an average temperature of ( mean maximum , mean minimum ) . In an 'average ' year the warmest day should reach , and in total just 1.63 days should equal or exceed a temperature of per year , illustrating the rarity of such warmth . Demography According to the 2001 census , the City of Dundee had a population of 154,674 . A more recent population estimate of the City of Dundee has been recorded at 156,561 in 2012 . The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland . The age group from 30 to 44 forms the largest portion of the population ( 20 % ) . The median age of males and females living in Dundee was 37 and 40 years respectively , compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland . The place of birth of the town 's residents was 94.16 % United Kingdom ( including 87.85 % from Scotland ) , 0.42 % Republic of Ireland , 1.33 % from other European Union countries , and 3.09 % from elsewhere in the world . The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 35.92 % in full-time employment , 10.42 % in part-time employment , 4.25 % self-employed , 5.18 % unemployed , 7.82 % students with jobs , 4.73 % students without jobs , 15.15 % retired , 4.54 % looking after home or family , 7.92 % permanently sick or disabled , and 4.00 % economically inactive for other reasons . Compared with the average demography of Scotland , Dundee has both low proportions of people born outside the United Kingdom and for people over 75 years old . Natives of Dundee are called Dundonians and are often recognisable by their distinctive dialect of Scots as well as their accent , which most noticeably substitutes the monophthong /ɛ/ ( pronounced `` eh '' ) in place of the diphthong /aj/ ( pronounced `` ai '' ) . Dundee , and Scotland more generally , saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century , with the city 's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821 . Of particular significance was an influx of Irish workers in the early to mid-19th century , attracted by the prospect of employment in the textiles industries . In 1851 , 18.9 % of people living in Dundee were of Irish birth . The city has also attracted immigrants from Italy , fleeing poverty and famine , in the 19th century Jews , fleeing from the Russia controlled portions of partitioned Poland and from German occupation in the 20th . Today , Dundee has a sizeable ethnic minority population , and has around ( 4.0 % ) 4,000 Asian residents which is the fourth largest Asian community in Scotland . The city also has 1.0 % of residents from a Black/African/Caribbean background . Dundee has a higher proportion of university students – one in seven of the population – than any other town in Europe , except Heidelberg . The 14.2 % come from all around the world to attend the local universities and colleges . Dundee is a major attraction for Northern Irish students who make up 5 % of the total student population . The city 's universities are believed to hold the highest percentage of Northern Irish students outside of Northern Ireland and have a big impact on the local economy and culture . However this has declined in recent years due to the increase of tuition fees for students elsewhere in the UK . Dundee also has a lot of students from abroad , mostly from Republic of Ireland and other EU countries but with an increasing number from countries from the Far East and Nigeria . Economy The period following World War II was notable for the transformation of the city 's economy . While jute still employed one-fifth of the working population , new industries were attracted and encouraged . NCR Corporation selected Dundee as the base of operations for the UK in late 1945 , primarily because of the lack of damage the city had sustained in the war , good transport links and high productivity from long hours of sunshine . Production started in the year before the official opening of the plant on 11 June 1947 . A fortnight after the 10th anniversary of the plant the 250,000th cash register was produced . By the 1960s , NCR had become the principal employer of the city producing cash registers , and later ATMs , at several of its Dundee plants . The firm developed magnetic-strip readers for cash registers and produced early computers . Astral , a Dundee-based firm that manufactured and sold refrigerators and spin dryers was merged into Morphy Richards and rapidly expanded to employ over 1,000 people . The development in Dundee of a Michelin tyre-production facility helped to absorb the unemployment caused by the decline of the jute industry , particularly with the abolition of the jute control by the Board of Trade on 30 April 1969 . Employment in Dundee changed dramatically during the 1980s with the loss of nearly 10,000 manufacturing jobs due to closure of the shipyards , cessation of carpet manufacturing and the disappearance of the jute trade . To combat growing unemployment and declining economic conditions , Dundee was declared an Enterprise Zone in January 1984 . In 1983 , the first Sinclair ZX Spectrum home computers were produced in Dundee by Timex . In the same year the company broke production records , despite a sit-in by workers protesting against job cuts and plans to demolish one of the factory buildings to make way for a supermarket . Timex closed its Dundee plant in 1993 following an acrimonious six-month industrial dispute . Modern day Dundee is a regional employment and education centre , with around 325,000 people within 30 minutes drive of the city centre and 860,000 people within one hour . Many people from North East Fife , Angus and Perth and Kinross commute to the city . In 2009 , there were 30 employers who employed 300 or more staff . The largest employers in the city are NHS Tayside , Dundee City Council , University of Dundee , Tesco , D. C. Thomson & Co and BT . Other employers include limited and private companies such as NCR , Michelin , Alliance Trust , Aviva , Royal Bank of Scotland , Asda , Stagecoach Strathtay , Tayside Contracts , Tokheim , Scottish Citylink , C J Lang & Son ( SPAR Scotland ) , Joinery and Timber Creations , HBOS , Debenhams , Xplore Dundee , and W. L. Gore and Associates . The only sectors to see job increases between 2005 and 2009 were in education and human health and social work activities , while manufacturing and administration and support service activities both saw a significant decline . Average weekly earnings of full-time employers in Dundee in May 2010 was £482.80 ; men received £507.40 and women £418.80 . Average earnings in Dundee have increased from £325.00 in 2000 to £482.80 in 2010 . The biomedical and biotechnology sectors , including start-up biomedical companies arising from university research , employ just under 1,000 people directly and nearly 2,000 indirectly . Information technology and Video game development have been important industries in the city for more than 20 years . Rockstar North , developer of Lemmings and the Grand Theft Auto series was founded in Dundee as DMA Design by David Jones ; an undergraduate of the Abertay University . Other game development studios in Dundee include Denki , Ruffian Games , Dynamo Games , 4J Studios , Cohort Studios amongst others . Dundee is also a key retail destination for North East Scotland and has been ranked 4th in Retail Rankings in Scotland . The city centre offers a wide variety of retailers , department stores and independent/specialist stores . The Murraygate and High Street forms the main pedestrian area and is home to a number of main anchors such as Marks and Spencer , Accessorise and Zara . The main pedestrian area also connects the two large shopping centres ; the 420000 sqft Overgate Centre which is anchored by Debenhams , H & M , Next , Argos , and The Perfume Shop and the 310000 sqft Wellgate Centre by BHS , Home Bargains , B & M , Superdrug , Iceland , Holland & Barrett , Poundland , Savers , The Works , Hydro Electric , Bright house , Other retail areas in the city include Gallagher Retail Park , Kingsway East Retail Park and Kingsway West Retail Park . Landmarks The city and its landscape are dominated by The Law and the Firth of Tay . The Law , a large hill to the north of the City Centre was the site of an Iron Age Hill Fort , upon which the Law War Memorial , designed by Thomas Braddock , was erected in 1921 to commemorate the fallen of World War I . The waterfront , much altered by

dpql_5784--Dundee.txt

What name specifically describes an inhabitant of Dundee?

Louis Henry Sullivan ( September 3 , 1856 – April 14 , 1924 ) was an American architect , and has been called the `` father of skyscrapers '' and `` father of modernism '' . He is considered by many as the creator of the modern skyscraper , was an influential architect and critic of the Chicago School , was a mentor to Frank Lloyd Wright , and an inspiration to the Chicago group of architects who have come to be known as the Prairie School . Along with Henry Hobson Richardson and Frank Lloyd Wright , Sullivan is one of `` the recognized trinity of American architecture '' . `` Form follows function '' is attributed to him although he credited the origin of the concept to an ancient Roman architect . In 1944 , he was the second architect in history to posthumously receive the AIA Gold Medal . Early life and career Louis Henry Sullivan was born to a Swiss-born mother , Andrienne List , and an Irish-born father , Patrick Sullivan , both of whom had immigrated to the United States in the late 1840s . Learning that he could both be graduated from high school a year early and pass up the first two years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology by passing a series of examinations . Entering MIT at the age of sixteen , he studied architecture there briefly . After one year of study , he moved to Philadelphia and took a job with architect Frank Furness . The Depression of 1873 dried up much of Furness 's work , and he was forced to let Sullivan go . At that point Sullivan moved on to Chicago in 1873 to take part in the building boom following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 . He worked for William LeBaron Jenney , the architect often credited with erecting the first steel-frame building . After less than a year with Jenney , Sullivan moved to Paris and studied at the École des Beaux-Arts for a year . He returned to Chicago and began work for the firm of Joseph S. Johnston & John Edelman as a draftsman . Johnston & Edleman were commissioned for the design of the Moody Tabernacle , with the interior decorative `` fresco secco '' stencils ( stencil technique applied on dry plaster ) designed by Sullivan . [ http : //www.prairiestyles.com/lsullivan.htm Louis Sullivan ] at www.prairiestyles.com In 1879 Dankmar Adler hired Sullivan . A year later , Sullivan became a partner in the firm . This marked the beginning of Sullivan 's most productive years . Adler and Sullivan initially achieved fame as theater architects . While most of their theaters were in Chicago , their fame won commissions as far west as Pueblo , Colorado , and Seattle , Washington ( unbuilt ) . The culminating project of this phase of the firm 's history was the 1889 Auditorium Building ( 1886–90 , opened in stages ) in Chicago , an extraordinary mixed-use building that included not only a 4,200-seat theater , but also a hotel and an office building with a 17-story tower with commercial storefronts at the ground level of the building , fronting Congress and Wabash Avenues . After 1889 the firm became known for their office buildings , particularly the 1891 Wainwright Building in St. Louis and the Schiller ( later Garrick ) Building and theater ( 1890 ) in Chicago . Other buildings often noted include the Chicago Stock Exchange Building ( 1894 ) , the Guaranty Building ( also known as the Prudential Building ) of 1895–96 in Buffalo , New York , and the 1899–1904 Carson Pirie Scott Department Store by Sullivan on State Street in Chicago . Sullivan and the steel high-rise Prior to the late-nineteenth century , the weight of a multistory building had to be supported principally by the strength of its walls . The taller the building , the more strain this placed on the lower sections of the building ; since there were clear engineering limits to the weight such `` load-bearing '' walls could sustain , large designs meant massively thick walls on the ground floors , and definite limits on the building 's height . The development of cheap , versatile steel in the second half of the nineteenth century changed those rules . America was in the midst of rapid social and economic growth that made for great opportunities in architectural design . A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called out for new , larger buildings . The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid-1880s . By assembling a framework of steel girders , architects and builders suddenly could create tall , slender buildings with a strong and relatively lightweight steel skeleton . The rest of the building elements—walls , floors , ceilings , and windows—were suspended from the skeleton , which carried the weight . This new way of constructing buildings , so-called `` column-frame '' construction , pushed them up rather than out . The steel weight-bearing frame allowed not just taller buildings , but permitted much larger windows , which meant more daylight reaching interior spaces . Interior walls became thinner , which created more usable floor space . Chicago 's Monadnock Building ( not designed by Sullivan ) straddles this remarkable moment of transition : the northern half of the building , finished in 1891 , is of load-bearing construction , while the southern half , finished only two years later , is of column-frame construction . While experiments in this new technology were taking place in many cities , Chicago was the crucial laboratory . Industrial capital and civic pride drove a surge of new construction throughout the city 's downtown in the wake of the 1871 fire . The technical limits of weight-bearing masonry had imposed formal as well as structural constraints ; suddenly , those constraints were gone . None of the historical precedents needed to be applied and this new freedom created a technical and stylistic crisis of sorts . Sullivan addressed it by embracing the changes that came with the steel frame , creating a grammar of form for the high rise ( base , shaft , and cornice ) , simplifying the appearance of the building by breaking away from historical styles , using his own intricate floral designs , in vertical bands , to draw the eye upward and to emphasize the vertical form of the building , and relating the shape of the building to its specific purpose . All this was revolutionary , appealingly honest , and commercially successful . In 1896 , Louis Sullivan wrote : It is the pervading law of all things organic and inorganic , of all things physical and metaphysical , of all things human , and all things super-human , of all true manifestations of the head , of the heart , of the soul , that the life is recognizable in its expression , that form ever follows function . This is the law . ' `` Form follows function '' would become one of the prevailing tenets of modern architects . Sullivan , however , attributed the concept to Marcus Vitruvius Pollio , the Roman architect , engineer , and author , who first asserted in his book , De architectura , that a structure must exhibit the three qualities of firmitas , utilitas , venustas – that is , it must be solid , useful , beautiful . This credo , which placed the demands of practical use above aesthetics , later would be taken by influential designers to imply that decorative elements , which architects call `` ornament '' , were superfluous in modern buildings , but Sullivan neither thought nor designed along such dogmatic lines during the peak of his career . Indeed , while his buildings could be spare and crisp in their principal masses , he often punctuated their plain surfaces with eruptions of lush Art Nouveau and something such as Celtic Revival decorations , usually cast in iron or terra cotta , and ranging from organic forms , such as vines and ivy , to more geometric designs and interlace , inspired by his Irish design heritage . Terra cotta is lighter and easier to work with than stone masonry . Sullivan used it in his architecture because it had a malleability that was appropriate for his ornament . Probably the most famous example of ornament used by Sullivan is the writhing green ironwork that covers the entrance canopies of the Carson Pirie Scott store on south State Street . Such ornaments , often executed by the talented younger draftsmen in Sullivan 's employ , eventually would become Sullivan 's trademark ; to students of architecture , they are instantly-recognizable as his signature . Another signature element of Sullivan 's work is the massive , semi-circular arch . Sullivan employed such arches throughout his career—in shaping entrances , in framing windows , or as interior design . All of these elements are found in Sullivan 's widely admired Guaranty Building , which he designed while partnered with Adler . Completed in 1895 , this office building in Buffalo , New York is in the Palazzo style , visibly divided into three `` zones '' of design : a plain , wide-windowed base for the ground-level shops ; the main office block , with vertical ribbons of masonry rising unimpeded across nine upper floors to emphasize the building 's height ; and an ornamented cornice perforated by round windows at the roof level , where the building 's mechanical units ( such as the elevator motors ) were housed . The cornice is covered by Sullivan 's trademark Art Nouveau vines and each ground-floor entrance is topped by a semi-circular arch . Because Sullivan 's remarkable accomplishments in design and construction occurred at such a critical time in architectural history , he often has been described as the `` father '' of the American skyscraper . In truth , however , many architects had been building skyscrapers before or contemporarily with Sullivan . Chicago was replete with extraordinary designers and builders in the late years of the nineteenth century , including Sullivan 's partner , Dankmar Adler , as well as Daniel Burnham and John Wellborn Root . Root was one of the builders of the Monadnock Building ( see above ) . That and another Root design , the Masonic Temple Tower ( both in Chicago ) , are cited by many as the originators of skyscraper aesthetics of bearing wall and column-frame construction respectively . Later career and decline In 1890 Sullivan was one of the ten U.S. architects , five from the east and five from the west , chosen to build a major structure for the `` White City '' , the World 's Columbian Exposition , held in Chicago in 1893 . Sullivan 's massive Transportation Building and huge arched `` Golden Door '' stood out as the only building not of the current style , Beaux-Arts , and the only multicolored facade in the entire White City . Sullivan and fair director Daniel Burnham were vocal about their displeasure with each other . Sullivan later claimed ( 1922 ) that the fair set the course of American architecture back `` for half a century from its date , if not longer . '' His was the only building to receive extensive recognition outside America , receiving three medals from the Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs the following year . Like all American architects , Adler and Sullivan saw a precipitous decline in their practice with the onset of the Panic of 1893 . According to Charles Bebb , who was working in the office at that time , Adler borrowed money to try to keep employees on the payroll . By 1894 , however , in the face of continuing financial distress with no relief in sight , Adler and Sullivan dissolved their partnership . The Guaranty Building was considered the last major project of the firm . By both temperament and connections , Adler had been the one who brought in new business to the partnership , and following the rupture Sullivan received few large commissions after the Carson Pirie Scott Department Store . He went into a twenty-year-long financial and emotional decline , beset by a shortage of commissions , chronic financial problems , and alcoholism . He obtained a few commissions for small-town Midwestern banks ( see below ) , wrote books , and in 1922 appeared as a critic of Raymond Hood 's winning entry for the Tribune Tower competition . He died in a Chicago hotel room on April 14 , 1924 . He left a wife , Mary Azona Hattabaugh , from whom he was separated . A modest headstone marks his final resting spot in Graceland Cemetery in Chicago 's Uptown and Lake View neighborhood . Later , a monument was erected in Sullivan 's honor , a few feet from his headstone . Sullivan 's legacy is contradictory . Some consider him the first modernist . His forward-looking designs clearly anticipate some issues and solutions of Modernism , however , his embracement of ornament makes his contribution distinct from the Modern Movement that coalesced in the 1920s and became known as the `` International Style '' . To experience Sullivan 's built work is to experience the irresistible appeal of his incredible designs : the vertical bands on the Wainwright Building , the burst of welcoming Art Nouveau ironwork on the corner entrance of the Carson Pirie Scott store , the ( lost ) terra cotta griffins and porthole windows on the Union Trust building , and the white angels of the Bayard Building . Except for some designs by his longtime draftsman George Grant Elmslie , and the occasional tribute to Sullivan such as Schmidt , Garden & Martin 's First National Bank in Pueblo , Colorado ( built across the street from Adler and Sullivan 's Pueblo Opera House ) , his style is unique . A visit to the preserved Chicago Stock Exchange trading floor , now at The Art Institute of Chicago , is proof of the immediate and visceral power of the ornament that he used so selectively . Original drawings and other archival materials from Sullivan are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries in the Art Institute of Chicago and by the drawings and archives department in the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia University . Fragments of Sullivan buildings also are held in many fine art and design museums around the world . Preservation During the postwar era of urban renewal , Sullivan 's works fell into disfavor , and many were demolished . In the 1970s growing public concern for these buildings finally resulted in many being saved . The most vocal voice was Richard Nickel , who organized protests against the demolition of architecturally-significant buildings . Nickel and others sometimes rescued decorative elements from condemned buildings , sneaking in during demolition . This practice led to Nickel 's death inside Sullivan 's Stock Exchange building , when a floor above him collapsed . Nickel had compiled extensive research on Adler and Sullivan and their many architectural commissions , which he intended to publish in book form . Nickel 's death led to the creation in 1972 of the Richard Nickel Committee , which arranged the completion of Nickel 's book and its publication in 2010 . The book features all 256 commissions of Adler and Sullivan . The extensive archive of photographs and research that underpinned the book was donated to the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at The Art Institute of Chicago . More than 1,300 photographs may be viewed on their website and more than 15,000 photographs are part of the collection at The Art Institute of Chicago . As finally published , the book , The Complete Architecture of Adler & Sullivan , was authored by Richard Nickel , Aaron Siskind , John Vinci , and Ward Miller . Another champion of Sullivan 's legacy was the architect Crombie Taylor ( 1907–1991 ) , of Crombie Taylor Associates , who , with single-minded determination , led the effort to save the Van Allen Building in Clinton , Iowa from demolition . Taylor , acting as an aesthetic consultant , had worked on the renovation of the Auditorium Building ( now Roosevelt University ) in Chicago . When he read an article about the planned demolition , he uprooted his family from their home in southern California ( long after he had left Chicago , after heading the famous `` Institute of Design '' , later known as the Illinois Institute of Technology ( IIT ) , in the 1950s and early 1960s ) and moved them to Clinton . With the vision of a destination neighborhood comparable to Oak Park , Illinois , he set about creating a nonprofit to save the building , and was successful in doing so . Another advocate both of Sullivan buildings and of Wright structures was Jack Randall , who led an effort to save the Wainwright Building in St. Louis , Missouri at a very critical time and then relocated his family to Buffalo , New York to save Sullivan 's Guaranty Building and Frank Lloyd Wright 's Darwin Martin House from possible demolition . His efforts were successful in both St. Louis and Buffalo . A collection of architectural ornaments designed by Sullivan is on permanent display at Lovejoy Library at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville . Sullivan in Ayn Rand 's The Fountainhead That the fictional character of Henry Cameron in Ayn Rand 's 1943 novel The Fountainhead was similar to the real-life Sullivan was noted , if only in passing , by at least one journalist contemporary to the book . More recent study of Rand 's posthumously published journal notes as well as a close comparison of the respective careers of the real and fictional architects by Heynick has explored this connection in some detail . Although Rand 's journal notes contain in toto only some 50 lines directly referring to Sullivan , it is clear from her mention of Sullivan 's Autobiography of an Idea ( 1924 ) in her 25th anniversary introduction to her earlier novel We the Living ( first published in 1936 , and unrelated to architecture ) that she was intimately familiar with his life and career . Indeed , the term `` the Fountainhead , '' which appears nowhere in Rand 's novel proper , is found twice ( as `` the fountainhead '' and later as `` the fountain head '' ) in Sullivan 's autobiography , both times used metaphorically . The fictional Cameron is , like Sullivan – whose physical description he matches – a great innovative skyscraper pioneer late in the nineteenth century who dies impoverished and embittered in the mid-1920s . Cameron 's rapid decline is explicitly attributed to the wave of classical Greco-Roman revivalism in architecture in the wake of the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , just as Sullivan in his autobiography attributed his own downfall to the same event . The major difference between novel and real life was in the chronology of Cameron 's relation with his protégé Howard Roark , the novel 's hero , who eventually goes on to redeem his vision . That Roark 's uncompromising individualism and his innovative organic style in architecture were drawn from the life and work of Frank Lloyd Wright is clear from Rand 's journal notes , her correspondence and various contemporary accounts . In the novel , however , the 23-year-old Roark , a generation younger than the real-life Wright , becomes Cameron 's protégé in the early 1920s , when Sullivan was long in decline . The young Wright , by contrast , was Sullivan 's protégé for seven years , beginning in 1887 , when Sullivan was at the height of his fame and power . The two architects would sever their ties in 1894 due to Sullivan 's angry reaction to Wright 's private moonlighting in breach of his contract with Sullivan , but Wright continued to call Sullivan his `` liebe Meister '' ( `` beloved Master '' ) for the rest of his life . After decades of estrangement , Wright would again become close to the now-destitute Sullivan in the early 1920s , the time when Roark first comes under the likewise impoverished Cameron 's tutelage in the novel . Wright , however , was now in his fifties . Nevertheless , both the young Roark and middle-aged Wright had in common at that time that they both faced a decade of struggle ahead . After the triumphs earlier in his career , Wright came increasingly to be viewed as a has-been , until he experienced a renaissance in the latter half of the 1930s with such projects as Fallingwater and the Johnson Wax Headquarters . Selected projects Buildings 1887–1895 by Adler & Sullivan : * Martin Ryerson Tomb , Graceland Cemetery , Chicago ( 1887 ) * Auditorium Building , Chicago ( 1889 ) * Carrie Eliza Getty Tomb , Graceland Cemetery , Chicago ( 1890 ) * Wainwright Building , St. Louis ( 1890 ) * Charlotte Dickson Wainwright Tomb , Bellefontaine Cemetery , St. Louis ( 1892 ) , listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( shown at right ) , is considered a major American architectural triumph , a model for ecclesiastical architecture , a `` masterpiece '' , and has been called `` the Taj Mahal of St . Louis . '' Interestingly , the family name appears nowhere on the tomb . * Union Trust Building ( now 705 Olive ) , St. Louis ( 1893 ; street-level ornament heavily altered in 1924 ) * Guaranty Building ( formerly Prudential Building ) , Buffalo ( 1894 ) Buildings 1887–1895 by Louis Sullivan , with Dankmar Adler until 1895 : ( 256 total commissions and projects ) * Springer Block ( later Bay State Building and Burnham Building ) and Kranz Buildings , Chicago ( 1885–1887 ) * Selz , Schwab & Company Factory , Chicago ( 1886–1887 ) * Hebrew Manual Training School , Chicago ( 1889–1890 ) * James H. Walker Warehouse & Company Store , Chicago ( 1886–1889 ) * Warehouse for E. W. Blatchford , Chicago ( 1889 ) * James Charnley House ( also known as the Charnley–Persky House Museum Foundation and the National Headquarters of the Society of Architectural Historians ) , Chicago ( 1891–1892 ) * Albert Sullivan Residence , Chicago ( 1891–1892 ) * McVicker 's Theater , second remodeling , Chicago ( 1890–1891 ) * Bayard Building , ( now Bayard-Condict Building ) , 65–69 Bleecker Street , New York City ( 1898 ) . Sullivan 's only building in New York , with a glazed terra cotta curtain wall expressing the steel structure behind it . * Commercial Loft of Gage Brothers & Company , Chicago ( 1898–1900 ) * Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox Cathedral and Rectory , Chicago ( 1900–1903 ) * Carson Pirie Scott store , ( originally known as the Schlesinger & Mayer Store , now known as `` Sullivan Center '' ) Chicago ( 1899–1904 ) * Virginia Hall of Tusculum College , Greeneville , Tennessee ( 1901 ) * Van Allen Building , Clinton , Iowa ( 1914 ) * St. Paul United Methodist Church , Cedar Rapids , Iowa ( 1910 ) * Krause Music Store , Chicago ( final commission 1922 ; front façade only ) Banks By the end of the first decade of the twentieth century , Sullivan 's star was well on the descent and , for the remainder of his life , his output consisted primarily of a series of small bank and commercial buildings in the Midwest . Yet a look at these buildings clearly reveals that Sullivan 's muse had not abandoned him . When the director of a bank that was considering hiring him asked Sullivan why they should engage him at a cost higher than the bids received for a conventional Neo-Classic styled building from other architects , Sullivan is reported to have replied , `` A thousand architects could design those buildings . Only I can design this one . '' He got the job . Today these commissions are collectively referred to as Sullivan 's `` Jewel Boxes . '' All still stand . * National Farmer 's Bank , Owatonna , Minnesota ( 1908 ) * Peoples Savings Bank , Cedar Rapids , Iowa ( 1912 ) * Henry Adams Building , Algona , Iowa ( 1913 ) * Merchants ' National Bank , Grinnell , Iowa ( 1914 ) * Home Building Association Company , Newark , Ohio ( 1914 ) * Purdue State Bank , West Lafayette , Indiana ( 1914 ) * People 's Federal Savings and Loan Association , Sidney , Ohio ( 1918 ) * Farmers and Merchants Bank , Columbus , Wisconsin ( 1919 ) * First National Bank , Manistique , Michigan ( 1919–1920 ) , a remodeling of an existing bank building Lost buildings * Grand Opera House , Chicago , 1880 , demolished 1927 * Washington Elementary School , Marengo , Illinois , Adler & Sullivan , ( year ? ) , demolished 1993 ( needs citation ) * Pueblo Opera House , Pueblo , Colorado , 1890 , destroyed by fire 1922 * New Orleans Union Station , 1892 , demolished 1954 * Dooly Block , Salt Lake City , Utah , 1891 , demolished 1965 * Chicago Stock Exchange Building , Adler & Sullivan , 1893 , demolished 1972 : The trading room from the Stock Exchange was removed intact prior to the building being demolished and subsequently , was restored in the Art Institute of Chicago in 1977 ; the entryway arch ( seen at right ) stands outside on the northeast corner of the AIC site * Zion Temple , Chicago , 1884 , demolished 1954 * Troescher Building , Chicago , 1884 , demolished 1978 * Transportation Building , World 's Columbian Exposition , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1893–94 , an exposition building built to last a year * Louis Sullivan and Charnley Cottages , Ocean Springs , Mississippi , destroyed in Hurricane Katrina ; Frank Lloyd Wright also claimed credit for the design * Schiller Building ( later Garrick Theater ) , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1891 , demolished 1961 * Third McVickers Theater , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1883 ? demolished 1922 * Thirty-Ninth Street Passenger Station , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1886 , demolished 1934 * Standard Club , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1887–88 , demolished 1931 * Pilgrim Baptist Church , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1891 , destroyed by fire January 6 , 2006 * Wirt Dexter Building , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1887 , destroyed by fire October 24 , 2006 * George Harvey House , Chicago , Adler & Sullivan , 1888 destroyed by fire November 4 , 2006 Gallery File:2010-07-04 1800x2700 stlouis 705 olive street building.jpg|Union Trust Building File : Wainwright building st louis USA.jpg|Wainwright Building File : Louis Sullivan - cornice detail - Wainwright Building , Seventh + Chestnut Streets , Saint Louis , St. Louis City County , MO.jpg|Wainwright Building cornice File : Auditorium Building Chicago.jpg|Auditorium Building File : Oldchicagostockexchange.jpg|Chicago Stock Exchange Building File : Getty tomb chicago louis sullivan.jpg|Getty Tomb File : Bayard-condict bldg crop.jpg|Bayard-Condict Building File : Carsons Pirie Scott & Co.jpg|Carson Pirie Scott store File : Van Allen July 18 , 2005 249.JPG|The Van Allen Building File : Gage Buildings - Chicago , Illinois.jpg|Gage Building ( on right ) File : Louis Sullivan - exterior - Holy Trinity Russian & Greek Orthodox Church , 1121 North Leavitt Street , Chicago , Cook County , IL.jpg|Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox Cathedral , exterior File : Louis Sullivan - interior - Holy Trinity Russian & Greek Orthodox Church , 1121 North Leavitt Street , Chicago , Cook County , IL.jpg|Holy Trinity Russian Orthodox Cathedral , interior File : Sidney-ohio-pfsl.jpg|People 's Federal Savings and Loan Association File : LSCedarRapids1.jpg|Peoples Savings Bank File : OwatonnaBank.JPG|National Farmer 's Bank of Owatonna File : Harold-c-bradley-house.jpg|Harold C. Bradley House , Wisconsin File : Louis Sullivan Jewel Box , Grinnell , Iowa.jpg|Merchants ' National Bank , Grinnell , Iowa File:2005-03-15 1860x2480 chicago krause.jpg|Krause Music Store

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According to famous American architect Louis Henri Sullivan, known as the father of skyscrapers, "form follows what"?

West Africa , also called Western Africa and the West of Africa , is the westernmost subcontinent of Africa . West Africa has been defined as including the 18 countries Benin , Burkina Faso , the island of Cape Verde , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , Guinea-Bissau , Ivory Coast , Liberia , Mali , Mauritania , Niger , Nigeria , the island of Saint Helena , Senegal , Sierra Leone , Sao Tome and Principe and Togo . History The history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods : first , its prehistory , in which the first human settlers arrived , developed agriculture , and made contact with peoples to the north ; the second , the Iron Age empires that consolidated both intra-African , and extra-African trade , and developed centralized states ; third , major polities flourished , which would undergo an extensive history of contact with non-Africans ; fourth , the colonial period , in which Great Britain and France controlled nearly the whole of the region ; and fifth , the post-independence era , in which the current nations were formed . Prehistory Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B.C . Sedentary farming began in , or around the fifth millennium B.C , as well as the domestication of cattle . By 1500 B.C , ironworking technology allowed an expansion of agricultural productivity , and the first city-states later formed . Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400 . In the forest region , Iron Age cultures began to flourish , and an inter-region trade began to appear . The desertification of the Sahara and the climatic change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen . The domestication of the camel allowed the development of a trans-Saharan trade with cultures across the Sahara , including Carthage and the Berbers ; major exports included gold , cotton cloth , metal ornaments and leather goods , which were then exchanged for salt , horses , textiles , and other such materials . Local leather , cloth , and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires . Empires The development of the region 's economy allowed more centralized states and civilizations to form , beginning with the Nok culture that began in 1000 B.C . and the Ghana Empire that first flourished between the 1st and 3rd centuries , which later gave way to the Mali Empire . In current-day Mauritania , there exist archaeological sites in the towns of Tichit and Oualata that were initially constructed around 2000 B.C. , and were found to have originated from the Soninke branch of the Mandé peoples . Also , based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania , the Mali empire came to dominate much of the region until its defeat by Almoravid invaders in 1052 . The Sosso Empire sought to fill the void , but was defeated ( c. 1240 ) by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita , founder of the new Mali Empire . The Mali Empire continued to flourish for several centuries , most particularly under Sundiata 's grandnephew Musa I , before a succession of weak rulers led to its collapse under Mossi , Tuareg and Songhai invaders . In the 15th century , the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao , in the Songhai Empire , under the leadership of Sonni Ali and Askia Mohammed . Meanwhile , south of the Sudan , strong city states arose in Igboland , such as the 10th-century Kingdom of Nri , which helped birth the arts and customs of the Igbo people , Bono in the 12th century , which eventually culminated in the formation the all-powerful Akan Empire of Ashanti , while Ife and Benin City rose to prominence around the 14th century . Further east , Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria . Slavery and European contact Portuguese traders began establishing settlements along the coast in 1445 , followed by the French , English Spanish Danish and Dutch ; the African slave trade began not long after , which over the following centuries would debilitate the region 's economy and population . The slave trade also encouraged the formation of states such as the Asante Empire , Bambara Empire and Dahomey , whose economic activities include but not limited to exchanging slaves for European firearms . Colonialism In the early 19th century , a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa . The most notable include Usman dan Fodio 's Fulani Empire , which replaced the Hausa city-states , Seku Amadu 's Massina Empire , which defeated the Bambara , and El Hadj Umar Tall 's Toucouleur Empire , which briefly conquered much of modern-day Mali . However , the French and British continued to advance in the Scramble for Africa , subjugating kingdom after kingdom . With the fall of Samory Ture 's new-founded Wassoulou Empire in 1898 and the Ashanti queen Yaa Asantewaa in 1902 , most West African military resistance to colonial rule resulted in failure . Britain controlled the Gambia , Sierra Leone , Ghana , and Nigeria throughout the colonial era , while France unified Senegal , Guinea , Mali , Burkina Faso , Benin , Ivory Coast and Niger into French West Africa . Portugal founded the colony of Guinea-Bissau , while Germany claimed Togoland , but was forced to divide it between France and Britain following First World War due to the Treaty of Versailles . Only Liberia retained its independence , at the price of major territorial concessions . Postcolonial eras Following World War II , nationalist movements arose across West Africa . In 1957 , Ghana , under Kwame Nkrumah , became the first sub-Saharan colony to achieve its independence , followed the next year by France 's colonies ( Guinea in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sekou Touré ) ; by 1974 , West Africa 's nations were entirely autonomous . Since independence , many West African nations have been submerged under political instability , with notable civil wars in Nigeria , Sierra Leone , Liberia , and Ivory Coast , and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso . Since the end of colonialism , the region has been the stage for some brutal conflicts , including : * Nigerian Civil War * First Liberian Civil War * Second Liberian Civil War * Guinea-Bissau Civil War * Ivorian Civil War * Sierra Leone Rebel War States The Economic Community of West African States , established in May 1975 , has defined the region of West Africa since 1999 as including the following 15 states : Geopolitically , the United Nations definition of Western Africa includes the preceding states with the addition of Mauritania ( which withdrew from ECOWAS in 1999 ) , comprising an area of approximately 6.1 million square km . The UN region also includes the island of Saint Helena , a British overseas territory in the south Atlantic Ocean . Area In the United Nations scheme of African regions , the region includes 16 states and the island of Saint Helena , an overseas territory : * Mali , Burkina Faso , Senegal and Niger are mostly in the Sahel , a transition zone between the Sahara desert and the Sudanian Savanna . * Benin , Cote d'Ivoire , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , Guinea-Bissau , Liberia , Sierra Leone , Togo , and Nigeria compose Guinea , the traditional name for the area near the Gulf of Guinea . * Cape Verde is an island country in the Atlantic Ocean . * Mauritania lies in the Maghreb , the northwestern region of Africa that has historically been inhabited by both traditionally West African groups such as the Fulani , Soninke and Wolof , along with Arab-Berber Maghrebi people . Due to its increasingly close ties to the Arab World and its 1999 withdrawal from the Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ) , in modern times it is often considered , especially in Africa , as now part of western North Africa . Facts On File , Incorporated , Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East ( 2009 ) , p. 448 , ISBN 143812676X : `` The Islamic Republic of Mauritania , situated in western North Africa ... '' David Seddon , A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East ( 2004 ) , ISBN 020340291X : `` We have , by contrast , chosen to include the predominantly Arabic-speaking countries of western North Africa ( the Maghreb ) , including Mauritania ( which is a member of the Arab Maghreb Union ) ... '' Mohamed Branine , Managing Across Cultures : Concepts , Policies and Practices ( 2011 ) , p. 437 , ISBN 1849207291 : `` The Magrebian countries or the Arab countries of western North Africa ( Algeria , Libya , Mauritania , Morocco and Tunisia ) ... '' Geography and climate West Africa , broadly defined to include the western portion of the Maghreb ( Western Sahara , Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia ) , occupies an area in excess of 6,140,000 km2 , or approximately one-fifth of Africa . The vast majority of this land is plains lying less than 300 meters above sea level , though isolated high points exist in numerous states along the southern shore of West Africa . The northern section of West Africa ( narrowly defined to exclude the western Maghreb ) is composed of semi-arid terrain known as Sahel , a transitional zone between the Sahara and the savannahs of the western Sudan . Forests form a belt between the savannas and the southern coast , ranging from 160 km to 240 km in width . The northwest African region of Mauritania periodically suffers country-wide plagues of locusts which consume water , salt and crops on which the human population relies . Background West Africa is west of an imagined north-south axis lying close to 10° east longitude.Peter Speth . Impacts of Global Change on the Hydrological Cycle in West and Northwest Africa , p. 33 . Springer , 2010 . ISBN 3-642-12956-0 The Atlantic Ocean forms the western as well as the southern borders of the West African region . The northern border is the Sahara Desert , with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region . The eastern border is less precise , with some placing it at the Benue Trough , and others on a line running from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad . Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states , cutting across ethnic and cultural lines , often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states . In contrast to most of Central , Southern and Southeast Africa , West Africa is not populated by Bantu-speaking peoples . Transport Rail transport A Trans-ECOWAS project , established in 2007 , plans to upgrade railways in this zone . One of the goals of the Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ) is the development of an integrated railroad network . Aims include the extension of railways in member countries , the interconnection of previously isolated railways and the standardisation of gauge , brakes , couplings , and other parameters . The first line would connect the cities and ports of Lagos , Cotonou , Lomé and Accra and would allow the largest container ships to focus on a smaller number of large ports , while efficiently serving a larger hinterland . This line connects gauge and systems , which would require four rail dual gauge , which can also provide standard gauge . Road transport The Trans–West African Coastal Highway is a transnational highway project to link 12 West African coastal states , from Mauritania in the north-west of the region to Nigeria in the east , with feeder roads already existing to two landlocked countries , Mali and Burkina Faso . The eastern end of the highway terminates at Lagos , Nigeria . Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ) consider its western end to be Nouakchott , Mauritania , or to be Dakar , Senegal , giving rise to these alternative names for the road : * Nouakchott–Lagos Highway * Lagos–Nouakchott Highway * Dakar–Lagos Highway * Lagos–Dakar Highway * Trans-African Highway 7 in the Trans-African Highway network Air transport The capital 's airports include : * Cadjehoun Airport ( COO ) International ; Cotonou , Benin * Ouagadougou Airport ( OUA ) ; Ouagadougou , Burkina Faso * Amílcar Cabral International Airport ( SID ) ; Praia , Cape Verde * Banjul International Airport ( BJL ) International ; Banjul , Gambia * Kotoka International Airport ( ACC ) ; Accra ; Ghana * Conakry International Airport ( CKY ) ; Conakry , Guinea * Osvaldo Vieira International Airport ( OXB ) ; Bissau , Guinea-Bissau * Port Bouet Airport ( ABJ ) ; Abidjan , Ivory Coast * Roberts International Airport ( ROB ) ; Monrovia , Liberia * Bamako–Sénou International Airport ( BKO ) ; Bamako , Mali * Diori Hamani International Airport ( NIM ) ; Niamey , Niger * Murtala Muhammed International Airport ( LOS ) ; Lagos , Nigeria * Saint Helena Airport ; Jamestown , Saint Helena * Léopold Sédar Senghor International Airport ( DKR ) ; Dakar , Senegal * Lungi International Airport ( FNA ) ; Freetown , Sierra Leone * Lomé–Tokoin Airport ( LFW ) ; Lomé , Togo Of the sixteen , the most important hub and entry point to West Africa is Kotoka International Airport , and Murtala Muhammed International Airport , offering many international connections . Culture Despite the wide variety of cultures in West Africa , from Nigeria through to Senegal , there are general similarities in dress , cuisine , music and culture that are not shared extensively with groups outside the geographic region . This long history of cultural exchange predates the colonization era of the region and can be approximately placed at the time of the Ghana Empire ( proper : Wagadou Empire ) , Mali Empire or perhaps before these empires . Traditional architecture The main traditional styles of building ( in conjunction with modern styles ) are the distinct Sudano-Sahelian style in inland areas , and the coastal forest styles more reminiscent of other sub-Saharan areas . They differ greatly in construction due to the demands made by the variety of climates in the area , from tropical humid forests to arid grasslands and desert . Despite the architectural differences , buildings perform similar functions , including the compound structure central to West African family life or strict distinction between the private and public worlds needed to maintain taboos or social etiquette . Clothing In contrast to other parts of the continent south of the Sahara Desert , the concepts of hemming and embroidering clothing have been traditionally common to West Africa for centuries , demonstrated by the production of various breeches , shirts , tunics and jackets . As a result , the peoples of the region 's diverse nations wear a wide variety of clothing with underlying similarities . Typical pieces of west African formal attire include the knee-to-ankle-length , flowing Boubou robe , Dashiki , and Senegalese Kaftan ( also known as Agbada and Babariga ) , which has its origins in the clothing of nobility of various West African empires in the 12th century . Traditional half-sleeved , hip-long , woven smocks or tunics ( known as fugu in Gurunsi , riga in Hausa ) -- worn over a pair of baggy trousers—is another popular garment . In the coastal regions stretching from southern Ivory Coast to Benin , a huge rectangular cloth is wrapped under one arm , draped over a shoulder , and held in one of the wearer 's hands—coincidentally , reminiscent of Romans ' togas . The best-known of these toga-like garments is the Kente ( made by the Akan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast ) , who wear them as a gesture of national pride . Cuisine Scores of foreign visitors to West African nations ( e.g. , traders , historians , emigrants , colonists , missionaries ) have benefited from its citizens ' generosity , and even left with a piece of its cultural heritage , via its foods . West African cuisines have had a significant influence on those of Western civilization for centuries ; several dishes of West African origin are currently enjoyed in the Caribbean ( e.g. , the West Indies and Haiti ) ; Australia ; the USA ( particularly Louisiana , Virginia , North and South Carolina ) ; Italy ; and other countries . Although some of these recipes have been altered to suit the sensibilities of their adopters , they retain a distinct West African essence . West Africans cuisines include fish ( especially among the coastal areas ) , meat , vegetables , and fruits—most of which are grown by the nations ' local farmers . In spite of the obvious differences among the various local cuisines in this multinational region , the foods display more similarities than differences . The small difference may be in the ingredients used . Most foods are cooked via boiling or frying . Commonly featured , starchy vegetables include yams , plantains , cassava , and sweet potatoes . Rice is also a staple food , as is the Serer people 's sorghum couscous ( called Chereh in Serer ) particularly in Senegal and the Gambia . Jollof rice—originally from the Kingdom of Jolof ( now part of modern-day Senegal ) but having spread to the Wolofs of Gambia—is also enjoyed in many Western nations , as well ; Mafé ( proper : Tigh-dege-na or Domodah ) from Mali ( via the Bambara and Mandinka ) —a peanut-butter stew served with rice ; Akara ( fried bean balls seasoned with spices served with sauce and bread ) from Nigeria is a favourite breakfast for Gambians and Senegalese , as well as a favourite side snack or side dish in Brazil and the Caribbean just as it is in West Africa . It is said that its exact origin may be from Yorubaland in Nigeria . Fufu ( from the Twi language , a dough served with a spicy stew or sauce for example okra stew etc . ) from Ghana is enjoyed throughout the region and beyond even in Central Africa with their own versions of it . Recreation and sports The board game oware is quite popular in many parts of West Africa . The word `` Oware '' originates from the Akan people of Ghana . However , virtually all African peoples have a version of this board game . The major multi-sport event of West Africa is the ECOWAS Games which commenced at the 2012 ECOWAS Games . Football is also a pastime enjoyed by many , either spectating or playing . The major national teams of West Africa , the Ghana national football team , the Ivory Coast national football team , and the Nigeria national football team regularly win the Africa Cup of Nations . Major football teams of West Africa are Asante Kotoko SC and Accra Hearts of Oak SC of the Ghana Premier League , Enyimba International of the Nigerian Premier League and ASEC Mimosas of the Ligue 1 ( Ivory Coast ) . The football governing body of West Africa is the West African Football Union ( WAFU ) and the major tournament is the West African Club Championship and WAFU Nations Cup , along with the annual individual award of West African Footballer of the Year . Music Mbalax , Highlife , Fuji and Afrobeat are all modern musical genres which listeners enjoy in this region . Old traditional folk music is also well preserved in this region . Some of these are religious in nature such as the `` Tassou '' tradition used in Serer religion . Griot and Praise-singing Two important related traditions that musically make West African musical attitudes unique are the Griot tradition , and the Praise-singing tradition . In many cases , these two genres are highly similar , the difference being whether the traditions are considered the property of hereditary castes ( Griot ) or to talented individuals among a ruler 's subjects ( Praise-singing ) . In both cases the minstrel tradition and specialization in certain string and percussion instruments is observed . Traditionally , musical and oral history as conveyed over generations by Griots are typical of West African culture in Mande , Wolof , Songhay , Moor and ( to some extent , though not universal ) Fula areas in the far west . A hereditary caste occupying the fringes of society , the Griots were charged with memorizing the histories of local rulers and personages and the caste was further broken down into music-playing Griots ( similar to bards ) and non-music playing Griots . Like Praise-singers , the Griot 's main profession was musical acquisition and prowess , and patrons were the sole means of financial support . Modern Griots enjoy higher status in the patronage of rich individuals in places such as Mali , Senegal , Mauritania and Guinea , and to some extent make up the vast majority of musicians in these countries . Examples of modern popular Griot artists include Salif Keita , Youssou N'Dour , Mamadou Diabate , Rokia Traore and Toumani Diabate . In other areas of West Africa , primarily among the Hausa , Mossi , Dagomba and Yoruba in the area encompassing Burkina Faso , northern Ghana , Nigeria and Niger , the traditional profession of non-hereditary praise-singers , minstrels , bards and poets play a vital role in extending the public show of power , lineage and prestige of traditional rulers through their exclusive patronage . Like the Griot tradition , praise singers are charged with knowing the details of specific historic events and royal lineages , but more importantly need to be capable of poetic improvisation and creativity , with knowledge of traditional songs directed towards showing a patron 's financial and political or religious power . Competition between Praise-singing ensembles and artistes are high , and artists responsible for any extraordinarily skilled prose , musical compositions and panegyric songs are lavishly rewarded with money , clothing , provisions and other luxuries by patrons who are usually politicians , rulers , Islamic clerics and merchants ; these successful praise-singers rise to national stardom . Examples include Mamman Shata , Souley Konko , Fati Niger , Saadou Bori and Dan Maraya . In the case of Niger , numerous praise songs are composed and shown on television in praise of local rulers , Islamic clerics and politicians . Film industry Nollywood of Nigeria , is the main film industry of West Africa . The Nigerian cinema industry is the second largest film industry in terms of number of annual film productions , ahead of the American film industry in Hollywood . Senegal and Ghana also have long traditions of producing films . The late Ousmane Sembène , the Senegalese film director , producer and writer is from the region , as is the Ghanaian Shirley Frimpong-Manso . Religion Islam Islam is the predominant religion of the West African interior and the far west coast of the continent ( 70 % of West Africans ) ; and was introduced to the region by traders in the 9th century . Islam is the religion of the region 's biggest ethnic groups by population . Islamic rules on livelihood , values , dress and practices had a profound effect on the populations and cultures in their predominant areas , so much so that the concept of tribalism is less observed by Islamized groups like the Mande , Wolof , Hausa , Fula and Songhai , than they are by non-Islamized groups . [ http : //www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/westAfrica.html The Islamic World to 1600 : The Fractured Caliphate and the Regional Dynasties ( West Africa ) ] Ethnic intermarriage and shared cultural icons are established through a superseded commonality of belief or community , known as ummah . Traditional Muslim areas include Senegal , Gambia , Mali , Mauritania , Guinea , Niger ; the upper coast and inland two-thirds of Sierra Leone and inland Liberia ; the western , northern and far-eastern regions of Burkina Faso ; and the northern halves of the coastal nations of Nigeria , Benin , Togo , Ghana and Ivory Coast . African traditional Traditional African religions ( noting the many different belief systems ) are the oldest belief systems among the populations of this region , and include Akan religion , Yoruba religion , Odinani , and Serer religion . They are spiritual but also linked to the historical and cultural heritage of the people . Although traditional beliefs vary from one place to the next , there are more similarities than differences . Christianity Christianity , a relative newcomer introduced from the late 19th to mid- to late 20th centuries , is associated with the British and French colonisation eras . It has become the predominant religion in the central and southern part of Nigeria , and the coastal regions stretching from southern Ghana to coastal parts of Sierra Leone . Like Islam , elements of traditional African religion are mixed with Christianity . This religion was brought to the region by European missionaries during the colonial era . Demographics and languages West Africans primarily speak Niger–Congo languages , belonging mostly , though not exclusively , to its non-Bantu branches , though some Nilo-Saharan and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found . The Niger–Congo-speaking Yoruba , Igbo , Fulani , Akan and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential . In the central Sahara , Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant . Chadic-speaking groups , including the Hausa , are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara , and Nilo-Saharan communities , such as the Songhai , Kanuri and Zarma , are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa . The population of West Africa is estimated at 340 million people as of 2013 . Economic and regional organizations The Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ) , founded by the 1975 Treaty of Lagos , is an organization of West African states which aims to promote the region 's economy . The West African Monetary Union ( or UEMOA from its name in French , Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine ) is limited to the eight , mostly Francophone countries that employ the CFA franc as their common currency . The Liptako-Gourma Authority of Mali , Niger , and Burkina Faso seeks to jointly develop the contiguous areas of the three countries . Women 's peace movement Since the adoption of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 in 2000 , women have been engaged in rebuilding war-torn Africa . Starting with the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace and Women in Peacebuilding Network ( WIPNET ) , the peace movement has grown to include women across West Africa . Established on May 8 , 2006 , Women Peace and Security Network - Africa ( WIPSEN-Africa ) , is a women-focused , women-led Pan-African non-governmental organization based in Ghana . The organization has a presence in Ghana , Nigeria , Ivory Coast , Liberia and Sierra Leone . Regional leaders of nonviolent resistance include Leymah Gbowee , Comfort Freeman , and Aya Virginie Toure . Pray the Devil Back to Hell is a documentary film about the origin of this peace movement . The film has been used as an advocacy tool in post-conflict zones like Sudan and Zimbabwe , mobilizing African women to petition for peace and security . Cityscapes of largest cities Gallery File : Praia coast Cape Verde.jpg|Praia , Cape Verde File : Dakar - Panorama_urbain.jpg|Dakar , Senegal File:2008-Lomé-Togo-IBIS-Hotel-Panorama.jpg|Lomé , Togo File : Cotonouskyline.jpg|Cotonou , Benin File : Street scene niamey 2006 002.jpg|Niamey , Niger File : Kwamenkrumah av2.JPG|Ouagadougou , Burkina Faso File : Fort Thornton - Freetown - Sierra Leone.jpg|Freetown , Sierra Leone File : Banjul great mosque.jpg|Banjul , Gambia File : Conakry street ( 3329204314 ) .jpg|Conakry ,

odql_3280--West_Africa.txt

Which African country is bordered to the east by Chad, to the south by Nigeria and Benin, to west by Mali, and to the north by Algeria and Libya?