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Under Milk Wood is a 1954 radio drama by Welsh poet Dylan Thomas , commissioned by the BBC and later adapted for the stage . A film version , Under Milk Wood directed by Andrew Sinclair , was released in 1972 . An omniscient narrator invites the audience to listen to the dreams and innermost thoughts of the inhabitants of the fictional small Welsh fishing village Llareggub ( `` bugger all '' backwards ) . They include Mrs. Ogmore-Pritchard , relentlessly nagging her two dead husbands ; Captain Cat , reliving his seafaring times ; the two Mrs. Dai Breads ; Organ Morgan , obsessed with his music ; and Polly Garter , pining for her dead lover . Later , the town awakens and , aware now of how their feelings affect whatever they do , we watch them go about their daily business . Origins and development When Thomas was staying at New Quay , Cardiganshire , in West Wales , one winter , he went out early one morning into the still sleeping town and verses came to his mind about the inhabitants . He wrote the account of this as a short story named `` Quite Early One Morning '' ( recorded for BBC Wales on 14 December 1944 and broadcast 31 August 1945 ) . He continued to work on the idea for the remaining eight years of his life . In 1931 a 17-year-old Dylan created a piece for the Swansea Grammar School magazine which included a conversation of Milk Wood stylings with Mussolini , Wife , Mr. Pritchard & Mr. Ogmore . In it are lines which are nearly identical to those that would later be found in Milk Wood . A year later in 1932 , Dylan talked at length with his mentor and friend 'The socialist grocer of Brynmill ' , Bert Trick about creating a play about a Welsh seaside town . At Bert Trick 's bungalow in Caswell , Gower in 1933 Dylan read an embryonic 'Under Milk Wood ' . In an interview with Colin Edwards , Bert Trick recalls : `` He read it to Nell and me in our bungalow at Caswell around the old Dover stove , with the paraffin lamps lit at night ... the story was then called Llareggub , which was a mythical village in South Wales , a typical village , with terraced houses with one ty bach to about five cottages and the various characters coming out and emptying the slops and exchanging greetings and so on ; that was the germ of the idea which ... developed into Under Milkwood . ( Dylan Remembered Volume 1 , page 165 ) In `` Quite Early One Morning '' there are numerous ideas and characters that would be further developed for Under Milk Wood . ; for instance , the short story includes a 28 line poem , of which this is the fourth verse ( the name and the final line reappear in Under Milk Wood ) : Open the curtains , light the fire , what are servants for ? I am Mrs. Ogmore Pritchard and I want another snooze . Dust the china , feed the canary , sweep the drawing-room floor ; And before you let the sun in , mind he wipes his shoes . Thomas wrote to his wife , Caitlin ( about 23 May 1953 , from the United States , on notepaper from the Poetry Centre ) , towards the end of a long letter : `` I 've finished that infernally eternally unfinished 'Play ' & have done it in New York with actors . '' He had , in fact , promised to deliver the work on his arrival in New York on 21 April but had completed it in the afternoon of the day it was to be premiered , only after being locked in a room to finish it by his literary agent Liz Reitell - the last lines of the script were handed to the actors as they were putting on their make-up . The same year , he read a part of the script in public for the first time in Cambridge , Massachusetts , at The Poetry Centre . Soon afterwards , with others , he sound-recorded a performance at the 92nd Street Y in New York City , New York . On 9 September 1953 , he delivered a full draft of Under Milk Wood to the BBC as he left for a tour of America , intending to revise the manuscript on his return but on 9 November 1953 he died in New York City . Thomas is reported to have commented that Under Milk Wood was developed in response to the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , as a way of reasserting the evidence of beauty in the world . Llareggub The fictional name Llareggub bears some resemblance to many actual Welsh place names , which often begin with Llan- ( meaning Church , or more correctly , a holy site ) , but the name was actually derived by reversing the phrase `` bugger all '' . In early published editions of the play , it was often rendered ( contrary to Thomas 's wishes ) as Llaregyb or similar . A double-g is not used in written Welsh . If the name were to be pronounced in Welsh as spoken in South Wales , it would be . The geographical inspiration for the town has generated intense debate . Laugharne was the village where Thomas lived intermittently from the 1930s . This town was probably the inspiration for the people of Llareggub , although the topography of the town is thought to be based on New Quay , where Thomas was staying when he started writing the play seriously in 1944 . Both towns use the Under Milk Wood association to attract tourists , hence the rivalry , and the Dylan Thomas Trail has been opened in New Quay . More recent research has indicated that most of the first half of the play was written in South Leigh , Oxfordshire , whilst the second half was mostly written in America in May 1953 . Fewer than 300 lines were written in Laugharne . Thomas drew a sketch map of the fictional town . This is now at the National Library of Wales and can be viewed online . The name Llareggub was first used by Thomas in a short story The Burning Baby published in 1936 . ( `` Death took hold of his sister 's legs as she walked through the calf-high heather up the hill ... She was to him as ugly as the sowfaced woman Llareggub who had taught him the terrors of the flesh . '' ) In the play , the Rev Eli Jenkins writes a poem that describes Llareggub Hill and its `` mystic tumulus '' . This was based on a lyrical description of Twmbarlwm 's `` mystic tumulus '' in Monmouthshire that Thomas imitated from Arthur Machen 's autobiography Far Off Things ( 1922 ) . The town 's name is the inspiration for the country of Llamedos ( sod 'em all ) in Terry Pratchett 's Discworld . In this setting , Llamedos is a parody of Wales . Plot The play opens at night , when the citizens of Llareggub are asleep . The narrator ( First Voice/Second Voice ) informs the audience that they are witnessing the townspeople 's dreams . Captain Cat , the blind sea captain , is tormented in his dreams by his drowned shipmates , who long to live again and enjoy the pleasures of the world . Mog Edwards and Myfanwy Price dream of each other ; Mr. Waldo dreams of his childhood and his failed marriages ; Mrs. Ogmore-Pritchard dreams of her deceased husbands . Almost all of the characters in the play are introduced as the audience witnesses a moment of their dreams . Morning begins . The voice of a guide introduces the town , discussing the facts of Llareggub . The Reverend Eli Jenkins delivers a morning sermon on his love for the village . Lily Smalls wakes and bemoans her pitiful existence . Mr. and Mrs. Pugh observe their neighbours ; the characters introduce themselves as they act in their morning . Mrs. Cherry Owen merrily rehashes her husband 's drunken antics . Butcher Beynon teases his wife during breakfast . Captain Cat watches as Willy Nilly the postman goes about his morning rounds , delivering to Mrs. Ogmore-Pritchard , Mrs. Pugh , Mog Edwards and Mr. Waldo ( `` It 's another paternity summons '' ) . At Mrs. Organ-Morgan 's general shop , women gossip about the townspeople . Willy Nilly and his wife steam open a love letter from Mog Edwards to Myfanwy Price ; he expresses fear that he may be in the poor house if his business does not improve . Mrs. Dai Bread Two swindles Mrs. Dai Bread One with a bogus fortune in her crystal ball . Polly Garter scrubs floors and sings about her past paramours . Children play in the schoolyard ; Gwennie urges the boys to `` kiss her where she says or give her a penny . '' Gossamer Beynon and Sinbad Sailors privately desire each other . During dinner , Mr. Pugh imagines poisoning Mrs. Pugh . Mrs. Organ-Morgan shares the day 's gossip with her husband , but his only interest is the organ . The audience sees a glimpse of Lord Cut-Glass 's insanity in his `` kitchen full of time '' . Captain Cat dreams of his lost lover , Rosie Probert , but weeps as he remembers that she will not be with him again . Nogood Boyo fishes in the bay , dreaming of Mrs. Dai Bread Two and geishas . On Llareggub Hill , Mae Rose Cottage spends a lazy afternoon wishing for love . Reverend Jenkins works on the White Book of Llareggub , which is a history of the entire town and its citizens . On the farm , Utah Watkins struggles with his cattle , aided by Bessie Bighead . As Mrs. Ogmore-Pritchard falls asleep , her husbands return to her . Mae Rose Cottage swears that she will sin until she explodes . As night begins , Reverend Jenkins recites another poem . Cherry Owen heads to the Sailor 's Arms , where Sinbad still longs for Gossamer Beynon . The town prepares for the evening , to sleep or otherwise . Mr. Waldo sings drunkenly at the Sailors Arms . Captain Cat sees his drowned shipmates—and Rosie—as he begins to sleep . Organ-Morgan mistakes Cherry Owen for Johann Sebastian Bach on his way to the chapel . Mog and Myfanwy write to each other before sleeping . Mr. Waldo meets Polly Garter in a forest . Night begins and the citizens of Llareggub return to their dreams again . Characters * Captain Cat – The old blind sea captain who dreams of his deceased shipmates and lost lover Rosie Probert . He is one of the play 's most important characters as he often acts as a narrator . He comments on the goings-on in the village from his window . * Rosie Probert – Captain Cat 's deceased lover , who appears in his dreams . * Myfanwy Price – The sweetshop-keeper who dreams of marrying Mog Edwards . * Mr. Mog Edwards – The draper , enamoured of Myfanwy Price . Their romance , however , is restricted strictly to the letters they write one another and their interactions in their dreams . * Jack Black – The cobbler , who dreams of scaring away young couples . * Evans the Death – The undertaker , who dreams of his childhood . * Mr. Waldo – Rabbit catcher , barber , herbalist , cat doctor , quack , dreams of his mother and his many unhappy , failed marriages . He is a notorious alcoholic and general troublemaker and is involved in an affair with Polly Garter . * Mrs. Ogmore-Pritchard – The owner of a guesthouse , who dreams of nagging her two late husbands . She refuses to let anyone stay at the guesthouse because of her extreme penchant for neatness . * Mr. Ogmore – Deceased , Linoleum salesman , late of Mrs. Ogmore-Pritchard . * Mr. Pritchard – Deceased , failed bookmaker , late of Mrs. Ogmore-Pritchard . He committed suicide `` ironically '' by ingesting disinfectant . * Gossamer Beynon – The schoolteacher ( daughter of Butcher Beynon ) , dreams of a fox-like illicit love . During the day , she longs to be with Sinbad Sailors , but the two never interact . * Organ Morgan – The church organ player has perturbed dreams of music and orchestras within the village . His obsession with music bothers his wife intensely . * Mrs . Organ Morgan – A shop owner who dreams of `` silence , '' as she is disturbed during the day by Organ Morgan 's constant organ-playing . * Mr. & Mrs. Floyd – The cocklers , an elderly couple , seemingly the only couple to sleep peacefully in the village . They are mentioned only during the dream sequence . * Utah Watkins – The farmer , dreams of counting sheep that resemble his wife . * Ocky Milkman – The milkman , dreams of pouring his milk into a river , 'regardless of expense ' . * Mr. Cherry Owen – Dreams of drinking and yet is unable to , as the tankard turns into a fish , which he drinks . * Mrs. Cherry Owen – Cherry Owen 's devoted wife , who cares for him and delights in rehashing his drunken antics . * Police Constable Attila Rees – The policeman , relieves himself into his helmet at night , knowing somehow he will regret this in the morning . * Mr. Willy Nilly – The postman , dreams of delivering the post in his sleep , and physically knocks upon his wife as if knocking upon a door . In the morning they open the post together and read the town 's news so that he can relay it around the village . * Mrs. Willy Nilly – who , because of her husband 's knocking upon her , dreams of being spanked by her teacher for being late for school . She assists Willy Nilly in steaming open the mail . * Mary Ann Sailors – 85 years old , dreams of the Garden of Eden . During the day she announces her age ( `` I 'm 85 years , 3 months and a day ! '' ) to the town . * Sinbad Sailors – The barman , dreams of Gossamer Beynon , whom he can not marry because of his grandmother 's disapproval . * Mae Rose Cottage – Seventeen and never been kissed , she dreams of meeting her `` Mr . Right '' . She spends the day in the fields daydreaming and unseen , draws lipstick circles around her nipples . * Bessie Bighead – Hired help , dreams of the one man that kissed her `` because he was dared '' . * Butcher Beynon – The butcher , dreams of riding pigs and shooting wild giblets . During the day he enjoys teasing his wife about the questionable meat that he sells . * Mrs. Butcher Beynon – Butcher Beynon 's wife , dreams of her husband being 'persecuted ' for selling `` owl 's meat , dogs ' eyes , manchop . '' * Rev . Eli Jenkins – The reverend , poet and preacher , dreams of Eisteddfodau . Author of the White Book of Llareggub . * Mr. Pugh – Schoolmaster , dreams of poisoning his domineering wife . He purchases a book named `` Lives of the Great Poisoners '' for ideas on how to kill Mrs. Pugh ; however , he does not do it . * Mrs. Pugh – The nasty and undesirable wife of Mr. Pugh . * Dai Bread – The bigamist baker who dreams of harems . * Mrs. Dai Bread One – Dai Bread 's first wife , traditional and plain . * Mrs. Dai Bread Two – Dai Bread 's second wife , a mysterious and sultry gypsy . * Polly Garter – An innocent young mother , who dreams of her many babies . During the day , she scrubs floors and sings of her lost love . * Nogood Boyo – A lazy young fisherman who dreams peevishly of `` nothing '' , though he later fantasises about Mrs. Dai Bread Two in a wet corset . He is known for causing shenanigans in the wash house . * Lord Cut-Glass – A man of questionable sanity , who dreams of the 66 clocks that he keeps in his house , all telling different times . * Lily Smalls – Dreams of love and a fantasy life . She is the Beynons ' maid , but longs for a more exciting life . * Gwennie – A child in Llareggub , who insists that her male schoolmates `` kiss her where she says or give her a penny '' . Principal productions Other notable productions The play had its first reading on stage on 14 May 1953 , in New York City , at The Poetry Center at the 92nd Street Y. Thomas himself read the parts of the First Voice and the Reverend Eli Jenkins . Almost as an afterthought , the performance was recorded on a single-microphone tape recording ( the microphone was laid at front center on the stage floor ) and later issued by the Caedmon company . It is the only known recorded performance of Under Milk Wood with Thomas as a part of the cast . A studio recording , planned for 1954 , was precluded by Thomas 's death in November 1953 . The BBC first broadcast Under Milk Wood , a new `` 'Play for Voices '' , on the Third Programme on 25 January 1954 ( two months after Thomas 's death ) , although several sections were omitted . The play was recorded with a distinguished , all-Welsh cast including Richard Burton as 'First Voice ' , with production by Douglas Cleverdon . A repeat was broadcast two days later . Daniel Jones , the Welsh composer who was a lifelong friend of Thomas 's ( and his literary trustee ) , wrote the music ; this was recorded separately , on 15 and 16 January , at Laugharne School . The first attempt to bring the play to the screen occurred in 1957 when the BBC broadcast a televised version narrated by Donald Houston . The play won the Prix Italia award for radio drama that year . In 1963 , the original radio producer , Douglas Cleverdon , revisited the project and recorded the complete play , which was broadcast on 11 October 1963 . The 1972 film adaptation , with Burton reprising his role , also featured Elizabeth Taylor , Peter O'Toole , Glynis Johns , Vivien Merchant and other well-known actors , including Ryan Davies as the `` Second Voice '' . It was filmed on location in Fishguard , Pembrokeshire , and at Lee International Film Studios , London . In 1988 George Martin produced an album version , featuring more of the dialogue sung , with music by Martin and Elton John , among others ; Anthony Hopkins played the part of `` First Voice '' . This was subsequently produced as a one-off stage performance ( as An Evening with Dylan Thomas ) for The Prince 's Trust in the presence of HRH Prince Charles , to commemorate the opening in December 1992 of the new AIR Studios at Lyndhurst Hall . It was again produced by Martin and directed by Hopkins , who once again played 'First Voice ' . Other roles were played by Harry Secombe , Freddie Jones , Catherine Zeta-Jones , Siân Phillips , Jonathan Pryce , Alan Bennett and , especially for the occasion , singer Tom Jones . The performance was recorded for television ( directed by Declan Lowney ) but has never been shown . In 1992 Brightspark Productions released a 50-minute animation version , using an earlier BBC soundtrack with Burton as narrator . This was commissioned by S4C ( a Welsh-language public service broadcaster ) . Music was composed specially by Trevor Herbert and performed by Treorchy Male Voice Choir and the Welsh Brass Consort . Producer Robert Lyons . Director , Les Orton . It was made by Siriol Productions in association with Onward Productions and BBC Pebble Mill . This was released on DVD in October 2008 . DVD ref : 5 037899 005798 . In February 1994 Guy Masterson premiered a one-man physical version of the unabridged text at the Traverse Theatre , Edinburgh playing all 69 characters . This production returned for the subsequent Edinburgh International Fringe Festival and sold out its entire run . It has since played over 2000 times globally . In 1997 Australian pianist and composer Tony Gould 's adaptation of Under Milk Wood ( written for narrator and chamber orchestra ) was first performed by actor John Stanton and the Queensland Philharmonic Orchestra . In November 2003 , as part of their commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of Thomas 's death , the BBC broadcast a new production of the play , imaginatively combining new actors with the original 1954 recording of Burton playing `` First Voice '' . ( Broadcast 15 November 2003 , BBC Radio 4 ; repeated 24 December 2004 . ) Digital noise reduction technology allowed Burton 's part to be incorporated unobtrusively into the new recording , which was intended to represent Welsh voices more realistically than the original . In 2006 Austrian composer Akos Banlaky composed an opera with the libretto based on the German translation by Erich Fried ( Unter dem Milchwald , performed at Tiroler Landestheater in Innsbruck , Austria ) . In 2008 french composer composed an opera , Au Bois lacté , based on his own translation and adaptation of Under Milk Wood . It was created at the Opéra-Théâtre in Metz , France , with staging by Antoine Juliens . The work is for twelve singers , large mixed choir , children choir , accordion , dancer and electronics sounds . In 2008 a ballet version of Under Milk Wood by Independent Ballet Wales toured the UK . It was choreographed by Darius James with music by British composer Thomas Hewitt Jones . A suite including music from the ballet was recorded by Court Lane Music in 2009 . In 2009 and 2010 a translation in Dutch by the Belgian writer Hugo Claus was performed on stage by Jan Decleir and Koen De Sutter on a theatre tour in Belgium and the Netherlands ( e.g . the Zeeland Late-Summer Festival , the Vooruit in Ghent , etc . ) . In 2010 a one-woman production of the text was performed at the Sidetrack Theatre in Sydney , Australia , presented by Bambina Borracha Productions and directed by Vanessa Hughes . Actress Zoe Norton Lodge performed all 64 characters in the play . Presented by the Ottawa Theatre School in March 2011 , directed by Janet Irwin and featuring the graduating class of the Ottawa Theatre School , as well as other Ottawa Actors . In July 2011 Progress Youth Theatre ( Reading , Berkshire , UK ) performed a stage adaptation of the radio script . All visual aspects , such as stage directions , costume , set and lighting design were therefore devised entirely by the youth theatre . The voice parts were shared equally among seven actors , with other actors playing multiple `` named '' parts ( with the exception of Captain Cat , who remained on stage throughout the production ) . The BBC Formula 1 introduction to the 2011 Singapore Grand Prix features extracts of the audio for their opening VT . In 2012 the Sydney Theatre Company staged a production starring Jack Thompson as First Voice and Sandy Gore as Second Voice , with a cast including Bruce Spence , Paula Arundell , Drew Forsythe , Alan John , Drew Livingston and Helen Thomson . The production was staged in the Drama Theatre of the Sydney Opera House . In 2012 , Gould 's 1997 adaptation of Under Milk Wood ( written for narrator and chamber orchestra ) was again performed by actor John Stanton as part of the Victorian College of the Arts Secondary School 's inaugural performance at the Melbourne Recital Centre . Gould played piano and worked with the students as a musical mentor . Guy Masterson of Theatre Tours International has produced and performed a solo version of the play over 2000 times since its world premiere in 1994 . It has been performed at the Edinburgh Festival in 1994 , 1996 , 2000 , 2003 , 2007 and 2010 ; in Adelaide , Australia in 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 and 2012 ; and in London 's West End Arts Theatre . In October 2014 , the BBC launched an interactive ebook entitled Dylan Thomas : The Road To Milk Wood , written by Jon Tregenna and Robin Moore . It deals with the journey from Swansea via the BBC to New York and beyond . Quotations * To begin at the beginning : It is spring , moonless night in the small town , starless and bible-black , the cobblestreets silent and the hunched , courters'-and-rabbits ' wood limping invisible down to the sloeblack , slow , black , crowblack , fishingboatbobbing sea . – opening lines , spoken by First Voice * We are not wholly bad or good , who live our lives under Milk Wood – prayer of the Reverend Eli Jenkins * Black as a chimbley ! * And No-Good Boyo is up to no good ... in the wash house . References in other media * The album Jazz Suite Inspired by Dylan Thomas ' `` Under Milk Wood '' ( 1965 ) by The Stan Tracey Quartet , is one of the most celebrated jazz UK recordings and has been described as `` one of the finest British jazz albums ever made '' . In 1976 the work was later recorded again , with Donald Houston reading all parts and integrating them into the original suite . * The album The Kinks are the Village Green Preservation Society ( 1968 ) by The Kinks was inspired partly by Under Milk Wood , according to its creator , songwriter Ray Davies . Also , the Kinks song `` Polly '' contains the line `` pretty Polly Garter '' . * The album Starless and Bible Black ( 1974 ) by King Crimson is named after a phrase used in the play ( noted in the Quotations section above ) . * The Deutsche Grammophon album We 'll Keep a Welcome ( 2000 ) by Bryn Terfel includes a setting of Eli Jenkins ' Sunset Poem set to music by A. H. D. Troyte , arranged by Chris Hazell . * Hedwig Gorski 's 2015 radio drama [ http : //www.amazon.com/13-Donuts-Original-Radio-Multi-Cultural/dp/1507694938 13 Donuts ] was inspired by Under Milk Wood and the poet claims Thomas as her major inspiration and influence . * Frank Zappa quotes , though not precisely , the passage about Mr. Pugh 's plans to poison his wife during a 1979 London performance of `` Nanook Rubs It , '' which appears as part of a `` Do n't Eat the Yellow Snow '' medley on the live album You Ca n't Do That on Stage Anymore , Vol . 1 ( 1988 ) . * The Decemberists ' song `` Billy Liar '' ( 2004 ) includes references to the character of Nogood Boyo and his fantasy of Mrs. Dai Bread Two and the corset . * Terry Pratchett 's Discworld country of Llamedos is a reference to Llareggub . * The indie-rock band Evans The Death , formed in London in 2011 , take their name from the undertaker . * An operatic adaptation , Under Milk Wood : An Opera , setting a shortened version of the text of the play , was composed by John Metcalf and premiered at Taliesin Arts Centre , Swansea in 2014 .

qw_4280--Under_Milk_Wood.txt

"Which Welsh poet (e.g. ""Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog"") wrote a play ""Under Milk Wood"" that was published posthumously in 1954?"

Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is a term found in English translations of the Bible that is understood differently among the Abrahamic religions . Judaism The Hebrew language phrase ruach ha-kodesh ( Hebrew : רוח הקודש , `` holy spirit '' also transliterated ruaḥ ha-qodesh ) is a term used in the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh ) and Jewish writings to refer to the spirit of YHWH ( רוח יהוה ) . It literally means `` spirit of the holiness '' or `` spirit of the holy place '' . The Hebrew terms ruaḥ qodshəka , `` thy holy spirit '' ( רוּחַ קָדְשְׁךָ ) , and ruaḥ qodshō , `` his holy spirit '' ( רוּחַ קָדְשׁ֑וֹ ) also occur ( when a possessive suffix is added the definite article is dropped ) . The `` Holy Spirit '' in Judaism generally refers to the divine aspect of prophecy and wisdom . It also refers to the divine force , quality , and influence of the Most High God , over the universe or over his creatures , in given contexts . File : Birdhea5.jpg|Early 14th-century Bird 's Head Haggadah : two hands of God appear underneath the text of the Dayenu song , dispensing the manna from heaven File : Moses and burning bush.jpeg|God calling out from the Burning Bush to prophet Moshe , wing panel wall painting , Dura Europos Christianity For the large majority of Christians , The Holy Spirit ( or Holy Ghost , from Old English gast , `` spirit '' ) is the third divine person of The Trinity : The `` Triune God '' manifested as Father , Son , and Holy Spirit ; each aspect itself being God.Grudem , Wayne A . ( 1994 ) . Systematic Theology : An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine . Leicester , England : Inter-Varsity Press ; Grand Rapids , MI : Zondervan . p. 226 . Two symbols from the New Testament canon are associated with the Holy Spirit in Christian iconography : a winged dove , and tongues of fire . Each depiction of the invisible Heavenly Spirit of God arose from different historical accounts in the Gospel narratives ; the first being at the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River where the Holy Spirit was said to descend in the form of a dove as the voice of God the Father spoke as described in Matthew , Mark , and Luke ; the second being from the day of Pentecost , fifty days after Pascha where the descent of the Holy Spirit came upon the Apostles and other followers of Jesus Christ , as tongues of fire as described in the Acts of the Apostles . For Orthodox Christians , the Theophany and Pentecostal troparion are : Theophany Troparion ( Tone 1 ) : When Thou , O Lord , wast baptized in the Jordan , worship of the Trinity wast made manifest ; for the voice of the Father bore witness to Thee , calling Thee His beloved Son . And the Spirit in the form of a dove confirmed the truth of His word . O Christ our God , Who hath appeared and enlightened the world , glory to Thee . Pentecost , Troparion ( Tone 8 ) : Blessed art Thou , Christ our God , Who didst make the fishermen wise by sending down upon them the Holy Spirit , and through them didst draw the world into Thy net . Lover of men , glory to Thee . Pentecost Kontakion ( Tone 8 ) : When the Most High came down and confused the tongues , He divided the nations , but when He distributed the tongues of fire , He called all to unity . And with one accord we glorify the All-Holy Spirit . '' File : Epiphany ( XVIc ) .jpg|Theophany icon depicting the baptism of Christ and the descent of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove above Christ 's head . File : Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|A depiction of the Trinity consisting of God the Holy Spirit along with God the Father and God the Son File : Абраз `` Сашэсце Святога Духа '' .JPG|Pentecost icon depicting the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles and Mary in the form of tongues of flame above their heads . Islam The Holy Spirit ( Arabic : روح القدس Ruh al-Qudus , `` the-Spirit the-Holy '' ) is mentioned a number of times in the Qur'an , where it acts as an agent of divine action or communication . The Muslim interpretation of the Holy Spirit is generally consistent with other interpretations based upon the Old and the New Testaments . On the basis of narrations in certain Hadith some Muslims identify it with the angel Gabriel ( Arabic Jibreel ) . The Spirit ( الروح al-Ruh , without the adjective `` holy '' or `` exalted '' ) is described , among other things , as the creative spirit from God by which God enlivened Adam , and which inspired in various ways God 's messengers and prophets , including Jesus and Abraham . The belief in a `` Holy Trinity '' , according to the Qur'an , is forbidden and deemed to be blasphemy . The same prohibition applies to any idea of the duality of God ( Allah ) . Though grammatical gender has no bearing on sexual identity in non-personal nouns , the term `` Holy Spirit '' translates to , and is used in , the masculine form throughout the Qur'an . Bahá ' í Faith The Bahá ' í Faith has the concept of the Most Great Spirit , seen as the bounty of God . It is usually used to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God who include , among others , Jesus , Muhammad and Bahá ' u'lláh . In Bahá ' í belief , the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with his messenger , and it has been described variously in different religions such as the burning bush to Moses , the sacred fire to Zoroaster , the dove to Jesus , the angel Gabriel to Muhammad , and the Maid of Heaven to Bahá ' u'lláh . The Bahá ' í view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead , but rather is the pure essence of God 's attributes .

qw_14053--Holy_Spirit.txt

What is an alternative name for Whit Sunday the time when, according to Christian tradition, the Holy Spirit descended on the Apostles?

The European Cup ( formerly known as the European Championship and European Nations Cup ) is a rugby league football tournament for European national teams that was first held in 1935 . Originally , the European Cup had three teams , with England , Wales and France each playing each other once . Unlike the Tri-Nations series , there was no final ; the team finishing at the top of the group was deemed the winner . From 1949 to 1956 , a fourth Other Nationalities team entered the European Cup . From 2003 to 2009 , the tournament featured six teams , including Ireland and Scotland . Since 2014 , the European Cup is contested with four teams and the most recent was held in 2015 . It is run by the Rugby League European Federation . History The tournament was initially played annually , with the exception of the years of the Second World War . In 1946–47 , the tournament was altered , with each team playing each other twice , at home and away . The 1949–50 season saw a return to playing only once , but a new team , `` Other Nationalities '' , was added . This team consisted of players who were not English , Welsh , or French playing in the British and French leagues : Australian , New Zealand , Scottish , Irish players , and others all played for this new side . The 1955–56 tournament had no Welsh team , though Welsh players featured for Other Nationalities . The tournament was not played again until 1969–70 . It was revived in 1975 , with the three-team format of England , Wales and France playing each other team only once being made standard . The tournament was cancelled after 1981 , but it was revived under the same format for 1995 and 1996 . The tournament was revamped for 2003 , with Scotland , Ireland and Russia all joining . The new structure saw two groups of three , with the winner of each group meeting in a final . This structure was continued for the 2004 tournament . From 2004 Scotland , Ireland and Wales had to have at least four 'home grown ' players from their domestic competitions ( in the case of Wales this means Welsh clubs playing in the TotalRLConference ) in their squad . Effectively this means that at least one home grown player is guaranteed a start . The 2005 tournament did not include England as a participant ; England will instead play matches against France and New Zealand , giving the European Nations Cup a more level playing field . Georgia won the first ever European Nations qualifying tournament in 2005 , beating both Serbia and the Netherlands to win a spot in the tournament . Starting from 2010 the tournament will be used to choose the team that compete with Australia , New Zealand and England in the Four Nations . Participants * England Knights competed in 2012 * Bold- team still competes Results * Wales qualified for the 2011 Four Nations . * Scotland qualified for the 2016 Four Nations . Total wins

wh_125--Rugby_League_European_Cup.txt

Rugby League - which country are the current holders of the European Cup?

Jan van Eyck ( before c. 1390 – 9 July 1441 ) was an Early Netherlandish painter active in Bruges and one of the most significant Northern Renaissance artists of the 15th century . Outside of the Ghent Altarpiece completed with his brother Hubert van Eyck , and the illuminated miniatures ascribed to Hand G—believed to be Jan—of the Turin-Milan Hours , about 20 surviving paintings are confidently attributed to him , all dated between 1432 and 1439 . Ten , including the Ghent altarpiece , are dated and signed with a variation of his motto , ALS IK KAN ( As I ( Eyck ) can ) always written in Greek characters , transliterate as a pun on his name . Little is known of his early life . The few surviving records indicate that he was born c. 1380–90 , most likely in Maaseik . He took employment as painter and Valet de chambre with John of Bavaria-Straubing , ruler of Holland , in the Hague around 1422 , when he was already a master painter with workshop assistants . After John 's death in 1425 he was employed as court painter to Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy , in Lille , where he remained until 1429 after which he moved to Bruges , working for Philip until his death there in 1441 . It is known that he was highly regarded by Philip , and undertook a number of diplomatic visits abroad on his behalf , including to Lisbon in 1428 to arrange the Duke 's marriage contract with Isabella of Portugal . Van Eyck painted both secular and religious subject matter , including commissioned portraits , donor portraits ( with the donor kneeling before a seated Virgin Mary ) and both large and portable altarpieces . He worked on panel , either as single panels , diptych , triptychs , or polyptychs . He was well paid by Philip , who sought that the painter was secure financially and thus had artistic freedom and could paint `` whenever he pleased '' . His work comes from the International Gothic style , but he soon eclipsed it , in part through a greater emphasis on naturalism and realism . Van Eyck utilised a new level of virtuosity , mainly through the use of oil as a medium ; the fact that oil dries so slowly allowed him more time and more scope for blending and mixing layers of different pigments . He was highly influential and his techniques and style were quickly adopted and refined by Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden and later generations of Early Netherlandish painters . Life and career Early life Little is known of Jan van Eyck 's early life and neither the date nor place of his birth is documented . The first extant record of his life comes from the court of John of Bavaria at The Hague where , between 1422 and 1424 , payments were made to Meyster Jan den malre ( Master Jan the painter ) who was then a court painter with the rank of valet de chambre , with at first one and then two assistants . This suggests a date of birth of 1395 at the latest . However , his apparent age in the London probable self-portrait of 1433 suggests to most scholars a date closer to 1380 . He was identified in the late 1500s as having been born in Maaseik , then a diocese of Liège . This claim is still considered credible on etymological grounds , considering that `` Van Eyck '' means `` of Eyck '' which is an old variant spelling of `` eik '' . It is also supported by the fact that his daughter Lievine was in a nunnery in Maaseik after her father 's death . Further the notes on his study preparatory drawing for Portrait of Cardinal Niccolò Albergati are written in the Maasland dialect . He had a sister Margareta , and at least two brothers , Hubert ( died 1426 ) and Lambert ( active between 1431 and 1442 ) , both of whom were also painters . Yet the order of their births is not known . Another significant , and rather younger , painter who worked in Southern France , Barthélemy van Eyck , is presumed to be a relation . It is not known where Jan was educated , but he had knowledge of Latin and used the Greek and Hebrew alphabets in many of the inscriptions , indicating that he was schooled in the classics . From the coats of arms on his tombstone , it is believed he came from the gentry class . This level of education was rare amongst painters , and surely made him more attractive to Philip as Valet de chambre . Court painter Van Eyck first served John of Bavaria-Straubing , then ruler of Holland , Hainault and Zeeland . By this time van Eyck had assembled a small workshop and was involved in redecorating the Binnenhof palace in The Hague . After John 's death in 1425 he moved to Bruges and came to the attention of Philip the Good c. 1425 . His emergence as a collectable painter generally follows his appointment to Philip 's court , and from this point his activity in the court is comparatively well documented . He served as both court artist and diplomat and became a senior member of the Tournai painters ' guild . On 18 October 1427 , the Feast of St. Luke , he travelled to Tournai to attend a banquet in his honour , also attended by Robert Campin and Rogier van der Weyden . Because of the regular salary he received from the court he was not dependent on commissions , and thus had relative artistic freedom . Over the following decade van Eyck 's reputation and technical ability grew , mostly from his innovative approaches towards the handling and manipulating of oil paint . Unlike most of his peers his reputation never diminished and he remained well regarded over the following centuries . His revolutionary approach to oil was such that a myth , perpetuated by Giorgio Vasari , arose that he had invented oil painting . Jan van Eyck has often been linked as brother to painter and peer Hubert van Eyck , because both have been thought to originate from the same town in Belgium . One of Jan 's most famous works , the Ghent Altarpiece , is believed to be a collaboration between the two , begun c. 1420 by Hubert and completed by Jan in 1432 . Today it is difficult to decide which parts of the altarpiece are by Jan and which by Hubert . Another brother , Lambert , is mentioned in Burgundian court documents , and there is a conjecture that he too was a painter , and that he may have overseen the closing of Jan van Eyck 's Bruges workshop . Maturity and success It is known if van Eyck was considered revolutionary within his lifetime ; his designs and methods were heavily copied and reproduced . His motto , one of the first and still most distinctive signatures in art history , ALS IK KAN ( `` AS I CAN '' ) , a pun on his name , first appeared in 1433 on Portrait of a Man in a Turban , which can be seen as indicative of his emerging self-confidence at the time . The years between 1434 and 1436 are generally considered his high point when he produced works including the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin , Lucca Madonna and Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele . He married the much younger Margaret probably around 1432 , about the same time he bought a house in Bruges ; she is unmentioned before he relocated , while the first of their two children was born in 1434 . Very little is known of Margaret , even her maiden name is lost - contemporary records refer to her mainly as Damoiselle Marguierite . She is thought to have been of aristocratic birth , though from the lower nobility , evidenced from her clothes in this portrait which are fashion but not of the sumptuousness worn by the bride in the Arnolfini Portrait . Later , as the widow of a renowned painter Margaret was afforded a modest pension by the city of Bruges after Jan 's death . At least some of this income was invested in lottery . Records from 1437 on suggest that he was held in high esteem by the upper ranks of Burgundian nobility while also accepting many foreign commissions . He died young in July 1441 , leaving behind many unfinished works to be completed by workshop journeymen ; works that are nevertheless today considered major examples of Early Flemish painting . His local and international reputation was aided by his ties to the then political and cultural influence of the Burgundian court . Following the death of John of Bavaria in 1425 , van Eyck entered the service of the powerful and influential Valois prince , Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy . He moved to Lille for a year soon after completing the Ghent Altarpiece , and then to Bruges , where he lived until his death in 1441 . A number of documents published in the 20th century record his activities in Philip 's service . He was sent on several diplomatic missions on behalf of the Duke , and worked on several projects which likely entailed more than painting , such as his difficult journey to Lisbon along with a group intended to prepare the ground for the Duke 's wedding to Isabella of Portugal . Van Eyck 's task was to paint the bride , so that the Duke could visualise her before their marriage . Because Portugal was ridden with plague , their court was itinerant and the Dutch party met them at the out of the way castle of Aviz . Van Eyck spent nine months there , returning successfully to the Netherlands with Isabella as a bride to be ; the couple married on Christmas Day of 1429 . The princess was probably not particularly attractive , and that is exactly how Van Eyck conveyed her in the now lost portrait . Typically he showed his sitters as dignified , yet did not hide their imperfections . After his return , he was preoccupied with completing the Ghent Altarpiece , which was concentrated on 6 May 1432 at Saint Bavo Cathedral during an official ceremony for Philip . Van Eyck undertook a number of other journeys on Philip 's behalf between 1426 and 1429 , journeys described in records as `` secret '' commissions , for which he was paid multiples of his annual salary . Their precise nature is still unknown , but they seem to involve his acting as envoy of the court . In 1426 he departed for `` certain distant lands '' , possibly to the Holy Land , a theory given weight by the topographical accuracy of Jerusalem in The Three Marys at the Tomb , a painting completed by members of his workshop c 1440 . As court painter and valet de chambre to the Duke , van Eyck was exceptionally well paid . His annual salary was quite high when he was first engaged , but it doubled twice in the first few years , and was often supplemented by special bonuses . His salary alone makes him an exceptional figure among early Netherlandish painters , since most of them depended on individual commissions for their livelihoods . An indication that his art and person were held in extraordinarily high regard is a document from 1435 in which the Duke scolded his treasurers for not paying the painter his salary , arguing that van Eyck would leave and that he would nowhere be able to find his equal in his `` art and science '' . Philip also served as godfather to one of van Eyck 's children , supported his widow upon the painter 's death , and years later helped one of his daughters with the funds required to enter a convent . Jan van Eyck died in Bruges on 9 July 1441 and was buried in the graveyard of the Church of St Donatian . As a mark of respect , Philip made a one off payment to Jan 's widow Margaret , to a value equal to the artist 's annual salary . After Jan 's death , Lambert van Eyck continued to run the workshop , and over the next few years Jan 's reputation and stature steadily grew . Early in 1442 Lambert had the body exhumed and placed in a location inside St. Donatian 's Cathedral . In 1449 he is mentioned by the Italian humanist and antiquarian Ciriaco de ' Pizzicolli as a painter of note and ability , and he is recorded by Bartolomeo Facio in 1456 . Giorgio Vasari credits him ( erroneously ) with the invention of oil painting in 1550 . Works Jan van Eyck produced paintings for private clients in addition to his work at the court . Foremost among these is the Ghent Altarpiece painted for the merchant , financier and politician Jodocus Vijdts and his wife Elisabeth Borluut . Started sometime before 1426 and completed by 1432 , the polyptych is seen as representing `` the final conquest of reality in the North '' , differing from the great works of the Early Renaissance in Italy by virtue of its willingness to forgo classical idealisation in favor of the faithful observation of nature . Even though we can assume , given the demand and fashion , he produced a number of triptychs , only the Dresden example survives . A number of extant portraits may be wings of dismantled polyptychs . Tell tale signs are hinges on original frames , the sitter 's orientation , or praying hands , or the inclusion of iconographical elements in an otherwise seemingly secular portrait . Turin-Milan Hours : Hand G Since 1901 Jan van Eyck has often been credited as the anonymous artist known as Hand G of the Turin-Milan Hours . If this is correct , the Turin illustrations are the only known works from his early period ; according to Thomas Kren the earlier dates for Hand G precede any known panel painting in an Eyckian style , which `` raise [ s ] provocative questions about the role that manuscript illumination may have played in the vaunted verisimilitude of Eyckian oil painting '' . The evidence for attributing van Eyck rests on part on the fact that although the figures are mostly of the International Gothic type , they reappear in some of his later work . In addition , there are coats of arms connected with the Wittelsbach family with whom he had connections in the Hague , while some of the figures in the miniatures echo the horsemen in the Ghent Altarpiece . Most of these miniatures were destroyed by fire in 1904 and survive only in photographs and copies ; only three pages at most attributed to Hand G now survive , those with large miniatures of the Birth of John the Baptist , the Finding of the True Cross and the Office of the Dead ( or Requiem Mass ) , with the bas-de-page miniatures and initials of the first and last of these . The Office of the Dead is often seen as recalling Jan 's 1438–40 Madonna in the Church . Four more were lost in 1904 : all the elements of the pages with the miniatures called The Prayer on the Shore ( or Duke William of Bavaria at the Seashore , the Sovereign 's prayer etc . ) , and the night-scene of the Betrayal of Christ ( which was already described by Durrieu as `` worn '' before the fire ) , the Coronation of the Virgin and its bas-de-page , and the large picture only of the seascape Voyage of St Julian & St Martha . Virgin iconography Except for the Ghent Altarpiece , all of van Eyck 's religious works feature the Virgin Mary as the central figure . She is typically seated , wearing a jewel-studded crown , cradling a playful child Christ who gazes at her and grips the hem of her dress in a manner that recalls the 13th-century Byzantine tradition of the Eleusa icon ( Virgin of Tenderness ) . She is sometimes shown reading a Book of Hours . She usually wears red . In the 1432 Ghent Altarpiece Mary wears a crown adorned with flowers and stars . She is dressed as a bride , and reads from a girdle book draped with green cloth , perhaps an element borrowed from Robert Campin 's Virgin Annunciate . But this work contain a number of motifs that later reappear ; she is already Queen of Heaven , wearing a crown adorned with flowers and stars . The earlier works tend to be donor portraits , where Mary is presented as an apparition before a donor kneeling in prayer to the side . The idea of a saint appearing before a layperson was common in Northern donor portraits of the period . In Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele ( 1434–36 ) , the Canon seems as if having just momentarily paused to reflect on a passage from his hand-held bible as the Virgin and Child with two saints appear before him , as if embodiments of his prayer . Mary 's role in van Eyck 's donor portraits reflects the beliefs of the period , and should be viewed in the context of the cult and worship surrounding her at the time , especially in terms of the often densely layered iconography . In the early 15th century Mary grew in importance as an intercessor between the divine and members of the Christian faith . The concept of purgatory as an intermediary state that each soul had to pass through before admission to heaven was at its height . Prayer was the most obvious means of decreasing time in limbo , while the wealthy could commission new churches , extensions to existing ones , or devotional portraits . At the same time , there was a trend towards the sponsorship of requiem masses , often as part of the terms of a will , a practice that Joris van der Paele actively sponsored . With this income he endowed the churches with embroidered cloths and metal accessories such as chalices , plates and candlesticks . Eyck usually gives Mary three roles : Mother of Christ ; the personification of the `` Ecclesia Triumphans '' ; or Queen of Heaven . The idea of Mary as a metaphor for the Church itself is especially strong in his later paintings . In Madonna in the Church she dominates the cathedral ; her head is almost level with the approximately sixty feet high gallery . Art historian Otto Pächt describes the interior of Madonna in the Church as a `` throne room '' which envelopes her as if a `` carrying case '' . This distortion of scale is found in a number of other of his Madonna paintings , including Annunciation . Her monumental stature borrows from the works of 12th- and 13th-century Italian artists such as Cimabue and Giotto , who in turn reflect a tradition reaching back to an Italo-Byzantine type and emphasis her identification with the cathedral itself . Art historians in the 19th century thought the work was executed early in van Eyck 's career and attributed her scale as the mistake of a relatively immature painter . The idea that her size represents her embodiment as the church was first suggested by Erwin Panofsky in 1941 . Till-Holger Borchert says that van Eyck did not paint her as `` the Madonna in a church '' , but instead as metaphor , presenting Mary `` as the Church '' . The later works contain very exact architectural details , but are not modeled any actual historical buildings . He probably sought to create an ideal and perfect space for Mary 's apparition , and was more concerned with their visual impact rather than physical possibility . The Marian paintings are characterized by complex depictions of both physical space and light sources . Many of van Eyck 's religious works contain a reduced interior space that is nonetheless subtly managed and arranged to convey a sense of intimacy without feeling constricted . The Madonna of Chancellor Rolin is lit from both from the central portico and side windows , while the floor-tiles in comparison to other elements shows that the figures are only about six feet from the columned loggia screen , and that Rolin might have had to squeeze himself through the opening to get out that way . The different elements of the cathedral are in Madonna in the Church are so specifically detailed , and the elements of Gothic and contemporary architecture so well delineated , that many art and architecture historians have concluded that he must have had enough architectural knowledge to make nuanced distinctions . Given the accuracy of the descriptions , many scholars have tried to link the painting with particular buildings . But in all the buildings in van Eyck 's work , the structure is imagined and probably an idealized formation of what he viewed as a perfect architectural space . This can be seen from the many examples of features that would be unlikely in a contemporary church , including the placing of a round arched triforium above a pointed colonnade in the Berlin work . All of the Marian work 's are heavily lined with inscriptions , many of which reoccur in a number of pieces . The lettering on the arched throne above Mary 's depiction in the Ghent Altarpiece is taken from a passage from the Book of Wisdom ( 7:29 ) : `` She is more beautiful than the sun and the army of the stars ; compared to the light she is superior . She is truly the reflection of eternal light and a spotless mirror of God '' . Wording from the same source is found on the hem of her robe and on the frame of Madonna in the Church , and on her dress in Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele , reading EST ENIM HAEC SPECIOSIOR SOLE ET SUPER OMNEM STELLARUM DISPOSITIONEM . LUCI CONPARATA INVENITUR PRIOR Inscriptions are present in all of van Eyck 's paintings , but predominant in his Marian paintings . They seem to serve a number functions . They breathe life into portraits and give voice to those worshiping Mary but also play a functional role ; given that contemporary religious works were commissioned for private devotion , the inscriptions may have been intended to be read as an incantation or personalized indulgence prayers . Harbison notes that van Eyck 's privately commissioned works are unusually heavily inscribed with prayer , and that the words may have served a similar function to prayer tablets , or more exactly `` Prayer Wings '' , of the type seen in the reconstructed London Virgin and Child triptych . Secular portraits Van Eyck was highly sought after as a portrait artist . Growing affluence across northern Europe meant that portraiture was no longer the preserve of royalty or the high aristocracy . An emerging merchant middle class , coupled with a growing awareness of humanist ideas of individual identity , led to a demand both for secular and donor portraits . Van Eyck 's portraits are characterized by his manipulation of oil paint and a meticulous attention to detail ; his keen powers of observation and his tendency to apply layers of thin translucent glazes to create intensity of color and tone . He pioneered portraiture during the 1430s and was admired as far away as Italy for the naturalness of his depictions . Today , eight three-quarters view portraits ( excluding the London possible self-portrait ) are attributed . His style was widely adopted , most notably by van der Weyden , Petrus Christus and Hans Memling . The small Portrait of a Man with a Blue Chaperon of c. 1430 is his earliest surviving portrait . It evidences many of the elements that were to become standard in his portraiture style , including the three-quarters view ( a type he revived from antiquity which soon spread across Europe ) , directional lighting , elaborate headdress , and for the single portraits , the framing of the figure within an undefined narrow space , set against a flat black background . It is noted for its realism and acute observation of the small details of the sitter 's appearance ; the man has a light beard of one or two days ' growth , a reoccurring feature in van Eyck 's early male portraits , where the sitter is often either unshaven , or according to Lorne Campbell `` rather inefficiently shaved '' . Campbell lists other van Eyck unshaven sitters ; Niccolò Albergati ( 1431 ) , Jodocus Vijdt ( 1432 ) , Jan van Eyck ? ( 1433 ) , Joris van der Paele ( c. 1434–36 ) , Nicolas Rolin ( 1435 ) and Jan de Leeuw ( 1436 ) . Notes made on the reverse of his paper study for the Portrait of Cardinal Niccolò Albergati give insight Eyck 's approach . Of his aspiration to record beard growth he wrote , `` die stoppelen vanden barde wal grijsachtig '' ( the stubble of the beard grizzled ) . On the other aspects of his attempts to record the old man 's face he noted , `` the iris of the eye , near the back of the pupil , brownish yellow . On the contours next to the white , bluish ... the white also yellowish ... '' The Léal Souvenir portrait of 1432 continues the adherence to realism and acute observation of the small details of the sitter 's appearance . However , by his later works , the sitter is at more of a distance , and the attention to detail less marked . The descriptions are less forensic , more of an overview , while the forms are broader and flatter . Even in his early works , his descriptions of the model are not faithful reproductions ; parts of the sitters face or form were altered to either present a better composition or fit an ideal . He often altered the relative proportions of his models head and body so that he could better focus on the elements of their features that interested him . This led to distortions ; in the portrait of his wife he altered the angle of her nose , and gave her a fashionably high forehead that nature had not . The stone parapet at the base of the canvas of Léal Souvenir is painted as if to simulate marked or scarred stone and contains three separate layers of inscriptions , each rendered in an illusionistic manner , giving the impression they are chiseled onto stone . van Eyck typically set the inscriptions in the sitters voice , so that they , according to Till-Holger Borchert `` appear to be speaking '' . Examples include the Portrait of Jan de Leeuw which reads ... Jan de [ Leeuw ] , who first opened his eyes on the Feast of St Ursula [ 21 October ] , 1401 . Now Jan van Eyck has painted me , you can see when he began it . 1436 . In Portrait of Margaret van Eyck of 1439 the lettering acclaims My husband Johannes completed me in the year 1439 on 17 June , at the age of 33 . As I can . Hands play a special significance in van Eyck 's paintings and at least one is prominently held up . In his early portraits the sitters are often shown holding objects indicative of their profession . The man in Léal Souvenir may have been a legal professional as he holds a scroll resembling a legal document . The Arnolfini Portrait of 1432 is filled with illusionism and symbolism , Dhanens ( 1980 ) , 198 as is the 1435 Madonna of Chancellor Rolin , commissioned to display Rolin 's power , influence and piety.Dhanens ( 1980 ) , 269–270 Style Iconography Van Eyck 's work is characterised by the use of symbolism and biblical references . Van Eyck incorporated a wide variety of iconographic elements , often conveying what he saw as a co-existence of the spiritual and material worlds . The iconography was embedded in the work unobtrusively ; typically the references comprised small but key background details . Van Eyck pioneered , and his innovations were taken up and developed by van der Weyden , Memling and Christus . Each employed rich and complex iconographical elements to create a heightened sense of contemporary beliefs and spiritual ideals . Craig Harbison describes the

qw_14119--Jan_van_Eyck.txt

In what field was the 15th century Flemish Jan van Eyck famous?

Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet , the regions surrounding the Himalayas and much of Central Asia . It derives from the latest stages of Indian Buddhism and preserves `` the Tantric status quo of eighth-century India . '' Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body . Religious texts and commentaries comprise the Tibetan Buddhist canon , such that Tibetan is a spiritual language of these areas . Among its prominent exponents is the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet . The number of its adherents is estimated to be between ten and twenty million . Nomenclature Westerners unfamiliar with Tibetan Buddhism initially turned to China for an understanding . There the term used was `` lamaism '' ( literally , `` doctrine of the lamas '' : lama jiao ) to distinguish it from a then traditional Chinese form ( fo jiao ) . The term was taken up by western scholars including Hegel , as early as 1822 . Insofar as it implies a discontinuity between Indian and Tibetan Buddhism , the term has been discredited . Another term , `` Vajrayāna '' is occasionally used mistakenly for Tibetan Buddhism . More accurately , it signifies a certain subset of practices included in , not only Tibetan Buddhism , but other forms of Buddhism as well . The native Tibetan term for all Buddhism is `` doctrine of the internalists '' ( nang-pa ' i chos : …of those who emphasise introspection ) . In the west the term `` Indo-Tibetan Buddhism '' has become current , in acknowledgement of its derivation from the latest stages of Buddhist development in northern India . Buddhahood Tibetan Buddhism comprises the teachings of the three vehicles of Buddhism : the Foundational Vehicle , Mahāyāna , and Vajrayāna . The Mahāyāna goal of spiritual development is to achieve the enlightenment of buddhahood in order to most efficiently help all other sentient beings attain this state . The motivation in it is the bodhicitta mind of enlightenment — an altruistic intention to become enlightened for the sake of all sentient beings . Bodhisattvas are revered beings who have conceived the will and vow to dedicate their lives with bodhicitta for the sake of all beings . Tibetan Buddhism teaches methods for achieving buddhahood more quickly by including the Vajrayāna path in Mahāyāna . Buddhahood is defined as a state free of the obstructions to liberation as well as those to omniscience . When one is freed from all mental obscurations , one is said to attain a state of continuous bliss mixed with a simultaneous cognition of emptiness , the true nature of reality . In this state , all limitations on one 's ability to help other living beings are removed . It is said that there are countless beings who have attained buddhahood . Buddhas spontaneously , naturally and continuously perform activities to benefit all sentient beings . However it is believed that one 's karma could limit the ability of the Buddhas to help them . Thus , although Buddhas possess no limitation from their side on their ability to help others , sentient beings continue to experience suffering as a result of the limitations of their own former negative actions . General methods of practice Transmission and realization There is a long history of oral transmission of teachings in Tibetan Buddhism . Oral transmissions by lineage holders traditionally can take place in small groups or mass gatherings of listeners and may last for seconds ( in the case of a mantra , for example ) or months ( as in the case of a section of the Tibetan Buddhist canon ) . It is held that a transmission can even occur without actually hearing , as in Asanga 's visions of Maitreya . An emphasis on oral transmission as more important than the printed word derives from the earliest period of Indian Buddhism , when it allowed teachings to be kept from those who should not hear them . Hearing a teaching ( transmission ) readies the hearer for realization based on it . The person from whom one hears the teaching should have heard it as one link in a succession of listeners going back to the original speaker : the Buddha in the case of a sutra or the author in the case of a book . Then the hearing constitutes an authentic lineage of transmission . Authenticity of the oral lineage is a prerequisite for realization , hence the importance of lineages . Analytic meditation and fixation meditation Spontaneous realization on the basis of transmission is possible but rare . Normally an intermediate step is needed in the form of analytic meditation , i.e. , thinking about what one has heard . As part of this process , entertaining doubts and engaging in internal debate over them is encouraged in some traditions . Analytic meditation is just one of two general methods of meditation . When it achieves the quality of realization , one is encouraged to switch to `` focused '' or `` fixation '' meditation . In this the mind is stabilized on that realization for periods long enough to gradually habituate it to it . A person 's capacity for analytic meditation can be trained with logic . The capacity for successful focused meditation can be trained through śamatha . A meditation routine may involve alternating sessions of analytic meditation to achieve deeper levels of realization , and focused meditation to consolidate them . The deepest level of realization is Buddhahood itself . Devotion to a guru As in other Buddhist traditions , an attitude of reverence for the teacher , or guru , is also highly prized . At the beginning of a public teaching , a lama will do prostrations to the throne on which he will teach due to its symbolism , or to an image of the Buddha behind that throne , then students will do prostrations to the lama after he is seated . Merit accrues when one 's interactions with the teacher are imbued with such reverence in the form of guru devotion , a code of practices governing them that derives from Indian sources . By such things as avoiding disturbance to the peace of mind of one 's teacher , and wholeheartedly following his prescriptions , much merit accrues and this can significantly help improve one 's practice . There is a general sense in which any Tibetan Buddhist teacher is called a lama . A student may have taken teachings from many authorities and revere them all as lamas in this general sense . However , he will typically have one held in special esteem as his own root guru and is encouraged to view the other teachers who are less dear to him , however more exalted their status , as embodied in and subsumed by the root guru . Often the teacher the student sees as root guru is simply the one who first introduced him to Buddhism , but a student may also change his personal view of which particular teacher is his root guru any number of times . Skepticism Skepticism is an important aspect of Tibetan Buddhism . A critical attitude is encouraged to promote abilities in analytic meditation . In favor of skepticism towards Buddhist doctrines in general , Tibetans are fond of quoting sutra to the effect that one should test the Buddha 's words as one would the quality of gold . The opposing principles of skepticism and guru devotion are reconciled with the Tibetan injunction to scrutinize a prospective guru thoroughly before finally adopting him as such without reservation . A Buddhist may study with a lama for decades before finally accepting him as his own guru . Preliminary practices and approach to Vajrayāna Vajrayāna is believed by Tibetan Buddhists to be the fastest method for attaining Buddhahood but for unqualified practitioners it can be dangerous . To engage in it one must receive an appropriate initiation ( also known as an `` empowerment '' ) from a lama who is fully qualified to give it . From the time one has resolved to accept such an initiation , the utmost sustained effort in guru devotion is essential . The aim of preliminary practices ( ngöndro ) is to start the student on the correct path for such higher teachings . Just as Sutrayāna preceded Vajrayāna historically in India , so sutra practices constitute those that are preliminary to tantric ones . Preliminary practices include all Sutrayāna activities that yield merit like hearing teachings , prostrations , offerings , prayers and acts of kindness and compassion , but chief among the preliminary practices are realizations through meditation on the three principle stages of the path : renunciation , the altruistic bodhicitta wish to attain enlightenment and the wisdom realizing emptiness . For a person without the basis of these three in particular to practice Vajrayāna can be like a small child trying to ride an unbroken horse . While the practices of Vajrayāna are not known in Sutrayāna , all Sutrayāna practices are common to Vajrayāna . Without training in the preliminary practices , the ubiquity of allusions to them in Vajrayāna is meaningless and even successful Vajrayāna initiation becomes impossible . The merit acquired in the preliminary practices facilitates progress in Vajrayāna . While many Buddhists may spend a lifetime exclusively on sutra practices , however , an amalgam of the two to some degree is common . For example , in order to train in calm abiding , one might use a tantric visualisation as the meditation object . Esotericism In Vajrayāna particularly , Tibetan Buddhists subscribe to a voluntary code of self-censorship , whereby the uninitiated do not seek and are not provided with information about it . This self-censorship may be applied more or less strictly depending on circumstances such as the material involved . A depiction of a mandala may be less public than that of a deity . That of a higher tantric deity may be less public than that of a lower . The degree to which information on Vajrayāna is now public in western languages is controversial among Tibetan Buddhists . Buddhism has always had a taste for esotericism since its earliest period in India . Tibetans today maintain greater or lesser degrees of confidentiality also with information on the vinaya and emptiness specifically . In Buddhist teachings generally , too , there is caution about revealing information to people who may be unready for it . Study of tenet systems Tibetan Buddhists practice one or more understandings of the true nature of reality , śūnyatā , or the emptiness of inherent existence of all things . Emptiness is propounded according to four classical Indian schools of philosophical tenets . Two belong to the older path referred to as the Hinayana : * Vaibhāṣika ( ) * Sautrāntika ( ) The primary source for the former is the Abhidharma-kośa of Vasubandhu and its commentaries . The Abhidharmakośa was also an important source for the Sautrāntikas . Dignāga and Dharmakīrti are the most prominent exponents . The other two are Mahayana : * Yogācāra , also called Cittamātra `` Mind-Only '' ( ) * Madhyamaka ( ) Yogacārins base their views on texts from Maitreya , Asaṅga and Vasubandhu , Madhyamakas on Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva . There is a further classification of Madhyamaka into Svatantrika and Prasaṅgika . The former stems from Bhāviveka , Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla and the latter from Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti . The tenet system is used in the monasteries and colleges to teach Buddhist philosophy in a systematic and progressive fashion , each philosophical view being more subtle than its predecessor . Therefore , the four schools can be seen as a gradual path from a rather easy-to-grasp , `` realistic '' philosophical point of view , to more and more complex and subtle views on the ultimate nature of reality , that is on emptiness and dependent arising , culminating in the philosophy of the Mādhyamikas , which is widely believed to present the most sophisticated point of view . Schools The diagram to the right shows the growth of Tibetan Buddhist traditions . The four main ones overlap markedly , such that `` about eighty percent or more of the features of the Tibetan schools are the same '' . Differences include the use of apparently , but not actually , contradictory terminology , opening dedications of texts to different deities and whether phenomena are described from the viewpoint of an unenlightened practitioner or of a Buddha . On questions of philosophy they have no fundamental differences , according to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama . The Tibetan adjectival suffix -pa meaning `` man '' or `` person '' is translatable as English `` -ist '' , e.g. , `` Nyingmapa '' is `` person who practises Nyingma '' . Nyingma `` The Ancient Ones '' is the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism and the original order founded by Padmasambhava and Śāntarakṣita . Whereas other schools categorize their teachings into the three yānas or `` vehicles '' , Hīnayāna , Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna , the Nyingma tradition classifies its teachings into Nine Yānas , among the highest of which is Dzogchen . Terma `` treasures '' ( revealed texts ) are of particular significance to the Nyingma school . Kagyu `` Lineage of the ( Buddha 's ) Word '' . This is an oral tradition which is very much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation . Its most famous exponent was Milarepa , an 11th-century mystic . It contains one major and one minor subsect . The first , the Dagpo Kagyu , encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to the Indian master Naropa via Marpa Lotsawa , Milarepa and Gampopa and consists of four major sub-sects : the Karma Kagyu , headed by a Karmapa , the Tsalpa Kagyu , the Barom Kagyu , and Pagtru Kagyu . There are a further eight minor sub-sects , all of which trace their root to Pagtru Kagyu and the most notable of which are the Drikung and Drukpa Lineages . The once-obscure Shangpa Kagyu , which was famously represented by the 20th century teacher Kalu Rinpoche , traces its history back to the Indian master Naropa via Niguma , Sukhasiddhi and Khyungpo Naljor . Sakya The `` Grey Earth '' school represents the scholarly tradition . Headed by the Sakya Trizin , this tradition was founded by Khön Könchok Gyelpo ( , 1034–1102 ) , a disciple of the great lotsāwa Drogmi Shākya ( ) and traces its lineage to the mahasiddha Virūpa . A renowned exponent , Sakya Pandita ( 1182–1251CE ) , was the great-grandson of Khön Könchok Gyelpo . Gelug The `` Way of Virtue '' school was originally a reformist movement and is known for its emphasis on logic and debate . The order was founded in the 14th to 15th century by Je Tsongkhapa , renowned for both his scholarship and virtue . Its spiritual head is the Ganden Tripa and its temporal one the Dalai Lama . The Dalai Lama is regarded as the embodiment of Avalokiteśvara . Successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries . These first four major schools are sometimes said to constitute the Nyingma `` Old Translation '' and Sarma `` New Translation '' traditions , the latter following from the historical Kadam lineage of translations and tantric lineages . Another common but trivial differentiation is into the Yellow Hat ( Gelug ) and Red Hat ( non-Gelug ) sects , a division that mirrors the distinction between the schools involved in the Rimé movement versus the one that did not , the Gelug . The correspondences are as follows : Jonang The Jonang is a minor school that branched off from Sakya traditions ; it was suppressed in 1650 in Gelug-controlled regions and subsequently banned and its monks and nuns converted to the Gelug school in 1658 . The Jonang re-established their religio-political center in Golok , Nakhi and Mongol areas in Kham and Amdo centered at Dzamthang Monastery and have continued practicing uninterrupted to this day . An estimated 5,000 monks and nuns of the Jonang tradition practice today in these areas and at the edges of historic Gelug influence . However , their teachings were limited to these regions until the Rimé movement of the 19th century encouraged the study of non-Gelug schools of thought and practice.Gruschke 2001 , p.72 ; and A. Gruschke , `` Der Jonang-Orden : Gründe für seinen Niedergang , Voraussetzungen für das Überdauern und aktuelle Lage '' , in : Henk Blezer ( ed . ) , Tibet , Past and Present . Tibetan Studies I ( Proceedings of the Ninth Seminar of The IATS , 2000 ) , Brill Academic Publishers , Leiden 2002 , pp . 183-214 In modern times it has been encouraged to grow by the 14th Dalai Lama , who installed the 9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu as its head . Native Tibetan developments A distinct feature of Tibetan Buddhism which is popularly held to be an innovation is the system of incarnate lamas , . Moreover , that even this is a distinctly Tibetan development is disputable . Two centuries before Buddhism was introduced to Tibet , in the fifth century CE , the Abhidharma teacher Buddhaghoṣa was declared by Sri Lankan elders to be a reincarnation of the bodhisattva Maitreya . Significant genuine innovations in Tibetan Buddhism have been few . A small corpus of extra-canonical scripture , the treasure texts ( terma ) literature is acknowledged by Nyingma practitioners , but the bulk of the canon that is not commentary was translated from Indian , central Asian or Chinese sources . True to its roots in the Pāla system of North India , however , Tibetan Buddhism carries on a tradition of eclectic accumulation and systematisation of diverse Buddhist elements , and pursues their synthesis . Prominent among these achievements have been the Stages of the Path and mind training , both stemming from teachings by the Indian pandit , Atiśa . Tibetan Buddhism in the contemporary world Today , Tibetan Buddhism is adhered to widely in the Tibetan Plateau , Mongolia , northern Nepal , Kalmykia ( on the north-west shore of the Caspian ) , Siberia , the Russian Far East ( Tuva and Buryatia ) and northeast China . It is the state religion of Bhutan . The Indian regions of Sikkim and Ladakh , both formerly independent kingdoms , are also home to significant Tibetan Buddhist populations , as are the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh ( which includes Dharamsala and the district of Lahaul-Spiti ) and Arunachal Pradesh . In the wake of the Tibetan diaspora , Tibetan Buddhism has gained adherents in the West and throughout the world . Fully ordained Tibetan Buddhist Monks now work in academia ( see Ven . Alex Bruce ( 'Tenpa ' ) ) . Buddhist author Michaela Haas notes that Tibetan Buddhism is undergoing a sea change in the West . `` Of all these changes that we are watching Buddhism undergo in the West , the most momentous may be that women are playing an equal role . '' Women in Tibetan Buddhism Under the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya , as with the two other extant Vinaya lineages today ( Theravada and Dharmaguptaka ) , in order to ordain bhikṣuṇīs , there must be quorums of both bhikṣuṇīs and bhikṣus ; without both , a woman can not be ordained as a nun ( ) . When Buddhism traveled from India to Tibet , apparently the quorum of bhikṣuṇīs required for bestowing full ordination never reached Tibet . Despite an absence of ordination there , bhikṣuṇīs did travel to Tibet . A notable example was the Sri Lankan nun Candramāla , whose work with Śrījñāna ( ) resulted in the tantric text Śrīcandramāla Tantrarāja ( , ) . There are singular accounts of fully ordained Tibetan women , such as the Samding Dorje Phagmo ( 1422-1455 ) , who was once ranked the highest female master in Tibet , but very little is known about the exact circumstances of their ordination . The Dalai Lama has authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination . According to Thubten Chodron , the current Dalai Lama has said on this issue : # In 2005 , the Dalai Lama repeatedly spoke about the bhikṣuṇī ordination in public gatherings . In Dharamsala , he encouraged , `` We need to bring this to a conclusion . We Tibetans alone ca n't decide this . Rather , it should be decided in collaboration with Buddhists from all over the world . Speaking in general terms , were the Buddha to come to this 21st century world , I feel that most likely , seeing the actual situation in the world now , he might change the rules somewhat .... '' # Later , in Zurich during a 2005 conference of Tibetan Buddhist Centers , His Holiness said , `` Now I think the time has come ; we should start a working group or committee '' to meet with monks from other Buddhist traditions . Looking at the German bhikṣuṇī Jampa Tsedroen , he instructed , `` I prefer that Western Buddhist nuns carry out this work… Go to different places for further research and discuss with senior monks ( from various Buddhist countries ) . I think , first , senior bhikshunis need to correct the monks ' way of thinking . # '' This is the 21st century . Everywhere we are talking about equality….Basically Buddhism needs equality . There are some really minor things to remember as a Buddhist -- a bhikshu always goes first , then a bhikshuni….The key thing is the restoration of the bhikshuni vow . '' Alexander Berzin referred to the Dalai Lama having said on occasion of the 2007 Hamburg congress : Sometimes in religion there has been an emphasis on male importance . In Buddhism , however , the highest vows , namely the bhikshu and bhikshuni ones , are equal and entail the same rights . This is the case despite the fact that in some ritual areas , due to social custom , bhikshus go first . But Buddha gave the basic rights equally to both sangha groups . There is no point in discussing whether or not to revive the bhikshuni ordination ; the question is merely how to do so properly within the context of the Vinaya . Pema Chödrön is an American woman who was ordained as a bhikṣuṇī in a lineage of Tibetan Buddhism in 1981 . Pema Chödrön was the first American woman to be ordained as a Buddhist nun in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition . In 2010 the first Tibetan Buddhist nunnery in America , Vajra Dakini Nunnery in Vermont , was officially consecrated . It offers novice ordination and follows the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism . The abbot of the Vajra Dakini nunnery is Khenmo Drolma , an American woman , who is the first bhikṣuṇī in the Drikung lineage of Buddhism , having been ordained in Taiwan in 2002 . She is also the first westerner , male or female , to be installed as an abbot in the Drikung Kagyu lineage of Buddhism , having been installed as the abbot of the Vajra Dakini Nunnery in 2004 . The Vajra Dakini Nunnery does not follow The Eight Garudhammas . In April 2011 , the Institute for Buddhist Dialectical Studies ( IBD ) in Dharamsala , India , conferred the degree of geshe , a Tibetan Buddhist academic degree for monastics , on Kelsang Wangmo , a German nun , thus making her the world 's first female geshe . In 2013 Tibetan women were able to take the geshe exams for the first time . Glossary of terms used

sfq_8498--Tibetan_Buddhism.txt

What special name is given to Tibetan monks?

Pop rock is a fusion genre that mixes a catchy pop style and light lyrics in its ( typically ) guitar-based rock songs . There are varying definitions of the term , ranging from a slower and mellower form of rock music to a subgenre of pop music . The detractors of pop rock often deride it as a slick , commercial product , less authentic than rock music . Characteristics Much pop and rock music has been very similar in sound , instrumentation and even lyrical content . The terms `` pop rock '' and `` power pop '' have been used to describe more commercially successful music that uses elements from , or the form of , rock music . Pop rock has been defined as an `` upbeat variety of rock music '' represented by artists and bands such as The Beatles , Elton John , Paul McCartney , The Everly Brothers , Rod Stewart , Chicago , The Script , DC Talk , The Smiths , Maroon 5 , and Peter Frampton . Debates Critic Philip Auslander argues that the distinction between pop and rock is more pronounced in the US than in the UK . He claims in the US , pop has roots in white crooners such as Perry Como , whereas rock is rooted in African-American music influenced by forms like such as rock and roll . Auslander points out that the concept of pop rock , which blends pop and rock is at odds with the typical conception of pop and rock as opposites . Auslander and several other scholars such as Simon Frith and Grossberg argue that pop music is often depicted as an inauthentic , cynical , `` slickly commercial '' and formulaic form of entertainment . In contrast , rock music is often heralded as an authentic , sincere , and anti-commercial form of music , which emphasizes song writing by the singers and bands , instrumental virtuosity , and a `` real connection with the audience '' . Simon Frith 's analysis of the history of popular music from the 1950s to the 1980s has been criticized by B. J. Moore-Gilbert , who argues that Frith and other scholars have over-emphasized the role of `` rock '' in the history of popular music by naming every new genre using the `` rock '' suffix . Thus when a folk-oriented style of music developed in the 1960s , Frith terms it `` folk rock '' , and the pop-infused styles of the 1970s were called `` pop rock '' . Moore-Gilbert claims that this approach unfairly puts rock at the apex , and makes every other influence become an add-on to the central core of rock . Terminology The term pop has been used since the early twentieth century to refer to popular music in general , but from the mid-1950s it began to be used for a distinct genre , aimed at a youth market , often characterized as a softer alternative to rock and roll.S . Frith , `` Pop music '' in S. Frith , W. Stray and J . Street , eds , The Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock ( Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 2001 ) , ISBN 0-521-55660-0 , pp . 93–108 .. In the aftermath of the British Invasion , from about 1967 , it was increasingly used in opposition to the term rock music , to describe a form that was more commercial , ephemeral and accessible.T . Warner , Pop Music : Technology and Creativity : Trevor Horn and the Digital Revolution ( Aldershot : Ashgate , 2003 ) , ISBN 0-7546-3132-X , p. 3 . In contrast to pop , rock music was seen as focusing on extended works , particularly albums , was often associated with particular sub-cultures ( like the counterculture of the 1960s ) , placed an emphasis on artistic values and `` authenticity '' , stressed live performance and instrumental or vocal virtuosity and was often seen as encapsulating progressive developments rather than simply reflecting existing trends . The term power pop was coined by Pete Townshend of The Who in 1966 , but not much used until it was applied to bands like Badfinger in the 1970s , who proved some of the most commercially successful of the period .

qw_6536--Pop_rock.txt

"How many people made up the English pop rock group ""Tears For Fears""?"

The arthropod leg is a form of jointed appendage of arthropods , usually used for walking . Many of the terms used for arthropod leg segments ( called podomeres ) are of Latin origin , and may be confused with terms for bones : coxa ( meaning hip , plural coxae ) , trochanter ( compare trochanter ) , femur ( plural femora ) , tibia ( plural tibiae ) , tarsus ( plural tarsi ) , ischium ( plural ischia ) , metatarsus , carpus , dactylus ( meaning finger ) , patella ( plural patellae ) . Homologies of leg segments between groups are difficult to prove and are the source of much argument . Some authors posit up to eleven segments per leg for the most recent common ancestor of extant arthropods but modern arthropods have eight or fewer . It has been argued that the ancestral leg need not have been so complex , and that other events , such as successive loss of function of a Hox-gene , could result in parallel gains of leg segments . Biramous and uniramous The appendages of arthropods may be either biramous or uniramous . A uniramous limb comprises a single series of segments attached end-to-end . A biramous limb , however , branches into two , and each branch consists of a series of segments attached end-to-end . The external branch ( ramus ) of the appendages of crustaceans is known as the exopod or exopodite , while the internal branch is known as the endopod or endopodite . Other structures aside from the latter two are termed exites ( outer structures ) and endites ( inner structures ) . Exopodites can be easily distinguished from exites by the possession of internal musculature . The exopodites can sometimes be missing in some crustacean groups ( amphipods and isopods ) , and they are completely absent in insects . The legs of insects and myriapods are uniramous . In crustaceans , the first antennae are uniramous , but the second antennae are biramous , as are the legs in most species . For a time , possession of uniramous limbs was believed to be a shared , derived character , so uniramous arthropods were grouped into a taxon called Uniramia . It is now believed that several groups of arthropods evolved uniramous limbs independently from ancestors with biramous limbs , so this taxon is no longer used . Chelicerata Arachnid legs differ from those of insects by the addition of two segments on either side of the tibia , the patella between the femur and the tibia , and the metatarsus ( sometimes called basitarsus ) between the tibia and the tarsus ( sometimes called telotarsus ) , making a total of seven segments . The situation is identical in scorpions , but with the addition of a pre-tarsus beyond the tarsus . The claws of the scorpion are not truly legs , but are pedipalps , a different kind of appendage that is also found in spiders and is specialised for predation and mating . In Limulus , there are no metatarsi or pretarsi , leaving six segments per leg . Crustacea The legs of crustaceans are divided primitively into seven segments , which do not follow the naming system used in the other groups . They are : coxa , basis , ischium , merus , carpus , propodus , and dactylus . In some groups , some of the limb segments may be fused together . The claw of a lobster or crab is formed by the articulation of the dactylus against an outgrowth of the propodus . Crustacean limbs also differ in being biramous , whereas all other extant arthropods have uniramous limbs . Myriapoda Myriapods ( millipedes , centipedes and their relatives ) have seven-segmented walking legs , comprising coxa , trochanter , prefemur , femur , tibia , tarsus , and a tarsal claw . Myriapod legs show a variety of modifications in different groups . In all centipedes , the first pair of legs is modified into a pair of venomous fangs called forcipules . In most millipedes , one or two pairs of walking legs in adult males are modified into sperm-transferring structures called gonopods . In some millipedes , the first leg pair in males may be reduced to tiny hooks or stubs , while in others the first pair may be enlarged . Insects Insects and their relatives are hexapods , having six legs , connected to the thorax , each with five components . In order from the body they are the coxa , trochanter , femur , tibia , and tarsus . Each is a single segment , except the tarsus which can be from three to seven segments , each referred to as a tarsomere . Fundamental morphology of insect legs A representative insect leg , such as that of a housefly or cockroach , has the following parts , in sequence from most proximal to most distal : * coxa * trochanter * femur * tibia * tarsus * pretarsus . Associated with the leg itself there are various sclerites around its base . Their functions are articular and have to do with how the leg attaches to the main exoskeleton of the insect . Such sclerites differ considerably between unrelated insects . Coxa The coxa is the proximal segment and functional base of the leg . It articulates with the pleuron and associated sclerites of its thoracic segment , and in some species it articulates with the edge of the sternite as well . The homologies of the various basal sclerites are open to debate . Some authorities suggest that they derive from an ancestral subcoxa . In many species the coxa has two lobes where it articulates with the pleuron . The posterior lobe is the meron which is usually the larger part of the coxa . A meron is well developed in Periplaneta , the Isoptera , Neuroptera and Lepidoptera . Trochanter The trochanter articulates with the coxa but usually is attached rigidly to the femur . In some insects its appearance may be confusing ; for example it has two subsegments in the Odonata . In parasitic Hymenoptera the base of the femur has the appearance of a second trochanter . Femur In most insects the femur is the largest region of the leg ; it is especially conspicuous in many insects with saltatorial legs because the typical leaping mechanism is to straighten the joint between the femur and the tibia , and the femur contains the necessary massive bipennate musculature . Tibia The tibia is the fourth section of the typical insect leg . As a rule the tibia of an insect is slender in comparison to the femur , but it generally is at least as long and often longer . Near the distal end there is generally a tibial spur , often two or more . In the Apocrita the tibia of the foreleg bears a large apical spur that fits over a semicircular gap in the first segment of the tarsus . The gap is lined with comb-like bristles , and the insect cleans its antennae by drawing them through . Tarsus The ancestral tarsus was a single segment and in the extant Protura , Diplura and certain insect larvae the tarsus also is single-segmented . Most modern insects have tarsi divided into subsegments ( tarsomeres ) , usually about five . The actual number varies with the taxon , which may be useful for diagnostic purposes . For example , the Pterogeniidae characteristically have 5-segmented fore- and mid-tarsi , but 4-segmented hind tarsi , whereas the Cerylonidae have four tarsomeres on each tarsus . The distal segment of the typical insect leg is the pretarsus . In the Collembola , Protura and many insect larvae , the pretarsus is a single claw . On the pretarsus most insects have a pair of claws unguis , plural ungues . Between the ungues a median unguitractor plate supports the pretarsus . The plate is attached to the apodeme of the flexor muscle of the ungues . In the Neoptera the parempodia are a symmetrical pair of structures arising from the outside ( distal ) surface of the unguitractor plate between the claws . It is present in many Hemiptera and almost all Heteroptera . Usually the parempodia are bristly ( setiform ) , but in a few species they are fleshy . Sometimes the parempodia are reduced in size so as to almost disappear . Above the unguitractor plate the pretarsus expands forward into a median lobe , the arolium . Under their pretarsi , members of the Diptera generally have paired lobes or pulvilli , meaning `` little cushions '' . There is a single pulvillus below each unguis . The pulvilli often have an arolium between them or otherwise a median bristle or empodium , meaning the meeting place of the pulvilli . On the underside of the tarsal segments there frequently are pulvillus-like organs or plantulae . The arolium , plantulae and pulvilli are adhesive organs enabling their possessors to climb smooth or steep surfaces . They all are outgrowths of the exoskeleton and their cavities contain blood . Their structures are covered with tubular tenent hairs , the apices of which are moistened by a glandular secretion . The organs are adapted to apply the hairs closely to a smooth surface so that adhesion occurs through surface molecular forces . Variations in functional anatomy of insect legs The typical thoracic leg of an adult insect is adapted for running , rather than for digging , leaping , swimming , predation or the like . The legs of most cockroaches are good examples . However , there are many specialized adaptations , including : * The forelegs of the Gryllotalpidae and some Scarabaeidae are adapted to burrowing in earth . * The forelegs of the Mantispidae , Mantodea , and Phymatinae are adapted to seizing and holding prey in one way , while those of the Gyrinidae long and adapted for grasping food or prey in quite a different way . * The forelegs of some butterflies , such as many Nymphalidae , are reduced so greatly that only two pairs of functional walking legs remain . * In most Orthoptera the hind legs are saltatorial ; they have heavily bipennately muscled femora and straight , long tibiae adapted to leaping and to some extent to defence by kicking . Flea beetles such as members of the subfamily Halticinae also have powerful hind femora that enable them to leap spectacularly . * Other beetles with spectacularly muscular hind femora may not be saltatorial at all , but very clumsy ; for example , particular species of Bruchinae use their swollen hind legs for forcing their way out of the hard-shelled seeds of plants such as Erythrina in which they grew to adulthood . * The legs of the Odonata , the dragonflies and damselflies , are adapted for seizing prey that the insects feed on while flying or while sitting still on a plant ; they are nearly incapable of using them for walking . * Hardly any adult aquatic insects use anything but their specially adapted legs for swimming , though many species of immature insects swim by other means , such as by wriggling , undulating , or expelling water . Evolution and homology of insect legs Except in species in which legs have been lost or become vestigial through evolutionary adaptation , adult insects have six legs , one pair attached to each of the three segments of the thorax . They do also have paired appendages on some other segments , in particular , mouthparts , Antennae and cerci , all of which are suspected to be derived from paired legs on each segment of some common ancestor . Some larval insects do however have extra walking legs on their abdominal segments ; these extra legs are called prolegs . They are found most frequently on the larvae of moths and sawflies . Prolegs do not have the same structure as modern adult insect legs , and there has been a great deal of debate as to whether they are homologous with them . Current evidence suggests that they are indeed homologous up to a very primitive stage in their embryological development , but that their emergence in modern insects was not homologous between the Lepidoptera and Symphyta . Such concepts are pervasive in current interpretations of phylogeny . In general the legs of larval insects , particularly in the Endopterygota , vary more than in the adults . As mentioned , some have prolegs as well as `` true '' thoracic legs . Some have no externally visible legs at all ( though they have internal rudiments that emerge as adult legs at the final ecdysis ) . Examples include the maggots of flies or grubs of weevils . In contrast , the larvae of other Coleoptera , such as the Scarabaeidae and Dytiscidae have thoracic legs , but no prolegs . Some insects that exhibit hypermetamorphosis begin their metamorphosis as planidia , specialised , active , legged larvae , but they end their larval stage as legless maggots , for example the Acroceridae . Among the Exopterygota the legs of larvae tend to resemble those of the adults in general , except in adaptations to their respective modes of life . For example , the legs of most immature Ephemeroptera are adapted to scuttling beneath underwater stones and the like , whereas the adults have more gracile legs that are less of a burden during flight . Again , the young of the Coccoidea are called `` crawlers '' and they crawl around looking for a good place to feed , where they settle down and stay for life . Their later instars have no functional legs in most species . Among the Apterygota the legs of immature specimens are in effect smaller versions of the adult legs .

sfq_13790--Arthropod_leg.txt

Coxa is the medical name for which joint of the human body?

The chickpea or chick pea ( ' ) is a legume of the family Fabaceae , subfamily Faboideae . It is also known as gram , '' or Bengal gram , garbanzo or garbanzo bean , and sometimes known as Egyptian pea , ceci , cece or chana , or Kabuli chana ( particularly in northern India ) . Its seeds are high in protein . It is one of the earliest cultivated legumes : 7,500-year-old remains have been found in the Middle East . Etymology The name `` chickpea '' traces back through the French ' to ' , Latin for 'chickpea ' ( from which the Roman cognomen Cicero was taken ) . The Oxford English Dictionary lists a 1548 citation that reads , `` Cicer may be named in English Cich , or ciche pease , after the Frenche tongue . '' The dictionary cites `` Chick-pea '' in the mid-18th century ; the original word in English taken directly from French was chich , found in print in English in 1388 . The word ' came first to American English as ' in the 17th century , from an alteration of the Old Spanish word ' ( presumably influenced by ' ) , being gradually anglicized to ' , though it came to refer to a variety of other beans ( cf . calavance ) . The current form garbanzo comes directly from modern Spanish . This word is still used in Latin America and Spain to designate chickpeas . Some have suggested that the origin of the word ' is in the Greek ' . Another possible origin is the word ' , from Basque — a non-Indo-European tongue — in which it is a compound of ' , seed + ' , dry . History Domesticated chickpeas have been found in the aceramic levels of Jericho ( PPNB ) along with Çayönü in Turkey and in Neolithic pottery at Hacilar , Turkey . They were found in the late Neolithic ( about 3500 BC ) at Thessaly , Kastanas , Lerna and Dimini , Greece . In southern France , Mesolithic layers in a cave at L'Abeurador , Aude , have yielded wild chickpeas carbon dated to 6790±90 BC . Chickpeas are mentioned in Charlemagne 's ' ( about AD 800 ) as ' , as grown in each imperial demesne . Albertus Magnus mentions red , white , and black varieties . Nicholas Culpeper noted `` chick-pease or cicers '' are less `` windy '' than peas and more nourishing . Ancient people also associated chickpeas with Venus because they were said to offer medical uses such as increasing sperm and milk , provoking menstruation and urine , and helping to treat kidney stones . `` White cicers '' were thought to be especially strong and helpful . In 1793 , ground-roast chickpeas were noted by a German writer as a substitute for coffee in Europe . In the First World War , they were grown for this use in some areas of Germany . They are still sometimes brewed instead of coffee . Genome sequencing Sequencing of the chickpea genome has been completed for 90 chickpea genotypes , including several wild species . A collaboration of 20 research organizations , led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ( ICRISAT ) identified more than 28,000 genes and several million genetic markers . Scientists expect this work will lead to the development of superior cultivars , among which 77 have already been released to farmers around the world . The new research will benefit the millions of developing country farmers who grow chickpea as a source of much needed income , as well as for its ability to add nitrogen to the soil in which it grows . Production is growing rapidly across the developing world , especially in West Asia , where it has increased four-fold over the past 30 years . India is by far the world largest producer , but is also the largest importer . Description The plant grows to 20–50 cm ( 8–20 in ) high and has small , feathery leaves on either side of the stem . Chickpeas are a type of pulse , with one seedpod containing two or three peas . It has white flowers with blue , violet , or pink veins . Types The three main kinds of chickpeas are : 'Desi ' has small , darker seeds and a rough coat . It is grown mostly in India and other parts of the Indian subcontinent , as well as in Ethiopia , Mexico , and Iran . Desi means 'country ' or 'local ' in Hindustani ; its other names include Bengal gram or kala chana ( `` black chickpea '' in both Hindi and Urdu ) or chhola boot . 'Desi ' is probably the earliest variety because it closely resembles seeds found both on archaeological sites and the wild plant ancestor Cicer reticulatum of domesticated chickpeas , which only grows in southeast Turkey , where it is believed to have originated . 'Desi ' chickpeas have a markedly higher fibre content than other varieties , hence a very low glycemic index , which may make them suitable for people with blood sugar problems . The 'Desi ' type is used to make chana dal , which is a split chickpea with the skin removed . Bombay chickpeas ( 'Bambai ' ) are also dark but slightly larger than 'Desi ' . They , too , are popular in the Indian subcontinent . 'Kabuli ' is lighter-coloured , larger , and with a smoother coat , and is mainly grown in the Mediterranean , Southern Europe , Northern Africa , South America , and the Indian subcontinent . The name means `` from Kabul '' in Hindi and Urdu , and this variety was thought to come from Kabul , Afghanistan when it was introduced to India in the 18th century . It is called Kabuli chana ( काबुली चणा ) in Marathi and safed chana in India . An uncommon black chickpea , ceci neri , is grown only in Apulia , in southeastern Italy . It is larger and darker than the 'Desi ' variety . Green chickpeas are common in the state of Maharashtra , India . In Marathi , they are called harbhara ( हरभरा ) . Chana dal is also called harbara dal ( हरभरा डाळ ) . Tender , immature harbara roasted on coal before the skin is removed is called hula ( हुळा ) in Marathi . Uses Human consumption Chickpeas are usually rapidly boiled for 10 minutes and then simmered for a longer period . Dried chickpeas need a long cooking time ( 1–2 hours ) but will easily fall apart when cooked longer . If soaked for 12–24 hours before use , cooking time can be shortened by around 30 minutes . Chickpeas can also be pressure cooked or sous vide cooked at 90 C . Chickpeas ( Cicer arietinum ) do not cause lathyrism . Similarly named `` chickling peas '' ( Lathyrus sativus ) and other plants of the genus Lathyrus contain the toxins associated with lathyrism . Mature chickpeas can be cooked and eaten cold in salads , cooked in stews , ground into gram flour ( also known as chickpea flour and besan and used frequently in Indian cuisine ) , ground and shaped in balls and fried as falafel , or stirred into a batter and baked to make farinata or panelle . Chickpeas are popular in the Iberian Peninsula . In Portugal , they are one of the main ingredients in rancho , eaten with pasta and meat , including Portuguese sausages , or with rice . They are used in other hot dishes with bacalhau and in soup . In Spain , they are used cold in tapas and salads , as well as in cocido madrileño . In Italy , chickpeas are eaten with pasta or in soup . In the southern regions such as Sicily , grounded chickpeas flour is used to produce a famous local street food called panelle . In Egypt , they are used as a topping for kushari . Hummus is the Arabic word for chickpeas , which are often cooked and ground into a paste and mixed with tahini ( sesame seed paste ) , the blend called hummus bi tahini , or chickpeas are roasted , spiced , and eaten as a snack , such as leblebi . By the end of the 20th century , hummus had become commonplace in American cuisine . By 2010 , 5 % of Americans consumed hummus on a regular basis , and it was present in 17 % of American households . Some varieties of chickpeas can be popped and eaten like popcorn . Chickpeas and Bengal grams are used to make curries and are one of the most popular vegetarian foods in the Indian subcontinent and in diaspora communities of many other countries . Popular dishes in Indian cuisine are made with chickpea flour , such as mirchi bajji and mirapakaya bajji Telugu . In India , as well as in the Levant , unripe chickpeas are often picked out of the pod and eaten as a raw snack and the leaves are eaten as a leaf vegetable in salads . Chickpea flour is used to make `` Burmese tofu '' which was first known among the Shan people of Burma . In Punjabi cuisine the flour ( besan ) is used as a batter to coat vegetables before deep frying to make pakoras . The flour is also used as a batter to coat vegetables and meats before frying , such as with panelle , a chickpea fritter from Sicily . Chickpea flour is used to make the Mediterranean flatbread socca and a patty called panisse in Provence , southern France . It is made of cooked chickpea flour , poured into saucers , allowed to set , cut in strips , and fried in olive oil , often eaten during Lent . In the Philippines , garbanzo beans preserved in syrup are eaten as sweets and in desserts such as halo-halo . Ashkenazi Jews traditionally serve whole chickpeas at a Shalom Zachar celebration for baby boys . Guasanas are a Mexican chickpea recipe in which the beans are cooked in water and salt . A chickpea-derived liquid ( aquafaba ) can be used as an egg white replacement to make meringue . File : Potaje de garbanzos y collejas5.JPG|Manchego cuisine ; chickpea and Silene vulgaris stew ( potaje de garbanzos y collejas ) File : Chakhchoukha9.JPG|Chakhchoukha in Algerian cuisine ; freshly cooked Marqa before mixing with Rougag File : Choleindia.jpg|Chana masala , India File : Halua of Chickpeas.jpg|Halua chickpeas , Bangladesh File : Aesthetic Fried Gram.jpg|Fried chickpea Animal feed Chickpeas serve as an energy and protein source as animal feed . Raw chickpeas have a lower trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor content than peas , common beans , and soybeans . This leads to higher nutrition values and fewer digestive problems in nonruminants . Nonruminant diets can be completed with 200 g/kg of raw chickpeas to promote egg production and growth of birds and pigs . Higher amounts can be used when chickpeas are treated with heat . Experiments have shown that ruminants grow equally well and produce an equal amount and quality of milk when soybean or cereal meals are replaced with chickpeas . Pigs show the same performance , but growing pigs experience a negative effect of raw chickpea feed ; extruded chickpeas can increase performance even in growing pigs . In poultry diet experiments with untreated chickpeas , only young broilers ( starting period ) showed worse performance . Fish performed equally well when their soybean or cereal diet was replaced by extruded chickpeas . Secondary components of legumes — such as lecithin , polyphenols , oligosaccharides , and amylase , protease , trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors — can lead to lower nutrient availability , thus to negative effects in growth and health of animals ( especially in nonruminants ) . Ruminants have generally less problems to digest legumes with secondary components , since they can inactivate them in the rumen liquor . Their diets can be supplemented by 300 g/kg or more raw chickpea seeds . However , protein digestibility and energy availability can be improved through treatments , such as germination , dehulling , and heat . Extrusion is a very good heat technique to destroy secondary components in legumes , since the proteins are irreversibly denatured . Overprocessing may decrease the nutritional value ; extrusion leads to losses in minerals and vitamins , while dry heating does not change the chemical composition . Nutrition Chickpeas are a nutrient-dense food , providing rich content ( > 20 % of the Daily Value , DV ) of protein , dietary fibre , folate , and certain dietary minerals such as iron and phosphorus . Thiamin , vitamin B6 , magnesium , and zinc contents are moderate , providing 10-16 % of the DV . Chickpeas have a Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score of about 0.76 , which is higher than many other legumes and cereals . Compared to reference levels established by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization and World Health Organization , proteins in cooked and germinated chickpeas are rich in essential amino acids such as lysine , isoleucine , tryptophan , and total aromatic amino acids . A 100-g serving of cooked chickpeas provides 164 kcal . Carbohydrates make up 68 % of calories , most of which ( 84 % ) is starch , followed by total sugars and dietary fibre . Lipid content is 3 % , 75 % of which is unsaturated fatty acids for which linoleic acid comprises 43 % of total fat . Effects of cooking Cooking treatments do not lead to variance in total protein and carbohydrate content . Soaking and cooking of dry seeds possibly induces chemical modification of protein-fibre complexes , which leads to an increase in crude fibre content . Thus , cooking can increase protein quality by inactivating or destroying heat-labile antinutritional factors . Cooking also increases protein digestibility , essential amino acid index , and protein efficiency ratio . Although cooking lowers concentrations of amino acids such as tryptophan , lysine , total aromatic , and sulphur-containing amino acids , their contents are still higher than proposed by the FAO/WHO reference . Diffusion of reducing sugars , raffinose , sucrose and others into cooking water reduces or completely removes these components . Cooking also significantly reduces fat and mineral contents . The B vitamins riboflavin , thiamin , niacin , and pyridoxine dissolve into cooking water at differing rates . Germination Germination of chickpeas improves protein digestibility , although at a lower level than cooking . Germination degrades proteins to simple peptides , so improves crude protein , nonprotein nitrogen , and crude fiber content . Germination decreases lysine , tryptophan , sulphur and total aromatic amino acids , but most contents are still higher than proposed by the FAO/WHO reference pattern . Oligosaccharides , such as stachyose and raffinose , are reduced in higher amounts during germination than during cooking . Minerals and B vitamins are retained more effectively during germination than with cooking . Phytic acids are reduced significantly , but trypsin inhibitor , tannin , and saponin reduction is less effective than cooking . Autoclaving , microwave cooking , boiling Protein digestibility is improved by all treatments of cooking . Essential amino acids are slightly increased by boiling and microwave cooking when compared to autoclaving and germination . Overall , microwave cooking leads to a significantly lower loss of nutrients compared to autoclaving and boiling . Finally , all treatments lead to an improved protein digestibility , protein efficiency ratio , and essential amino acid index . Microwave cooking seems to be an effective method to prepare chickpeas because of its improvement of nutritional values and its lower cooking time . Leaves Malnutrition and insufficient micronutrient supply have been reported in many regions where chickpeas are a major part of the diet . However , this nutritional lack is not due to the consumption of chickpeas but due to the overall inadequate food supply for people . In some parts of the world , young chickpea leaves are consumed as cooked green vegetables . Especially in malnourished populations , it can supplement important dietary nutrients Chickpea leaves have a significantly higher mineral content than cabbage and spinach . In natural settings , environmental factors and nutrient availability could influence mineral concentrations . Nevertheless , consumption of chickpea leaves is recommended for areas where chickpeas are produced as food for humans . Preliminary research shows that chickpea consumption may lower blood cholesterol . [ http : //www.mayoclinic.com/health/healthy-recipes/NU00410 Mixed Bean Salad ] ( information and recipe ) from [ http : //www.mayoclinic.com/health/healthy-recipes The Mayo Clinic Healthy Recipes ] . Accessed February 2010 . Production Chickpeas are grown in the Indian subcontinent , Australia , Mediterranean , western Asia , the Palouse region , and the Great Plains . India is the world leader in chickpea ( Bengal gram ) production , and produces some 15 times as much as the second-largest producer , Australia . Other key producers are Pakistan , Turkey , Burma , Ethiopia , and Iran . Heat and micronutrient cultivation Agricultural yield for Chickpea is often based on genetic and phenotypic variability which has recently been influenced by artificial selection . The uptake of micronutrients such as inorganic phosphorus or nitrogen is vital to the plant development of Cicer arietinum , commonly known as the perennial chickpea . Heat cultivation and micronutrient coupling are two relatively unknown methods that are used to increase the yield and size of the chickpea . Recent research has indicated that a combination of heat treatment along with the two vital micronutrients , phosphorus and nitrogen , are the most critical components to increasing the overall yield of Cicer arietinum . Perennial chickpeas are a fundamental source of nutrition in animal feed as they are high sources of energy and protein for livestock . Unlike other food crops , the perennial chickpea shows a remarkable capacity to change its nutritional content in response to heat cultivation . Treating the chickpea with a constant heat source increases its protein content almost three-fold . Consequently , the impact of heat cultivation not only affects the protein content of the chickpea itself , but the ecosystem that it supports as well . Increasing the height and size of chickpea plants involves using micronutrient fertilization with varying doses of inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen . The level of phosphorus that a chickpea seed is exposed to during its lifecycle has a positive correlation relative to the height of the plant at full maturity . Increasing the levels of inorganic phosphorus at all doses incrementally increases the height of the chickpea plant . Thus , the seasonal changes in phosphorus soil content as well as periods of drought that are known to be a native characteristic of the dry Middle-Eastern region where the chickpea is most commonly cultivated have a strong effect on the growth of the plant itself . Plant yield is also affected by a combination of phosphorus nutrition and water supply , resulting in a 12 % increase in yield of the crop . Nitrogen nutrition is another factor that affects the yield of Cicer arietinum , although the application itself differs from other perennial crops with regards to the levels administered on the plant . High doses of nitrogen inhibit the yield of the chickpea plant . Drought stress is a likely factor that also inhibits the uptake of nitrogen and subsequent fixation in the roots of Cicer arietinum . The growth of the perennial chickpea is dependent on the balance between nitrogen fixation and assimilation that is also characteristic of many other agricultural plant types . The influence of drought stress , sowing date , and mineral nitrogen supply all have an effect on the yield and size of the plant , with trials showing that Cicer arietinum differed from other plant species in its capacity to assimilate mineral nitrogen supply from soil during drought stress . Additional minerals and micronutrients make the absorption process of nitrogen and phosphorus more available . Inorganic phosphate ions are generally attracted towards charged minerals such as iron and aluminium oxides . Additionally , growth and yield are also limited by zinc and boron deficiencies in the soil . Boron-rich soil resulted in an increase of chickpea yield and size , while soil fertilization with zinc seemed to have no apparent effect on the chickpea yield . Pathogens Pathogens in chickpeas are the main cause for yield loss ( up to 90 % ) . One example is the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp . cicero , present in most of the major pulse crop-growing areas and causing regular yield damages between 10 and 15 % . From 1978 until 1995 , the worldwide number of pathogens increased from 49 to 172 , of which 35 have been recorded in India . These pathogens originate from the groups of bacteria , fungi , viruses , mycoplasma and nematodes and show a high genotypic variation . The most widely distributed pathogens are Ascochyta rabiei ( 35 countries ) , Fusarium oxysporum f. sp . cicero ( 32 countries ) Uromyces ciceris-arietini ( 25 countries ) , bean ( pea ) leaf roll virus ( 23 countries ) , and Macrophomina phaseolina ( 21 countries ) . Ascochyta disease emergence is favored by wet weather ; spores are carried to new plants by wind and water splash . The stagnation of yield improvement over the last decades is linked to the susceptibility to pathogens . Research for yield improvement , such as an attempt to increase yield from 0.8 to 2.0 tons per hectare by breeding cold-resistant varieties , is always linked with pathogen-resistance breeding as pathogens such as Ascochyta rabiei and F. o. f. sp . cicero flourish in conditions such as cold temperature . Research started selecting favourable genes for pathogen resistance and other traits through marker-assisted selection . The use of this method is a promising sign for the future to achieve significant yield improvements .

wh_1106--Chickpea.txt

What name is given to the Middle Eastern dish of deep fried balls of ground chickpeas or Fava Beans, usually served in Pitta Bread?

The violin is a wooden string instrument in the violin family . It is the smallest and highest-pitched instrument in the family in regular use . The violin typically has four strings tuned in perfect fifths , and is most commonly played by drawing a bow across its strings , though it can also be played by plucking the strings ( pizzicato ) . Violins are important instruments in a wide variety of musical genres . They are most prominent in the Western classical tradition and in many varieties of folk music . However , violins are also frequently used in jazz , in some forms of rock music , and genres of folk including country music and bluegrass music . Further , the violin has come to be played in many non-Western music cultures , including Indian music and Iranian music . The violin is sometimes informally called a fiddle , regardless of the type of music played on it . The violin was first known in 16th-century Italy , with some further modifications occurring in the 18th and 19th centuries . In Europe it served as the basis for stringed instruments used in western classical music , the viola and the violin . Violinists and collectors particularly prize the instruments made by the Stradivari , Guarneri and Amati families from the 16th to the 18th century in Brescia and Cremona and by Jacob Stainer in Austria . According to their reputation , the quality of their sound has defied attempts to explain or equal it , though this belief is disputed . Great numbers of instruments have come from the hands of `` lesser '' makers , as well as still greater numbers of mass-produced commercial `` trade violins '' coming from cottage industries in places such as Saxony , Bohemia , and Mirecourt . Many of these trade instruments were formerly sold by Sears , Roebuck and Co. and other mass merchandisers . A person who makes or repairs violins is called a luthier . The parts of a violin are usually made from different types of wood ( although electric violins may not be made of wood at all , since their sound may not be dependent on specific acoustic characteristics of the instrument 's construction ) , and it is usually strung with gut , Perlon or other synthetic , or steel strings . History The earliest stringed instruments were mostly plucked ( e.g . the Greek lyre ) . Bowed instruments may have originated in the equestrian cultures of Central Asia , an example being the Tanbur originated in modern-day Uzbekistan or Kobyz ( ) ( kyl-kobyz ) - an ancient Turkic , Kazakh string instrument or Mongolian instrument Morin huur : Turkic and Mongolian horsemen from Inner Asia were probably the world ’ s earliest fiddlers . Their two-stringed upright fiddles were strung with horsehair strings , played with horsehair bows , and often feature a carved horse ’ s head at the end of the neck . The violins , violas , and cellos we play today , and whose bows are still strung with horsehair , are a legacy of the nomads . The violin in its present form emerged in early 16th-Century Northern Italy , perhaps from the popular medieval European vielle , also called a fidel or viuola , which was itself derived from the aforementioned Byzantine lyra . The modern European violin evolved from various bowed stringed instruments from the Middle East and the Byzantine Empire . It is most likely that the first makers of violins borrowed from three types of current instruments : the rebec , in use since the 10th century ( itself derived from the Byzantine lyra and the Arabic rebab ) , the Renaissance fiddle , and the lira da braccio ( both derived from the Byzantine lira ) . The earliest pictures of violins , albeit with three strings , are seen in northern Italy around 1530 , at around the same time as the words `` violino '' and `` vyollon '' are seen in Italian and French documents . One of the earliest explicit descriptions of the instrument , including its tuning , was in the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer , published in Lyon in 1556 . By this time , the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe . The violin immediately became very popular , both among street musicians and the nobility , illustrated by the fact that the French king Charles IX ordered Andrea Amati to construct 24 violins for him in 1560 . One of these instruments , now called the Charles IX , is the oldest surviving violin . The finest Renaissance carved and decorated violin in the world is the Gasparo da Salò ( 1574 c. ) owned by Ferdinand II , Archduke of Austria and later , from 1841 , by the Norwegian virtuoso Ole Bull , who used it for forty years and thousands of concerts , for his very powerful and beautiful tone , similar to those of a Guarneri . It is now in the Vestlandske Kustindustrimuseum in Bergen ( Norway ) . `` The Messiah '' or `` Le Messie '' ( also known as the `` Salabue '' ) made by Antonio Stradivari in 1716 remains pristine . It is now located in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford . The most famous violin makers ( luthiers ) between the 16th century and the 18th century include : * The school of Brescia , beginning in the late 14th with liras , violettas , violas and active in the field of the violin in the first half of 16th century * * The Dalla Corna family , active 1510–1560 in Brescia and Venice * * The Micheli family , active 1530–1615 in Brescia * * The Inverardi family active 1550–1580 in Brescia * * The Gasparo da Salò family , active 1530–1615 in Brescia and Salò * * Giovanni Paolo Maggini , student of Gasparo da Salò , active 1600–1630 in Brescia * The school of Cremona , beginning in the half of the 16th century with violas and violone and in the field of violin in the second half of the 16th century * * The Amati family , active 1550–1740 in Cremona * * The Guarneri family , active 1626–1744 in Cremona and Venice * * The Stradivari family , active 1644–1737 in Cremona * The school of Venice , with the presence of several makers of bowed instruments from the early 16th century out of more than 140 makers of string instruments registered between 1490-1630 . * * The Linarolo family , active 1505-1640 in Venice * * Matteo Goffriller , known for his celli , active 1685-1742 in Venice * * Pietro Guarneri , son of Giuseppe Giovanni Battista Guarneri and from Cremona , active 1717-1762 in Venice * * Domenico Montagnana , active circa 1700-1750 in Venice * * Santo Serafin , active before 1741 until 1776 in Venice Significant changes occurred in the construction of the violin in the 18th century , particularly in the length and angle of the neck , as well as a heavier bass bar . The majority of old instruments have undergone these modifications , and hence are in a significantly different state than when they left the hands of their makers , doubtless with differences in sound and response . But these instruments in their present condition set the standard for perfection in violin craftsmanship and sound , and violin makers all over the world try to come as close to this ideal as possible . To this day , instruments from the so-called Golden Age of violin making , especially those made by Stradivari , Guarneri del Gesù and Montagnana are the most sought-after instruments by both collectors and performers . The current record amount paid for a Stradivari violin is £9.8 million ( US $ 15.9 million ) , when the instrument known as the Lady Blunt was sold by Tarisio Auctions in an online auction on June 20 , 2011 . Construction and mechanics A violin generally consists of a spruce top ( the soundboard , also known as the top plate , table , or belly ) , maple ribs and back , two endblocks , a neck , a bridge , a soundpost , four strings , and various fittings , optionally including a chinrest , which may attach directly over , or to the left of , the tailpiece . A distinctive feature of a violin body is its hourglass-like shape and the arching of its top and back . The hourglass shape comprises two upper bouts , two lower bouts , and two concave C-bouts at the waist , providing clearance for the bow . The voice of a violin depends on its shape , the wood it is made from , the graduation ( the thickness profile ) of both the top and back , and the varnish that coats its outside surface . The varnish and especially the wood continue to improve with age , making the fixed supply of old violins much sought-after . The very great majority of glued joints in the instrument use animal hide glue for a number of reasons : it is capable of making a thinner joint than most other glues , it is reversible ( brittle enough to crack with carefully applied force , and removable with warm water ) when disassembly is needed , and since fresh hide glue sticks to old hide glue , more original wood can be preserved when repairing a joint . ( More modern glues must be cleaned off entirely for the new joint to be sound , which generally involves scraping off some wood along with the old glue . ) Weaker , diluted glue is usually used to fasten the top to the ribs , and the nut to the fingerboard , since common repairs involve removing these parts . The purfling running around the edge of the spruce top provides some protection against cracks originating at the edge . It also allows the top to flex more independently of the rib structure . Painted-on faux purfling on the top is usually a sign of an inferior instrument . The back and ribs are typically made of maple , most often with a matching striped figure , referred to as flame , fiddleback , or tiger stripe . The neck is usually maple with a flamed figure compatible with that of the ribs and back . It carries the fingerboard , typically made of ebony , but often some other wood stained or painted black . Ebony is the preferred material because of its hardness , beauty , and superior resistance to wear . Fingerboards are dressed to a particular transverse curve , and have a small lengthwise `` scoop , '' or concavity , slightly more pronounced on the lower strings , especially when meant for gut or synthetic strings . Some old violins ( and some made to appear old ) have a grafted scroll , evidenced by a glue joint between the pegbox and neck . Many authentic old instruments have had their necks reset to a slightly increased angle , and lengthened by about a centimeter . The neck graft allows the original scroll to be kept with a Baroque violin when bringing its neck into conformance with modern standards . The bridge is a precisely cut piece of maple that forms the lower anchor point of the vibrating length of the strings and transmits the vibration of the strings to the body of the instrument . Its top curve holds the strings at the proper height from the fingerboard in an arc , allowing each to be sounded separately by the bow . The sound post , or soul post , fits precisely inside the instrument between the back and top , below the treble foot of the bridge , which it helps support . It also transmits vibrations between the top and the back of the instrument . The tailpiece anchors the strings to the lower bout of the violin by means of the tailgut , which loops around an ebony button called the tailpin ( sometimes confusingly called the endpin , like the cello 's spike ) , which fits into a tapered hole in the bottom block . Very often the E string will have a fine tuning lever worked by a small screw turned by the fingers . Fine tuners may also be applied to the other strings , especially on a student instrument , and are sometimes built into the tailpiece . At the scroll end , the strings wind around the tuning pegs in the pegbox . Strings usually have a colored silk wrapping at both ends , for identification and to provide friction against the pegs . The tapered pegs allow friction to be increased or decreased by the player applying appropriate pressure along the axis of the peg while turning it . Strings Strings were first made of sheep gut ( commonly known as catgut ) , or simply gut , which was stretched , dried , and twisted . In the early years of the 20th century , strings were made of either gut , silk , aluminum , or steel . Modern strings may be gut , solid steel , stranded steel , or various synthetic materials , wound with various metals , and sometimes plated with silver . Most E strings are unwound , either plain or gold-plated steel . Currently , violin strings are not made with gut as much , but many performers use them to achieve a specific sound especially in historically informed performance . Strings have a limited lifetime . Apart from obvious things , such as the winding of a string coming undone from wear , players generally change a string when it no longer plays true , losing the desired tone , brilliantness and intonation . String longevity depends on string quality and playing intensity . Pitch range A violin is tuned in fifths , in the notes G3 , D4 , A4 , E5 . The lowest note of a violin , tuned normally , is G3 , or G below middle C. ( On rare occasions , the lowest string may be tuned down by as much as a fourth , to D3 . ) The highest note is less well defined : E7 , the E two octaves above the open string ( which is tuned to E5 ) may be considered a practical limit for orchestral violin parts , but it is often possible to play higher , depending on the length of the fingerboard and the skill of the violinist . Yet higher notes ( up to C8 ) can be sounded using harmonics , either natural or artificial . Acoustics The arched shape , the thickness of the wood , and its physical qualities govern the sound of a violin . Patterns of the node made by sand or glitter sprinkled on the plates with the plate vibrated at certain frequencies , called Chladni patterns , are occasionally used by luthiers to verify their work before assembling the instrument . Sizes The history of small violins is not well documented . Small violins were made at least during the late Renaissance Period and quite probably into the Baroque period that were a fourth higher in pitch than standard violins . These violins could be used either by children , or by musicians who had parts that were then outside of the range of standard violins . It is important to remember that the chin rest was a relatively recent invention . Without the chin rest , shifting into upper positions or back down from higher positions often resulted in the musician losing control of the violin . Additionally , some people have speculated that these fractional violins could have been used instead of Dancing master 's violins ( also called `` kits '' or `` pochettes '' ) . These early fractional violins are easily confused with children-sized violins , but , if confirmed by an expert , are highly sought by collectors and museums . During the later part of the 19th century and early part of the 20th century , makers in Saxony produced many of these fractional violins . Apart from the standard , full ( 4/4 ) size , violins are also made in so-called fractional sizes of 7/8 , 3/4 , 1/2 , 1/4 , 1/8 , 1/10 , 1/16 , 1/32 and even 1/64 . These smaller instruments are commonly used by young players , whose fingers are not long enough to reach the correct positions on full-sized instruments . While related in some sense to the dimensions of the instruments , the fractional sizes are not intended to be literal descriptions of relative proportions . For example , a 3/4-sized instrument is not three-quarters the length of a full size instrument . The body length ( not including the neck ) of a full-size , or 4/4 , violin is 356 mm ( about 14 inches ) , smaller in some 17th-century models . A 3/4 violin 's body length is 335 mm ( about 13 inches ) , and a 1/2 size is 310 mm ( about 12 inches ) . With the violin 's closest family member , the viola , size is specified as body length in inches or centimeters rather than fractional sizes . A full-size viola averages 16 inches ( 40 cm ) . Occasionally , an adult with a small frame may use a so-called 7/8 size violin instead of a full-size instrument . Sometimes called a lady 's violin , these instruments are slightly shorter than a full size violin , but tend to be high-quality instruments capable of producing a sound that is comparable to that of fine full size violins . Mezzo violin The instrument which corresponds to the violin in the violin octet is the mezzo violin , tuned the same as a violin but with a slightly longer body . The strings of the mezzo violin are the same length as those of the standard violin . Tuning Violins are tuned by turning the pegs in the pegbox under the scroll , or by adjusting the fine tuner screws at the tailpiece . All violins have pegs ; fine tuners ( also called fine adjusters ) are optional . Most fine tuners consist of a metal screw that moves a lever attached to the string end . They permit very small pitch adjustments much more easily than the pegs . By turning one clockwise , the pitch becomes sharper and turning one counterclockwise , the pitch becomes flatter . Fine tuners on all four of the strings are a practical necessity for playing steel-core strings , and some players use them with synthetic strings as well . Since modern E strings are steel , a fine tuner is typically fitted for that string . Fine tuners are not used with gut strings , which are more elastic than steel or synthetic-core strings and do not respond adequately to the very small movements of fine tuners . To tune a violin , the A string is first tuned to a standard pitch ( usually 440 Hz ) . ( When accompanying a fixed-pitch instrument such as a piano or accordion , the violin tunes to it . ) The other strings are then tuned against each other in intervals of perfect fifths by bowing them in pairs . A minutely higher tuning is sometimes employed for solo playing to give the instrument a brighter sound ; conversely , Baroque music is sometimes played using lower tunings to make the violin 's sound more gentle . After tuning , the instrument 's bridge may be examined to ensure that it is standing straight and centered between the inner nicks of the f-holes ; a crooked bridge may significantly affect the sound of an otherwise well-made violin . The tuning G-D-A-E is used for most violin music . Other tunings are occasionally employed ; the G string , for example , can be tuned up to A . The use of nonstandard tunings in classical music is known as scordatura ; in some folk styles , it is called cross tuning . One famous example of scordatura in classical music is Saint-Saëns ' Danse Macabre , where the solo violin 's E string is tuned down to E flat to impart an eerie dissonance to the composition . Another example is in the third movement of Contrasts , by Béla Bartók , where the E string is tuned down to E flat and the G tuned to a G sharp , or the set of pieces called the Mystery Sonatas by Biber . In Indian classical music and Indian light music , the violin is likely to be tuned to D-A-D-A in the South Indian style . As there is no concept of absolute pitch in Indian classical music , any convenient tuning maintaining these relative pitch intervals between the strings can be used . Another prevalent tuning with these intervals is B-F-B-F , which corresponds to Sa-Pa-Sa-Pa in the Indian carnatic classical music style . In the North Indian Hindustani style , the tuning is usually Pa-Sa-Pa-Sa instead of Sa-Pa-Sa-Pa . This could correspond to F-B-F-B , for instance . In Iranian classical music and Iranian light music , the violin ls different tunings in any Dastgah , the violin is likely to be tuned ( E-A-E-A ) in Dastgah-h Esfahan or in Dastgāh-e Šur is ( E-A-D-E ) and ( E-A-E-E ) , in Dastgāh-e Māhur is ( E-A-D-A ) . In Arabic classical music , the A and E strings are lowered by a whole step i.e . G-D-G-D . This is to ease playing Arabic maqams , especially those containing quarter tones . While most violins have four strings , there are violins with as many as seven strings . The extra strings on such violins typically are lower in pitch than the G-string ; these strings are usually tuned to C , F , and B flat . If the instrument 's playing length , or string length from nut to bridge , is equal to that of an ordinary full-scale violin ; i.e. , a bit less than 13 in , then it may be properly termed a violin . Some such instruments are somewhat longer and should be regarded as violas . Violins with five strings or more are typically used in jazz or folk music . Bows A violin is usually played using a bow consisting of a stick with a ribbon of horsehair strung between the tip and frog ( or nut , or heel ) at opposite ends . A typical violin bow may be 75 cm ( 29 inches ) overall , and weigh about 60 g. Viola bows may be about 5 mm shorter and 10 g heavier . At the frog end , a screw adjuster tightens or loosens the hair . Just forward of the frog , a leather thumb cushion , called the grip , and winding protect the stick and provide a strong grip for the player 's hand . The winding may be wire ( often silver or plated silver ) , silk , or whalebone ( now imitated by alternating strips of tan and black plastic . ) Some student bows ( particularly the ones made of solid fiberglass ) substitute a plastic sleeve for grip and winding . The hair of the bow traditionally comes from the tail of a grey male horse ( which has predominantly white hair ) , though some cheaper bows use synthetic fiber . Occasional rubbing with rosin makes the hair grip the strings intermittently , causing them to vibrate . Originally the stick was made out of snakewood , but modern day bows are now traditionally made of brazilwood , although a stick made from a more select quality ( and more expensive ) brazilwood is called pernambuco . Both types come from the same tree species . Some student bows are made of fiberglass or various inexpensive woods . Some recent bow design innovations use carbon fiber for the stick , at all levels of craftsmanship . Playing Posture Western The violin is played either seated or standing up . Solo players ( whether playing alone , with a piano or with an orchestra ) play mostly standing up ( unless prevented by a physical handicap such as in the case of Itzhak Perlman ) , while in the orchestra and in chamber music it is played seated . Recently some orchestras performing Baroque music ( such as the Freiburg Baroque Orchestra ) have had all of their violins and violas , solo and ensemble , perform standing up . The standard way of holding the violin is with the left side of the jaw resting on the chinrest of the violin , and supported by the left shoulder , often assisted by a shoulder rest ( or a sponge and an elastic band for younger players who struggle with shoulder rests ) . The jaw and the shoulder must hold the violin firmly enough to allow it to remain stable when the left hand goes from a high position to a low one . ( In the Indian posture the stability of the violin is guaranteed by its scroll resting on the side of the foot ) . While all authorities insist on the vital importance of good posture both for the sake of the quality of the playing and to reduce the chance of repetitive strain injury , advice as to what good posture is and how to achieve it differs in details . However all insist on the importance of a natural relaxed position without tension or rigidity . Things which are almost universally recommended is keeping the left wrist straight ( or very nearly so ) to allow the fingers of the left hand to move freely and to reduce the chance of injury and keeping either shoulder in a natural relaxed position and avoiding raising either of them in an exaggerated manner . This , like any other unwarranted tension , would limit freedom of motion , and increase the risk of injury . Left hand and pitch production The left hand regulates the sounding length of the string by stopping it against the fingerboard with the fingertips , producing different pitches . As the violin has no frets to stop the strings , the player must know exactly where to place the fingers on the strings to play with good intonation . Through practice and ear training , the violinist 's left hand finds the notes intuitively by muscle memory . Beginners sometimes rely on tapes placed on the fingerboard for proper left hand finger placement , but usually abandon the tapes quickly as they advance . Another commonly used marking technique uses dots of white-out on the fingerboard , which wear off in a few weeks of regular practice . This practice , unfortunately , is used sometimes in lieu of adequate ear-training , guiding the placement of fingers by eye and not by ear . Especially in the early stages of learning to play , the so-called ringing tones are useful . There are nine such notes in first position , where a stopped note sounds a unison or octave with another ( open ) string , causing it to resonate sympathetically . Since violins are tuned in perfect fifths , and each subsequent note is stopped at a pitch the player perceives as the most harmonious , `` when unaccompanied , [ a violinist ] does not play consistently in either the tempered or the natural [ just ] scale , but tends on the whole to conform with the Pythagorean scale . '' When playing with an instrument tuned to equal temperament , such as a piano , skilled violinists adjust their tuning to avoid discordant notes . The fingers are conventionally numbered 1 ( index ) through 4 ( little finger ) . Especially in instructional editions of violin music , numbers over the notes may indicate which finger to use , with 0 indicating an open string . The chart to the right shows the arrangement of notes reachable in first position . Not shown on this chart is the way the spacing between note positions becomes closer as the fingers move up ( in pitch ) from the nut . The bars at the sides of the chart represent the usual possibilities for beginners ' tape placements , at 1st , high 2nd , 3rd , and 4th fingers . Positions The placement of the left hand on

qz_1191--Violin.txt

What is the name of the device made of wood and horsehair that is used to play a violin?

Hans Christian Andersen ( ; ; often referred to in Scandinavia as H. C. Andersen ; 2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875 ) was a Danish author . Although a prolific writer of plays , travelogues , novels , and poems , Andersen is best remembered for his fairy tales . Andersen 's popularity is not limited to children ; his stories , called in Danish , express themes that transcend age and nationality . Andersen 's fairy tales , which have been translated into more than 125 languages , have become culturally embedded in the West 's collective consciousness , readily accessible to children , but presenting lessons of virtue and resilience in the face of adversity for mature readers as well . Some of his most famous fairy tales include `` The Emperor 's New Clothes '' , `` The Little Mermaid '' , `` The Nightingale '' , `` The Snow Queen '' , `` The Ugly Duckling '' , `` Thumbelina '' , and many more . His stories have inspired ballets , both animated and live-action films , and plays . Early life Hans Christian Andersen was born in the town of Odense , Denmark , on 2 April 1805 . He was an only child . Andersen 's father , also Hans , considered himself related to nobility . His paternal grandmother had told his father that their family had in the past belonged to a higher social class , but investigations prove these stories unfounded . Theories suggesting that Andersen may have been an illegitimate son of King Christian VIII of Denmark persist . Andersen 's father , who had received an elementary education , introduced Andersen to literature , reading to him Arabian Nights . Andersen 's mother , Anne Marie Andersdatter , was uneducated and worked as a washerwoman following his father 's death in 1816 ; she remarried in 1818 . Andersen was sent to a local school for poor children where he received a basic education and was forced to support himself , working as an apprentice for a weaver and , later , for a tailor . At 14 , he moved to Copenhagen to seek employment as an actor . Having an excellent soprano voice , he was accepted into the Royal Danish Theatre , but his voice soon changed . A colleague at the theatre told him that he considered Andersen a poet . Taking the suggestion seriously , Andersen began to focus on writing . Jonas Collin , director of the Royal Danish Theatre , felt a great affection for Andersen and sent him to a grammar school in Slagelse , persuading King Frederick VI to pay part of the youth 's education . Andersen had already published his first story , `` The Ghost at Palnatoke 's Grave '' ( 1822 ) . Though not a keen student , he also attended school at Elsinore until 1827 . He later said his years in school were the darkest and most bitter of his life . At one school , he lived at his schoolmaster 's home . There he was abused in order `` to improve his character '' , he was told . He later said the faculty had discouraged him from writing in general , causing him to enter a state of depression . Career Early work A very early fairy tale by Andersen , called `` The Tallow Candle '' ( ) , was discovered in a Danish archive in October 2012 . The story , written in the 1820s , was about a candle who did not feel appreciated . It was written while Andersen was still in school and dedicated to a benefactor , in whose family 's possession it remained until it turned up among other family papers in a suitcase in a local archive . In 1829 , Andersen enjoyed considerable success with the short story `` A Journey on Foot from Holmen 's Canal to the East Point of Amager '' . Its protagonist meets characters ranging from Saint Peter to a talking cat . Andersen followed this success with a theatrical piece , Love on St. Nicholas Church Tower , and a short volume of poems . Though he made little progress writing and publishing immediately thereafter , in 1833 he received a small traveling grant from the King , enabling him to set out on the first of many journeys through Europe . At Jura , near Le Locle , Switzerland , Andersen wrote the story `` Agnete and the Merman '' . He spent an evening in the Italian seaside village of Sestri Levante the same year , inspiring the name , `` The Bay of Fables '' . In October 1834 , he arrived in Rome . Andersen 's travels in Italy would be reflected in his first novel , an autobiography titled The Improvisatore ( ) which was published in 1835 , receiving instant acclaim . Fairy tales and poetry His initial attempts at writing fairy tales were revisions of stories that he heard as a child . Andersen then brought this genre to a new level by writing a vast number of fairy tales that were both bold and original . Initially they were not met with recognition , due partly to the difficulty in translating them and capturing his genius for humor and dark pathos . It was during 1835 that Andersen published the first two installments of his immortal Fairy Tales ( ; lit . `` fantastic tales '' ) . More stories , completing the first volume , were published in 1837 . The collection comprises nine tales , including `` The Tinderbox '' , `` The Princess and the Pea '' , `` Thumbelina '' , `` The Little Mermaid '' , and `` The Emperor 's New Clothes '' . The quality of these stories was not immediately recognized , and they sold poorly . At the same time , Andersen enjoyed more success with two novels , O.T . ( 1836 ) and Only a Fiddler ( 1837 ) ; the latter was reviewed by the young Søren Kierkegaard . After a visit to Sweden in 1837 , Andersen became inspired by Scandinavism and committed himself to writing a poem that would convey the relatedness of Swedes , Danes , and Norwegians . It was in July 1839 , during a visit to the island of Funen , that Andersen first wrote the text of his poem , Jeg er en Skandinav ( `` I am a Scandinavian '' ) . Andersen composed the poem to capture `` the beauty of the Nordic spirit , the way the three sister nations have gradually grown together '' , as part of a Scandinavian national anthem . Composer Otto Lindblad set the poem to music , and the composition was published in January 1840 . Its popularity peaked in 1845 , after which it was seldom sung . Andersen spent two weeks at the Augustenborg Palace in the autumn of 1844 . Andersen returned to the fairy tale genre in 1838 with another collection , Fairy Tales Told for Children . New Collection . First Booklet ( ) , which consists of `` The Daisy '' , `` The Steadfast Tin Soldier '' , and `` The Wild Swans '' . The year 1845 heralded a breakthrough for Andersen with the publication of four different translations of his fairy tales . `` The Little Mermaid '' appeared in the periodical Bentley 's Miscellany . It was followed by a second volume , Wonderful Stories for Children . Two other volumes enthusiastically received were A Danish Story Book and Danish Fairy Tales and Legends . A review that appeared in the London journal The Athenæum ( February 1846 ) said of Wonderful Stories , `` This is a book full of life and fancy ; a book for grandfathers no less than grandchildren , not a word of which will be skipped by those who have it once in hand . '' Andersen would continue to write fairy tales , and he published them in installments until 1872 . Travelogues In 1851 , he published to wide acclaim In Sweden , a volume of travel sketches . A keen traveler , Andersen published several other long travelogues : Shadow Pictures of a Journey to the Harz , Swiss Saxony , etc . etc . in the Summer of 1831 , A Poet 's Bazaar , In Spain , and A Visit to Portugal in 1866 . ( The latter describes his visit with his Portuguese friends Jorge and Jose O'Neill , who were his fellows in the mid-1820s while living in Copenhagen . ) In his travelogues , Andersen took heed of some of the contemporary conventions about travel writing , but always developed the genre to suit his own purposes . Each of his travelogues combines documentary and descriptive accounts of the sights he saw with more philosophical passages on topics such as being an author , immortality , and the nature of fiction in the literary travel report . Some of the travelogues , such as In Sweden , even contain fairy-tales . In the 1840s , Andersen 's attention returned to the stage , but with little success . He had better fortune with the publication of the Picture-Book without Pictures ( 1840 ) . A second series of fairy tales began in 1838 and a third in 1845 . Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe , although his native Denmark still showed some resistance to his pretensions . Between 1845 and 1864 , H. C. Andersen lived at 67 Nyhavn , Copenhagen , where a memorial plaque now stands . Personal life Meetings with Dickens In June 1847 , Andersen paid his first visit to England and enjoyed a triumphal social success during the summer . The Countess of Blessington invited him to her parties where intellectual people could meet , and it was at one such party that he met Charles Dickens for the first time . They shook hands and walked to the veranda , about which Andersen wrote in his diary : `` We had come to the veranda , I was so happy to see and speak to England 's now living writer , whom I love the most . '' The two authors respected each other 's work and shared something important in common as writers : depictions of the poor and the underclass , who often had difficult lives affected both by the Industrial Revolution and by abject poverty . In the Victorian era there was a growing sympathy for children and an idealization of the innocence of childhood . Ten years later , Andersen visited England again , primarily to meet Dickens . He extended a brief visit to Dickens ' home at Gads Hill Place into a five-week stay , to the distress of Dickens ' family . After Andersen was told to leave , Dickens gradually stopped all correspondence between them , to the great disappointment and confusion of Andersen , who had quite enjoyed the visit and never understood why his letters went unanswered . Love life In Andersen 's early life , his private journal records his refusal to have sexual relations.Recorded using `` special Greek symbols '' . Andersen often fell in love with unattainable women , and many of his stories are interpreted as references . At one point , he wrote in his diary : `` Almighty God , thee only have I ; thou steerest my fate , I must give myself up to thee ! Give me a livelihood ! Give me a bride ! My blood wants love , as my heart does ! '' A girl named Riborg Voigt was the unrequited love of Andersen 's youth . A small pouch containing a long letter from Riborg was found on Andersen 's chest when he died , several decades after he first fell in love with her , and after he supposedly fell in love with others . Other disappointments in love included Sophie Ørsted , the daughter of the physicist Hans Christian Ørsted , and Louise Collin , the youngest daughter of his benefactor Jonas Collin . One of his stories , `` The Nightingale '' , was written as an expression of his passion for Jenny Lind and became the inspiration for her nickname , the `` Swedish Nightingale '' . Andersen was often shy around women and had extreme difficulty in proposing to Lind . When Lind was boarding a train to go to an opera concert , Andersen gave Lind a letter of proposal . Her feelings towards him were not the same ; she saw him as a brother , writing to him in 1844 : `` farewell ... God bless and protect my brother is the sincere wish of his affectionate sister , Jenny '' . Andersen certainly experienced same-sex love as well : he wrote to Edvard Collin : `` I languish for you as for a pretty Calabrian wench ... my sentiments for you are those of a woman . The femininity of my nature and our friendship must remain a mystery . '' Collin , who preferred women , wrote in his own memoir : `` I found myself unable to respond to this love , and this caused the author much suffering . '' Likewise , the infatuations of the author for the Danish dancer Harald Scharff and Carl Alexander , the young hereditary duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach , did not result in any relationships . According to Anne Klara Bom and Anya Aarenstrup from the H. C. Andersen Centre of University of Southern Denmark , `` To conclude , it is correct to point to the very ambivalent ( and also very traumatic ) elements in Andersen 's emotional life concerning the sexual sphere , but it is decidedly just as wrong to describe him as homosexual and maintain that he had physical relationships with men . He did not . Indeed that would have been entirely contrary to his moral and religious ideas , aspects that are quite outside the field of vision of Wullschlager and her like . '' Death In the spring of 1872 , Andersen fell out of his bed and was severely hurt ; he never recovered . Soon afterward , he started to show signs of liver cancer . He died on 4 August 1875 , in a house called Rolighed ( literally : calmness ) , near Copenhagen , the home of his close friends , the banker Moritz Melchior and his wife . Shortly before his death , Andersen had consulted a composer about the music for his funeral , saying : `` Most of the people who will walk after me will be children , so make the beat keep time with little steps . '' His body was interred in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro area of Copenhagen . At the time of his death , Andersen was internationally revered , and the Danish Government paid him an annual stipend as a `` national treasure '' . Legacy and cultural influence Archives , collections , and museums * The Hans Christian Andersen Museum in Solvang , California , a city founded by Danes , is devoted to presenting the author 's life and works . Displays include models of Andersen 's childhood home and of `` The Princess and the Pea '' . The museum also contains hundreds of volumes of Andersen 's works , including many illustrated first editions . * The Library of Congress Rare Book and Special Collections Division was bequeathed an extensive collection of Andersen materials by the Danish-American actor , Jean Hersholt . Of particular note is an original scrapbook Andersen prepared for the young Jonas Drewsen . Art , entertainment , and media Films * `` La petite marchande d'allumettes '' ( 1928 ; in English : The Little Match Girl ) , film by Jean Renoir based on `` The Little Match Girl '' * Andersen was played by Joachim Gottschalk in the German film The Swedish Nightingale ( 1941 ) , which portrays his relationship with the singer Jenny Lind . * Hans Christian Andersen ( 1952 ) , an American musical film starring Danny Kaye that , though inspired by Andersen 's life and literary legacy , was meant to be neither historically nor biographically accurate ; it begins by saying , `` This is not the story of his life , but a fairy tale about this great spinner of fairy tales '' * The Rankin/Bass Productions-produced fantasy film , The Daydreamer ( 1966 ) , depicts the young Hans Christian Andersen imaginatively conceiving the stories he would later write . * The World of Hans Christian Andersen ( 1968 ) , a Japanese anime fantasy film from Toei Doga , based on the works of Danish author Hans Christian Andersen * The Little Mermaid , a 1989 animated film based on The Little Mermaid produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios * Thumbelina , a 1994 animated film based on the `` Thumbelina '' produced by Warner Bros. Family Entertainment * One Fantasia 2000 segment is based off The Steadfast Tin Soldier . * Frozen , a 2013 animated film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios , was initially intended to be based on The Snow Queen , though numerous changes were made until the end result bore almost no resemblance to the original story . Literature Andersen 's stories laid the groundwork for other children 's classics , such as The Wind in the Willows ( 1908 ) by Kenneth Grahame and Winnie-the-Pooh ( 1926 ) by A.A. Milne . The technique of making inanimate objects , such as toys , come to life ( `` Little Ida 's Flowers '' ) would later also be used by Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter . * `` Match Girl , '' a short story by Anne Bishop ( published in Ruby Slippers , Golden Tears ) * `` The Chrysanthemum Robe '' , a short story by Kara Dalkey ( based on `` The Emperor 's New Clothes '' and published in The Armless Maiden ) * The Nightingale by Kara Dalkey , lyrical adult fantasy novel set in the courts of old Japan * The Girl Who Trod on a Loaf by Kathryn Davis , a contemporary novel about fairy tales and opera * `` Sparks '' , a short story by Gregory Frost ( based on `` The Tinder Box '' , published in Black Swan , White Raven ) * `` The Pangs of Love '' , a short story by Jane Gardam ( based on `` The Little Mermaid '' , published in Close Company : Stories of Mothers and Daughters ) * `` The Last Poems About the Snow Queen , '' a poem cycle by Sandra Gilbert ( published in Blood Pressure ) . * The Snow Queen by Eileen Kernaghan , a gentle Young Adult fantasy novel that brings out the tale 's subtle pagan and shamanic elements * The Wild Swans by Peg Kerr , a novel that brings Andersen 's fairy tale to colonial and modern America * `` Steadfast '' , a short story by Nancy Kress ( based on `` The Steadfast Tin Soldier '' , published in Black Swan , White Raven ) * `` In the Witch 's Garden '' ( October 2002 ) , a short story by Naomi Kritzer ( based on `` The Snow Queen '' , published in Realms of Fantasy magazine ) * Daughter of the Forest by Juliet Marillier , a romantic fantasy novel , set in early Ireland ( thematically linked to `` The Wild Swans '' ) * `` The Snow Queen '' , a short story by Patricia A. McKillip ( published in Snow White , Blood Red ) * `` You , Little Match Girl , '' a short story by Joyce Carol Oates ( published in Black Heart , Ivory Bones ) * `` The Real Princess , '' a short story by Susan Palwick ( based on `` The Princess and the Pea '' , published in Ruby Slippers , Golden Tears ) * `` The Naked King '' ( `` Голый Король ( Goliy Korol ) '' 1937 ) , `` The Shadow '' ( `` Тень ( Ten ) '' 1940 ) , and `` The Snow Queen '' ( `` Снежная Королева ( Sniezhenaya Koroleva ) '' 1948 ) by Eugene Schwartz , reworked and adapted to the contemporary reality plays by one of Russia 's playwrights . Schwartz 's versions of `` The Shadow '' and `` The Snow Queen '' were later made into movies ( 1971 and 1966 , respectively ) . * `` The Sea Hag , '' a short story by Melissa Lee Shaw ( based on `` The Little Mermaid '' , published in Silver Birch , Blood Moon ) * The Snow Queen by Joan D. Vinge , an award-winning novel that reworks `` The Snow Queen '' 's themes into epic science fiction * `` The Steadfast Tin Soldier , '' a short story by Joan D. Vinge ( published in Women of Wonder ) * [ http : //hazlitt.net/authors/sophia-foster-dimino `` Swim Thru Fire , '' ] a comic by [ http : //www.hellophia.com/ Sophia Foster-Dimino ] and [ http : //heyanniemok.com/ Annie Mok ] , based partially off of `` The Little Mermaid . '' Mobile app * GivingTales – the storytelling app for children was created in aid of UNICEF in 2015 . Hans Christian Andersen ’ s fairy tales are read by Roger Moore , Stephen Fry , Ewan McGregor , Joan Collins and Joanna Lumley . Monuments and sculptures * Hans Christian Andersen ( 1880 ) , even before his death , steps had already been taken to erect , in Andersen 's honor , a large statue by sculptor August Saabye , which can now be seen in the Rosenborg Castle Gardens in Copenhagen . * Hans Christian Andersen ( 1896 ) by the Danish sculptor Johannes Gelert , at Lincoln Park in Chicago , on Stockton Drive near Webster Avenue * Hans Christian Andersen ( 1956 ) , a statue by sculptor Georg J. Lober and designer Otto Frederick Langman , at Central Park Lake in New York City , opposite East 74th Street ( 40.7744306°N , 73.9677972°W ) Music * Hans Christian Andersen ( album ) , a 1994 album by Franciscus Henri * The Song is a Fairytale ( Sangen er et Eventyr ) , a song cycle based on fairy tales by Hans Christian Andersen , composed by Frederik Magle Stage productions * Sam the Lovesick Snowman at the Center for Puppetry Arts : a contemporary puppet show by Jon Ludwig inspired by The Snow Man . * Striking Twelve , a modern musical take on `` The Little Match Girl '' , created and performed by GrooveLily . * The musical comedy Once Upon a Mattress is based on Andersen ' work 'The Princess and the Pea ' . Television * Hans Christian Andersen : My Life as a Fairytale ( 2001 ) , a semi-biographical television miniseries that fictionalizes the young life of Danish author Hans Christian Andersen and includes fairytales as short interludes , intertwined into the events of the young author 's life * In the `` Metal Fish '' episode of the Disney TV series The Little Mermaid , Andersen is a vital character whose inspiration for writing his tale is shown to have been granted by an encounter with the show 's protagonists * The Fairytaler , a 2004 Danish animated television series based on the fairy tales of Hans Christian Andersen . * Young Andersen , a 2005 biographical television miniseries that tells of the formative boarding school years of fairy tale writer . Webseries * Classic Alice ( 2014 ) , a YouTube webseries , had a five-episode arc based on `` The Butterfly '' Awards * Hans Christian Andersen Awards , prizes awarded annually by the International Board on Books for Young People to an author and illustrator whose complete works have made lasting contributions to children 's literature . * Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award , a Danish literary award established in 2010 Events and holidays * Andersen 's birthday , 2 April , is celebrated as International Children 's Book Day . * The year 2005 , designated `` Andersen Year '' in Denmark , was the bicentenary of Andersen 's birth , and his life and work was celebrated around the world . * In Denmark , a well-attended `` once in a lifetime '' show was staged in Copenhagen 's Parken Stadium during `` Andersen Year '' to celebrate the writer and his stories . * The annual H.C. Andersen Marathon , established in 2000 , is held in Odense , Denmark Places named after Andersen * Hans Christian Andersen Airport , small airport servicing the Danish city of Odense * Instituto Hans Christian Andersen , Chilean high school located in San Fernando , Colchagua Province , Chile Postage stamps * Andersen 's legacy includes the postage stamps of Denmark and of Kazakhstan depicted above , depicting Andersen 's profile . Theme parks * A $ 13-million theme park based on Andersen 's tales and life opened in Shanghai at the end of 2006 . Multi-media games and cultural contests related to the fairy tales are available to visitors . Andersen is said to have been celebrated because he was `` a nice , hardworking person who was not afraid of poverty '' . * The Japanese city of Funabashi also has a children 's theme park named after Andersen . Selected Works Andersen 's fairy tales include : * The Angel ( 1843 ) * The Bell * The Emperor 's New Clothes ( 1837 ) * The Fir-Tree ( 1844 ) * The Galoshes of Fortune ( 1838 ) * The Happy Family * The Ice-Maiden ( 1863 ) * It 's Quite True ! * Later Tales , published during 1867 & 1868 ( 1869 ) * The Little Match Girl ( 1845 ) * The Little Mermaid ( 1837 ) * Little Tuck * The Most Incredible Thing ( 1870 ) * The Nightingale ( 1843 ) * The Old House * The Princess and the Pea ( 1835 ) * The Red Shoes ( 1845 ) * Sandman ( 1841 ) * The Shadow ( 1847 ) * The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep ( 1845 ) * The Snow Queen ( 1844 ) * The Steadfast Tin Soldier ( 1838 ) * The Story of a Mother ( 1847 ) * The Swineherd ( 1841 ) * Thumbelina ( 1835 ) * The Tinderbox ( 1835 ) * The Ugly Duckling ( 1843 ) * The Wild Swans ( 1838 )

bt_1060--Hans_Christian_Andersen.txt

Who wrote The Ugly Duckling

Giuseppe `` Joe '' Venuti ( possibly September 16 , 1903 – August 14 , 1978 ) was an Italian-American jazz musician and pioneer jazz violinist . Considered the father of jazz violin , he pioneered the use of string instruments in jazz along with the guitarist Eddie Lang , a childhood friend of his . Through the 1920s and early 1930s , Venuti and Lang made many recordings , as leader and as featured soloists . He and Lang became so well known for their 'hot ' violin and guitar solos that on many commercial dance recordings they were hired to do 12- or 24-bar duos towards the end of otherwise stock dance arrangements . In 1926 , Venuti and Lang started recording for the OKeh label as a duet ( after a solitary duet issued on Columbia ) , followed by `` Blue Four '' combinations , which are considered milestone jazz recordings . Venuti also recorded a number of larger , more commercial dance records for OKeh under the name `` New Yorkers '' . He worked with Benny Goodman , Adrian Rollini , the Dorsey Brothers , Bing Crosby , Bix Beiderbecke , Jack Teagarden , Frank Signorelli , the Boswell Sisters , and most of the other important white jazz and semi-jazz figures of the late 1920s and early 1930s . However , following Lang 's death in 1933 , Venuti 's career began to wane , though he continued performing through the 1930s , recording a series of commercial dance records ( usually containing a Venuti violin solo ) for the dime store labels , OKeh and Columbia , as well as the occasional jazz small group sessions . He was also a strong early influence on western swing players like Cecil Brower . ( Many of the 1920s OKeh sides continued to sell through 1935 , when ARC reissued selected sides on the 35-cent Vocalion label . ) After a period of relative obscurity in the 1940s and 1950s , Venuti played violin and other instruments with Jack Statham at the Desert Inn Hotel in Las Vegas . Statham headed several musical groups that played at the Desert Inn from late 1961 until 1965 , including a Dixieland combo . Venuti was with him during that time , and was active with the Las Vegas Symphony Orchestra during the 1960s . He was 'rediscovered ' in the late 1960s . In the 1970s , he established a musical relationship with tenor saxophonist Zoot Sims that resulted in three recordings . In 1976 , he recorded an album of duets with pianist Earl Hines entitled Hot Sonatas . He also recorded an entire album with country-jazz musicians including mandolinist Jethro Burns ( of Homer & Jethro ) , pedal steel guitarist Curly Chalker and former Bob Wills sideman and guitarist Eldon Shamblin . Venuti died in Seattle , Washington . Early life Venuti was well known for giving out conflicting information regarding his early life , including his birthplace and birth date as well as his education and upbringing . Gary Giddins summarized the situation by saying that `` depending on which reference book you consult , ( Venuti 's age when he died in 1978 ) was eighty-four , eighty-two , eighty , seventy-five , seventy-four , or seventy-two . Venuti , who surely had one of the strangest senses of humor in music history , encouraged the confusion . ( ... ) The deception has been variously traced to Venuti 's father , who hoped to speed up the naturalization process , to Joe 's fear that a foreign-born jazz musician would not be taken seriously by his peers , and to his general penchant for mayhem . '' Venuti claimed to have been born aboard a ship as his parents emigrated from Italy around 1904 , though many believe he was born in Philadelphia . It has also been claimed that he was born on April 4 , 1898 in Lecco , Italy , or on September 16 , 1903 in Philadelphia . Later in life , he said he was born in Lecco , Italy in 1896 and that he came to the U.S. in 1906 and settled in Philadelphia . Joe was classically trained in the violin from a young age , and studied solfeggio with his grandfather . He later said that while he studied music from him , he did not learn any one instrument but rather music theory in general . He began studying the violin in Philadelphia , and later claimed to have studied at a conservatory , though there is no documented evidence to support this theory . Despite this , his style of playing was characteristic of someone who had a solid basis in violin technique . Career Venuti began playing violin professionally 1924 . In a 54-year career that lasted nearly until his death in 1978 . During this time , he helped redefine jazz violin . Venuti spent time in the early 1900s playing in the James Campbell School Orchestra in the violin section . It was there that he first met and befriended Salvatore Massaro , who was also playing in the violin section of the orchestra . During this time they were also experimenting with jazz and blues in addition to classical playing . In 1924 he moved to Detroit to join Jean Goldkette 's band , and began playing with the Book Cadillac Hotel Orchestra , one of Jean Goldkette 's dance bands . It was here that he made his first recordings with Goldkette 's big band . By the summer of 1925 , he had moved to Atlantic City briefly to play with Bert Estlow 's band before settling in New York . Here , he once again encountered Massaro , who had changed his name to Eddie Lang . Lang had also switched instruments from the violin to the guitar . The two friends struck up a professional partnership which was to last until Lang 's death in 1933 . They began playing with Roger Wolfe Kahn 's dance orchestras in addition to playing in Broadway pit orchestras to support themselves . From 1926–1928 , the Venuti and Lang duo were recording with most of the prominent jazz musicians of the day , including Goldkette ( 1926–27 ) , Red Nichols ( 1927–28 ) , Bix Beiderbecke ( 1927 ) , Adrian Rollini ( 1927 ) and Frankie Trumbauer ( 1927 ) . Between 1927 and 1929 Lang and Venuti were leading bands and performing in Atlantic City . Venuti then moved back to New York in 1929 to play with Paul Whiteman 's orchestra from 1929 to 1931 . He also appeared in the film The King of Jazz ( 1930 ) with the band . From the period of 1931–1933 , Venuti recorded again with Eddie Lang , Bix Beiderbecke and Frankie Trumbauer . The most famous recording of Venuti 's career was also produced during this time : his October 22 , 1931 recording with Joe Venuti-Eddie Lang and their All Star orchestra . This session also included Benny Goodman and Jack Teagarden . Both Venuti and Lang rejoined Roger Wolfe Kahns ' orchestra in 1932 and played and recorded with him until Eddie Lang 's death in 1933 . Following Eddie Lang 's death , Venuti conducted a tour of Europe and the UK . During this period he also alternated from violin to guitar , varying from his almost strictly violin approach formerly . Upon returning to the US in 1935 , he formed a big band and worked as its leader . During this time he also composed most of his original arrangements . Venuti was less successful as a big band leader than as a soloist , and the band folded in 1943 . After this period , Venuti transitioned from being in a position of relative prominence to one of ignominy . Venuti moved to California in 1944 to become a studio musician with MGM , in addition to playing with other film and radio studios . He also appeared regularly on Bing Crosby 's radio show during this time . Later , Venuti returned to a small group format and continued to play and record in and around Los Angeles , while touring frequently . In 1953 he conducted another tour of Europe , and in 1963 a tour of Seattle . Throughout much of the 1950s Venuti made records and played at clubs . This was the beginning of about a 15-year lull in Venuti 's career . In the early 1960s Venuti was mostly inactive due to his development of alcoholism . The late 1960s marked a revival in his career . In 1967 he was invited to perform at Dick Gibson 's Colorado Jazz Party , and was such a success that he would be asked to repeat his performances annually until his death in 1978 . In 1968 he was also invited to the Newport Jazz Festival , and in 1969 he performed at the London Jazz Expo . During the 1970s , at the end of his life , Venuti toured extensively in Europe with a small ensemble . During this time he made his final recordings with names such as Earl Hines , George Barnes , Ross Tompkins , Dave McKenna , Marian McPartland , Scott Hamilton , Leon Redbone , and most notably Zoot Sims . Venuti continued to tour and play until his death in 1978 . Playing style Venuti pioneered the violin as a solo instrument to the jazz world . He was famous for a fast , `` hot '' playing style characteristic of jazz soloists in the 1920s and the swing era . His solos have been described as incredibly rhythmic with patterns of duplets and running eighth and sixteenth notes . He favored a lively , fast tempo that showed off his superior technique . Venuti was a virtuosic player with a wide range of techniques including left hand pizzicato and runs spanning the length of the fingerboard . He also frequently implemented slides common in blues and country fiddle playing . Occasionally , he used a strange technique in which he unscrewed the end of his bow and wrapped the bow hair around the strings of the violin , allowing him to play chords , lending the subsequent sound a `` wild '' tone . He was particularly notable in small ensemble jazz , since the force of the horns in big band jazz was sufficient to drown out the violin , prior to the invention of the musical amplifier . Compositions Joe Venuti 's compositions included `` Satan 's Holiday '' , `` Goin ' Home '' , `` Put and Take '' , `` Pretty Trix '' , `` Doin ' Things '' with Eddie Lang , `` Apple Blossoms '' , with Lennie Hayton , Frankie Trumbauer , and Eddie Lang , `` Beatin ' the Dog '' , `` Black and Blue Bottom '' , `` Black Satin '' , `` Blues for Nobody '' , `` Blues in G '' , `` Blues Inc. '' , `` Dandy Cat '' , `` Cheese and Crackers '' , `` Clown Cat '' , `` Dinner at Nine '' , `` Flip '' , and `` Betcha I Getcha '' , which Venuti claimed to have co-written with Bix Beiderbecke . Practical jokes Apart from his impressive playing style , Joe Venuti was almost as well known for his practical jokes . He was well known to play inexpensive violins , since many of his former band members have said that he had been known to crack these over the heads of his players on occasion . There are many anecdotes of his pranks told by his associates . One of the best known tales was one in which he filled a tuba player 's horn with flour during a break in a rehearsal . Another involved sending the one-armed Wingy Manone a single cufflink for Christmas . He was also well known for having called every bass player in the New York phonebook and asking them to meet with him on a street corner . When over 50 bass players arrived with their instruments it created a minor roadblock . He then subsequently had to pay the players for their time as mandated by the AFM . Personal life Little is known about Venuti 's personal life aside from his extensive jazz career . Some of his many biographers claim that he married at least once , some others report that he was married three times , although there does not seem to be any documented evidence about his wife ( or wives ) . Venuti suffered from alcoholism in his middle age , throughout the 1950s and early 1960s . He was able to recover , and to regain his former acclaim for his playing . In 1970 Venuti was diagnosed with cancer . He died on August 14 , 1978 in Seattle , Washington , of either cancer or a heart attack . Discography

sfq_8876--Joe_Venuti.txt

Jazzman Joe Venuti pioneered which instrument in jazz?

Robert Newton `` Bob '' Ford ( December 8 , 1861 – June 8 , 1892 ) was an American outlaw best known for killing his gang leader Jesse James in April 1882 , to collect a reward . For about a year , Ford and his older brother Charles performed paid re-enactments of the killing at publicity events . Later he drifted around the West , operating saloons and dance halls . Ford was shot to death at the age of 30 in Creede , Colorado , by Edward Capehart O'Kelley , who attacked him in Ford 's temporary tent saloon . Ford was first buried in Creede . His remains were later moved and reinterred at Richmond Cemetery in Richmond in Ray County , Missouri ; `` The man who shot Jesse James '' was inscribed on his grave marker . Early years Robert Ford was born in 1861 , in Ray County , Missouri . He was the youngest child of James Thomas Ford and his wife , the former Mary Bruin . As a young man , Robert became an admirer of Jesse James for his Civil War record and criminal exploits . In 1880 , at the age of 19 , he finally met James . Ford 's brother Charles is believed to have taken part in the James gang 's Blue Cut train robbery in Jackson County , west of Glendale , Missouri ( renamed Selsa and now part of Independence ) , on September 7 , 1881 . Joining the gang In November 1881 , after the train robbery , James moved his family to St. Joseph , Missouri and intended to give up crime . The James gang had been greatly reduced in numbers by that time ; some had fled the gang in fear of prosecution , and many of the original members were either dead or in prison after a botched bank robbery in Northfield , Minnesota . After the train robbery , James ' brother Frank James had also decided to retire from crime and moved East , settling in Lynchburg , Virginia . By the spring of 1882 , with his gang depleted by arrests , deaths , and defections , James thought that he could trust only the Ford brothers . Charles had been out on raids with James before , but Bob was an eager new recruit . The Fords resided in St. Joseph with the James family , where Jesse went by the alias Thomas Howard . The Ford brothers passed themselves off as Bob and Charles Johnson , Howard 's cousins . Hoping to keep the gang alive , James invited the Fords to take part in the robbery of the Platte City Bank in Missouri , but the brothers had already decided not to participate ; rather , they intended to collect the $ 10,000 bounty placed on James by Governor Thomas T. Crittenden . In January 1882 , Bob Ford and James gang member Dick Liddil had surrendered to Sheriff James Timberlake at their sister Martha Bolton 's residence in Ray County . They were brought into a meeting with Crittenden , as they had been around the James ' cousin Wood Hite the day Hite was murdered . Crittenden promised Ford a full pardon if he would kill James , who was by then the most wanted criminal in the USA . Crittenden had made capturing the James brothers his top priority ; in his inaugural address he declared that no political motives could be allowed to keep them from justice . Barred by law from offering a sufficiently large reward , he had turned to the railroad and express corporations to put up a $ 5,000 bounty for each of them . Living with the James ' family , the Fords became part of the daily routine , and James ' wife cooked for them . They were nervous and bored , looking for opportunity , and feeling restless . The confession of Liddil to participating in Hite 's murder made the news , and pressure began to build around James . Killing Jesse James On April 3 , 1882 , after eating breakfast , the Fords and James went into the living room before traveling to Platte City . By reading the daily newspaper , James had just learned of gang member Liddil 's confession for participating in Hite 's murder and grew increasingly suspicious of the Fords for never reporting this matter to him . According to Robert Ford , it became clear to him that James had realized they were there to betray him . However , instead of scolding the Fords , James walked across the living room to lay his revolvers on a sofa . He turned around and noticed a dusty picture above the mantle , and stood on a chair in order to clean it . Robert Ford drew his weapon and shot the unarmed James in the back of the head . James ' wife Zerelda Mimms ran into the room and screamed , `` You 've killed him '' . Robert Ford 's immediate response was , `` I swear to God I did n't . '' After the killing , the Fords wired Crittenden to claim their reward . They surrendered themselves to legal authorities but were dismayed to be charged with first degree murder . In one day , the Ford brothers were indicted , pleaded guilty , and sentenced to death by hanging , but two hours later , Crittenden granted them a full pardon . Later years Public opinion turned against the Fords for betraying their gang leader , and Bob was seen as a coward and traitor for killing James . This sentiment warred with the opinion that it had been time for James to be stopped . For a period , Bob earned money by posing for photographs as `` the man who killed Jesse James '' in dime museums . He also appeared on stage with his brother Charles , reenacting the murder in a touring stage show . Charles , terminally ill with tuberculosis and addicted to morphine , committed suicide on May 4 , 1884 . Soon afterward , Bob Ford and Dick Liddil relocated to Las Vegas , New Mexico , where they opened a saloon . By early 1885 , Bob had become a Las Vegas city policeman . According to legend , Ford had a shooting contest with Jose Chavez y Chavez , a comrade-in-arms of Billy the Kid 's during the Lincoln County War . Ford lost the contest and left town . On December 26 , 1889 , Ford survived an assassination attempt in Kansas City , Kansas when an assailant tried to slit his throat . Within a few years , Ford settled in Colorado , where he opened a saloon-gambling house in Walsenberg . When silver was found in Creede , Ford closed his saloon and opened one there . On the eve of Easter 1892 , Ford and gunman Joe Palmer , a member of the Soapy Smith gang , were drinking in the local saloons and then went outside and shot out windows and street lamps along Creede 's Main Street . With the help of Smith 's friends and business partners , they were soon allowed to return . [ to where ? from where ? ] Ford purchased a lot and on May 29 , 1892 opened Ford 's Exchange , said to have been a dance hall . Six days later , the entire business district , including Ford 's Exchange , burned to the ground in a major fire . Ford opened a tent saloon until he could rebuild . Death Three days after the fire , on June 8 , 1892 , Edward O'Kelley entered Ford 's tent saloon with a shotgun . According to witnesses , Ford 's back was turned . O'Kelley said , `` Hello , Bob . '' As Ford turned to see who it was , O'Kelley fired both barrels , killing Ford instantly . O'Kelley hence became `` the man who killed the man who killed Jesse James '' . O'Kelley 's sentence was commuted because of a medical condition , and he was released on October 3 , 1902 . O'Kelley was subsequently killed on January 13 , 1904 while trying to shoot a policeman . Ford was buried in Creede . His remains were later exhumed and reburied in Richmond Cemetery , in his native Ray County at Richmond . Cultural depictions Films The James and Ford brothers were popular subjects of Western films in the 1940s and 1950s : * In Jesse James ( 1939 ) , Ford is played by John Carradine . * In The Return of Frank James ( 1940 ) , a highly fictionalized film about Frank James hunting down Bob and Charley Ford , John Carradine reprised his role . The film , directed by Fritz Lang , is a sequel to Jesse James , which also features the Fords . * In I Shot Jesse James ( 1949 ) , directed by Samuel Fuller , Ford is portrayed by John Ireland . * In The Great Missouri Raid ( 1951 ) , directed by Gordon Douglas , Ford is portrayed by Whit Bissel * In The True Story of Jesse James ( 1957 ) , Ford is portrayed by Carl Thayler . * In Hell 's Crossroads ( 1957 ) , Robert Vaughn plays Bob Ford . * In The Long Riders ( 1980 ) , Nicholas and Christopher Guest play Bob and Charley Ford . * In the made-for-TV movie The Last Days of Frank and Jesse James ( 1986 ) , Bob Ford was played by Darrell Wilks . The role of Jesse is played by Kris Kristofferson , Frank James is played by Johnny Cash . Willie Nelson and Jerry Lee Lewis also have roles in this film . * In Frank & Jesse ( 1995 ) , Jim Flowers plays Bob Ford . * In The Plot to Kill : Jesse James ( 2006 ) , and Jesse James : American Outlaw ( 2007 ) ( both TV movies produced by The History Channel ) , Ford is portrayed by James Horton . * In The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford ( 2007 ) , based on the historical novel by Ron Hansen , Ford is played by Casey Affleck , with Brad Pitt as Jesse James . Affleck was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . The film is considered one of the most historically accurate portrayals of Jesse James and Robert Ford . Literature * Ron Hansen 's historical novel , The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford ( 1983 ) , is based on deep research of the figures and their times . * In Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle 's novel Inferno ( 1976 ) , Ford is depicted as being in Hell as a traitor . Music * The lyrics of the folk song `` Jesse James '' ( first recorded in 1924 and later recorded by others , such as Bruce Springsteen and The Pogues ) refer to Ford as `` Well it was Robert Ford/that dirty little coward/I wonder now how he feels/for he ate of Jesse 's bread/and he slept in Jesse 's bed/and he laid poor Jesse in his grave . '' * In the Bob Dylan song `` Outlaw Blues '' , Dylan alludes to Ford with the lines , `` I ai n't gon na hang no picture/Ai n't gon na hang no picture frame/Well I might look like a Robert Ford/But I feel just like a Jesse James '' . * Elton John 's song `` I Feel Like a Bullet ( In the Gun of Robert Ford ) '' , from the Rock of the Westies ( 1975 ) album , refers to a betrayal in a romantic relationship that is metaphorically likened to Jesse James ' assassin . * In Warren Zevon 's song `` Frank and Jesse James '' , Ford is noted in the lyrics , `` Robert Ford , a gunman/In exchange for his parole/Took the life of James the outlaw/Which he snuck up on and stole '' . * In The Sugarhill Gang 's song `` Apache '' , Ford is referenced in the lyrics , `` My tribe went down in the Hall of Fame/'Cause I 'm the one who shot Jesse James '' . Photography * In 2015 , an undated family heirloom tintype was made public depicting Ford sitting beside Jesse James . Radio * Sam Edwards portrayed Bob Ford in the CBS radio show Crime Classics episode , `` The Death of a Picture Hanger '' ( July 20 , 1953 ) . Television series * In 1954 , Tyler MacDuff played Bob Ford in the episode `` Jesse and Frank James '' of Jim Davis 's syndicated Stories of the Century . * In 1957 , Bobby Jordan played Ford in an episode of Dale Robertson 's NBC series Tales of Wells Fargo . * In 1958 , Martin Landau portrayed Robert Ford in the ABC/Warner Brothers western series , Lawman in the episode `` The Outcast '' . * In 1960 , Charles Aidman guest starred in the episode `` Bob Ford '' in the first season of the syndicated series , Shotgun Slade , starring Scott Brady . * In 1967 , Roy Jenson played Bob Ford in the Hondo episode `` Hondo and the Judas '' . * In 1977 , an episode of NBC 's Little House on the Prairie depicted Ford as a student at Walnut Grove School .

jp_52--Robert_Ford_(outlaw).txt

What notorious outlaw was shot in the back by the coward Robert Ford?

The Prince ( ) is a 16th-century political treatise by the Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli . From correspondence a version appears to have been distributed in 1513 , using a Latin title , De Principatibus ( About Principalities ) . However , the printed version was not published until 1532 , five years after Machiavelli 's death . This was done with the permission of the Medici pope Clement VII , but `` long before then , in fact since the first appearance of The Prince in manuscript , controversy had swirled about his writings '' . Although it was written as if it were a traditional work in the mirrors for princes style , it is generally agreed that it was especially innovative . This is only partly because it was written in the vernacular Italian rather than Latin , a practice which had become increasingly popular since the publication of Dante 's Divine Comedy and other works of Renaissance literature . The Prince is sometimes claimed to be one of the first works of modern philosophy , especially modern political philosophy , in which the effective truth is taken to be more important than any abstract ideal . It was also in direct conflict with the dominant Catholic and scholastic doctrines of the time concerning politics and ethics . Although it is relatively short , the treatise is the most remembered of Machiavelli 's works and the one most responsible for bringing the word `` Machiavellian '' into usage as a pejorative . It even contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words `` politics '' and `` politician '' in western countries . In terms of subject matter it overlaps with the much longer Discourses on Livy , which was written a few years later . In its use of near-contemporary Italians as examples of people who perpetrated criminal deeds for politics , another lesser-known work by Machiavelli which The Prince has been compared to is the Life of Castruccio Castracani . The descriptions within The Prince have the general theme of accepting that the aims of princes—such as glory and survival—can justify the use of immoral means to achieve those ends : Summary The work has a recognizable structure , for the most part indicated by the author himself , which can be summarized as follows : The subject matter : New Princedoms ( Chapters 1 & 2 ) The Prince starts by describing the subject matter it will handle . In the first sentence Machiavelli uses the word `` state '' ( Italian stato which could also mean `` status '' ) in order to neutrally cover `` all forms of organization of supreme political power , whether republican or princely '' . The way in which the word state came to acquire this modern type of meaning during the Renaissance has been the subject of many academic discussions , with this sentence and similar ones in the works of Machiavelli being considered particularly important . Machiavelli said that The Prince would be about princedoms , mentioning that he has written about republics elsewhere ( possibly referring to the Discourses on Livy although this is debated ) , but in fact he mixes discussion of republics into this in many places , effectively treating republics as a type of princedom also , and one with many strengths . More importantly , and less traditionally , he distinguishes new princedoms from hereditary established princedoms . He deals with hereditary princedoms quickly in Chapter 2 , saying that they are much easier to rule . For such a prince , `` unless extraordinary vices cause him to be hated , it is reasonable to expect that his subjects will be naturally well disposed towards him '' . , comparing to traditional presentations of advice for princes , stated that the novelty in chapters 1 and 2 is the `` deliberate purpose of dealing with a new ruler who will need to establish himself in defiance of custom '' . Normally , these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes . He thinks Machiavelli may have been influenced by Tacitus as well as his own experience , but finds no clear predecessor for this . This categorization of regime types is also `` un-Aristotelian '' and apparently simpler than the traditional one found for example in Aristotle 's Politics , which divides regimes into those ruled by a single monarch , an oligarchy , or by the people , in a democracy . He also ignores the classical distinctions between the good and corrupt forms , for example between monarchy and tyranny . Xenophon , on the other hand , made exactly the same distinction between types of rulers in the beginning of his Education of Cyrus where he says that , concerning the knowledge of how to rule human beings , Cyrus the Great , his exemplary prince , was very different `` from all other kings , both those who have inherited their thrones from their fathers and those who have gained their crowns by their own efforts '' . Machiavelli divides the subject of new states into two types , `` mixed '' cases and purely new states . `` Mixed '' princedoms ( chapters 3–5 ) New princedoms are either totally new , or they are “ mixed ” meaning that they are new parts of an older state , already belonging to that prince . New conquests added to older states ( chapter 3 ) Machiavelli generalizes that there were several virtuous Roman ways to hold a newly acquired province , using a republic as an example of how new princes can act : * to install one 's princedom in the new acquisition , or to install colonies of one 's people there , which is better . * to indulge the lesser powers of the area without increasing their power . * to put down the powerful people . * not to allow a foreign power to gain reputation . More generally , Machiavelli emphasizes that one should have regard not only for present problems but also for the future ones . One should not “ enjoy the benefit of time ” but rather the benefit of one 's virtue and prudence , because time can bring evil as well as good . Conquered kingdoms ( chapter 4 ) In some cases the old king of the conquered kingdom depended on his lords . 16th century France , or in other words France as it was at the time of writing of The Prince , is given by Machiavelli as an example of such a kingdom . These are easy to enter but difficult to hold . When the kingdom revolves around the king , then it is difficult to enter but easy to hold . The solution is to eliminate the old bloodline of the prince . Machiavelli used the Persian empire of Darius III , conquered by Alexander the Great , to illustrate this point and then noted that the Medici , if they think about it , will find this historical example similar to the `` kingdom of the Turk '' ( Ottoman Empire ) in their time – making this a potentially easier conquest to hold than France would be . Conquered Free States , with their own laws and orders ( Chapter 5 ) notes that this chapter is quite atypical of any previous books for princes . Gilbert supposed the need to discuss conquering free republics is linked to Machiavelli 's project to unite Italy , which contained some free republics . As he also notes , the chapter in any case makes it clear that holding such a state is highly difficult for a prince . Machiavelli gives three options : - * Ruin them , as Rome destroyed Carthage , and also as Machiavelli says the Romans eventually had to do in Greece , even though they had wanted to avoid it . * Go to live there ( or install colonies , if you are a prince of a republic ) . * Let them keep their own orders but install a puppet regime . Totally New States ( Chapters 6–9 ) Conquests by virtue ( Chapter 6 ) Princes who rise to power through their own skill and resources ( their `` virtue '' ) rather than luck tend to have a hard time rising to the top , but once they reach the top they are very secure in their position . This is because they effectively crush their opponents and earn great respect from everyone else . Because they are strong and more self-sufficient , they have to make fewer compromises with their allies . Machiavelli writes that reforming an existing order is one of the most dangerous and difficult things a prince can do . Part of the reason is that people are naturally resistant to change and reform . Those who benefited from the old order will resist change very fiercely . By contrast , those who can benefit from the new order will be less fierce in their support , because the new order is unfamiliar and they are not certain it will live up to its promises . Moreover , it is impossible for the prince to satisfy everybody 's expectations . Inevitably , he will disappoint some of his followers . Therefore , a prince must have the means to force his supporters to keep supporting him even when they start having second thoughts , otherwise he will lose his power . Only armed prophets , like Moses , succeed in bringing lasting change . Machiavelli claims that Moses killed uncountable numbers of his own people in order to enforce his will . Machiavelli was not the first thinker to notice this pattern . Allan Gilbert wrote : `` In wishing new laws and yet seeing danger in them Machiavelli was not himself an innovator , '' because this idea was traditional and could be found in Aristotle 's writings . But Machiavelli went much further than any other author in his emphasis on this aim , and Gilbert associates Machiavelli 's emphasis upon such drastic aims with the level of corruption to be found in Italy . Conquest by fortune , meaning by someone else ’ s virtue ( Chapter 7 ) According to Machiavelli , when a prince comes to power through luck or the blessings of powerful figures within the regime , he typically has an easy time gaining power but a hard time keeping it thereafter , because his power is dependent on his benefactors ' goodwill . He does not command the loyalty of the armies and officials that maintain his authority , and these can be withdrawn from him at a whim . Having risen the easy way , it is not even certain such a prince has the skill and strength to stand on his own feet . This is not necessarily true in every case . Machiavelli cites Cesare Borgia as an example of a lucky prince who escaped this pattern . Through cunning political maneuvers , he managed to secure his power base . Cesare was made commander of the papal armies by his father , Pope Alexander VI , but was also heavily dependent on mercenary armies loyal to the Orsini brothers and the support of the French king . Borgia won over the allegiance of the Orsini 's followers with better pay and prestigious government posts . When some of his mercenary captains started to plot against him , he had them imprisoned and executed . When it looked as though the king of France would abandon him , Borgia sought new alliances . Finally , Machiavelli makes a point that bringing new benefits to a conquered people will not be enough to cancel the memory of old injuries , an idea Allan Gilbert said can be found in Tacitus and Seneca the Younger . Conquests by “ criminal virtue ” ( Chapter 8 ) Conquests by `` criminal virtue '' are ones in which the new prince secures his power through cruel , immoral deeds , such as the execution of political rivals . Machiavelli advises that a prince should carefully calculate all the wicked deeds he needs to do to secure his power , and then execute them all in one stroke , such that he need not commit any more wickedness for the rest of his reign . In this way , his subjects will slowly forget his cruel deeds and his reputation can recover . Princes who fail to do this , who hesitate in their ruthlessness , find that their problems mushroom over time and they are forced to commit wicked deeds throughout their reign . Thus they continuously mar their reputations and alienate their people . Machiavelli 's case study is Agathocles of Syracuse . After Agathocles became Praetor of Syracuse , he called a meeting of the city 's elite . At his signal , his soldiers killed all the senators and the wealthiest citizens , completely destroying the old oligarchy . He declared himself ruler with no opposition . So secure was his power that he could afford to absent himself to go off on military campaigns in Africa . However , Machiavelli then strongly rebukes Agothocles , stating , `` Yet one can not call it virtue to kill one 's citizens , betray one 's friends , to be without faith , without mercy , without religion ; these modes can enable one to acquire empire , but not glory . [ ... ] Nonetheless , his savage cruelty and inhumanity , together with his infinite crimes , do not permit him to be celebrated among the most excellent men . Thus , one can not attribute to fortune or virtue what he achieved without either . '' remarks that this chapter is even less traditional than those it follows , not only in its treatment of criminal behavior , but also in the advice to take power from people at a stroke , noting that precisely the opposite had been advised by Aristotle in his Politics ( 5.11.1315a13 ) . On the other hand , Gilbert shows that another piece of advice in this chapter , to give benefits when it will not appear forced , was traditional . Becoming a prince by the selection of one 's fellow citizens ( Chapter 9 ) These `` civic principalities '' do not require real virtue , only “ fortunate astuteness ” . Machiavelli breaks this case into two basic types , depending upon which section of the populace supports the new prince . Supported by the great ( those who wish to command the people ) This , according to Machiavelli , is an unstable situation , which must be avoided after the initial coming to power . The great should be made and unmade every day at your convenience . There are two types of great people that might be encountered : # Those who are bound to the prince . Concerning these it is important to distinguish between two types of obligated great people , those who are rapacious and those who are not . It is the latter who can and should be honoured . # Those who are not bound to the new prince . Once again these need to be divided into two types : those with a weak spirit ( a prince can make use of them if they are of good counsel ) and those who shun being bound because of their own ambition ( these should be watched and feared as enemies ) . Supported by the people ( those who wish not to be commanded by the great ) How to win over people depends on circumstances . Machiavelli advises : * Do not get frightened in adversity . * One should avoid ruling via magistrates , if one wishes to be able to “ ascend ” to absolute rule quickly and safely . * One should make sure that the people need the prince , especially if a time of need should come . How to judge the strength of principalities ( Chapter 10 ) The way to judge the strength of a princedom is to see whether it can defend itself , or whether it needs to depend on allies . This does not just mean that the cities should be prepared and the people trained ; a prince who is hated is also exposed . Ecclesiastical principates ( Chapter 11 ) This type of `` princedom '' refers for example explicitly to the Catholic church , which is of course not traditionally thought of as a princedom . According to Machiavelli , these are relatively easy to maintain , once founded . They do not need to defend themselves militarily , nor to govern their subjects . Machiavelli discusses the recent history of the Church as if it were a princedom that was in competition to conquer Italy against other princes . He points to factionalism as a historical weak point in the Church , and points to the recent example of the Borgia family as a better strategy which almost worked . He then explicitly proposes that the Medici are now in a position to try the same thing . Defense and military ( Chapter 12–14 ) Having discussed the various types of principalities , Machiavelli turns to the ways a state can attack other territories or defend itself . The two most essential foundations for any state , whether old or new , are sound laws and strong military forces . A self-sufficient prince is one who can meet any enemy on the battlefield . He should be `` armed '' with his own arms . However , a prince that relies solely on fortifications or on the help of others and stands on the defensive is not self-sufficient . If he can not raise a formidable army , but must rely on defense , he must fortify his city . A well-fortified city is unlikely to be attacked , and if it is , most armies can not endure an extended siege . However , during a siege a virtuous prince will keep the morale of his subjects high while removing all dissenters . Thus , as long as the city is properly defended and has enough supplies , a wise prince can withstand any siege . Machiavelli stands strongly against the use of mercenaries , and in this he was innovative , and he also had personal experience in Florence . He believes they are useless to a ruler because they are undisciplined , cowardly , and without any loyalty , being motivated only by money . Machiavelli attributes the Italian city states ’ weakness to their reliance on mercenary armies . Machiavelli also warns against using auxiliary forces , troops borrowed from an ally , because if they win , the employer is under their favor and if they lose , he is ruined . Auxiliary forces are more dangerous than mercenary forces because they are united and controlled by capable leaders who may turn against the employer . The main concern for a prince should be war , or the preparation thereof , not books . Through war a hereditary prince maintains his power or a private citizen rises to power . Machiavelli advises that a prince must frequently hunt in order to keep his body fit and learn the landscape surrounding his kingdom . Through this , he can best learn how to protect his territory and advance upon others . For intellectual strength , he is advised to study great military men so he may imitate their successes and avoid their mistakes . A prince who is diligent in times of peace will be ready in times of adversity . Machiavelli writes , “ thus , when fortune turns against him he will be prepared to resist it . ” The Qualities of a Prince ( Chapters 14–19 ) Each of the following chapters presents a discussion about a particular virtue or vice that a prince might have , and is therefore structured in a way which appears like traditional advice for a prince . However , the advice is far from traditional . A Prince 's Duty Concerning Military Matters ( Chapter 14 ) Machiavelli believes that a prince 's main focus should be on perfecting the art of war . He believes that by taking this profession a ruler will be able to protect his kingdom . He claims that `` being disarmed makes you despised . '' He believes that the only way to ensure loyalty from one 's soldiers is to understand military matters . The two activities Machiavelli recommends practicing to prepare for war are physical and mental . Physically , he believes rulers should learn the landscape of their territories . Mentally , he encouraged the study of past military events . He also warns against idleness . Reputation of a prince ( Chapter 15 ) Because , says Machiavelli , he wants to write something useful to those who understand , he thought it more fitting `` to go directly to the effectual truth ( `` verità effettuale '' ) of the thing than to the imagination of it '' . This section is one where Machiavelli ’ s pragmatic ideal can be seen most clearly . The prince should , ideally , be virtuous , but he should be willing and able to abandon those virtues if it becomes necessary . Concerning the behavior of a prince toward his subjects , Machiavelli announces that he will depart from what other writers say , and writes : Since there are many possible qualities that a prince can be said to possess , he must not be overly concerned about having all the good ones . Also , a prince may be perceived to be merciful , faithful , humane , frank , and religious , but most important is only to seem to have these qualities . A prince can not truly have these qualities because at times it is necessary to act against them . In fact , he must sometimes deliberately choose evil . Although a bad reputation should be avoided , it is sometimes necessary to have one . Generosity vs. parsimony ( Chapter 16 ) If a prince is overly generous to his subjects , Machiavelli asserts he will not be appreciated , and will only cause greed for more . Additionally , being overly generous is not economical , because eventually all resources will be exhausted . This results in higher taxes , and will bring grief upon the prince . Then , if he decides to discontinue or limit his generosity , he will be labeled as a miser . Thus , Machiavelli summarizes that guarding against the people ’ s hatred is more important than building up a reputation for generosity . A wise prince should be willing to be more reputed a miser than be hated for trying to be too generous . On the other hand : `` of what is not yours or your subjects ' one can be a bigger giver , as were Cyrus , Caesar , and Alexander , because spending what is someone else 's does not take reputation from you but adds it to you ; only spending your own hurts you '' . Cruelty vs. Mercy ( Chapter 17 ) In addressing the question of whether it is better to be loved or feared , Machiavelli writes , “ The answer is that one would like to be both the one and the other ; but because it is difficult to combine them , it is far safer to be feared than loved if you can not be both. ” As Machiavelli asserts , commitments made in peace are not always kept in adversity ; however , commitments made in fear are kept out of fear . Yet , a prince must ensure that he is not feared to the point of hatred , which is very possible . This chapter is possibly the most well-known of the work , and it is important because of the reasoning behind Machiavelli ’ s famous idea that it is better to be feared than loved – his justification is purely pragmatic ; as he notes , “ Men worry less about doing an injury to one who makes himself loved than to one who makes himself feared. ” Fear is simply a means to an end , and that end is security for the prince . The fear instilled should never be excessive , for that could be dangerous to the prince . Above all , Machiavelli argues , a prince should not interfere with the property of their subjects , their women , or the life of somebody without proper justification . Regarding the troops of the prince , fear is absolutely necessary to keep a large garrison united and a prince should not mind the thought of cruelty in that regard . For a prince who leads his own army , it is imperative for him to observe cruelty because that is the only way he can command his soldiers ' absolute respect . Machiavelli compares two great military leaders : Hannibal and Scipio Africanus . Although Hannibal 's army consisted of men of various races , they were never rebellious because they feared their leader . Machiavelli says this required `` inhuman cruelty '' which he refers to as a virtue . Scipio 's men , on the other hand , were known for their mutiny and dissension , due to Scipio 's `` excessive mercy '' – which was however a source of glory because he lived in a republic . In what way princes should keep their word ( Chapter 18 ) Machiavelli notes that a prince is praised for keeping his word . However , he also notes that a prince is also praised for the illusion of being reliable in keeping his word . A prince , therefore , should only keep his word when it suits his purposes , but do his utmost to maintain the illusion that he does keep his word and that he is reliable in that regard . Therefore , a prince should not break his word unnecessarily . As Machiavelli notes , “ He should appear to be compassionate , faithful to his word , guileless , and devout . And indeed he should be so . But his disposition should be such that , if he needs to be the opposite , he knows how. ” As noted in chapter 15 , the prince must appear to be virtuous , and should be virtuous , but he should be able to be otherwise when the time calls for it ; that includes being able to lie , though however much he lies he should always keep the appearance of being truthful . Avoiding contempt and hatred ( Chapter 19 ) Machiavelli observes that most men are content as long as they are not deprived of their property and women . A prince should command respect through his conduct , because a prince that is highly respected by his people is unlikely to face internal struggles . Additionally , a prince who does not raise the contempt of the nobles and keeps the people satisfied , Machiavelli assures , should have no fear of conspirators . Machiavelli advises monarchs to have both internal and external fears . Internal fears exist inside his kingdom and focus on his subjects , Machiavelli warns to be suspicious of everyone when hostile attitudes emerge . External fears are of foreign powers . The Prudence of the Prince ( Chapters 20–25 ) Whether ruling conquests with fortresses works ( Chapter 20 ) Machiavelli mentions that placing fortresses in conquered territories , although it sometimes works , often fails . Using fortresses can be a good plan , but Machiavelli says he shall `` blame anyone who , trusting in fortresses , thinks little of being hated by the people '' . Gaining honors ( Chapter 21 ) A prince truly earns honor by completing great feats . King Ferdinand of Spain is cited by Machiavelli as an example of a monarch who gained esteem by showing his ability through great feats and who , in the name of religion , conquered many territories and kept his subjects occupied so that they had no chance to rebel . Regarding two warring states , Machiavelli asserts it is always wiser to choose a

qb_3878--The_Prince.txt

Who wrote the political treatise ‘The Prince’, published in 1532?

The numeric system represented by Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages . Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet . Roman numerals , as used today , are based on seven symbols : The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire . From the 14th century on , Roman numerals began to be replaced in most contexts by the more convenient Hindu-Arabic numerals ; however , this process was gradual , and the use of Roman numerals persists in some minor applications to this day . Roman numeric system The numbers 1 to 10 are usually expressed in Roman numerals as follows : . Numbers are formed by combining symbols and adding the values , so is two ( two ones ) and is thirteen ( a ten and three ones ) . Because each numeral has a fixed value rather than representing multiples of ten , one hundred and so on , according to position , there is no need for `` place keeping '' zeros , as in numbers like 207 or 1066 ; those numbers are written as ( two hundreds , a five and two ones ) and ( a thousand , a fifty , a ten , a five and a one ) . Symbols are placed from left to right in order of value , starting with the largest . However , in a few specific cases , to avoid four characters being repeated in succession ( such as or ) , subtractive notation is often used as follows : * placed before or indicates one less , so four is ( one less than five ) and nine is ( one less than ten ) * placed before or indicates ten less , so forty is ( ten less than fifty ) and ninety is ( ten less than a hundred ) * placed before or indicates a hundred less , so four hundred is ( a hundred less than five hundred ) and nine hundred is ( a hundred less than a thousand ) Stroh , Michael . [ http : //articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-12-27/news/1998361013_1_roman-numerals-roman-numbers-information-on-roman/ Trick question : How to spell 1999 ? Numerals : Maybe the Roman Empire fell because their computers could n't handle calculations in Latin . ] The Baltimore Sun , December 27 , 1998 . For example , is one thousand nine hundred and four , 1904 ( is a thousand , is nine hundred and is four ) . Some examples of the modern use of Roman numerals include : * 1954 as , as in the trailer for the movie The Last Time I Saw Paris * 1990 as , used as the title of musical project Enigma 's debut album MCMXC a.D. , named after the year of its release . * 2014 as , the year of the games of the ( 22nd ) Olympic Winter Games ( in Sochi ) Alternative forms The `` standard '' forms described above reflect typical modern usage rather than a universally accepted convention . Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and remained inconsistent in medieval and modern times . Roman inscriptions , especially in official contexts , seem to show a preference for additive forms such as and instead of ( or even as well as ) subtractive forms such as and . Both methods appear in documents from the Roman era , even within the same document . `` Double subtractives '' also occur , such as or even instead of . Sometimes and are not used , with instances such as and rather than or . Such variation and inconsistency continued through the medieval period and into modern times , even becoming conventional . Clock faces that use Roman numerals normally show for four o ’ clock but for nine o ’ clock , a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the Wells Cathedral clock . However this is far from universal : for example , the clock on the Palace of Westminster in London ( aka `` Big Ben '' ) uses . Similarly , at the beginning of the 20th century , different representations of 900 ( commonly ) appeared in several inscribed dates . For instance , 1910 is shown on Admiralty Arch , London , as rather than , while on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum , 1903 is inscribed as rather than . History Pre-Roman times and ancient Rome Although Roman numerals came to be written with letters of the Roman alphabet , they were originally independent symbols . The Etruscans , for example , used , , , , , and for , , , , , and , of which only and happened to be letters in their alphabet . Hypotheses about the origin of Roman numerals Tally marks One hypothesis is that the Etrusco-Roman numerals actually derive from notches on tally sticks , which continued to be used by Italian and Dalmatian shepherds into the 19th century . Thus , descends not from the letter but from a notch scored across the stick . Every fifth notch was double cut i.e . , , , , etc . ) , and every tenth was cross cut ( ) , ) , much like European tally marks today . This produced a positional system : Eight on a counting stick was eight tallies , , or the eighth of a longer series of tallies ; either way , it could be abbreviated ( or ) , as the existence of a implies four prior notches . By extension , eighteen was the eighth tally after the first ten , which could be abbreviated , and so was . Likewise , number four on the stick was the I-notch that could be felt just before the cut of the ( ) , so it could be written as either or ( ) . Thus the system was neither additive nor subtractive in its conception , but ordinal . When the tallies were transferred to writing , the marks were easily identified with the existing Roman letters , and . The tenth or along the stick received an extra stroke . Thus 50 was written variously as , , , , , etc. , but perhaps most often as a chicken-track shape like a superimposed and : . This had flattened to ( an inverted T ) by the time of Augustus , and soon thereafter became identified with the graphically similar letter . Likewise , 100 was variously , , , , or as any of the symbols for 50 above plus an extra stroke . The form ( that is , a superimposed and like : ) came to predominate . It was written variously as or , was then abbreviated to or , with variant finally winning out because , as a letter , it stood for , Latin for `` hundred '' . The hundredth or was marked with a box or circle . Thus 500 was like a superimposed on a or , becoming or by the time of Augustus , under the graphic influence of the letter . It was later identified as the letter D ; an alternative symbol for `` thousand '' was ( or or ) , and half of a thousand or `` five hundred '' is the right half of the symbol , ( or or ) , and this may have been converted into . This at least was the etymology given to it later on . Meanwhile , 1000 was a circled or boxed : , , , and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter phi . Over time , the symbol changed to and . The latter symbol further evolved into , then , and eventually changed to under the influence of the Latin word `` thousand '' . Hand signals Alfred Hooper has an alternative hypothesis for the origin of the Roman numeral system , for small numbers . Hooper contends that the digits are related to hand gestures for counting . For example , the numbers , , , correspond to the number of fingers held up for another to see . , then represents that hand upright with fingers together and thumb apart . Numbers 6–10 , are represented with two hands as follows ( left hand , right hand ) 6 ( , ) , 7 ( , ) , 8 ( , ) , 9 ( , ) , 10= ( , ) and results from either crossing of the thumbs , or holding both hands up in a cross . Intermediate symbols deriving from few original symbols A third hypothesis about the origins states that the basic ciphers were , , and ( or ) and that the intermediary ones were derived from taking half of those ( half a is , half a is and half a is ) . Middle Ages and Renaissance Minuscule ( lower-case ) letters were developed in the Middle Ages , well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire , and since that time lower-case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used : , , , , and so on . Since the Middle Ages , a `` '' has sometimes been substituted for the final `` '' of a `` lower-case '' Roman numeral , such as `` '' for 3 or `` '' for 7 . This `` '' can be considered a swash variant of `` '' ( see example [ http : //www.marriagerecords.me.uk/roman-numerals/ # .U764YkA1CSo ] ) . The use of a final `` '' is still used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it is written . Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols , which today are called `` medieval Roman numerals '' . Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one ( such as `` '' for `` '' , or `` '' for `` '' ) , while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ( `` '' for `` '' , or `` '' for `` '' ) . Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries , they are long out of use . Chronograms , messages with numbers encoded into them , were popular during the Renaissance era . The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters , , , , , , and . By putting these letters together , the reader would obtain a number , usually indicating a particular year . Modern use By the 11th century , Hindu–Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-Andalus , by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises . Roman numerals however proved very persistent , remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries , even in accounting and other business records ( where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus ) . Their eventual , almost complete replacement by their more convenient `` Arabic '' equivalents happened quite gradually ; in fact Roman numerals are still sometimes used today , especially in certain niche contexts . A few examples of their current use are : * Names of monarchs and popes , e.g . Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom , Pope Benedict XVI . These are referred to as regnal numbers ; e.g . is pronounced `` the second '' . This tradition began in Europe sporadically in the Middle Ages , gaining widespread use in England only during the reign of Henry VIII . Previously , the monarch was not known by numeral but by an epithet such as Edward the Confessor . Some monarchs ( e.g . Charles IV of Spain and Louis XIV of France ) seem to have preferred the use of instead of on their coinage ( see illustration ) . * Generational suffixes , particularly in the US , for people sharing the same name across generations , for example William Howard Taft IV . * In the French Republican Calendar , initiated during the French Revolution , years were numbered by Roman numerals - from the year I ( 1792 ) when this calendar was introduced to the year XIV ( 1805 ) when it was abandoned . * The year of production of films , television shows and other works of art within the work itself . It has been suggested – by BBC News , perhaps facetiously – that this was originally done `` in an attempt to disguise the age of films or television programmes . '' Outside reference to the work will use regular Hindu–Arabic numerals . * Hour marks on timepieces . In this context , 4 is usually written . * The year of construction on building faces and cornerstones . * Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books , and sometimes of annexes , too . * Book volume and chapter numbers , as well as the several acts within a play ( e.g . Act iii , Scene 2 ) . * Sequels of some movies , video games , and other works ( as in Rocky II ) . * Outlines that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships . * Occurrences of a recurring grand event , for instance : * * The Summer and Winter Olympic Games ( e.g . the Olympic Winter Games ; the Games of the Olympiad ) * * The Super Bowl , the annual championship game of the National Football League ( e.g . Super Bowl ; Super Bowl 50 is a one-time exception ) * * WrestleMania , the annual professional wrestling event for the WWE ( e.g . WrestleMania ) . This usage has also been inconsistent . Specific disciplines In astronomy , the natural satellites or `` moons '' of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet ’ s name . For example , Titan 's designation is Saturn . In chemistry , Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the periodic table . They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry , for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several different positive charges . They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals , such as ice . In computing , Roman numerals may be used in identifiers which are limited to alphabetic characters by syntactic constraints of the programming language . In LaTeX , for instance , \labelitemiii refers to the label of an item in the third level of a nested list environment . In military unit designation , Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels . This reduces possible confusion , especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps . In particular , army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals ( for example the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German III Panzerkorps ) with Hindu-Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies . In music , Roman numerals are used in several contexts : * Movements are often numbered using Roman numerals . * In music theory , the diatonic functions are identified using Roman numerals . ( See : Roman numeral analysis ) * Individual strings of stringed instruments , such as the violin , are often denoted by Roman numerals , with higher numbers denoting lower strings . In pharmacy , Roman numerals are used in some contexts , including to denote `` one half '' and to mean `` nothing '' . ( See the sections below on `` zero '' and `` fractions '' . ) In photography , Roman numerals ( with zero ) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System . In seismology , Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes . In tarot , Roman numerals ( with zero ) are used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana . In theology and biblical scholarship , the Septuagint is often referred to as ' , as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators ( septuaginta being Latin for `` seventy '' ) . In entomology the broods of the thirteen and seventeen year periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals . Modern non-English use Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote , e.g . the French ' and the Spanish ' mean `` 18th century '' . Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russia similarly favour Roman numerals ( ) . On the other hand , in Slavic languages in Central Europe , like most Germanic languages , one writes `` 18 . '' ( with a period ) before the local word for `` century '' . In many European countries , mixed Roman and Hindu-Arabic numerals are used to record dates ( especially in formal letters and official documents , but also on tombstones ) . The is written in Roman numerals , while the day is in Hindu-Arabic numerals : 14 .. 1789 is 14 June 1789 . In parts of Europe it is conventional to employ Roman numerals to represent the in hours-of-operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses , and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables . Monday , taken as the first day of the week , is represented by . Sunday is represented by . The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time . In the sample chart ( left ) , the business opens from 9 AM to 5 PM on Mondays , Wednesdays , and Thursdays ; 10 AM to 7 PM on Tuesdays and Fridays ; and to 1 PM on Saturdays ; and is closed on Sundays . In several European countries Roman numerals are used for floor numbering . For instance , apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138- , with both a Hindu-Arabic numeral ( number of the block or house ) and a Roman numeral ( floor number ) . The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as . In Italy , where roads outside built-up areas have kilometre signs , major roads and motorways also mark 100-metre subdivisionals , using Roman numerals from to for the smaller intervals . The sign `` | 17 '' thus marks kilometre 17.9 . A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece , where Greek numerals ( based on the Greek alphabet ) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere . Special values Zero The number zero does not have its own Roman numeral , but the word nulla ( the Latin word meaning `` none '' ) was used by medieval scholars in lieu of 0 . Dionysius Exiguus was known to use nulla alongside Roman numerals in 525 . About 725 , Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N , the initial of nulla , in a table of epacts , all written in Roman numerals.C . W. Jones , ed. , Opera Didascalica , vol . 123C in Corpus Christianorum , Series Latina . Fractions Though the Romans used a decimal system for whole numbers , reflecting how they counted in Latin , they used a duodecimal system for fractions , because the divisibility of twelve makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 1/3 and 1/4 than does a system based on ten On coins , many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit , they used a tally-like notational system based on twelfths and halves . A dot ( • ) indicated an `` twelfth '' , the source of the English words inch and ounce ; dots were repeated for fractions up to five twelfths . Six twelfths ( one half ) was abbreviated as the letter S for `` half '' . Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths , just as tallies were added to for whole numbers from six to nine . Each fraction from 1/12 to 12/12 had a name in Roman times ; these corresponded to the names of the related coins : The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear . Five dots arranged like ( ⁙ ) ( as on the face of a die ) are known as a quincunx , from the name of the Roman fraction/coin . The Latin words ' and ' are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant . Other Roman fractional notations included the following : * 1/8 ( from sesqui- + uncia , i.e . 1½ uncias ) , represented by a sequence of the symbols for the semuncia and the uncia . * 1/24 ( from semi- + uncia , i.e . ½ uncia ) , represented by several variant glyphs deriving from the shape of the Greek letter Sigma ( Σ ) , one variant resembling the pound sign ( £ ) without the horizontal line ( s ) ( 𐆒 ) and another resembling the Cyrillic letter Є . * 1/36 ( `` two sextulas '' ) or , represented by a sequence of two reversed Ss ( ƧƧ ) . * 1/48 , represented by a reversed C ( Ɔ ) . * 1/72 ( 1/6 of an uncia ) , represented by a reversed S ( Ƨ ) . * 1/144 = 12−2 ( `` half a sextula '' ) , represented by a reversed S crossed by a horizontal line ( 𐆔 ) . * 1/288 ( a scruple ) , represented by the symbol ℈ . * 1/1728 = 12−3 , represented by a symbol resembling closing guillemets ( 𐆕 ) . Large numbers A number of systems were developed for the expression of larger numbers that can not be conveniently expressed using the normal seven letter symbols of conventional Roman numerals . Apostrophus One of these was the apostrophus , in which 500 ( usually written as `` '' ) was written as | , while 1,000 was written as | instead of `` '' . This is a system of encasing numbers to denote thousands ( the s and s functioned in this case as the Roman equivalent of parentheses ) , and has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage . The and used to represent 500 and 1,000 in conventional Roman numerals were probably derived from | and | , respectively . In this system , an extra | denoted 500 , | 5,000 and | 50,000 . For example : Sometimes | was reduced to ↀ for 1,000 . John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity ( modern ∞ ) , and one conjecture is that he based it on this usage , since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers . Similarly , | for 5,000 was reduced to ↁ ; | for 10,000 to ↂ ; | for 50,000 to ↇ ; and | for 100,000 to ↈ . Vinculum Another system is the vinculum , where a conventional Roman numeral is multiplied by 1,000 by adding an overline . For instance : * for 1,000 * for 25,000 Adding further vertical lines before and after the numeral might also be used to raise the multiplier to ( say ) one hundred thousand , or a million . thus : * || for 800,000 * || for 2,000,000 This needs to be distinguished from the custom of adding both underline and overline to a Roman numeral , simply to make it clear that it IS a number , e.g . . Certain ( serif ) typefaces , for example Times New Roman , are designed with serifs that simulate the appearance of the under/over bar , e.g . .

qz_5487--Roman_numerals.txt

What is 1009 when expressed as Roman Numerals?

Richard Roman Grech ( 1 November 1946 , Bordeaux , France – 17 March 1990 , Leicester , England ) was a British rock musician and multi-instrumentalist . Career He was educated at Corpus Christi RC School , Leicester , after attending Sacred Heart Primary School . He played violin in the school orchestra . Grech originally gained notice in the United Kingdom as the bass guitar player for the progressive rock group Family . He joined the band when it was a largely blues-based live act in Leicester known as the Farinas . He became their bassist in 1965 , replacing Tim Kirchin . Family released their first single , `` Scene Through The Eye of a Lens , '' in September 1967 on the Liberty label in the UK , which got the band signed to Reprise Records . The group 's 1968 debut album Music in a Doll 's House was an underground hit that highlighted the songwriting talents of Roger Chapman and John `` Charlie '' Whitney as well as Chapman 's piercing voice , but Grech also stood out with his rhythmic , thundering bass work on songs such as `` Old Songs New Songs '' and `` See Through Windows , '' along with his adeptness on cello and violin . Released in February 1969 , Family Entertainment , the group 's second album , was a major turning point for Grech personally . In addition to playing bass and violin , he wrote three of the album 's other songs : `` How-Hi-The-Li , '' `` Face In the Cloud , '' and `` Second Generation Woman , '' which was first released as a single in Britain in November 1968 . This song featured Grech on lead vocals , leading Family through a cheeky lyric about a woman who `` looks good to handle from a personal angle , '' with an arrangement that recalled the Beatles 's `` Paperback Writer '' and owed an obvious debt to Chuck Berry . Tellingly , however , all of Grech 's songs contained obvious drug references - `` How Hi-The-Li '' wondered aloud if Chinese premier Chou En-Lai `` gets high with all the tea in China '' - and drugs would eventually plague Grech throughout his career . In the spring of 1969 , former Cream guitarist Eric Clapton and former Traffic frontman Steve Winwood formed the supergroup Blind Faith ; in need of a bassist , they immediately recruited Grech , with whom they 'd both jammed when Clapton was in John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers and Winwood was in the Spencer Davis Group . However , Grech failed to give Chapman and Whitney adequate notice , and Family was due to start a U.S. tour with Ten Years After . Grech agreed to go on the tour until Family could replace him , but he proved to be unreliable when Family played their first American show on 8 April 1969 at the Fillmore East in New York , being so disoriented he could barely play . Returning to England , Grech recorded with the group the self-titled album , Blind Faith , with Clapton , Winwood , and drummer Ginger Baker , a former bandmate of Clapton 's in Cream . The quartet toured the U.S. to support it . Clapton was disappointed with the quality of the music and the performances , and Blind Faith called it quits . Grech and Winwood stayed with Baker to form Ginger Baker 's Air Force , a `` supergroup '' which also included Denny Laine ( ex-Moody Blues ) on guitar , Chris Wood ( ex-Traffic ) on sax and flute , and several other musicians ; when that group ended , Winwood reformed Traffic with original members Wood and Jim Capaldi , and Grech joined as their bassist . In October 1969 , between Blind Faith and Traffic , Grech recorded two tracks for an unfinished solo project , `` Spending All My Days '' and `` Exchange And Mart '' . Among the participants in the session was George Harrison . In 1970 , he appeared on Graham Bond 's album Holy Magick . As in Family , Grech lasted two albums with Traffic — Welcome to the Canteen and The Low Spark of High Heeled Boys . Along with drummer Jim Gordon , Grech co-wrote the minor hit `` Rock N Roll Stew . '' Drugs , however , remained a problem , and Winwood and his bandmates eventually decided they had no alternative but to dismiss him . Grech remained active in session work , playing with Rod Stewart , Ronnie Lane , Vivian Stanshall and Muddy Waters . He also worked with Rosetta Hightower , the Crickets , Bee Gees and Gram Parsons . In January 1973 , he performed in Eric Clapton 's Rainbow Concert , and he reunited with Roger Chapman and Charlie Whitney when the duo recorded an album in 1974 after Family 's breakup . Grech was one of many special guests on that record , which led Chapman and Whitney to form the group Streetwalkers . Grech , however , was not in that band . Grech made at least two reported attempts to start a new rock group in the seventies but both failed . During 1973-74 , he played in one of numerous versions of the late Buddy Holly backing band The Crickets . In 1973 RSO Records released the only album under his own name , credited to `` Rick '' Grech . The album was titled The Last Five Years . It contained songs that Grech wrote and recorded with Family , Blind Faith , Traffic , Ginger Baker 's Airforce and others between 1968 and 1973 . In 1974 , Grech joined KGB . Consisting of Grech on bass , Mike Bloomfield ( ex-Paul Butterfield Blues Band and Electric Flag ) on guitar , Carmine Appice ( ex-Vanilla Fudge , Cactus and Beck , Bogert & Appice ) on drums , Barry Goldberg on keyboards , and Ray Kennedy ( co-writer of `` Sail On , Sailor '' ) on vocals , the group released its eponymous debut that year . Grech and Bloomfield immediately quit after its release , stating they never had faith in the project . The album was not critically well received . Grech retired from music in 1977 and moved back to Leicester . In 1990 he died of renal failure at the age of 43 , as a result of alcoholism .

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What was the name of the 1960’s rock band which comprised Eric Clapton, Ginger Baker, Steve Winwood and Ric Grech?

Vogue is an American fashion and lifestyle magazine that is published monthly in 23 different national and regional editions by Condé Nast . History Early years In 1892 , Arthur Turnure founded Vogue as a weekly newspaper in the United States , sponsored by Kristoffer Wright ; the first issue was published on December 17 of that year , with a cover price of 10 cents ( ) . Turnure 's intention was to create a publication that celebrated the `` ceremonial side of life '' ; one that `` attracts the sage as well as debutante , men of affairs as well as the belle . '' From its inception , the magazine targeted the new New York upper class . The magazine at this time was primarily concerned with fashion , with coverage of sports and social affairs included for its male readership . Condé Nast Condé Montrose Nast bought Vogue in 1905 one year before Turnure 's death and gradually grew the publication . He changed it to a bi-weekly magazine and also started Vogue overseas in the 1910s . After first visiting Britain in 1916 , he started Vogue there , followed by Vogue in Spain , and then Vogue in Italy and Vogue in France in 1920 , where the magazine was well received . The magazine 's number of publications and profit increased dramatically under Nast 's management . By 1911 , the Vogue brand had garnered a reputation that it continues to maintain , targeting an elite audience and expanding into the coverage of weddings . 1920s–1970s The magazine 's number of subscriptions surged during the Great Depression , and again during World War II . During this time , noted critic and former Vanity Fair editor Frank Crowninshield served as its editor , having been moved over from Vanity Fair by publisher Condé Nast . Laird Borrelli notes that Vogue led the decline of fashion illustration in the late 1930s , when they began to replace their celebrated illustrated covers , by artists such as Dagmar Freuchen , with photographic images . In the 1960s , with Diana Vreeland as editor-in-chief and personality , the magazine began to appeal to the youth of the sexual revolution by focusing more on contemporary fashion and editorial features that openly discussed sexuality . Toward this end , Vogue extended coverage to include East Village boutiques such as Limbo on St. Mark 's Place , as well as including features of `` downtown '' personalities such as Andy Warhol 's `` Superstar '' Jane Holzer 's favorite haunts . Vogue also continued making household names out of models , a practice that continued with Suzy Parker , Twiggy , Jean Shrimpton , Lauren Hutton , Veruschka , Marisa Berenson , Penelope Tree , and others . In 1973 , Vogue became a monthly publication . Under editor-in-chief Grace Mirabella , the magazine underwent extensive editorial and stylistic changes to respond to changes in the lifestyles of its target audience . Anna Wintour takes over Anna Wintour became editor-in-chief of American Vogue in July 1988 . Noted for her trademark bob cut and sunglasses , Wintour sought to revitalize the brand by making it younger and more approachable ; she directed the focus towards new and accessible concepts of `` fashion '' for a wider audience . Wintour 's influence allowed the magazine to maintain its high circulation , while staff discovered new trends that a broader audience could conceivably afford . For example , the inaugural cover of the magazine under Wintour 's editorship featured a three-quarter-length photograph of Michaela Bercu , an Israeli super model , wearing a bejeweled Christian Lacroix jacket and a pair of jeans , a departure from her predecessors ' tendency to portray a woman 's face alone ; according to The New York Times , this gave `` greater importance to both her clothing and her body '' . As fashion editor , Grace Coddington wrote in her memoirs , the cover `` endorsed a democratic new high/low attitude to dressing , added some youthful but sophisticated raciness , and garnished it with a dash of confident energy and drive that implied getting somewhere fast . It was quintessential Anna . '' Wintour continues to be American Vogues editor-in-chief to this day . The contrast of Wintour 's vision with that of her predecessors was noted as striking by observers , both critics and defenders . Amanda Fortini , fashion and style contributor for Slate , argues that her policy has been beneficial for Vogue : As of August 2016 , only seven men have been featured on the cover of the American edition : * Richard Gere , with Cindy Crawford in November 1992 ; * George Clooney , with Gisele Bündchen in June 2000 ; * LeBron James , with Gisele Bündchen in April 2008 ; * Ryan Lochte , with Hope Solo and Serena Williams in June 2012 ; * Kanye West , with Kim Kardashian in March 2014 . * Ben Stiller , with Penélope Cruz in February 2016 . * Ashton Eaton , with Gigi Hadid in August 2016 . Vogue now May 2013 marked the one-year anniversary of a healthy body initiative that was signed by the magazine 's international editors—the initiative represents a commitment from the editors to promote positive body images within the content of Vogues numerous editions . Australian editor Edwina McCann explained : In the magazine we 're moving away from those very young , very thin girls . A year down the track , we ask ourselves what can Vogue do about it ? And an issue like this [ June 2013 issue ] is what we can do about it . If I was aware of a girl being ill on a photo shoot I would n't allow that shoot to go ahead , or if a girl had an eating disorder I would not shoot her . The Australian edition 's June 2013 issue was entitled the `` Body Issue '' and featured articles on exercise and nutrition , as well as a diverse range of models . New York-based Australian plus-size model Robyn Lawley , previously featured on the cover of Vogue Italia , also appeared in a swimwear shoot for the June issue . Style and influence The name Vogue means `` style '' in French . Vogue was described by book critic Caroline Weber in a December 2006 edition of The New York Times as `` the world 's most influential fashion magazine '' : The publication claims to reach 11 million readers in the US and 12.5 million internationally . Furthermore , Wintour was described as one of the most powerful figures in fashion . Technological Google partnered with Vogue to feature Google Glass in the September 2013 issue , which featured a 12-page spread . Chris Dale , who manages communications for the Glass team at Google , stated : Economic Wintour 's `` Fashion Night '' initiative was launched in 2009 with the intention of kickstarting the economy following the Financial collapse of 2007–2008 , by drawing people back into the retail environment and donating proceeds to various charitable causes . The event was co-hosted by Vogue in 27 cities around the US and 15 countries worldwide , and included online retailers at the beginning of 2011 . Debate occurred over the actual profitability of the event in the US , resulting in a potentially permanent hiatus in 2013 ; however , the event continues in 19 other locations internationally . Political In 2006 , Vogue acknowledged salient political and cultural issues by featuring the burqa , as well as articles on prominent Muslim women , their approach to fashion , and the effect of different cultures on fashion and women ’ s lives . Vogue also sponsored the `` Beauty Without Borders '' initiative with a US $ 25,000 donation that was used to establish a cosmetology school for Afghan women . Wintour stated : `` Through the school , we could not only help women in Afghanistan to look and feel better but also give them employment . '' A documentary by Liz Mermin , entitled The Beauty Academy of Kabul , which highlighted the proliferation of Western standards of beauty , criticized the school , suggesting that `` the beauty school could not be judged a success if it did not create a demand for American cosmetics . '' Leading up to the 2012 US Presidential election , Wintour used her industry clout to host several significant fundraising events in support of the Obama campaign . The first , in 2010 , was a dinner with an estimated US $ 30,000 entry fee . The `` Runway To Win '' initiative recruited prominent designers to create pieces to support the campaign . Social The Met Ball is an annual event that is hosted by Vogue magazine to celebrate the opening of the Metropolitan Museum 's fashion exhibit . The Met Ball is the most coveted event of the year in fashion that is attended by A-list celebrities , politicians , designers and fashion editors . Vogue has hosted the themed event since 1971 under Editor in Chief , Diana Vreeland . In 2013 , Vogue released a special edition of Vogue entitled Vogue Special Edition : The Definitive Inside Look at the 2013 Met Gala . Criticism As Wintour came to personify the magazine 's image , both she and Vogue drew critics . Wintour 's one-time assistant at the magazine , Lauren Weisberger , wrote a roman à clef entitled The Devil Wears Prada . Published in 2003 , the novel became a bestseller and was adapted as a highly successful , Academy Award-nominated film in 2006 . The central character resembled Weisberger , and her boss was a powerful editor-in-chief of a fictionalized version of Vogue . The novel portrays a magazine ruled by `` the Antichrist and her coterie of fashionistas , who exist on cigarettes , Diet Dr Pepper , and mixed green salads '' , according to a review in The New York Times . The editor is described by Weisberger as being `` an empty , shallow , bitter woman who has tons and tons of gorgeous clothes and not much else '' . The success of both the novel and the film brought new attention from a wide global audience to the power and glamour of the magazine , and the industry it continues to lead . In 2007 , Vogue drew criticism from the anti-smoking group , `` Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids '' , for carrying tobacco advertisements in the magazine . The group claims that volunteers sent the magazine more than 8,000 protest emails or faxes regarding the ads . The group also claimed that in response , they received scribbled notes faxed back on letters that had been addressed to Wintour stating , `` Will you stop ? You 're killing trees ! '' In response , a spokesperson for Condé Nast released an official statement : `` Vogue does carry tobacco advertising . Beyond that we have no further comment . '' In April 2008 , American Vogue featured a cover photo by photographer Annie Leibovitz of supermodel Gisele Bündchen and the basketball superstar LeBron James . This was the third time that Vogue featured a male on the cover of the American issue ( the other two men were actors George Clooney and Richard Gere ) , and the first in which the man was black . Some observers criticized the cover as a prejudicial depiction of James because his pose with Bündchen was reminiscent of a poster for the film King Kong . Further criticism arose when the website Watching the Watchers analyzed the photo alongside the World War I recruitment poster titled Destroy This Mad Brute . James reportedly however liked the cover shoot . In February 2011 , just before the 2011 Syrian protests unfolded , Vogue published a controversial piece by Joan Juliet Buck on Asma al-Assad , wife of the Syrian president Bashar al-Assad . A number of journalists criticized the article as glossing over the poor human rights record of Bashar al-Assad . According to reports , the Syrian government paid the U.S. lobbying firm Brown Lloyd James US $ 5,000 per month to arrange for and manage the article . Media Documentaries In 2009 , the feature-length documentary The September Issue was released ; it was an inside view of the production of the record-breaking September 2007 issue of U.S. Vogue , directed by R. J. Cutler . The film was shot over eight months as Wintour prepared the issue , and included testy exchanges between Wintour and her creative director Grace Coddington . The issue became the largest ever published at the time ; over 5 pounds in weight and 840 pages in length , a world record for a monthly magazine Since then , that record has been broken by Vogues 2012 September issue , which came in at 916 pages . Also in 2012 , HBO released a documentary entitled [ http : //www.hbo.com/documentaries/in-vogue-the-editors-eye In Vogue : The Editor 's Eye ] , in conjunction with the 120th anniversary of the magazine . Drawing on Vogues extensive archives , the film featured behind-the-scenes interviews with longtime Vogue editors , including Wintour , Coddington , Tonne Goodman , Hamish Bowles , and Phyllis Posnick . Celebrated subjects and designers in the fashion industry , such as Nicole Kidman , Sarah Jessica Parker , Vera Wang , and Marc Jacobs , also appear in the film . The editors share personal stories about collaborating with top photographers , such as Leibovitz , and the various day-to-day responsibilities and interactions of a fashion editor at Vogue . The film was directed and produced by Fenton Bailey and Randy Barbato . In October 2012 , Vogue also released a book titled Vogue : The Editor 's Eye to complement the documentary . Video channel In 2013 , Vogue launched the Vogue video channel that can be accessed via their website . The channel was launched in conjunction with Conde Nast 's multi-platform media initiative . Mini-series that have aired on the video channel include Vogue Weddings , The Monday Makeover , From the Vogue Closet , Fashion Week , Elettra 's Goodness , Jeanius , Vintage Bowles , The Backstory , Beauty Mark , Met Gala , Voguepedia , Vogue Voices , Vogue Diaries , CFDA/Vogue Fashion Fund , and Monday 's with Andre . Books Books published by Vogue include In Vogue : An Illustrated History of the World 's Most Famous Fashion Magazine , Vogue : The Covers , Vogue : The Editor 's Eye , Vogue Living : House , Gardens , People , The World in Vogue , Vogue Weddings : Brides , Dresses , Designers , and Nostalgia in Vogue . Voguepedia Launched in 2011 by Condé Nast Digital , Voguepedia is a fashion encyclopedia that also includes an archive of every issue of Vogues American edition since 1892 . Only Vogue staff are permitted to contribute to the encyclopedia , unlike the VogueEncyclo—hosted by Vogue Italia—that receives contributions from anyone . As of 9 May 2013 , the site is not fully functional , as code still shows in search results and only certain search terms yield results . Other editions In 2005 , Condé Nast launched Men 's Vogue and announced plans for an American version of Vogue Living that launched in 2006 ( an Australian edition already existed at the time ) . Men 's Vogue ceased publication as an independent publication in October 2008 and is now a twice-yearly extract in the main edition . Condé Nast also publishes Teen Vogue , a version of the magazine for teenage girls in the United States . South Korea and Australia publish a Vogue Girl magazine ( currently suspended from further publication ) , in addition to the Vogue Living and Vogue Entertaining + Travel editions . Vogue Hommes International is an international men 's fashion magazine based in Paris , France , and L'uomo Vogue is the Italian men 's version . Other Italian versions of Vogue include Vogue Casa and Bambini Vogue . Until 1961 , Vogue was also the publisher of Vogue Patterns , a home sewing pattern company . It was sold to Butterick Publishing which also licensed the Vogue name . Vogue China was launched in September 2005 , with Australian supermodel Gemma Ward on the cover flanked by Chinese models . In 2007 , an Arabic edition of Vogue was rejected by Condé Nast International . October 2007 saw the launch of Vogue India , and Vogue Turkey was launched in March 2010 . On 5 March 2010 , 16 International editors-in-chief of Vogue met in Paris to discuss the 2nd Fashion 's Night Out . Present in the meeting were the 16 International editors-in-chief of Vogue : Wintour ( American Vogue ) , Emmanuelle Alt ( French Vogue ) , Franca Sozzani ( Italian Vogue ) , Alexandra Shulman ( British Vogue ) , Kirstie Clements ( Australian Vogue ) , Aliona Doletskaya ( Russian Vogue ) , Angelica Cheung ( Chinese Vogue ) , Christiane Arp ( German Vogue ) , Priya Tanna ( Indian Vogue ) , Rosalie Huang ( Taiwanese Vogue ) , Paula Mateus ( Portuguese Vogue ) , Seda Domaniç ( Turkish Vogue ) , Yolanda Sacristan ( Spanish Vogue ) , Eva Hughes ( Mexican Vogue ) , Mitsuko Watanabe ( Japanese Vogue ) , and Daniela Falcao ( Brazilian Vogue ) . Since 2010 , seven new editors-in-chief joined Vogue : Victoria Davydova replaced Aliona Doletskaya as editor-in-chief of Russian Vogue ; Emmanuelle Alt became French Vogue 's editor-in-chief after Carine Roitfeld resigned ; Edwina McCann became Australian Vogues editor-in-chief after Kirstie Clements was fired ; Kelly Talamas replaced Eva Hughes at Vogue Mexico and Vogue Latin America , when Hughes was named CEO of Condé Nast Mexico and Latin America in 2012 ; and Karin Swerink , Kullawit Laosukrsi , and Masha Tsukanova were appointed editors-in-chief of the newly launched Netherlands , Thailand , and Ukraine editions , respectively . At the beginning of 2013 the Japanese version , Vogue Hommes Japan , ended publication . In July 2016 , the launch of Vogue Arabia was announced , first as a dual English and Arabic language website , then with a print edition to follow in spring 2017 . Edition information The following highlights circulation dates as well as individuals who have served as editor-in-chief of Vogue :

qb_6887--Vogue_(magazine).txt

Who was declared Model of the Millennium by Vogue editor Anna Wintour?

William Pitt the Younger ( 28 May 1759 – 23 January 1806 ) was a British politician of the late 18th and early 19th centuries . He became the youngest Prime Minister in 1783 at the age of 24 . He left office in 1801 , but was Prime Minister again from 1804 until his death in 1806 . He was also the Chancellor of the Exchequer throughout his premiership . He is known as `` the Younger '' to distinguish him from his father , William Pitt the Elder , who had previously served as Prime Minister . The younger Pitt 's prime ministerial tenure , which came during the reign of George III , was dominated by major events in Europe , including the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars . Pitt , although often referred to as a Tory , or `` new Tory '' , called himself an `` independent Whig '' and was generally opposed to the development of a strict partisan political system . He is best known for leading Britain in the great wars against France and Napoleon . Pitt was an outstanding administrator who worked for efficiency and reform , bringing in a new generation of outstanding administrators . He raised taxes to pay for the great war against France and cracked down on radicalism . To meet the threat of Irish support for France , he engineered the Acts of Union 1800 and tried ( but failed ) to get Catholic Emancipation as part of the Union . Pitt created the `` new Toryism '' , which revived the Tory Party and enabled it to stay in power for the next quarter-century . Historian Asa Briggs points out that his personality did not endear itself to the British mind , for Pitt was too solitary , too colourless , and too often exuded superiority . His greatness came in the war with France , with the adversary setting the pace . Pitt reacted to become what Lord Minto called `` the Atlas of our reeling globe '' . His integrity and industry and his role as defender of the threatened nation allowed him to inspire and access all the national reserves of strength . William Wilberforce said that , `` For personal purity , disinterestedness and love of this country , I have never known his equal . '' Historian Charles Petrie concludes that he was one of the greatest prime ministers `` if on no other ground than that he enabled the country to pass from the old order to the new without any violent upheaval .... He understood the new Britain . '' For this he is ranked highly amongst British Prime Ministers . Early life The Honourable William Pitt , second son of William Pitt , 1st Earl of Chatham , was born at Hayes Place in the village of Hayes , Kent . Pitt was from a political family on both sides . His mother , Hester Grenville , was sister to former prime minister George Grenville . According to biographer John Ehrman , Pitt inherited brilliance and dynamism from his father 's line , and a determined , methodical nature from the Grenvilles . Suffering from occasional poor health as a boy , he was educated at home by the Reverend Edward Wilson . An intelligent child , Pitt quickly became proficient in Latin and Greek . In 1773 , aged fourteen , he attended Pembroke College , Cambridge , where he studied political philosophy , classics , mathematics , trigonometry , chemistry and history . At Cambridge , Pitt was tutored by George Pretyman , who became a close personal friend . Pitt later appointed Pretyman Bishop of Lincoln then Winchester and drew upon his advice throughout his political career . While at Cambridge , he befriended the young William Wilberforce , who became a lifelong friend and political ally in Parliament . Pitt tended to socialise only with fellow students and others already known to him , rarely venturing outside the university grounds . Yet he was described as charming and friendly . According to Wilberforce , Pitt had an exceptional wit along with an endearingly gentle sense of humour : `` no man ... ever indulged more freely or happilly in that playful facetiousness which gratifies all without wounding any . '' In 1776 , Pitt , plagued by poor health , took advantage of a little-used privilege available only to the sons of noblemen , and chose to graduate without having to pass examinations . Pitt 's father , who had by then been raised to the peerage as Earl of Chatham , died in 1778 . As a younger son , Pitt the Younger received a small inheritance . He received legal education at Lincoln 's Inn and was called to the bar in the summer of 1780 . Early political career During the general elections of September 1780 , Pitt contested the University of Cambridge seat , but lost . Still intent on entering Parliament , Pitt , with the help of his university comrade , Charles Manners , 4th Duke of Rutland , secured the patronage of James Lowther . Lowther effectively controlled the pocket borough of Appleby ; a by-election in that constituency sent Pitt to the House of Commons in January 1781 . Pitt 's entry into parliament is somewhat ironic as he later railed against the very same pocket and rotten boroughs that had given him his seat . In Parliament , the youthful Pitt cast aside his tendency to be withdrawn in public , emerging as a noted debater right from his maiden speech . Pitt originally aligned himself with prominent Whigs such as Charles James Fox . With the Whigs , Pitt denounced the continuation of the American War of Independence , as his father strongly had . Instead he proposed that the prime minister , Lord North , make peace with the rebellious American colonies . Pitt also supported parliamentary reform measures , including a proposal that would have checked electoral corruption . He renewed his friendship with William Wilberforce , now MP for Hull , with whom he frequently met in the gallery of the House of Commons . After Lord North 's ministry collapsed in 1782 , the Whig Charles Watson-Wentworth , 2nd Marquess of Rockingham was appointed prime minister . Pitt was offered the minor post of vice-treasurer of Ireland , but he refused , considering the post overly subordinate . Lord Rockingham died only three months after coming to power ; he was succeeded by another Whig , William Petty , 2nd Earl of Shelburne . Many Whigs who had formed a part of the Rockingham ministry , including Fox , now refused to serve under Lord Shelburne , the new prime minister . Pitt , however , was comfortable with Shelburne , and thus joined his government ; he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer . Fox , who became Pitt 's lifelong political rival , then joined a coalition with Lord North , with whom he collaborated to bring about the defeat of the Shelburne administration . When Lord Shelburne resigned in 1783 , King George III , who despised Fox , offered to appoint Pitt to the office of prime minister . But Pitt wisely declined , for he knew he would be incapable of securing the support of the House of Commons . The Fox-North Coalition rose to power in a government nominally headed by William Cavendish-Bentinck , 3rd Duke of Portland . Pitt , who had been stripped of his post as Chancellor of the Exchequer , joined the Opposition . He raised the issue of parliamentary reform in order to strain the uneasy Fox-North coalition , which included both supporters and detractors of reform . He did not advocate an expansion of the electoral franchise , but he did seek to address bribery and rotten boroughs . Though his proposal failed , many reformers in Parliament came to regard him as their leader , instead of Charles James Fox . Impact of the American War of Independence Losing the war and the thirteen colonies was a shock to the British system . The war revealed the limitations of Britain 's fiscal-military state when it had powerful enemies , no allies , depended on extended and vulnerable transatlantic lines of communication , and was faced for the first time since the 17th century by both Protestant and Catholic foes . The defeat heightened dissension and escalated political antagonism to the King 's ministers . Inside parliament , the primary concern changed from fears of an over-mighty monarch to the issues of representation , parliamentary reform , and government retrenchment . Reformers sought to destroy what they saw as widespread institutional corruption . The result was a crisis from 1776–1783 . The peace in 1783 left France financially prostrate , while the British economy boomed due to the return of American business . That crisis ended in 1784 as a result of the King 's shrewdness in outwitting Fox and renewed confidence in the system engendered by the leadership of Pitt . Historians conclude that the loss of the American colonies enabled Britain to deal with the French Revolution with more unity and organisation than would otherwise have been the case . Rise to power The Fox-North Coalition fell in December 1783 , after Fox had introduced Edmund Burke 's bill to reform the East India Company to gain the patronage he so greatly lacked while the King refused to support him . Fox stated the bill was necessary to save the company from bankruptcy . Pitt responded that : `` Necessity was the plea for every infringement of human freedom . It was the argument of tyrants ; it was the creed of slaves . '' The King was opposed to the bill ; when it passed in the House of Commons , he secured its defeat in the House of Lords by threatening to regard anyone who voted for it as his enemy . Following the bill 's failure in the Upper House , George III dismissed the coalition government and finally entrusted the premiership to William Pitt , after having offered the position to him three times previously . A constitutional crisis arose when the King dismissed the Fox-North coalition government and named Pitt to replace it . Though faced with a hostile majority in Parliament , Pitt was able to solidify his position in a few months ' time . Some historians argue that his success was inevitable given the decisive importance of monarchical power ; others argue that the King gambled on Pitt and that both would have failed but for a run of good fortune . Pitt , at the age of 24 , became Great Britain 's youngest Prime Minister ever . The contemporary satire The Rolliad ridiculed him for his youth : Above the rest , majestically great , Behold the infant Atlas of the state , The matchless miracle of modern days , In whom Britannia to the world displays A sight to make surrounding nations stare ; A kingdom trusted to a school-boy 's care . Many saw Pitt as a stop-gap appointment until some more senior statesman took on the role . However , although it was widely predicted that the new `` mince-pie administration '' would not last out the Christmas season , it survived for seventeen years . So as to reduce the power of the Opposition , Pitt offered Charles James Fox and his allies posts in the Cabinet ; Pitt 's refusal to include Lord North , however , thwarted his efforts . The new Government was immediately on the defensive and in January 1784 was defeated on a motion of no confidence . Pitt , however , took the unprecedented step of refusing to resign , despite this defeat . He retained the support of the King , who would not entrust the reins of power to the Fox-North Coalition . He also received the support of the House of Lords , which passed supportive motions , and many messages of support from the country at large , in the form of petitions approving of his appointment which influenced some Members to switch their support to Pitt . At the same time , he was granted the Freedom of the City of London . When he returned from the ceremony to mark this , men of the City pulled Pitt 's coach home themselves , as a sign of respect . When passing a Whig club , the coach came under attack from a group of men who tried to assault Pitt . When news of this spread , it was assumed Fox and his associates had tried to bring down Pitt by any means . Pitt gained great popularity with the public at large as `` Honest Billy '' who was seen as a refreshing change from the dishonesty , corruption and lack of principles widely associated with both Fox and North . Despite a series of defeats in the House of Commons , Pitt defiantly remained in office , watching the Coalition 's majority shrink as some Members of Parliament left the Opposition to abstain . In March 1784 , Parliament was dissolved , and a general election ensued . An electoral defeat for the Government was out of the question because Pitt enjoyed the support of King George III . Patronage and bribes paid by the Treasury were normally expected to be enough to secure the Government a comfortable majority in the House of Commons but on this occasion the government reaped much popular support as well . In most popular constituencies , the election was fought between candidates clearly representing either Pitt or Fox and North . Early returns showed a massive swing to Pitt with the result that many Opposition Members who still had n't faced election either defected , stood down , or made deals with their opponents to avoid expensive defeats . A notable exception came in Fox 's own constituency of Westminster which contained one of the largest electorates in the country . In a contest estimated to have cost a quarter of the total spending in the entire country , Fox bitterly fought against two Pittite candidates to secure one of the two seats for the constituency . Great legal wranglings ensued , including the examination of every single vote cast , which dragged on for more than a year . Meanwhile , Fox sat for the pocket borough of Tain Burghs . Many saw the dragging out of the result as being unduly vindictive on the part of Pitt and eventually the examinations were abandoned with Fox declared elected . Elsewhere Pitt won a personal triumph when he was elected a Member for the University of Cambridge , a constituency he had long coveted and which he would continue to represent for the remainder of his life . First ministry India His administration secure , Pitt could begin to enact his agenda . His first major piece of legislation as Prime Minister was the India Act 1784 , which re-organised the British East India Company and kept a watch over corruption . The India Act created a new Board of Control to oversee the affairs of the East India Company . It differed from Fox 's failed India Bill 1783 and specified that the Board would be appointed by the King . Pitt was appointed , along with Lord Sydney who was appointed President . The Act centralised British rule in India by reducing the power of the Governors of Bombay and Madras and by increasing that of the Governor-General , Charles Cornwallis . Further augmentations and clarifications of the Governor-General 's authority were made in 1786 , presumably by Lord Sydney , and presumably as a result of the Company 's setting up of Penang with their own Superintendend ( Governor ) , Captain Francis Light , in 1786 . Parliamentary reform In domestic politics , Pitt also concerned himself with the cause of parliamentary reform . In 1785 , he introduced a bill to remove the representation of thirty-six rotten boroughs , and to extend in a small way , the electoral franchise to more individuals . Pitt 's support for the bill , however , was not strong enough to prevent its defeat in the House of Commons . The bill introduced in 1785 was Pitt 's last parliamentary reform proposal introduced in Parliament . Finances Another important domestic issue with which Pitt had to concern himself was the national debt , which had doubled to £243 million during the American war . Every year a third of the budget of £24 million went to pay interest . Pitt sought to reduce the national debt by imposing new taxes . In 1786 , he instituted a sinking fund so that £1,000,000 a year was added to a fund so that it could accumulate interest ; eventually , the money in the fund was to be used to pay off the national debt . By 1792 the debt had fallen to £170 million . Pitt always paid careful attention to financial issues . A fifth of Britain 's imports were smuggled in without paying taxes . He made it easier for honest merchants to import goods . By lowering tariffs on easily smuggled items such as tea , wine , spirits and tobacco , he grew the customs revenue by nearly £2 million . Foreign affairs Pitt sought European alliances to restrict French influence , forming the Triple Alliance with Prussia and Holland in 1788 . During the Nootka Sound Controversy in 1790 , Pitt took advantage of the alliance to force Spain to give up its claim to exclusive control over the western coast of North and South America . The Alliance , however , failed to produce any other important benefits for Great Britain . The king 's condition In 1788 , Pitt faced a major crisis when the King fell victim to a mysterious illness , a form of mental disorder that incapacitated him . If the sovereign was incapable of fulfilling his constitutional duties , Parliament would need to appoint a regent to rule in his place . All factions agreed the only viable candidate was the King 's eldest son , Prince George , Prince of Wales . The Prince , however , was a supporter of Charles James Fox ; had he come to power , he would almost surely have dismissed Pitt . However , he did not have such an opportunity , as Parliament spent months debating legal technicalities relating to the regency . Fortunately for Pitt , the King recovered in February 1789 , just after a Regency Bill had been introduced and passed in the House of Commons . The general elections of 1790 resulted in a majority for the government , and Pitt continued as Prime Minister . In 1791 , he proceeded to address one of the problems facing the growing British Empire : the future of British Canada . By the Constitutional Act of 1791 , the province of Quebec was divided into two separate provinces : the predominantly French Lower Canada and the predominantly English Upper Canada . In August 1792 , coincident with the capture of Louis XVI by the French revolutionaries , George III appointed Pitt as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports , a position whose incumbent was responsible for the coastal defences of the realm . The King had in 1791 offered him a Knighthood of the Garter , but he suggested the honour go to his elder brother , the second Earl of Chatham . French Revolution An early favourable response to the French Revolution encouraged many in Great Britain to reopen the issue of parliamentary reform , which had been dormant since Pitt 's reform bill was defeated in 1785 . The reformers , however , were quickly labelled as radicals and as associates of the French revolutionaries . Subsequently , in 1794 Pitt 's administration tried three of them for treason but lost . Parliament began to enact repressive legislation in order to silence the reformers . Individuals who published seditious material were punished , and , in 1794 , the writ of habeas corpus was suspended . Other repressive measures included the Seditious Meetings Act ( which restricted the right of individuals to assemble publicly ) and the Combination Acts ( which restricted the formation of societies or organisations that favoured political reforms ) . Problems manning the Royal Navy also led to Pitt to introduce the Quota System in 1795 addition to the existing system of Impressment . The war with France was extremely expensive , straining Great Britain 's finances . Unlike the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars , at this point Britain had only a very small standing army , and thus contributed to the war effort mainly by sea power and by supplying funds to other coalition members facing France . In 1797 , Pitt was forced to protect the kingdom 's gold reserves by preventing individuals from exchanging banknotes for gold . Great Britain would continue to use paper money for over two decades . Pitt was also forced to introduce Great Britain 's first ever income tax . The new tax helped offset losses in indirect tax revenue , which had been caused by a decline in trade . Despite the efforts of Pitt and the British allies , the French continued to defeat the members of the First Coalition , which collapsed in 1798 . A Second Coalition , consisting of Great Britain , Austria , Russia , and the Ottoman Empire , was formed , but it , too , failed to overcome the French . The fall of the Second Coalition with the defeat of the Austrians at the Marengo ( 14 June 1800 ) and at the Battle of Hohenlinden ( 3 December 1800 ) left Great Britain facing France alone . Resignation The French Revolution revived religious and political problems in Ireland , a realm under the rule of the King of Great Britain . In 1798 , Irish nationalists attempted a rebellion , believing that the French would help them overthrow the monarchy . Pitt firmly believed that the only solution to the problem was a union of Great Britain and Ireland . Following the defeat of the rebellion which was assisted by France , he advanced this policy . The union was established by the Act of Union 1800 ; compensation and patronage ensured the support of the Irish Parliament . Great Britain and Ireland were formally united into a single realm , the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , on 1 January 1801 . Pitt sought to inaugurate the new kingdom by granting concessions to Roman Catholics , who formed a majority in Ireland , by abolishing various political restrictions under which they suffered . George III , however , did not share the same view . The King was strongly opposed to Catholic Emancipation ; he argued that to grant additional liberty would violate his coronation oath , in which he had promised to protect the established Church of England . Pitt , unable to change the King 's strong views , resigned on 16 February 1801 , so as to allow Henry Addington , his political friend , to form a new administration . At about the same time , however , the King suffered a renewed bout of madness ; thus , Addington could not receive his formal appointment . Though he had resigned , Pitt temporarily continued to discharge his duties ; on 18 February 1801 , he brought forward the annual budget . Power was transferred from Pitt to Addington on 14 March , when the King recovered . Pitt supported the new administration , but with little enthusiasm ; he frequently absented himself from Parliament , preferring to remain in his Lord Warden 's residence of Walmer Castle – before 1802 usually spending an annual late-summer holiday there , and later often present from the spring until the autumn . From the castle , he helped organise a local Volunteer Corps in anticipation of a French invasion , acted as colonel of a battalion raised by Trinity House – he was also a Master of Trinity House – and encouraged the construction of Martello towers and the Royal Military Canal in Romney Marsh . He rented land abutting the Castle to farm , and on which to lay out trees and walks . His niece Lady Hester Stanhope designed and managed the gardens and acted as his hostess . After France had forced peace and recognition of the French Republic from the Russian Empire in 1799 and from the Holy Roman Emperor ( Austria ) in 1801 , the Treaty of Amiens between France and Britain marked the end of the French Revolutionary Wars . By 1803 , however , war had broken out again between Britain and the new First French Empire under Napoleon . Although Addington had previously invited him to join the Cabinet , Pitt preferred to join the Opposition , becoming increasingly critical of the government 's policies . Addington , unable to face the combined opposition of Pitt and Fox , saw his majority gradually evaporate . By the end of April 1804 , Addington , who had lost his parliamentary support , had decided to resign . Second ministry Pitt returned to the premiership on 10 May 1804 . He had originally planned to form a broad coalition government , but faced the opposition of George III to the inclusion of Fox . Moreover , many of Pitt 's former supporters , including the allies of Addington , joined the Opposition . Thus , Pitt 's Second Ministry was considerably weaker than his first . The British Government began placing pressure on the French Emperor , Napoleon I . Thanks to Pitt 's efforts , Britain joined the Third Coalition , an alliance that also involved Austria , Russia , and Sweden . In October 1805 , the British Admiral , Horatio Nelson , 1st Viscount Nelson , won a crushing victory in the Battle of Trafalgar , ensuring British naval supremacy for the remainder of the war . At the annual Lord Mayor 's Banquet toasting him as `` the Saviour of Europe '' , Pitt responded In a few words that became the most famous speech of his life : I return you many thanks for the honour you have done me ; but Europe is not to be saved by any single man . England has saved herself by her exertions , and will , as I trust , save Europe by her example . Nevertheless , the Coalition collapsed , having suffered significant defeats at the Battle of Ulm ( October 1805 ) and the Battle of Austerlitz ( December 1805 ) . After hearing the news of Austerlitz Pitt referred to a map of Europe , `` Roll up that map ; it will not be wanted these ten years . '' Finances Pitt was an expert in finance and served as Chancellor of the Exchequer . Critical to his success in confronting Napoleon was using Britain 's superior economic resources . He was able to mobilize the nation 's industrial and financial resources and apply them to defeating France . With a population of 16 million , Britain was barely half the size of France , which had a population of 30 million . In terms of soldiers , however , the French numerical advantage was offset by British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of the Austrian and Russian soldiers , peaking at about 450,000 in 1813 . Most important , the British national output remained strong and the well-organized business sector channeled products into what the military needed . Britain used its economic power to expand the Royal Navy , doubling the number of frigates and increasing the number of large ships of the line by 50 % , while increasing the roster of sailors from 15,000 to 133,000 in eight years after the war began in 1793 . France , meanwhile , saw its navy shrink by more than half . The system of smuggling finished products into the continent undermined French efforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off markets . By 1814 , the budget that Pitt in his last years had largely shaped , had expanded to £66 million , including £10 million for the Navy , £40 million for the Army , £10 million for the Allies , and £38 million as interest on the national debt . The national debt soared to £679 million , more than double the GDP . It was willingly supported by hundreds of thousands of investors and tax payers , despite the higher taxes on land and a new income tax . The whole cost of the war came to £831

qw_9059--William_Pitt_the_Younger.txt

What innovation was introduced to Britain by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger in 1798?

An arcade game or coin-op is a coin-operated entertainment machine typically installed in public businesses such as restaurants , bars and amusement arcades . Most arcade games are video games , pinball machines , electro-mechanical games , redemption games or merchandisers . While exact dates are debated , the golden age of arcade video games is usually defined as a period beginning sometime in the late 1970s and ending sometime in the mid-1980s . Excluding a brief resurgence in the early 1990s , the arcade industry subsequently declined in the Western hemisphere as competing home-based video game consoles increased in capability and decreased in cost . Arcade action games The term `` arcade game '' is also used to refer to an action video game that was designed to play similarly to an arcade game with frantic , addictive gameplay . The focus of arcade action games is on the user 's reflexes , and the games usually feature very little puzzle-solving , complex thinking , or strategy skills . Games with complex thinking are called strategy video games or puzzle video games . History The first popular `` arcade games '' included early amusement-park midway games such as shooting galleries , ball-toss games , and the earliest coin-operated machines , such as those that claimed to tell a person 's fortune or that played mechanical music . The old midways of 1920s-era amusement parks ( such as Coney Island in New York ) provided the inspiration and atmosphere of later arcade games . In the 1930s the first coin-operated pinball machines emerged . These early amusement machines differed from their later electronic cousins in that they were made of wood . They lacked plungers or lit-up bonus surfaces on the playing field , and used mechanical instead of electronic scoring-readouts . By around 1977 most pinball machines in production switched to using solid-state electronics both for operation and for scoring . Electro-mechanical games In 1966 , Sega introduced an electro-mechanical game called Periscope . It was an early submarine simulator and light gun shooter , which used lights and plastic waves to simulate sinking ships from a submarine . It became an instant success in Japan , Europe , and North America , where it was the first arcade game to cost a quarter per play , Steven L. Kent ( 2000 ) , The First Quarter : A 25-Year History of Video Games , p. 83 , BWD Press , ISBN 0-9704755-0-0 which would remain the standard price for arcade games for many years to come.Mark J. P. Wolf ( 2008 ) , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id=XiM0ntMybNwC The video game explosion : a history from PONG to Playstation and beyond ] , p. 149 , ABC-CLIO , ISBN 0-313-33868-X In 1967 , Taito released an electro-mechanical arcade game of their own , Crown Soccer Special , a two-player sports game that simulated association football , using various electronic components , including electronic versions of pinball flippers . The company Sega later produced gun games which resemble first-person shooter video games , but were in fact electro-mechanical games that used rear image projection in a manner similar to the ancient zoetrope to produce moving animations on a screen . The first of these was the light gun game Duck Hunt , which Sega released in 1969 ; it featured animated moving targets on a screen , printed out the player 's score on a ticket , and had sound effects that were volume controllable . That same year , Sega released an electro-mechanical arcade racing game Grand Prix , which had a first-person view , electronic sound , a dashboard with a racing wheel and accelerator , and a forward-scrolling road projected on a screen . Another Sega release that year was Missile , a shooter and vehicle combat simulation that featured electronic sound and a moving film strip to represent the targets on a projection screen . It was also the earliest known arcade game to feature a joystick with a fire button , which was used as part of an early dual-control scheme , where two directional buttons are used to move the player 's tank and a two-way joystick is used to shoot and steer the missile onto oncoming planes displayed on the screen ; when a plane is hit , an explosion is animated on screen along with an explosion sound . In 1970 , the game was released in North America as S.A.M.I . by Midway . That same year , Sega released Jet Rocket , a combat flight simulator featuring cockpit controls that could move the player aircraft around a landscape displayed on a screen and shoot missiles onto targets that explode when hit . Throughout the 1970s , electro-mechanical arcade games were gradually replaced by electronic video games , following the release of Pong in 1972 . In 1972 , Sega released an electro-mechanical game called Killer Shark , a first-person light gun shooter known for appearing in the 1975 film Jaws . In 1974 , Nintendo released Wild Gunman , a light gun shooter that used full-motion video projection from 16 mm film to display live-action cowboy opponents on the screen . One of the last successful electro-mechanical arcade games was F-1 , a racing game developed by Namco and distributed by Atari in 1976 ; the game was shown in the films Dawn of the Dead ( 1978 ) and Midnight Madness ( 1980 ) , as was Sega 's Jet Rocket in the latter film . The 1978 video game Space Invaders , however , dealt a yet more powerful blow to the popularity of electro-mechanical games . Arcade video games In 1971 students at Stanford University set up the Galaxy Game , a coin-operated version of the Spacewar video game . This ranks as the earliest known instance of a coin-operated video game . Later in the same year , Nolan Bushnell created the first mass-manufactured game , Computer Space , for Nutting Associates . In 1972 , Atari was formed by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney . Atari essentially created the coin-operated video game industry with the game Pong , the first successful electronic ping pong video game . Pong proved to be popular , but imitators helped keep Atari from dominating the fledgling coin-operated video game market . Golden age Taito 's Space Invaders , in 1978 , proved to be the first blockbuster arcade video game . Its success marked the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games . Video game arcades sprang up in shopping malls , and small `` corner arcades '' appeared in restaurants , grocery stores , bars and movie theaters all over the United States , Japan and other countries during the late 1970s and early 1980s . Space Invaders ( 1978 ) , Galaxian ( 1979 ) , Pac-Man ( 1980 ) , Battlezone ( 1980 ) , Defender ( 1980 ) , and Bosconian ( 1981 ) were especially popular . By 1981 , the arcade video game industry was worth $ 8 billion ( $ in ) . During the late 1970s and 1980s , chains such as Chuck E. Cheese 's , Ground Round , Dave and Busters , ShowBiz Pizza Place and Gatti 's Pizza combined the traditional restaurant and/or bar environment with arcades . By the late 1980s , the arcade video game craze was beginning to fade due to advances in home video game console technology . By 1991 , US arcade video game revenues had fallen to $ 2.1 billion . Late 1980s Sega AM2 's Hang-On , designed by Yu Suzuki and running on the Sega Space Harrier hardware , was the first of Sega 's `` Super Scaler '' arcade system boards that allowed pseudo-3D sprite-scaling at high frame rates . The pseudo-3D sprite/tile scaling was handled in a similar manner to textures in later texture-mapped polygonal 3D games of the 1990s . [ http : //www.extentofthejam.com/pseudo/ Extentofthejam.com ] Designed by Sega AM2 's Yu Suzuki , he stated that his `` designs were always 3D from the beginning . All the calculations in the system were 3D , even from Hang-On . I calculated the position , scale , and zoom rate in 3D and converted it backwards to 2D . So I was always thinking in 3D . `` [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20131113174154/http : //www.1up.com/features/disappearance-suzuki-part-1 ? pager.offset=2 Web.archive.org ] It was controlled using a video game arcade cabinet resembling a motorbike , which the player moves with their body . This began the `` Taikan '' trend , the use of motion-controlled hydraulic arcade cabinets in many arcade games of the late 1980s , two decades before motion controls became popular on video game consoles . Renaissance In the early 1990s , the arcades experienced a major resurgence with the 1991 release of Capcom 's Street Fighter II , which popularized competitive fighting games and revived the arcade industry to a level of popularity not seen since the days of Pac-Man , setting off a renaissance for the arcade game industry in the early 1990s . Its success led to a wave of other popular games which mostly were in the fighting genre , such as Pit-Fighter ( 1990 ) by Atari , Mortal Kombat by Midway Games , Fatal Fury : King of Fighters ( 1992 ) by SNK , Virtua Fighter ( 1993 ) by SEGA , Killer Instinct ( 1994 ) by Rare , and The King of Fighters ( 1994–2005 ) by SNK . In 1993 , Electronic Games noted that when `` historians look back at the world of coin-op during the early 1990s , one of the defining highlights of the video game art form will undoubtedly focus on fighting/martial arts themes '' which it described as `` the backbone of the industry '' at the time . 3D polygon graphics were popularized by the Sega Model 1 games Virtua Racing ( 1992 ) and Virtua Fighter ( 1993 ) , followed by racing games like the Namco System 22 title Ridge Racer ( 1993 ) and Sega Model 2 title Daytona USA , and light gun shooters like Sega 's Virtua Cop ( 1994 ) and Mesa Logic 's Area 51 ( 1995 ) , gaining considerable popularity in the arcades . By 1994 , arcade games in the United States were generating revenues of $ 7 billion in quarters ( equivalent to $ in ) , in comparison to home console game sales of $ 6 billion , with many of the best-selling home video games in the early 1990s often being arcade ports . Combined , total US arcade and console game revenues of $ 13 billion in 1994 ( $ in ) was nearly two and a half times the $ 5 billion revenue grossed by movies in the United States at the time . Around the mid-1990s , the fifth-generation home consoles , Sega Saturn , PlayStation , and Nintendo 64 , began offering true 3D graphics . By 1995 , personal computers followed , with 3D accelerator cards . While arcade systems such as the Sega Model 3 remained considerably more advanced than home systems in the late 1990s , the technological advantage that arcade games had , in their ability to customize and use the latest graphics and sound chips , slowly began narrowing , and the convenience of home games eventually caused a decline in arcade gaming . Sega 's sixth generation console , the Dreamcast , could produce 3D graphics comparable to the Sega NAOMI arcade system in 1998 , after which Sega produced more powerful arcade systems such as the Sega NAOMI Multiboard and Sega Hikaru in 1999 and the Sega NAOMI 2 in 2000 , before Sega eventually stopped manufacturing expensive proprietary arcade system boards , with their subsequent arcade boards being based on more affordable commercial console or PC components . Decline Arcade video games had declined in popularity so much by the late 1990s , that revenues in the United States dropped to $ 1.33 billion in 1999 , and reached a low of $ 866 million in 2004 . Furthermore , by the early 2000s , networked gaming via computers and then consoles across the Internet had also appeared , replacing the venue of head-to-head competition and social atmosphere once provided solely by arcades . The arcades also lost their status as the forefront of new game releases . Given the choice between playing a game at an arcade three or four times ( perhaps 15 minutes of play for a typical arcade game ) , and renting , at about the same price , exactly the same game—for a video game console—the console became the preferred choice . Fighting games were the most attractive feature for arcades , since they offered the prospect of face-to-face competition and tournaments , which correspondingly led players to practice more ( and spend more money in the arcade ) , but they could not support the business all by themselves . To remain viable , arcades added other elements to complement the video games such as redemption games , merchandisers , and food service . Referred to as `` fun centers '' or `` family fun centers '' , some of the longstanding chains such as Chuck E. Cheese 's and Gatti 's Pizza ( `` GattiTowns '' ) also changed to this format . Many old video game arcades have long since closed , and classic coin-operated games have become largely the province of dedicated hobbyists . Today Today 's arcades have found a niche in games that use special controllers largely inaccessible to home users . An alternative interpretation ( one that includes fighting games , which continue to thrive and require no special controller ) is that the arcade game is now a more socially-oriented hangout , with games that focus on an individual 's performance , rather than the game 's content , as the primary form of novelty . Examples of today 's popular genres are rhythm games such as Dance Dance Revolution ( 1998 ) and DrumMania ( 1999 ) , and rail shooters such as Virtua Cop ( 1994 ) , Time Crisis ( 1995 ) and House of the Dead ( 1996 ) . In the Western world , the arcade video game industry still exists today but in a greatly reduced form . Video arcade game hardware is often based on home game consoles to reduce development costs ; there are video arcade versions of Dreamcast ( NAOMI , Atomiswave ) , PlayStation 2 ( System 246 ) , Nintendo GameCube ( Triforce ) , and Microsoft Xbox ( Chihiro ) home consoles and PC ( e.g . Taito Type X ) . Some arcades have survived by expanding into ticket-based prize redemption and more physical games with no home console equivalent , such as skee ball and Whac-A-Mole . Some genres , particularly dancing and rhythm games ( such as Konami 's Dance Dance Revolution ) , continue to be popular in arcades . Worldwide , arcade game revenues gradually increased from $ 1.8 billion in 1998 to $ 3.2 billion in 2002 , rivalling PC game sales of $ 3.2 billion that same year . In particular , arcade video games are a thriving industry in China , where arcades are widespread across the country . The US market has also experienced a slight resurgence , with the number of video game arcades across the nation increasing from 2,500 in 2003 to 3,500 in 2008 , though this is significantly less than the 10,000 arcades in the early 1980s . As of 2009 , a successful arcade game usually sells around 4000 to 6000 units worldwide . The relative simplicity yet solid gameplay of many of these early games has inspired a new generation of fans who can play them on mobile phones or with emulators such as MAME . Some classic arcade games are reappearing in commercial settings , such as Namco 's Ms. Pac-Man 20 Year Reunion / Galaga Class of 1981 two-in-one game , or integrated directly into controller hardware ( joysticks ) with replaceable flash drives storing game ROMs . Arcade classics have also been reappearing as mobile games , with Pac-Man in particular selling over 30 million downloads in the United States by 2010 . Arcade classics have also begun to appear on multi-game arcade machines for home users . Japan In the Japanese gaming industry , arcades have remained popular through to the present day . As of 2009 , out of Japan 's $ 20 billion gaming market , $ 6 billion of that amount is generated from arcades , which represent the largest sector of the Japanese video game market , followed by home console games and mobile games at $ 3.5 billion and $ 2 billion , respectively . In 2005 , arcade ownership and operation accounted for a majority of Namco 's for example . With considerable withdrawal from the arcade market from companies such as Capcom , Sega became the strongest player in the arcade market with 60 % marketshare in 2006 . However , due to the country 's economic recession , the Japanese arcade industry has also been steadily declining , from ¥702.9 billion ( US $ 8.7 billion ) in 2007 to ¥504.3 billion ( $ 6.2 billion ) in 2010 . In 2013 , estimation of revenue is ¥470 billion . In the Japanese market , network and card features introduced by Virtua Fighter 4 and World Club Champion Football , and novelty cabinets such as Gundam Pod machines have caused revitalizations in arcade profitability in Japan . The reason for the continued popularity of arcades in comparison to the west , are heavy population density and an infrastructure similar to casino facilities . Former rivals in the Japanese arcade industry , Konami , Taito , Bandai Namco and Sega , are now working together to keep the arcade industry vibrant . This is evidenced in the sharing of arcade networks , and venues having games from all major companies rather than only games from their own company . Technology Virtually all modern arcade games ( other than the very traditional midway-type games at county fairs ) make extensive use of solid state electronics and integrated circuits . In the past , coin-operated arcade video games generally used custom per-game hardware often with multiple CPUs , highly specialized sound and graphics chips , and the latest in expensive computer graphics display technology . This allowed arcade system boards to produce more complex graphics and sound than what was then possible on video game consoles or personal computers , which is no longer the case today . Recent arcade game hardware is often based on modified video game console hardware or high-end PC components . Arcade games frequently have more immersive and realistic game controls than either PC or console games , including specialized ambiance or control accessories : fully enclosed dynamic cabinets with force feedback controls , dedicated lightguns , rear-projection displays , reproductions of automobile or airplane cockpits , motorcycle or horse-shaped controllers , or highly dedicated controllers such as dancing mats and fishing rods . These accessories are usually what set modern video games apart from other games , as they are usually too bulky , expensive , and specialized to be used with typical home PCs and consoles . Arcade genre Arcade games often have short levels , simple and intuitive control schemes , and rapidly increasing difficulty . This is due to the environment of the Arcade , where the player is essentially renting the game for as long as their in-game avatar can stay alive ( or until they run out of tokens ) . Games on consoles or PCs can be referred to as `` arcade games '' if they share these qualities or are direct ports of arcade titles . Many independent developers are now producing games in the arcade genre that are designed specifically for use on the Internet . These games are usually designed with Flash/Java/DHTML and run directly in web-browsers . Arcade racing games have a simplified physics engine and do not require much learning time when compared with racing simulators . Cars can turn sharply without braking or understeer , and the AI rivals are sometimes programmed so they are always near the player ( rubberband effect ) . Arcade flight games also use simplified physics and controls in comparison to flight simulators . These are meant to have an easy learning curve , in order to preserve their action component . Increasing numbers of console flight video games , from Crimson Skies to Ace Combat and Secret Weapons Over Normandy indicate the falling of manual-heavy flight sim popularity in favor of instant arcade flight action . Other types of arcade-style games include fighting games ( often played with an arcade controller ) , beat 'em up games ( including fast-paced hack and slash games ) , light gun rail shooters and `` bullet hell '' shooters ( intuitive controls and rapidly increasing difficulty ) , music games ( particularly rhythm games ) , and mobile/casual games ( intuitive controls and often played in short sessions ) . Emulation Emulators such as MAME , which can be run on modern computers and a number of other devices , aim to preserve the games of the past . Legitimate emulated titles started to appear on the Sony PlayStation and Sega Saturn , with CD-ROM compilations such as Arcade 's Greatest Hits : The Atari Collection 1 , and on the PlayStation 2 and GameCube with DVD-ROM titles such as Midway Arcade Treasures . Arcade games are currently being downloaded and emulated through the Nintendo Wii Virtual Console Service starting in 2009 with Gaplus , Mappy , Space Harrier , Star Force , The Tower of Druaga , Tecmo Bowl , Altered Beast and many more . Other classic arcade games such as Asteroids , Tron , Discs of Tron , Yie Ar Kung-Fu , Pac-Man , Joust , Battlezone , Dig Dug , Robotron : 2084 , and Missile Command are emulated on PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade . Locations In addition to restaurants and video arcades , arcade games are also found in bowling alleys , college campuses , dormitories , laundromats , movie theaters , supermarkets , shopping malls , airports , ice rinks , corner shops , truck stops , bar/pubs , hotels , and even bakeries . In short , arcade games are popular in places open to the public where people are likely to have free time . List of highest-grossing arcade video games For arcade games , success was usually judged by either the number of arcade hardware units sold to operators , or the amount of revenue generated , from the number of coins ( such as quarters or 100 yen coins ) inserted into machines , and/or the hardware sales ( with arcade hardware prices often ranging from $ 1000 to $ 4000 or more ) . This list only includes arcade games that have either sold more than 1000 hardware units or generated a revenue of more than US $ 1 million . Most of the games in this list date back to the golden age of arcade video games , though some are also from before and after the golden age . Best-selling arcade video game franchises These are the combined hardware sales of at least two or more arcade games that are part of the same franchise . This list only includes franchises that have sold at least 5,000 hardware units or grossed at least $ 10 million revenues .

qg_550--Arcade_game.txt

In what 80s arcade game were you armed with a lance and mounted upon an flying ostrich?

The Universe is all of time and space and its contents . It includes planets , moons , minor planets , stars , galaxies , the contents of intergalactic space , and all matter and energy . The observable universe is about 28 e9pc in diameter . The size of the entire Universe is unknown , but there are many hypotheses about the composition and evolution of the Universe . The earliest scientific models of the Universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric , placing the Earth at the center of the Universe . Over the centuries , more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus ( 1473–1543 ) to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System . In developing the law of universal gravitation , Sir Isaac Newton ( NS : 1643–1727 ) built upon Copernicus 's work as well as observations by Tycho Brahe ( 1546–1601 ) and Johannes Kepler 's ( 1571–1630 ) laws of planetary motion . Further observational improvements led to the realization that our Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy and is one of many solar systems and galaxies . It is assumed that galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions , meaning that the Universe has neither an edge nor a center . Discoveries in the early 20th century have suggested that the Universe had a beginning and that it is expanding at an increasing rate . The majority of mass in the Universe appears to exist in an unknown form called dark matter . The Big Bang theory , the prevailing cosmological model describing the development of the Universe , states that space and time were created in the Big Bang and were given a fixed amount of energy and matter that becomes less dense as space expands . After the initial expansion , the Universe cooled , allowing the first subatomic particles to form and then simple atoms . Giant clouds later merged through gravity to form stars . Assuming that the standard model of the Big Bang theory is correct , the age of the Universe is measured to be . There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the Universe and about what , if anything , preceded the Big Bang , while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate , doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible . Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses , in which the Universe might be one among many universes that likewise exist . Definition The Universe can be defined as everything that exists , everything that has existed , and everything that will exist . According to our current understanding , the Universe consists of spacetime , forms of energy ( including electromagnetic radiation and matter ) , and the physical laws that relate them . The Universe encompasses all of life , all of history , and some philosophers and scientists suggest that it even encompasses ideas such as mathematics and logic . Etymology The word universe derives from the Old French word univers , which in turn derives from the Latin word universum . The Latin word was used by Cicero and later Latin authors in many of the same senses as the modern English word is used . Synonyms A term for `` universe '' among the ancient Greek philosophers from Pythagoras onwards was tò pân ( `` the all '' ) , defined as all matter and all space , and tò hólon ( `` all things '' ) , which did not necessarily include the void . Another synonym was ( meaning the world , the cosmos ) . Synonyms are also found in Latin authors ( totum , mundus , natura ) and survive in modern languages , e.g. , the German words Das All , Weltall , and Natur for Universe . The same synonyms are found in English , such as everything ( as in the theory of everything ) , the cosmos ( as in cosmology ) , the world ( as in the many-worlds interpretation ) , and nature ( as in natural laws or natural philosophy ) . Chronology and the Big Bang The prevailing model for the evolution of the Universe is the Big Bang theory . The Big Bang model states that the earliest state of the Universe was extremely hot and dense and that it subsequently expanded . The model is based on general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space . A version of the model with a cosmological constant ( Lambda ) and cold dark matter , known as the Lambda-CDM model , is the simplest model that provides a reasonably good account of various observations about the Universe . The Big Bang model accounts for observations such as the correlation of distance and redshift of galaxies , the ratio of the number of hydrogen to helium atoms , and the microwave radiation background . The initial hot , dense state is called the Planck epoch , a brief period extending from time zero to one Planck time unit of approximately 10−43 seconds . During the Planck epoch , all types of matter and all types of energy were concentrated into a dense state , where gravitation is believed to have been as strong as the other fundamental forces , and all the forces may have been unified . Since the Planck epoch , the Universe has been expanding to its present form , possibly with a very brief period of cosmic inflation which caused the Universe to reach a much larger size in less than 10−32 seconds . After the Planck epoch and inflation came the quark , hadron , and lepton epochs . Together , these epochs encompassed less than 10 seconds of time following the Big Bang . The observed abundance of the elements can be explained by combining the overall expansion of space with nuclear and atomic physics . As the Universe expands , the energy density of electromagnetic radiation decreases more quickly than does that of matter because the energy of a photon decreases with its wavelength . As the Universe expanded and cooled , elementary particles associated stably into ever larger combinations . Thus , in the early part of the matter-dominated era , stable protons and neutrons formed , which then formed atomic nuclei through nuclear reactions . This process , known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis , led to the present abundances of lighter nuclei , particularly hydrogen , deuterium , and helium . Big Bang nucleosynthesis ended about 20 minutes after the Big Bang , when the Universe had cooled enough so that nuclear fusion could no longer occur . At this stage , matter in the Universe was mainly a hot , dense plasma of negatively charged electrons , neutral neutrinos and positive nuclei . This era , called the photon epoch , lasted about 380 thousand years . Eventually , at a time known as recombination , electrons and nuclei formed stable atoms , which are transparent to most wavelengths of radiation . With photons decoupled from matter , the Universe entered the matter-dominated era . Light from this era could now travel freely , and it can still be seen in the Universe as the cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) . After around 100 million years , the first stars formed ; these were likely very massive , luminous , and responsible for the reionization of the Universe . Having no elements heavier than lithium , these stars also produced the first heavy elements through stellar nucleosynthesis . The Universe also contains a mysterious energy called dark energy ; the energy density of dark energy does not change over time . After about 9.8 billion years , the Universe had expanded sufficiently so that the density of matter was less than the density of dark energy , marking the beginning of the present dark-energy-dominated era . In this era , the expansion of the Universe is accelerating due to dark energy . Properties The spacetime of the Universe is usually interpreted from a Euclidean perspective , with space as consisting of three dimensions , and time as consisting of one dimension , the `` fourth dimension '' . By combining space and time into a single manifold called Minkowski space , physicists have simplified a large number of physical theories , as well as described in a more uniform way the workings of the Universe at both the supergalactic and subatomic levels . Spacetime events are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally but rather are known relative to the motion of an observer . Minkowski space approximates the Universe without gravity ; the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and gravity . String theory postulates the existence of additional dimensions . Of the four fundamental interactions , gravitation is dominant at cosmological length scales , including galaxies and larger-scale structures . Gravity 's effects are cumulative ; by contrast , the effects of positive and negative charges tend to cancel one another , making electromagnetism relatively insignificant on cosmological length scales . The remaining two interactions , the weak and strong nuclear forces , decline very rapidly with distance ; their effects are confined mainly to sub-atomic length scales . The Universe appears to have much more matter than antimatter , an asymmetry possibly related to the observations of CP violation . The Universe also appears to have neither net momentum nor angular momentum . The absence of net charge and momentum would follow from accepted physical laws ( Gauss 's law and the non-divergence of the stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor , respectively ) if the Universe were finite . Shape General relativity describes how spacetime is curved and bent by mass and energy . The topology or geometry of the Universe includes both local geometry in the observable universe and global geometry . Cosmologists often work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the comoving coordinates . The section of spacetime which can be observed is the backward light cone , which delimits the cosmological horizon . The cosmological horizon ( also called the particle horizon or the light horizon ) is the maximum distance from which particles can have traveled to the observer in the age of the Universe . This horizon represents the boundary between the observable and the unobservable regions of the Universe . The existence , properties , and significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the particular cosmological model . An important parameter determining the future evolution of the Universe theory is the density parameter , Omega ( Ω ) , defined as the average matter density of the universe divided by a critical value of that density . This selects one of three possible geometries depending on whether Ω is equal to , less than , or greater than 1 . These are called , respectively , the flat , open and closed universes . Observations , including the Cosmic Background Explorer ( COBE ) , Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) , and Planck maps of the CMB , suggest that the Universe is infinite in extent with a finite age , as described by the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker ( FLRW ) models . These FLRW models thus support inflationary models and the standard model of cosmology , describing a flat , homogeneous universe presently dominated by dark matter and dark energy . Size and regions The size of the Universe is somewhat difficult to define . According to a restrictive definition , the Universe is everything within our connected spacetime that could have a chance to interact with us and vice versa . According to the general theory of relativity , some regions of space may never interact with ours even in the lifetime of the Universe due to the finite speed of light and the ongoing expansion of space . For example , radio messages sent from Earth may never reach some regions of space , even if the Universe were to exist forever : space may expand faster than light can traverse it . Distant regions of space are assumed to exist and to be part of reality as much as we are , even though we can never interact with them . The spatial region that we can affect and be affected by is the observable universe . The observable universe depends on the location of the observer . By traveling , an observer can come into contact with a greater region of spacetime than an observer who remains still . Nevertheless , even the most rapid traveler will not be able to interact with all of space . Typically , the observable universe is taken to mean the portion of the Universe that is observable from our vantage point in the Milky Way . The proper distance—the distance as would be measured at a specific time , including the present—between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is 14 e9pc , making the diameter of the observable universe about 28 e9pc . The distance the light from the edge of the observable universe has travelled is very close to the age of the Universe times the speed of light , , but this does not represent the distance at any given time because the edge of the observable universe and the Earth have since moved further apart . For comparison , the diameter of a typical galaxy is 30,000 light-years , and the typical distance between two neighboring galaxies is 3 million light-years . As an example , the Milky Way is roughly 100,000 light years in diameter , and the nearest sister galaxy to the Milky Way , the Andromeda Galaxy , is located roughly 2.5 million light years away . Because we can not observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe , it is unknown whether the size of the Universe is finite or infinite . Age and expansion Astronomers calculate the age of the Universe by assuming that the Lambda-CDM model accurately describes the evolution of the Universe from a very uniform , hot , dense primordial state to its present state and measuring the cosmological parameters which constitute the model . This model is well understood theoretically and supported by recent high-precision astronomical observations such as WMAP and Planck . Commonly , the set of observations fitted includes the cosmic microwave background anisotropy , the brightness/redshift relation for Type Ia supernovae , and large-scale galaxy clustering including the baryon acoustic oscillation feature . Other observations , such as the Hubble constant , the abundance of galaxy clusters , weak gravitational lensing and globular cluster ages , are generally consistent with these , providing a check of the model , but are less accurately measured at present . With the prior that the Lambda-CDM model is correct , the measurements of the parameters using a variety of techniques by numerous experiments yield a best value of the age of the Universe as of 2015 of 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years . Over time , the Universe and its contents have evolved ; for example , the relative population of quasars and galaxies has changed and space itself has expanded . Due to this expansion , scientists on Earth can observe the light from a galaxy 30 billion light years away even though that light has traveled for only 13 billion years ; the very space between them has expanded . This expansion is consistent with the observation that the light from distant galaxies has been redshifted ; the photons emitted have been stretched to longer wavelengths and lower frequency during their journey . Analyses of Type Ia supernovae indicate that the spatial expansion is accelerating . The more matter there is in the Universe , the stronger the mutual gravitational pull of the matter . If the Universe were too dense then it would re-collapse into a gravitational singularity . However , if the Universe contained too little matter then the expansion would accelerate too rapidly for planets and planetary systems to form . Since the Big Bang , the universe has expanded monotonically . Perhaps unsurprisingly , our universe has just the right mass density of about 5 protons per cubic meter which has allowed it to expand for the last 13.8 billion years , giving time to form the universe as observed today . There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the Universe which affect the expansion rate . Before 1998 , it was expected that the rate of increase of the Hubble Constant would be decreasing as time went on due to the influence of gravitational interactions in the Universe , and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the Universe called the deceleration parameter which cosmologists expected to be directly related to the matter density of the Universe . In 1998 , the deceleration parameter was measured by two different groups to be consistent with −1 but not zero , which implied that the present-day rate of increase of the Hubble Constant is increasing over time . Spacetime Spacetimes are the arenas in which all physical events take place—an event is a point in spacetime specified by its time and place . The basic elements of spacetime are events . In any given spacetime , an event is a unique position at a unique time . Because events are spacetime points , in classical relativistic physics , the location of an elementary ( point-like ) particle at a particular time can be written as ( x , y , z , t ) . A spacetime is the union of all events in the same way that a line is the union of all of its points , formally organized into a manifold . The Universe appears to be a smooth spacetime continuum consisting of three spatial dimensions and one temporal ( time ) dimension . On the average , space is observed to be very nearly flat ( close to zero curvature ) , meaning that Euclidean geometry is empirically true with high accuracy throughout most of the Universe . Spacetime also appears to have a simply connected topology , in analogy with a sphere , at least on the length-scale of the observable Universe . However , present observations can not exclude the possibilities that the Universe has more dimensions and that its spacetime may have a multiply connected global topology , in analogy with the cylindrical or toroidal topologies of two-dimensional spaces . Contents The Universe is composed almost completely of dark energy , dark matter , and ordinary matter . Other contents are electromagnetic radiation ( estimated to be from 0.005 % to close to 0.01 % ) and antimatter . The total amount of electromagnetic radiation generated within the universe has decreased by 1/2 in the past 2 billion years . The percent of all types matter and energy has changed over the history of the Universe . Today , ordinary matter , which includes atoms , stars , galaxies , and life , accounts for only 4.9 % of the contents of the Universe . The present overall density of this type of matter is very low , roughly 4.5 × 10−31 grams per cubic centimetre , corresponding to a density of the order of only one proton for every four cubic meters of volume . The nature of both dark energy and dark matter is unknown . Dark matter , a mysterious form of matter that has not yet been identified , accounts for 26.8 % of the contents . Dark energy , which is the energy of empty space and that is causing the expansion of the Universe to accelerate , accounts for the remaining 68.3 % of the contents . Matter , dark matter , and dark energy are distributed homogeneously throughout the Universe over length scales longer than 300 million light-years or so . However , over shorter length-scales , matter tends to clump hierarchically ; many atoms are condensed into stars , most stars into galaxies , most galaxies into clusters , superclusters and , finally , large-scale galactic filaments . The observable Universe contains approximately 300 sextillion ( 3 ) stars and more than 100 billion ( 1011 ) galaxies . Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million ( 107 ) stars up to giants with one trillion ( 1012 ) stars . Between the structures are voids , which are typically 10–150 Mpc ( 33 million–490 million ly ) in diameter . The Milky Way is in the Local Group of galaxies , which in turn is in the Laniakea Supercluster . This supercluster spans over 500 million light years , while the Local Group spans over 10 million light years . The Universe also has vast regions of relative emptiness ; the largest known void measures 1.8 billion ly ( 550 Mpc ) across . The observable Universe is isotropic on scales significantly larger than superclusters , meaning that the statistical properties of the Universe are the same in all directions as observed from Earth . The Universe is bathed in highly isotropic microwave radiation that corresponds to a thermal equilibrium blackbody spectrum of roughly 2.72548 kelvin . The hypothesis that the large-scale Universe is homogeneous and isotropic is known as the cosmological principle . A Universe that is both homogeneous and isotropic looks the same from all vantage points . p. 2. and has no center . Dark energy An explanation for why the expansion of the Universe is accelerating remains elusive . It is often attributed to `` dark energy '' , an unknown form of energy that is hypothesized to permeate space . On a mass–energy equivalence basis , the density of dark energy ( ~ 7 × 10−30 g/cm3 ) is much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies . However , in the present dark-energy era , it dominates the mass–energy of the universe because it is uniform across space . Two proposed forms for dark energy are the cosmological constant , a constant energy density filling space homogeneously , and scalar fields such as quintessence or moduli , dynamic quantities whose energy density can vary in time and space . Contributions from scalar fields that are constant in space are usually also included in the cosmological constant . The cosmological constant can be formulated to be equivalent to vacuum energy . Scalar fields having only a slight amont of spatial inhomogeneity would be difficult to distinguish from a cosmological constant . Dark matter Dark matter is a hypothetical kind of matter that is invisible to the entire electromagnetic spectrum , but which accounts for most of the matter in the Universe . The existence and properties of dark matter are inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter , radiation , and the large-scale structure of the Universe . Other than neutrinos , a form of hot dark matter , dark matter has not been detected directly , making it one of the greatest mysteries in modern astrophysics . Dark matter neither emits nor absorbs light or any other electromagnetic radiation at any significant level . Dark matter is estimated to constitute 26.8 % of the total mass–energy and 84.5 % of the total matter in the Universe.Sean Carroll , Ph.D. , Cal Tech , 2007 , The Teaching Company , Dark Matter , Dark Energy : The Dark Side of the Universe , Guidebook Part 2 page 46 , Accessed Oct. 7 , 2013 , `` ... dark matter : An invisible , essentially collisionless component of matter that makes up about 25 percent of the energy density of the universe ... it 's a different kind of particle ... something not yet observed in the laboratory ... '' Ordinary Matter The remaining 4.9 % of the mass–energy of the Universe is ordinary matter , that is , atoms , ions , electrons and the objects they form . This matter includes stars , which produce nearly all of the light we see from galaxies , as well as interstellar gas in the interstellar and intergalactic media , planets , and all the objects from everyday life that we can bump into , touch or squeeze . As a matter of fact , the great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is unseen , since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the mass-energy density of the universe . Ordinary matter commonly exists in four states ( or phases ) : solid , liquid , gas , and plasma . However , advances in experimental techniques have revealed other previously theoretical phases , such as Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates . Ordinary matter is composed of two types of elementary particles : quarks and leptons . For example , the proton is formed of two up quarks and one down quark ; the neutron is formed of two down quarks and one up quark ; and the electron is a kind of lepton . An atom consists of an atomic nucleus , made up of protons and neutrons , and electrons that orbit the nucleus . Because most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus , which is made up of baryons , astronomers often use the term baryonic matter to describe ordinary matter , although a small fraction of this `` baryonic matter '' is electrons . Soon after the Big Bang , primordial protons and neutrons formed from the quark–gluon plasma of the early Universe as it cooled below two trillion degrees . A few minutes later , in a process known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis , nuclei formed from the primordial protons and neutrons . This nucleosynthesis formed lighter elements , those with small atomic numbers up to lithium and beryllium , but the abundance of heavier elements dropped off sharply with increasing atomic number . Some boron may have been formed at this time , but the next heavier element , carbon , was not be formed in significant amounts . Big Bang nucleosynthesis shut down after about 20 minutes due to the rapid drop in temperature and density of the expanding Universe . Subsequent formation of heavier elements resulted from stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis . Particles Ordinary matter and the forces that act on matter can be described in terms of elementary particles . These particles are sometimes described as being fundamental , since they have an unknown substructure , and it is unknown whether or not they are composed of smaller and even more fundamental particles . Of central importance is the Standard Model , a theory that is concerned with electromagnetic interactions and the weak and strong nuclear interactions . The Standard Model is supported by the experimental confirmation of the existence of particles that compose matter : quarks and leptons , and their corresponding `` antimatter '' duals , as well as the force particles that mediate interactions : the photon , the W and Z bosons , and the gluon . The Standard Model predicted the existence of the recently discovered Higgs boson , a particle that is a manifestation of a field within the Universe that can endow particles with mass . Because of its success in explaining a wide variety of experimental results , the Standard Model is sometimes regarded as a `` theory of almost everything '' . The Standard Model does not , however , accommodate gravity . A true force-particle `` theory of everything '' has not been attained . Hadrons A hadron is a composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force . Hadrons are categorized into two families : baryons ( such as protons and neutrons ) made of three quarks , and mesons ( such as pions ) made of one quark and one antiquark . Of the hadrons , protons are stable , and neutrons bound within atomic nuclei are stable . Other hadrons are unstable under ordinary conditions and are thus insignificant constituents of the modern Universe . From approximately 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang , during a period is known as the hadron epoch , the temperature of the universe had fallen sufficiently to allow quarks to bind together into hadrons , and the mass of the Universe was dominated by hadrons . Initially the temperature was high enough to allow the formation of hadron/anti-hadron pairs , which kept matter and antimatter in thermal equilibrium . However , as the temperature of the Universe continued to fall , hadron/anti-hadron pairs were no longer produced . Most of the hadrons and anti-hadrons were then eliminated in particle-antiparticle annihilation reactions , leaving a small residual of hadrons by the time the Universe was about one second old . Leptons A lepton is an elementary

bb_6520--Universe.txt

In the history of the universe what term refers to immediately after the Big Bang?

John Logie Baird FRSE ( ; 14 August 1888 - 14 June 1946 ) was a Scottish engineer , innovator , one of the inventors of the mechanical television , demonstrating the first working television system on 26 January 1926 , and inventor of both the first publicly demonstrated colour television system , and the first purely electronic colour television picture tube . In 1928 the Baird Television Development Company achieved the first transatlantic television transmission . Baird 's early technological successes and his role in the practical introduction of broadcast television for home entertainment have earned him a prominent place in television 's history . Baird was ranked number 44 in the BBC 's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote in 2002 . In 2006 , Baird was named as one of the 10 greatest Scottish scientists in history , having been listed in the National Library of Scotland 's 'Scottish Science Hall of Fame ' . In 2015 he was inducted into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame . Early years Baird was born on 14 August 1888 in Helensburgh , Dunbartonshire , and was the youngest of four children of the Reverend John Baird , the Church of Scotland 's minister for the local St Bride 's Church and Jessie Morrison Inglis , the orphaned niece of a wealthy family of shipbuilders from Glasgow . He was educated at Larchfield Academy ( now part of Lomond School ) in Helensburgh ; the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College ; and the University of Glasgow . While at college Baird undertook a series of engineering apprentice jobs as part of his course . The conditions in industrial Glasgow at the time helped form his socialist convictions but also contributed to his ill health . His degree course was interrupted by the First World War and he never returned to graduate . At the beginning of 1915 he volunteered for service in the British Army but was classified as unfit for active duty . Unable to go to the Front , he took a job with the Clyde Valley Electrical Power Company , which was engaged in munitions work . Television experiments The development of television was the result of work by many inventors . Among them , Baird was a prominent pioneer and made major advances in the field . Many historians credit Baird with being the first to produce a live , moving , greyscale television image from reflected light . Baird achieved this , where other inventors had failed , by obtaining a better photoelectric cell and improving the signal conditioning from the photocell and the video amplifier . Between 1902 and 1907 , Arthur Korn invented and built the first successful signal-conditioning circuits for image transmission . The circuits overcame the image-destroying lag effect that is part of selenium photocells . Korn 's compensation circuit allowed him to send still fax pictures by telephone or wireless between countries and even over oceans , while his circuit operated without benefit of electronic amplification . Korn 's success at transmitting halftone still images suggested that such compensation circuits might work in television . Baird was the direct beneficiary of Korn 's research and success . In his first attempts to develop a working television system , Baird experimented with the Nipkow disk . Paul Gottlieb Nipkow had invented this scanning disc system in 1884.Albert Abramson , The History of Television , 1880 to 1941 , McFarland , 1987 , pp . 13–15 . Television historian Albert Abramson calls Nipkow 's patent `` the master television patent '' . Nipkow 's work is important because Baird and many others chose to develop it into a broadcast medium . In early 1923 , and in poor health , Baird moved to 21 Linton Crescent , Hastings , on the south coast of England . He later rented a workshop in the Queen 's Arcade in the town . Baird built what was to become the world 's first working television set using items including an old hatbox and a pair of scissors , some darning needles , a few bicycle light lenses , a used tea chest , and sealing wax and glue that he purchased . In February 1924 , he demonstrated to the Radio Times that a semi-mechanical analogue television system was possible by transmitting moving silhouette images . In July of the same year , he received a 1000-volt electric shock , but survived with only a burnt hand , and as a result his landlord , Mr Tree , asked him to vacate the premises . Baird gave the first public demonstration of moving silhouette images by television at Selfridges department store in London in a three-week series of demonstrations beginning on 25 March 1925 . In his laboratory on 2 October 1925 , Baird successfully transmitted the first television picture with a greyscale image : the head of a ventriloquist 's dummy nicknamed `` Stooky Bill '' in a 30-line vertically scanned image , at five pictures per second . Baird went downstairs and fetched an office worker , 20-year-old William Edward Taynton , to see what a human face would look like , and Taynton became the first person to be televised in a full tonal range . Looking for publicity , Baird visited the Daily Express newspaper to promote his invention . The news editor was terrified and he was quoted by one of his staff as saying : `` For God 's sake , go down to reception and get rid of a lunatic who 's down there . He says he 's got a machine for seeing by wireless ! Watch him — he may have a razor on him . '' First public demonstrations On 26 January 1926 , Baird repeated the transmission for members of the Royal Institution and a reporter from The Times in his laboratory at 22 Frith Street in the Soho district of London . By this time , he had improved the scan rate to 12.5 pictures per second . It was the first demonstration of a television system that could broadcast live moving images with tone graduation . He demonstrated the world 's first colour transmission on 3 July 1928 , using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures , each spiral with a filter of a different primary colour ; and three light sources at the receiving end , with a commutator to alternate their illumination . That same year he also demonstrated stereoscopic television . In 1932 , Baird was the first person in the United Kingdom to demonstrate ultra-short wave transmissions . Contrary to some reports , these transmissions were far from the first VHF telecasts . In 1931 , the US Federal Radio Commission allocated VHF television bands . From 1931 to 1933 , station W9XD in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , transmitted some of the first VHF television signals . The station 's 45-line , triply interlaced pictures used the U . A. Sanabria television technology . Broadcasting In 1927 , Baird transmitted a long-distance television signal over 438 mi of telephone line between London and Glasgow ; Baird transmitted the world 's first long-distance television pictures to the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central Station . This transmission was Baird 's response to a 225-mile , long-distance telecast between stations of AT & T Bell Labs . The Bell stations were in New York and Washington , DC . The earlier telecast took place in April 1927 , a month before Baird 's demonstration.pp . 99–101 . Baird then set up the Baird Television Development Company Ltd , which in 1928 made the first transatlantic television transmission , from London to Hartsdale , New York , and the first television programme for the BBC . In November 1929 , Baird and Bernard Natan established France 's first television company , Télévision-Baird-Natan . He televised the first live transmission of the Epsom Derby in 1931 . He demonstrated a theatre television system , with a screen two feet by five feet ( 60 cm by 150 cm ) , in 1930 at the London Coliseum , Berlin , Paris , and Stockholm . By 1939 he had improved his theatre projection system to televise a boxing match on a screen 15 ft by 12 ft . From 1929 to 1932 , the BBC transmitters were used to broadcast television programmes using the 30-line Baird system , and from 1932 to 1935 , the BBC also produced the programmes in their own studio at 16 Portland Place . On 3 November 1936 , from Alexandra Palace located on the high ground of the north London ridge , the BBC began alternating Baird 240-line transmissions with EMI 's electronic scanning system , which had recently been improved to 405 lines after a merger with Marconi . The Baird system at the time involved an intermediate film process , where footage was shot on cinefilm , which was rapidly developed and scanned . The trial was due to last 6 months but the BBC ceased broadcasts with the Baird system in February 1937 , due in part to a disastrous fire in the Baird facilities at Crystal Palace . It was becoming apparent to the BBC that the Baird system would ultimately fail due in large part to the lack of mobility of the Baird system 's cameras , with their developer tanks , hoses , and cables . Baird 's television systems were replaced by the electronic television system developed by the newly formed company EMI-Marconi under Isaac Shoenberg , which had access to patents developed by Vladimir Zworykin and RCA . Similarly , Philo T. Farnsworth 's electronic `` Image Dissector '' camera was available to Baird 's company via a patent-sharing agreement . However , the Image Dissector camera was found to be lacking in light sensitivity , requiring excessive levels of illumination . Baird used the Farnsworth tubes instead to scan cinefilm , in which capacity they proved serviceable though prone to drop-outs and other problems . Farnsworth himself came to London to Baird 's Crystal Palace laboratories in 1936 , but was unable to fully solve the problem ; the fire that burned Crystal Palace to the ground later that year further hampered the Baird company 's ability to compete . Fully electronic Baird made many contributions to the field of electronic television after mechanical systems had taken a back seat . In 1939 , he showed a system know today as hybrid colour using a cathode ray tube in front of which revolved a disc fitted with colour filters , a method taken up by CBS and RCA in the United States . As early as 1940 , Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the `` Telechrome '' . Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate . The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other . Using cyan and magenta phosphors , a reasonable limited-colour image could be obtained . He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image ( called `` stereoscopic '' at the time ) . In 1941 , he patented and demonstrated this system of three-dimensional television at a definition of 500 lines . On 16 August 1944 , he gave the world 's first demonstration of a practical fully electronic colour television display . His 600-line colour system used triple interlacing , using six scans to build each picture . Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 50s , differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns . One of them , the Geer tube , was similar to Baird 's concept , but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces , instead of Baird 's 3D patterning on a flat surface . In 1943 , the Hankey Committee was appointed to oversee the resumption of television broadcasts after the war . Baird persuaded them to make plans to adopt his proposed 1000-line Telechrome electronic colour system as the new post-war broadcast standard . The picture resolution on this system would have been comparable to today 's HDTV ( High Definition Television ) . The Hankey Committee 's plan lost all momentum partly due to the challenges of postwar reconstruction . The monochrome 405-line standard remained in place until 1985 in some areas , and the 625-line system was introduced in 1964 and ( PAL ) colour in 1967 . A demonstration of large screen three-dimensional television by the BBC was reported in March 2008 , over 60 years after Baird 's demonstration . Other inventions Some of Baird 's early inventions were not fully successful . In his twenties he tried to create diamonds by heating graphite and shorted out Glasgow 's electricity supply . Later Baird invented a glass razor , which was rust-resistant , but shattered . Inspired by pneumatic tyres he attempted to make pneumatic shoes , but his prototype contained semi-inflated balloons , which burst . He also invented a thermal undersock ( the Baird undersock ) , which was moderately successful . Baird suffered from cold feet , and after a number of trials , he found that an extra layer of cotton inside the sock provided warmth.American Media History , Fellow , p. 278 Baird 's numerous other developments demonstrated his particular talent at invention . He was a visionary and began to dabble with electricity . In 1928 , he developed an early video recording device , which he dubbed Phonovision . The system consisted of a large Nipkow disk attached by a mechanical linkage to a conventional 78-rpm record-cutting lathe . The result was a disc that could record and play back a 30-line video signal . Technical difficulties with the system prevented its further development , but some of the original phonodiscs have been preserved , and have since been restored by Donald McLean , a Scottish electrical engineer . Baird 's other developments were in fibre-optics , radio direction finding , infrared night viewing and radar . There is discussion about his exact contribution to the development of radar , for his wartime defence projects have never been officially acknowledged by the UK government . According to Malcolm Baird , his son , what is known is that in 1926 Baird filed a patent for a device that formed images from reflected radio waves , a device remarkably similar to radar , and that he was in correspondence with the British government at the time . The radar contribution is in dispute . According to some experts , Baird 's `` noctovision '' is not radar . Unlike radar ( except Doppler radar ) , Noctovision is incapable of determining the distance to the scanned subject . Noctovision also can not determine the coordinates of the subject in three-dimensional space . Later years From December 1944 , Logie Baird lived at 1 Station Road , Bexhill-on-Sea , East Sussex , immediately north of the station and subsequently died there on 14 June 1946 after suffering a stroke in February . The house was demolished in 2007 and the site is now apartments named Baird Court . Logie Baird is buried with his mother , father and wife in Helensburgh Cemetery . Honours and portrayals Australian television 's Logie Awards were named in honour of John Logie Baird 's contribution to the invention of the television . He became the only deceased subject of This Is Your Life when he was honoured by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre in 1957 . He was played by Michael Gwynn ( and also by Andrew Irvine , who played him as a boy ) in the 1957 TV film A Voice in Vision and by Robert McIntosh in the 1986 TV drama The Fools on the Hill . In 2014 , the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers ( SMPTE ) inducted Logie Baird into The Honor Roll , which `` posthumously recognizes individuals who were not awarded Honorary Membership during their lifetimes but whose contributions would have been sufficient to warrant such an honor '' . On 26 January 2016 , the search engine Google released a Google Doodle to mark the 90th anniversary of Logie Baird 's first public demonstration of live television .

wh_815--John_Logie_Baird.txt

Which Scottish engineer gave the first public demonstration of TV?

Urine ( from Latin urina , -ae , f. ) is a liquid by-product of the body secreted by the kidneys through a process called urination ( or micturition ) and excreted through the urethra . Cellular metabolism generates numerous by-products , many rich in nitrogen , that require clearance from the bloodstream . These by-products are eventually expelled from the body during urination , the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body . These chemicals can be detected and analyzed by urinalysis . Human urine , together with human feces , are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta . Physiology Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes . In humans , soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and , to a lesser extent in terms of urea , removed by perspiration . The urinary system consists of the kidneys , ureters , urinary bladder , and urethra . The system produces urine by a process of filtration , reabsorption , and tubular secretion . The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream , as well as excess water , sugars , and a variety of other compounds . The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances , including toxins . Urine flows from the kidney through the ureter , bladder , and finally the urethra before passing from the body . Duration Research looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that 9 larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size . Smaller species including rodents and bats can not produce jets and instead urinate with a series of drops . Characteristics Quantity Average urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L per person per day , produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration , activity level , environmental factors , weight , and the individual 's health . Producing too much or too little urine needs medical attention . Polyuria is a condition of excessive production of urine ( > 2.5 L/day ) , oliguria when Urine also contains an assortment of inorganic salts and organic compounds , including proteins , hormones , and a wide range of metabolites , varying by what is introduced into the body . The total solids in urine are on average 59 g per person per day . Organic matter makes up between 65 % and 85 % of urine dry solids , with volatile solids comprising 75–85 % of total solids . Urea is the largest constituent of the solids , constituting more than 50 % of the total . On an elemental level , human urine contains 6.87 g/L carbon , 8.12 g/L nitrogen , 8.25 g/L oxygen , and 1.51 g/L hydrogen . The exact proportions vary with individuals and with factors such as diet and health . Color Urine varies in appearance , depending principally upon a body 's level of hydration , as well as other factors . Normal urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber but is usually a pale yellow . In the urine of a healthy individual the color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin . Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells . Colorless urine indicates over-hydration , generally preferable to dehydration ( though it can remove essential salts from the body ) . Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration . * Dark yellow urine is often indicative of dehydration . * Yellowing/light orange may be caused by removal of excess B vitamins from the bloodstream . * Certain medications such as rifampin and phenazopyridine can cause orange urine . * Bloody urine is termed hematuria , a symptom of a wide variety of medical conditions . * Dark orange to brown urine can be a symptom of jaundice , rhabdomyolysis , or Gilbert 's syndrome . * Black or dark-colored urine is referred to as melanuria and may be caused by a melanoma or non-melanin acute intermittent porphyria . * Pinkish urine can result from the consumption of beets . * Greenish urine can result from the consumption of asparagus or foods or beverages with green dyes . * Reddish or brown urine may be caused by porphyria ( not to be confused with the harmless , temporary pink or reddish tint caused by beeturia ) . * Blue urine can be caused by the ingestion of methylene blue ( e.g. , in medications ) or foods or beverages with blue dyes . * Blue urine stains can be caused by blue diaper syndrome . * Purple urine may be due to purple urine bag syndrome . Odor The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases . For example , an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor . This can be due to kidney diseases as well , such as kidney stones . Eating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body 's breakdown of asparagusic acid . Likewise consumption of saffron , alcohol , coffee , tuna fish , and onion can result in telltale scents . Particularly spicy foods can have a similar effect , as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body . Turbidity Turbid ( cloudy ) urine may be a symptom of a bacterial infection , but can also be caused by crystallization of salts such as calcium phosphate . pH The pH normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2 . In persons with hyperuricosuria , acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys , ureters , or bladder . Urine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home . A diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy , as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH , whilst potassium and organic acids such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables can increase the pH and make it more alkaline . Some drugs also can increase urine pH , including acetazolamide , potassium citrate , and sodium bicarbonate . Cranberries , popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine , have actually been shown not to acidify urine . Drugs that can decrease urine pH include ammonium chloride , chlorothiazide diuretics , and methenamine mandelate . Density Human urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035 . Any deviations may be associated with urinary disorders . Hazards Healthy urine is not toxic . However , it contains compounds eliminated by the body as undesirable , and can be irritating to skin and eyes . After suitable processing it is possible to extract potable water from urine . Possible pathogens in urine It is commonly believed that urine is sterile until it reaches the urethra , where epithelial cells lining the urethra are colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram negative rods and cocci . Current research suggests though that urine is not sterile , even in the bladder . Regardless , subsequent to elimination from the body , urine can acquire strong odors due to bacterial action , and in particular the release of ammonia from the breakdown of urea . Examination for medical purposes Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients . Hermogenes wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases . Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia d.862 AD , mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the Umayyad empire . Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet . A urinalysis is a medical examination of the urine and part of routine examinations . A culture of the urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected . A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis . The color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level . Clear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration . Dark urine is a sign of dehydration . The exception occurs when diuretics or excessive amounts of alcohol or caffeine are consumed , in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated . Uses Source of medications Urine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs ( e.g. , Ureacin , Urecholine , Urowave ) . Urine from postmenopausal women is rich in gonadotropins that can yield follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone for fertility therapy . One such commercial product is Pergonal . Urine from pregnant women contains enough human chorionic gonadotropins for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication . Pregnant mare urine is the source of estrogens , namely Premarin . Urine also contains antibodies , which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of pathogens , including HIV-1 . Agriculture Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen ( mostly as urea ) , as well as significant quantities of dissolved phosphates and potassium , the main macronutrients required by plants . The exact composition of nutrients in urine varies with diet . Undiluted urine can chemically burn the roots of some plants which is why it is usually applied diluted with water , which also reduces odour development during application . When diluted with water ( at a 1:5 ratio for container-grown annual crops with fresh growing medium each season , or a 1:8 ratio for more general use ) , it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer . The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial fertilizers with an equivalent NPK rating . Concentrations of heavy metals such as lead , mercury , and cadmium , commonly found in solid human waste , are much lower in urine . The more general limitations to using urine as fertilizer then depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen ( due to the high ratio of nitrogen ) , and inorganic salts such as sodium chloride , which are also part of the wastes excreted by the renal system . The degree to which these factors impact the effectiveness depends on the term of use , salinity tolerance of the plant , soil composition , addition of other fertilizing compounds , and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation . Urine can also be used safely as a source of complementary nitrogen in carbon-rich compost . Urine typically contains 70 % of the nitrogen and more than half the phosphorus and potassium found in urban waste water flows , while making up less than 1 % of the overall volume . If urine is to be collected for use as a fertiliser in agriculture , then the easiest method of doing so is with sanitation systems that utilise waterless urinals , urine-diverting dry toilets ( UDDTs ) or urine diversion flush toilets . Thus far , source separation , or urine diversion systems have been implemented in South Africa , China , Sweden and many other countries . `` Urine management '' is a relatively new way of closing the cycle of agricultural nutrient flows ( also called ecological sanitation or ecosan ) and - possibly - reducing sewage treatment costs and ecological consequences such as eutrophication resulting from the influx of nutrient rich effluent into aquatic or marine ecosystems . The risks of using urine as a natural source of agricultural fertilizer are generally regarded as negligible or acceptable . It is unclear whether source separation , urine diversion , and on-site urine treatment can be made cost effective ; nor whether required behavioral changes would be regarded as socially acceptable , as the largely successful trials performed in Sweden may not readily generalize to other industrialized societies . In developing countries the use of whole raw sewage ( night soil ) has been common throughout history , yet the application of pure urine to crops is still rare . Cleaning Because urea in urine breaks down into ammonia , urine has been used for the cleaning properties of the ammonia therein . In pre-industrial times urine was used – in the form of lant or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid . Urine was also used for whitening teeth in Ancient Rome . Gunpowder Urine was used before the development of a chemical industry in the manufacture of gunpowder . Urine , a nitrogen source , was used to moisten straw or other organic material , which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year . The resulting salts were washed from the heap with water , which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals , that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder . Survival uses The US Army Field Manual , advises against drinking urine for survival . These guides explain that drinking urine tends to worsen , rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it , and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation , even when there is no other fluid available . In hot weather survival situations where other sources of water are not available , soaking cloth ( a shirt for example ) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body . During World War I the Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases for use during war . After the first German chlorine gas attacks , Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine . It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine . These pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes , although it is now known that chlorine gas reacts with urine to produce toxic fumes ( see chlorine and use of poison gas in World War I ) . The Vickers machine gun , used by the British Army during World War I , required water for cooling when fired so soldiers would resort to urine if water was unavailable . Urban legend states that urine works well against jellyfish stings . This scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the Friends episode `` The One With the Jellyfish '' , an early episode of Survivor , as well as the films The Real Cancun ( 2003 ) , the The Heartbreak Kid ( 2007 ) and the The Paperboy ( 2012 ) . However , at best it is ineffective , and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse . Tanning Tanners soaked animal skins in urine to remove hair fibers—a necessary step in the preparation of leather . Textiles Urine has often been used as a mordant to help prepare textiles , especially wool , for dyeing . In the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides , the process of `` waulking '' ( fulling ) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine , preferably infantile . History Ancient Romans used fermented human urine ( in the form of lant ) to cleanse grease stains from clothing . The emperor Nero instituted a tax ( ) on the urine industry , continued by his successor , Vespasian . The Latin saying Pecunia non olet ( money does n't smell ) is attributed to Vespasian – said to have been his reply to a complaint from his son about the unpleasant nature of the tax . Vespasian 's name is still attached to public urinals in France ( vespasiennes ) , Italy ( vespasiani ) , and Romania ( vespasiene ) . Alchemists spent much time trying to extract gold from urine , which led to discoveries such as white phosphorus by German alchemist Hennig Brand when distilling fermented urine in 1669 . In 1773 the French chemist Hilaire Rouelle discovered the organic compound urea by boiling urine dry . Society and culture Language The onomatopoetic term `` piss '' was the usual word for urination before the 14th century . `` Urinate '' was at first used mostly in medical contexts . `` Piss '' continues to be used , but is considered vulgar ; it is also used in such colloquialisms as `` to piss off '' and `` piss poor '' , and the slang expression `` pissing down '' to mean `` heavy rain '' . Euphemisms and expressions used between parents and children such as `` wee '' , `` pee '' , and many others , arose .

bb_5442--Urine.txt

What metabolic disorder takes its name from Greek 'siphon', referring to excessive urine production?

Octopussy ( 1983 ) is the thirteenth entry in the Eon Productions James Bond film series , and the sixth to star Roger Moore as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . The film 's title is taken from a short story in Ian Fleming 's 1966 short story collection Octopussy and The Living Daylights , although the film 's plot is original . It does , however , include a scene inspired by the Fleming short story `` The Property of a Lady '' ( included in 1967 and later editions of Octopussy and The Living Daylights ) , while the events of the short story `` Octopussy '' form a part of the title character 's background and are recounted by her . Bond is assigned the task of following a general who is stealing jewels and relics from the Soviet government . This leads him to a wealthy Afghan prince , Kamal Khan , and his associate , Octopussy . Bond uncovers a plot to force disarmament in Europe with the use of a nuclear weapon . Octopussy was produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson , and was released in the same year as the non-Eon Bond film Never Say Never Again . The film was written by George MacDonald Fraser , Richard Maibaum , and Michael G. Wilson , and was directed by John Glen . Plot British agent 009 is found dead at the British embassy in East Berlin , dressed as a circus clown and carrying a fake Fabergé egg . MI6 immediately suspects Soviet involvement and , after seeing the real egg appear at an auction in London , sends James Bond to investigate and find out the identity of the seller . At the auction , Bond is able to swap the real egg with the fake and engages in a bidding war with exiled Afghan prince Kamal Khan , forcing Khan to pay £500,000 for the fake egg . Bond follows Khan back to his palace in Rajasthan , India , where Bond defeats Khan in a game of backgammon . Bond escapes with his Indian colleague Vijay , evading Khan 's bodyguard Gobinda 's attempts to kill them both . Bond is seduced by one of Khan 's associates , Magda , and notices that she has a blue-ringed octopus tattoo . Bond permits Magda to steal the real Fabergé egg fitted with a listening device by Q , while Gobinda captures Bond and takes him to Khan 's palace . After Bond escapes from his cell he listens in on the bug in the Fabergé egg and discovers that Khan is working with Orlov , a Soviet general , who is seeking to expand Soviet control into West-Central Europe . After escaping from Khan 's palace , Bond infiltrates a floating palace in Udaipur , India , and there finds its owner , Octopussy , a wealthy business woman and smuggler and an associate of Khan . She also leads the Octopus cult , of which Magda is a member . In Octopussy 's palace , Bond finds out that Orlov has been supplying Khan with priceless Soviet treasures , replacing them with replicas while Khan has been smuggling the real versions into the West via Octopussy 's circus troupe . Orlov is planning to meet Khan at Karl-Marx-Stadt ( Chemnitz ) in East Germany , where the circus is scheduled to perform . After evading Khan 's assassins , who killed Vijay , Bond goes to East Germany . Bond infiltrates the circus and finds that Orlov replaced the Soviet treasures with a nuclear warhead , primed to explode during the circus show at a US Air Force base in West Germany . The explosion would trigger Europe into seeking disarmament in the belief that the bomb was a US one that detonated by accident , leaving its borders open to a Soviet invasion . Bond takes Orlov 's car , drives it along the train tracks and boards the moving circus train . Orlov is shot dead by GDR guards while trying to follow the train across the border into West Germany , who assume that he is attempting to defect to the West . Bond kills the twin knife-throwers Mischka and Grischka in revenge for 009 's death , and , after falling from the train , commandeers a car to get to the Air Force base . At the base , Bond disguises himself as a clown to evade the West German police . He attempts to convince Octopussy that Khan has betrayed her by showing her one of the treasures found in Orlov 's car , which she was to smuggle for him . Octopussy realises that she has been tricked and assists Bond in deactivating the warhead . Bond and Octopussy return to India and launch an assault on Khan 's palace . Khan and Gobinda flee the palace , capturing Octopussy in the process . Bond follows them as they attempt to escape in an aeroplane , clinging to the fuselage and disabling one of its engines . Gobinda falls off the roof of the plane to his death and Bond rescues Octopussy from Khan , the pair jumping onto a nearby cliff moments before the plane crashes into a mountain , killing Khan . While M and General Gogol discuss the return of the jewellery , Bond recuperates with Octopussy aboard her private boat in India . Cast * Roger Moore as James Bond , MI6 agent 007 . * Maud Adams as Octopussy : A jewel smuggler and wealthy businesswoman . * Louis Jourdan as Kamal Khan : An exiled Afghan prince . * Kristina Wayborn as Magda : trusted subordinate and henchman to Octopussy and Khan * Kabir Bedi as Gobinda : Khan 's bodyguard . * Steven Berkoff as General Orlov : A Soviet general who works with Khan to bomb a US airbase . * David Meyer and Anthony Meyer as Mischka and Grischka : Orlov 's knife-throwing henchmen who are performers in Octopussy 's circus * Desmond Llewelyn as Q : MI6 's gadget designer . Llewelyn was disappointed because he was unable to travel to India since his scenes were filmed at Pinewood Studios.Hume , 121 * Robert Brown as M : Head of the British Secret Service . * Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary . * Michaela Clavell as Penelope Smallbone : Moneypenny 's assistant . * Walter Gotell as General Gogol : KGB leader working to stop Orlov . * Vijay Amritraj as Vijay : Bond 's MI6 ally in India . Production The title 'Octopussy ' comes from the Ian Fleming collection of short stories Octopussy and The Living Daylights . Hardly any of the plot of the short story `` Octopussy '' is used , however , with its events simply related by Bond as the family backstory for one of the main characters . The scene at Sotheby 's is , though , drawn from the short story `` The Property of a Lady '' ( included in 1967 and later editions of the collection ) , while Kamal Khan 's reaction following the backgammon game is taken from Fleming 's novel Moonraker . Due to a non-Eon Bond film , Never Say Never Again being released in 1983 , Octopussy saw Roger Moore returning for the role , though he had shown interest in departing from James Bond after For Your Eyes Only . George MacDonald Fraser was hired to work on an early draft of the script and he proposed that the story be set in India . Casting Following For Your Eyes Only , Roger Moore had expressed a desire to retire from the role of James Bond . His original contract had been for three films , which was fulfilled with The Spy Who Loved Me . Subsequent films were negotiated on a film-by-film basis . Given his reluctance to return for Octopussy , the producers engaged in a semi-public quest for the next Bond , with both Timothy Dalton and James Brolin being suggested . However , when the rival Never Say Never Again was announced , the producers re-contracted Moore in the belief that an established actor in the role would fare better against Sean Connery . Brolin 's three screentests were publicly released for the first time as a special feature named James Brolin : The Man Who Would Be Bond in the Octopussy Ultimate Edition DVD . The producers were initially reluctant to feature Maud Adams again because her previous character was killed in The Man with the Golden Gun . Sybil Danning was announced in Prevue magazine in 1982 as being Octopussy , but was never actually cast . Faye Dunaway was deemed too expensive . Barbara Carrera said she turned down the role to take a part in the competing Bond film Never Say Never Again . In the book A Star is Found : Our Adventures Casting Some of Hollywood 's Biggest Movies , casting director Jane Jenkins revealed that the Bond producers told her that they wanted a South Asian actress to play Octopussy , so she looked at the only two Indians in a then predominantly white Hollywood , Persis Khambatta and Susie Coelho . Afterwards , she auditioned white actresses , like Barbara Parkins , who she felt could pass for Indian . Finally , Cubby Broccoli announced to her that they would cast Swedish-born Maud Adams , darken her hair , and change a few lines about how she was raised by an Indian family . A different plotline , with Adams ' British father exposed as a traitor , was used instead . As for Adams , she asked to play Octopussy as a European woman and was granted this , but on the title character 's name , she felt the producers `` went too far '' . Octopussy is also the first film to feature Robert Brown as M , following the death of Bernard Lee in 1981 . Desmond Llewelyn would get an expanded role as Q in this film . One of Bond 's MI6 allies in India was played by Vijay Amritraj , a popular professional tennis player . His character not only shares the same first name with him , but he is also a tennis instructor . He uses a tennis racket as a weapon during the auto rickshaw chase , which is accompanied by the sound of a tennis ball being hit and scenes of onlookers turning their heads left and right as if they are watching a tennis match . Filming The filming of Octopussy began on 10 August 1982 with the scene in which Bond arrives at Checkpoint Charlie . Principal photography was done by Arthur Wooster and his second unit , who later filmed the knife-throwing scenes . Much of the film was shot in Udaipur , India . The Monsoon Palace served as the exterior of Kamal Khan 's palace , while scenes set at Octopussy 's palace were filmed at the Lake Palace and Jag Mandir , and Bond 's hotel was the Shiv Niwas Palace . In England RAF Northolt , RAF Upper Heyford and RAF Oakley were the main locations . The Karl-Marx-Stadt railways scenes were shot at the Nene Valley Railway , near Peterborough , while studio work was performed at Pinewood Studios and the 007 Stage . Most of the crew as well as Roger Moore had diet problems while shooting in India . The pre-title sequence has a scene where Bond flies a nimble homebuilt Bede BD-5J aircraft through an open hangar . Hollywood stunt pilot and aerial co-ordinator J.W . `` Corkey '' Fornof , who piloted the aircraft at more than 150 miles per hour , has said , `` Today , few directors would consider such a stunt . They 'd just whip it up in a computer lab . '' Having collapsible wings , the plane was shown hidden in a horse trailer ; however , a dummy was used for this shot . Filming inside the hangar was achieved by attaching the aircraft to an old Jaguar car with a steel pole , driving with the roof removed . The second unit were able to add enough obstacles including people and objects inside the hangar to hide the car and the pole and make it look as though Moore was flying inside the base . For the explosion after the mini jet escapes , however , a miniature of the hangar was constructed and filmed up close . The exploding pieces of the hangar were in reality only four inches in length . A Mercedes-Benz saloon car was stolen by Bond and used to chase the train – having had his tyres shot out , Bond drove on the rails and entered the train . During filming , the car had intact tyres in one scene so as to avoid any mishap . Stunt co-ordinator Martin Grace suffered an injury while shooting the scene where Bond climbs down the train to catch Octopussy 's attention.Hume , 124 During the second day of filming , Grace – who was Roger Moore 's stunt double for the scene – carried on doing the scene longer than he should have , due to a miscommunication with the second unit director , and the train entered a section of the track which the team had not properly surveyed . Shortly afterwards , a concrete pole fractured Grace 's left leg . The bicyclist seen passing in the middle of a sword fight during the tuk tuk chase sequence was in fact a bystander who passed through the shot , oblivious to the filming ; his intrusion was captured by two cameras and left in the final film . Cameraman Alan Hume 's last scene was that of Octopussy 's followers rowing . That day , little time was left and it was decided to film the sunset at the eleventh hour . The Fabergé egg in the film is real ; it was made in 1897 and is called the Coronation Egg , although the egg in the film is named in the auction catalogue as `` Property of a Lady '' , which is the name of one of Ian Fleming 's short stories released in more recent editions of the collection Octopussy and The Living Daylights . In a bit of diegesis that `` breaks the fourth wall '' , Vijay signals his affiliation to MI6 by playing the James Bond Theme on a recorder while Bond is disembarking from a boat in the harbour near the City Palace . Like his fictional counterpart , the real Vijay had a distinct fear of snakes and found it difficult to hold the basket during filming . Music The score was composed by John Barry , with the lyrics by Tim Rice . The opening theme , `` All Time High '' , is sung by Rita Coolidge and is one of seven musical themes in the James Bond series whose song titles do not refer to the film 's title . `` All Time High '' spent four weeks at number one on the US Billboard Adult Contemporary singles chart and reached number 36 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The soundtrack album was released in 1985 by A & M Records ; the compact disc version of this release was recalled due to a colour printing error which omitted the credits from the album cover , making it a rare collector 's item . In 1997 , the soundtrack was re-issued by Rykodisc , with the original soundtrack music and some film dialogue , on an Enhanced CD version . The 2003 release , by EMI , restored the original soundtrack music without dialogue . Release and reception Octopussys premiere took place at the Odeon Leicester Square on 6 June 1983 in the company of Prince Charles and Diana , Princess of Wales . Within five months of its premiere , it was released in 16 countries worldwide . The film earned slightly less than For Your Eyes Only , but still grossed $ 187,500,000 , with $ 67.8 million in the United States alone . It also performed slightly better than Never Say Never Again , the non-Eon Bond remake of Thunderball which came out a few months later . The film has received mixed reviews . Some reviewers disliked Bond 's clown costume , gorilla outfit and Tarzan yell during a jungle chase . James Berardinelli claimed that the movie was long and confusing , and strongly criticised Steven Berkoff 's performance , describing it as `` offensively bad '' and the worst performance of any Bond villain . By contrast , Louis Jourdan 's `` suave '' performance , the elegance of the film locations in India , and the stunts on aircraft and the train were appreciated . Jeffrey Westhoff at Rotten Tomatoes praised Roger Moore as being `` sterling '' . Neal Gabler and Jeffrey Lyons at the TV-show Sneak Previews praised the film and said `` Octopussy delivers '' and `` The nice thing about Octopussy is that it 's going back-to-basics , less gadgets , more hand-to-hand combat . It 's more of an adventure movie in a more traditional sense and I like it for that '' . Danny Peary wrote that Octopussy `` has slow spots , little humour , and villains who aren ’ t nearly of the calibre of Dr. No , Goldfinger , or Blofeld . Also , the filmmakers make the mistake of demeaning Bond by having him swing through the trees and emitting a Tarzan cry and having him hide in a gorilla suit and later disguise himself as a clown ( whom all the kids at the circus laugh at ) . It ’ s as if they ’ re trying to remind us that everything is tongue-in-cheek , but that makes little sense , for the film is much more serious than typical Bond outings – in fact , it recalls the tone of From Russia with Love . '' Entertainment Weekly chose Octopussy as the third worst Bond film , while Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the eighth worst , and IGN chose it as the seventh worst . The review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 42 % rating . Octopussy was nominated for an Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films Award , with Maud Adams nominated for the Saturn Award in the Best Fantasy Supporting Actress category . Entertainment Weekly ranked her as the best Bond girl of the Roger Moore James Bond films . The film won the Golden Screen Award in Germany and the Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing . Character reviews In 2006 Fandango ranked the character Octopussy as one of the top 10 Bond girls , and described her as `` a powerful , impressive woman . '' Entertainment Weekly ranked her as the 10th worst Bond girl in one list in 2006 , but as the best `` babe '' of the Roger Moore James Bond films in another list in 2008 . Yahoo ! Movies included the character in a 2012 list of the best Bond girl names , commenting , `` This Bond girl moniker was so good , they named the film after her ! ''

sfq_22208--Octopussy.txt

Former tennis player Vijay Armitrage apears in which James Bond film?

High school football is gridiron football played by high school teams in the United States and Canada . It ranks among the most popular interscholastic sports in both countries . It is also popular amongst American High school teams in Europe . High school football began in the late 19th century , concurrent with the start of many college football programs . In the late 19th and early 20th century , many college and high school teams played against one another . Other traditions of high school football such as pep rallies , marching bands , mascots , and homecomings are mirrored in college football . No minor league farm organizations exist in American football . Therefore , high school football is generally considered to be the third tier of American football in the United States , behind college and professional competition . It is the first level of play in which a player will accumulate statistics , which will determine his chances of competing at the college level , and ultimately the professional level if he is talented enough . Rules The National Federation of State High School Associations ( NFHS ) establishes the rules of high school football in the United States . Two states , Texas and Massachusetts , use NCAA playing rules except as shown below . With their common ancestry , the NFHS rules of high school football are largely similar to the college game , though with some important differences : * The four quarters are each 12 minutes in length , as opposed to 15 minutes in all other forms of the game . ( Texas uses the NFHS 12-minute quarter ; Massachusetts uses 11-minute quarters except in playoffs , where they are 10 minutes because of the possibility of playing three games in 10 days . ) * Kickoffs take place at the kicking team 's 40-yard line , as opposed to the 35 in college and the NFL . ( Both Texas and Massachusetts have adopted the NFHS rule . ) * If an attempted field goal is missed it is treated as a punt , normally it would be a touchback and the opposing team will start at the 20-yard line . However , if it does not enter the end zone , it can be downed or returned as a normal punt . * Any kick crossing the goal line is automatically a touchback ; kicks can not be returned out of the end zone . * Pass interference by the defense results in a 15-yard penalty , but no automatic first down . * Pass interference by the offense results in a 15-yard penalty , from the previous spot , and no loss of down . * The defense can not return an extra-point attempt for a score . * Any defensive player that encroaches the neutral zone , regardless of whether the ball was snapped or not , commits a `` dead ball '' foul for encroachment . 5-yard penalty from the previous spot . * Prior to 2013 , offensive pass interference resulted in a 15-yard penalty AND a loss of down . The loss of down provision has been deleted from the rules starting in 2013 . In college and the NFL , offensive pass interference is only 10 yards . * The use of overtime , and the type of overtime used , is up to the individual state association . The NFHS offers a suggested overtime procedure based on the Kansas Playoff , but does not make its provisions mandatory . * Intentional grounding may be called even if the quarterback is outside the tackle box . * The home team must wear dark-colored jerseys , and the visiting team must wear white jerseys . In the NFL , the home team has choice of jersey color , and in the NCAA , the home team may wear white with approval of the visiting team . At least one unique high school rule has been adopted by college football . In 1996 , the overtime rules originally utilized by Kansas high school teams were adopted by the NCAA , although the NCAA has made two major modifications : ( a ) starting each possession from the 25-yard line , and ( b ) starting with the third overtime period , requiring teams to attempt a two-point conversion following a touchdown . Thirty-four states have a mercy rule that comes into play during one-sided games after a prescribed scoring margin is surpassed at halftime or any point thereafter . The type of mercy rule varies from state to state , with many using a `` continuous clock '' after the scoring margin is reached ( wherein , except for specific situations , the clock keeps running on plays where the clock would normally stop ) , while other states end the game once the margin is reached or passed . For example , Texas uses a 45-point mercy rule ( to stop the game ) only in six-man football ; for 11-man football there is no automatic stoppage but the coaches may mutually agree to use a continuous clock . Most Canadian schools use Canadian football rules adapted for the high school game . The exception is British Columbia , which uses NFHS rules as used in the United States . Sanctioning organizations Each state has at least one sanctioning organization for public schools . In many states a separate organization governs interscholastic athletics at most private schools . Each sanctioning body divides its member schools up into anywhere from two to eight size classifications based on the number of students enrolled at a school ( so that schools are assured to compete against other schools of comparable size ) and then each classification is further divided into geographic regions ; the nomenclature and number of divisions vary from state to state . A school 's size classification can change if its enrollment rises or declines over the years . At the smallest schools , particularly in rural communities or smaller private schools , variations on the game using six , eight , or nine players per side instead of the traditional eleven ( or twelve in Canada ) are encountered . Home schooling and high school football Homeschooled students may also participate in high school football through independent or freelance teams , which compete against small private ( or in a few cases , public ) schools . In some states , such as Florida , state law allows homeschooled students to compete in interscholastic athletics for their local school district . Thus , homeschooled Tim Tebow , who was one of the top quarterback prospects in the nation , was able to play for the nationally ranked public Nease High School after he and his mother rented an apartment in that school district . The legislature in the state of Alabama , where Tebow played in a nationally televised loss against Hoover High School , is considering a bill , dubbed the Tim Tebow Bill that would grant similar rights to Alabama 's home schooled students . Season Training for the upcoming season usually starts with weightlifting and other conditioning activities , such as specialized speed and agility training . In some states , this begins a few weeks after the end of the previous season , and in others as late as August . Some states allow seven on seven scrimmages , while others prohibit formal practices during most of the summer . Near the end of the summer in mid-August , double sessions tend to begin and usually last for one week or until school starts . After double sessions end , regular season practices begin with daily sessions each week day afternoon except on game day . Practices are often held on Saturday as well , but almost never on Sunday . The regular season typically consists of ten games in most states ; Kansas is one of the few states which limits teams to nine . Teams in Minnesota usually play eight , while teams in New York typically schedule only seven . The first game of the season is usually in early September , or late August , and the final regular season game is usually in mid to late October , with the end of the season varying by state and climate . Teams may have one or more bye weeks during the regular season . Larger schools ( especially those with successful programs ) can often draw attendances in the thousands , even for regular season games , and in some cases may play the game at a college or professional stadium to accommodate the expected large crowds . The vast majority of high school football games are scheduled on Friday nights , with Thursday evenings and Saturdays being less heavily used . Alternate days are most common in larger school districts where the facilities are used by multiple schools , or where the playing field is not illuminated for nighttime use due to financial limitations , local regulations , or neighborhood opposition against night games . Playoffs and post-season Prior to the 1970s , many states crowned state champions through polls , but playoff systems have become nearly universal . Since then , most states have steadily increased the number of teams eligible to participate and total number of classifications . Though the playoff scheme and number of teams eligible varies , regional champions will compete in elimination playoff rounds – in a tradition borrowed from pro football rather than college – to determine a state champion for each size classification . Only one state , New Jersey , does not crown state public-school champions , only determining regional state champions , but does crown state champions for non-public schools . Massachusetts did not establish a state championship until 2014 , previously crowning only regional champions as in New Jersey . New York 's championships are nominally statewide , but only include upstate New York because the divisions representing New York City and Long Island ( which cover the majority of the state 's population ) abstain from the state tournaments . In many large cities , including Pittsburgh , New York City , and Los Angeles , as well as some very small districts in places such as Western New York , public high schools compete in their own `` city leagues '' and may or may not ever play opponents outside of them . At the other extreme are states such as Illinois , Louisiana and West Virginia , in which regional championships do not exist ; the state 's playoffs are seeded on a statewide basis . The championship games are usually held at a neutral site , usually a college or NFL stadium needed to accommodate the larger crowds . College and professional fields are also usually better equipped to handle inclement weather which is common since state championship games are typically held in late November to the middle of December . In the vast majority of states , all championship games are played at one site , such as the UNI-Dome in Iowa , War Memorial Stadium in Arkansas , Rentschler Field in Connecticut , the Georgia Dome , the DakotaDome in South Dakota , Houchens Stadium in Kentucky , the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in Louisiana , the Edward Jones Dome in Missouri , Lucas Oil Stadium in Indiana , Memorial Stadium in Nebraska , and AT & T Stadium for all Texas 11-man divisions . Alabama previously played all of its championship games at Legion Field , but at the urging of Alabama Crimson Tide coach Nick Saban , the games now alternate between Bryant-Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa and Jordan-Hare Stadium in Auburn . Kansas , Oklahoma , Colorado , Idaho and New Mexico are among the states which play only one championship game per site . The current record for number of state high school football championships is held by Washington High School in Sioux Falls , South Dakota , which is 37 as of 2010 . Some publications and internet sites release nationwide rankings based on polls or mathematical formulas which take into account various factors like average margin of victory and strength of schedule . Schools that finish atop these rankings , particularly the USA Today poll , are sometimes considered to be the national champions . Outside of the playoff tournaments , high school football on Thanksgiving has also historically been popular ; originally the traditional end of the high school football season , Thanksgiving football has become less common because of state tournaments ( it is still widely popular in some states , particularly in New England ) . Because of its overlap with the playoff season , many teams forgo their rights to a playoff tournament to participate in exhibition rivalry games that are held over Thanksgiving weekend . Others will play a rivalry game only when they do not qualify for the playoffs . Many of the state championship tournaments are purposely scheduled to conclude on the weekend of Thanksgiving . Canadian post-season games In Ontario , high schools play in bowl games similar to college football in the United States . The difference though , is that these bowl games are determined by geographical location as opposed to a team 's record . There are five bowl games for five different geographical regions ; the Northern Bowl , the Golden Horseshoe Bowl , the National Capital Bowl , the Western Bowl and the Metro Bowl . For instance , the National Capital Bowl champion is determined through contests between teams from the Bay of Quinte , Simcoe County , Kawartha Lakes , Ottawa Valley and East Ontario . East Ontario or EOSSAA ( Eastern Ontario Secondary School Athletic Association ) champion is determined by the champions from divisions within itself such as KASSAA ( Kingston Area Secondary School Athletic Association ) . The most recent AAA Bowl winners are Sir James Dunn ( winner of the Northern Bowl ) , Notre Dame ( winner of the Golden Horseshoe Bowl ) , St. Peter 's ( winner of the National Capital Bowl ) , Mother Theresa ( winner of the Western Bowl ) and Markham ( winner of the Metro Bowl ) . OFSAA Bowls are divided into two different divisions , A/AA and AAA/AAAA , these are determined by the level of enrollment at a school . A/AA also play Bowl games similar to their AAA/AAAA counterparts , it is therefore possibly for two schools in the same region winning both a A/AA and an AAA/AAAA bowl . Most teams dress both a junior ( grades 9 and 10 ) and senior ( grade 11 , 12 and returning students ) teams . At this time there are no bowl games for junior teams . Other provinces typically divide schools by size and hold playoffs in a similar manner to those contested in US states . High school football in Europe All DoDEA Europe high schools offering football will participate in regular season competition facing their Division opponents . In Division I the top four teams at the end of the season will advance to the semi-final games with the winners of those games advancing to the championship game . Division II will be divided into two conference with the top 4 in each conference participating in quarter-final matchups , with the winners advancing to the semi-finals and the final two teams remaining participating in the championships . The FINAL FOUR Championships will be held in the Kaiserslautern Military Community following the play-offs . Coaching See : Head coach # High school football and : Category : High school football coaches in the United States Junior varsity and freshman teams Many larger high schools also have a separate junior varsity team along with their regular or varsity team . In many cases , these teams – sometimes called the `` sophomore team '' – are made up of sophomores and some freshmen , although some underclassmen will be called up to play varsity , especially to replace injured varsity players or if the underclassman player is exceptionally talented . At larger schools , there often will be a third team for freshmen ( called the freshman team ) or , in unified school districts , a `` modified '' team that includes freshmen and middle school students . Typically , there are no playoffs for junior varsity teams , although many leagues will award a championship title to the team with the best record . Overtime rules are often disregarded , meaning it is possible for games to end in a tie . Junior varsity teams usually have the same schedule as the varsity , with many games played on the same night and at the same site as the varsity game , with the JV game serving as a preliminary contest before the varsity game . Some schools also field a true junior varsity team , which are simply made up of junior and senior players who typically do not see playing time in the varsity game ( except during the final minutes of a one-sided game ) ; some freshmen and sophomores will also play in these games , as will a few juniors who start but either are playing in a different position and/or will be expected to have leadership roles as seniors . In addition to providing opportunities to play in a timed contest , coaches may use these types of contests to see how well underclassmen and juniors play together , since they would replace varsity players lost to graduation ; and to assess the talent and actual game-situation abilities of those players who rarely get to play in varsity games . While sometimes these games will be played on the same night as varsity games , true JV teams often play on a different night and may have a separate schedule composed of conference and non-conference teams . College recruiting In all states , the HS football season will have ended by late December , but the recruiting process by which colleges offer scholarships to high school seniors often starts in the summer , before the school year and football season begin . Physical assessment is an increasingly important part of the recruiting process . Football camps are held at college campuses where a large number of potential recruits can be evaluated simultaneously in various speed and skills drills . Players are evaluated based on running the 40-yard dash , agility shuttle , vertical jump and the number of repetitions on the bench press that they can perform at a given weight . Recently , the SPARQ rating has become a popular composite metric to evaluate overall athleticism . Based on performance over the course of their careers and at camps , colleges will typically take potential recruits on tours of the campus and athletic facilities , or the college may have its team 's coach visit the recruit at home or at school . While all colleges do much of their recruiting from local and in-state high schools , where they can network with HS coaches and booster clubs , the nation 's top college programs can easily recruit athletes from around the country . Some colleges have historically been aided in this regard through their prominence within their religious affiliation , such as Notre Dame or BYU . Students who played for larger high schools , or who competed in nationally televised matches , have a natural advantage towards recruitment , while players who competed at smaller schools – such as most states ' 1A and 2A categories – or in states where high school football is not perceived as being of a high caliber will have their skills and achievements judged versus the lower-caliber opposition they faced and , as such , are rarely considered as top prospects . Occasionally , though , a student at a smaller school will receive a full scholarship ; an extreme example of this is Jehuu Caulcrick , a fullback who received a full scholarship to Michigan State University despite playing high school in Clymer , New York , one of the smallest school districts in the state ( and a state where high school football is not seen as particularly high caliber ) . Caulcrick went on to have a successful college career and several years as a journeyman professional , ending his football career as a member of his hometown team , the Buffalo Bills . Though it is an expensive project , high school football players often increase their visibility by sending out video highlights of their playing skills to college recruiters . If a student receives no scholarship offers , they may still attempt to make a college team by becoming a `` walk on '' and paying their own tuition in the hopes that they can make the team and possibly receive a scholarship . Others will try out for a non-scholarship team , such as a Division III school , or a two-year junior college team . The latter option is also popular with students with academic or behavioral issues that would prevent them from playing at a four-year college . While the vast majority of high school football players will not even be considered for a scholarship offer , players who receive nationwide attention will invariably receive scholarship offers from more than one school and will often hold a press conference to announce their final selection . `` All Star '' exhibition games like the U.S. Army All-American Bowl , which is televised nationally by NBC , give the nation 's top prospects the opportunity to publicly announce their college selection or to provide one last opportunity to showcase their talents to college recruiters . By National Signing Day , the first Wednesday in February , most top recruits will have already signed non-binding letters of intent or verbally committed with colleges . Rivalries See : List of high school football rivalries ( 100 years+ ) and List of high school football rivalries ( less than 100 years old ) All-star games See : : Category : High school football games in the United States Awards See : : Category : High school football trophies and awards in the United States Mascots As with college and professional football teams , most high school teams in every state have a mascot or team name . Many are generic allusions conveying an image sense of strength , speed , and/or bravery . Thus , pluralized team names such as Tigers , Eagles , Wildcats , Trojans , and Warriors are fairly common throughout the country . Other team names , however , have a historical connection to the town or area where the high school or school district is located , such as a locally important industry . For example , Yuma High School in Yuma , Arizona is known as the `` Criminals '' due to the school 's historic connection to the infamous Yuma Territorial Prison . Many new schools , or schools that had merged with other schools , have allowed their students to `` vote '' on a new school mascot or team nickname . Coverage by broadcast media Because of high school football 's mostly limited regional appeal , and because most games take place during prime time ( albeit during the Friday night death slot ) , television exposure of high school football on both a local and national basis tends to be limited to championship games only , or for the regular season to the lower-tier stations in a market such as a MyNetworkTV affiliate or independent television station where no critical programming would be pre-empted . Local public access cable television and local radio stations often air regular season contests , and in some cases , the school 's own radio station ( or a nearby college ) broadcasts the game using student announcers . One such example is San Diego 's Prep Pigskin Report . High school football is often an integral part of the modern full service radio format , which centers on local information ; radio 's prime times are traditionally earlier in the day , and there is far less risk of preemption , since many stations would otherwise be automated or off the air during the times high school football games are played . There has also been a marked increase in recent years of web-based media covering high school sporting events . Examples include [ http : //www.midamericabroadcasting.com Mid America Broadcasting ] in Indiana , [ http : //www.champssportsnetwork.com/ Champs Sports Network ] and [ http : //www.msasportsnetwork.com/ MSA Sports Network ] in Western Pennsylvania , [ http : //www.mnsportsnetwork.com MSBN ] in Minnesota , and [ http : //www.bsports.org BSports.org ] in Washington . In many television markets , local stations will air 30 or 60-minute 'scoreboard ' shows following their late Friday newscast with scores and highlights from games in their coverage area . Many national media outlets have been producing national high school football rankings , including High School Football America , which has been releasing its Top 25 since 2011 . Despite increased national media attention , some states restrict the broadcast of high school games . One example is the University Interscholastic League , which governs public school sports in Texas . The UIL has a long-standing ban on television broadcasting of high school football games on Friday nights , believing that doing so could hurt ticket sales ( radio broadcasts are allowed , though ) . Because of this , several games that have been broadcast on ESPN and Fox Sports Net in recent years have had to be played on either Thursday night or on Saturday to avoid the UIL 's ban . The Sports Broadcasting Act of 1961 and Public Law 89-800 , which govern the antitrust exemptions given to the National Football League , prohibit the broadcasting of NFL games within 75 miles of any high school football game on Friday nights between September and early December . Because most populated areas of the United States have at least one high school football game within a 75-mile radius , and because broadcasting is an integral part of the NFL 's business model ( roughly half of the league 's revenue comes from television contracts ) , this effectively prohibits the playing of NFL games in competition with high school football . ( These rules do not apply during preseason , when Friday night games are common , nor does it apply at the end of the season , though the only time regular season games are played on Friday in the NFL is on Christmas . ) Only recently have national sports television channels fully capitalized on this rule ; since 2005 , the ESPN family of networks ( usually the sub-networks ESPN2 , ESPNU and online broadcaster ESPN3 , although the main channel also shows occasional games ) has aired regular season matchups between nationally ranked teams under the High School Showcase banner . Fox Sports 1 also included high school football in its lineup when it launched in 2013 . Portrayals in movies , television , and literature Hollywood portrayals of high school football , whether comedies or dramas , often portray the game at the center of a small town 's existence and the focus of its attention . Also see Jock ( subculture ) * All the Right Moves – A 1983 film about a western Pennsylvania football player desperate to earn the scholarship that would enable him to escape his economically depressed town . * American Dreams – `` JJ '' Pryor is a star high school football running back in the show , and many of the early episodes centered on his games . * Quarterback Princess – starring Helen Hunt . A movie based on a small town girl who 's family moved into a football town and becomes the local high school 's starting quarterback . * The Best of Times – A 1986 film based on an actual rivalry and game between small town Taft High School Rockets ( Wildcats ) and the larger and highly successful Bakersfield High School Tigers ( Drillers ) who actually have the California high school record for most wins , most section titles , and most State titles . * Bleachers – A novel published in 2003 . It tells of the fictitious Messina High School football team and its coach , Eddie Rake . Rake with 418 wins , 61 losses , and 13 state championships under his belt is on his deathbed , and many of his former players return to Messina to say goodbye . * The Blind Side : Evolution of a Game – A 2006 book by Michael Lewis , partly on the evolution of the offensive left tackle position and partly on the life of

qz_4992--High_school_football.txt

1986 film starring Goldie Hawn as a High School football coach.

What 's Love Got to Do with It is a 1993 American biographical film directed by Brian Gibson , loosely based on the life of Tina Turner . It stars Angela Bassett as Tina Turner and Laurence Fishburne as Ike Turner . The screenplay was adapted by Kate Lanier from the book I , Tina written by Tina Turner and Kurt Loder . Both Ike and Tina Turner assigned rights to Lanier for their lives to be dramatized in the film . The film 's soundtrack featured the hit song `` I Do n't Wan na Fight '' , which went to number one in seven countries . In the United States , the film grossed almost $ 40 million and around $ 20 million in rentals . In the United Kingdom , it grossed nearly £10 million . Storyline Born and raised in the small Tennessee town of Nutbush , Anna Mae Bullock ( Tina 's birth name ) grows up in an unhappy family , with her parents later leaving and abandoning her and taking only her sister . Following her grandmother 's death , she relocates to St. Louis , reuniting with her mother and close sister Alline . Anna Mae pursues a chance to be a professional singer after seeing charismatic bandleader Ike Turner perform one night . Later she wins her spot in Turner 's band after singing onstage and he begins mentoring her . In time , an unexpected romance develops between the two after she moves into Ike 's home . Shortly afterwards , they marry and begin having musical success together as Ike and Tina Turner . The marriage quickly turns violent when Ike starts physically dominating her , leaving her no chance to escape . In public , Tina rises from local St. Louis phenomenon into an R & B superstar with Ike growing increasingly jealous of the attention given to her . Ike turns to drugs and his abusive behavior worsens . As Tina seeks solace in her chaotic life , a friend turns her on to Buddhism , eventually convincing her that reciting the Lotus Sutra and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo will help `` change her life '' . Tina grows increasingly confident afterwards and in a final fight with Ike finally musters the courage to defend herself , eventually leaving Ike after they arrive at a hotel . Winning the right to retain her stage name after their divorce , Tina continues working to pay bills . She gets a break after meeting Roger Davies , who eventually helps her realize her dreams of rock stardom . Despite Ike 's attempts to win her back , Tina eventually prevails and finds solo success , accomplishing her dreams without Ike . Cast * Angela Bassett as Anna Mae Bullock / Tina Turner * * Rae'Ven Larrymore Kelly as Anna Mae Bullock ( Young ) * Cora Lee Day as Grandma Georgiana * Khandi Alexander as Darlene * Laurence Fishburne as Ike Turner * Jenifer Lewis as Zelma Currie Bullock , Tina 's mother * Phyllis Yvonne Stickney as Alline Bullock * Penny Johnson Jerald as Lorraine Turner * Vanessa Bell Calloway as Jackie * Chi McBride as Fross * Sherman Augustus as Reggie * Terrence Riggins as Spider * Bo Kane as Dance Show Host * Terrence Evans as Bus Driver * Rob LaBelle as Phil Spector * James Reyne as Roger Davies * Richard T. Jones as Ike Turner , Jr . * Shavar Ross as Michael Turner * Damon Hines as Ronnie Turner * Suli McCulloghh as Craig Turner Differences from noted events Though the film took its story from Tina Turner 's autobiography , I , Tina , it was determined to be only loosely based on the book , meaning certain events in the film were `` fictionalized for dramatic purposes '' . Examples of the fictionalized scenes include : * In the film , Tina 's constant friend , `` Jackie '' ( played by Vanessa Bell Calloway ) , was a member of The Ikettes who left the Ike and Tina Turner Revue after a violent blowup with Ike in a roadside restaurant . In actuality , this character was completely fabricated for dramatic purposes . This fictionalized character also visits Tina in the hospital after her attempted suicide and later introduces Tina to Buddhism , chanting `` Nam Myoho Renge Kyo '' in front of the `` Gohonzon '' . Tina Turner never mentions a friend named Jackie in her autobiography ; this single character apparently represents an amalgamation of friends from Turner 's past , including members of the Ikettes and friends from the band 's entourage . * Like Vanessa Bell Calloway 's character `` Jackie '' , there was no `` Fross '' , `` Reggie '' , or `` Spider '' in Ike and Tina 's private circle . * When Anna Mae Bullock sees Ike Turner and his Kings of Rhythm perform , Ike is shown as the front man . The real-life Ike Turner had stage fright , and though he was a band leader and organizer , he often had other performers , particularly male singers , fronting the band . * The original vocalist behind `` Rocket 88 '' , sung by Laurence Fishburne as Ike in the movie , was Jackie Brenston . * During Anna Mae 's first performance with Ike and the Kings of Rhythm , Ike is shown playing guitar . But both Tina and Ike have stated Tina sang after being given a microphone by the band 's drummer , while Ike played piano during an intermission , rather than during a live performance as illustrated in the film , though she did later front the band the night she began singing with them . * A reenactment shows Tina recording her first song , called `` Tina 's Wish '' , on the film 's soundtrack . However , this song is actually a re-recording Tina made of an old Ike and Tina song , `` Make Me Over '' , from the Ike & Tina album , Nutbush City Limits ( 1973 ) . Tina 's first recording ( as `` Little Ann '' ) was actually singing background on one of Ike 's songs , `` Box Top '' . * During the scene where Ike and Tina are scheduled to perform at the Apollo Theater in 1960 , the bill lists Martha and the Vandellas and Otis Redding as fellow headliners . In reality , Martha and the Vandellas had n't formed yet , several of them were performing in another different vocal group called the Del-Phis , while Redding had yet to record his first single and was fronting several bands . * The film shows Tina giving birth to Ike 's son , named Craig , but in reality , Craig Turner was Tina 's child with another man , Raymond Hill . Ike and Tina did not have a child until 1960 , when their only child , Ronnie Turner , was born . Tina was pregnant with Ike 's child in 1968 but allegedly had an abortion . * While Tina mentions that there were accounts of Ike 's abusing her , Ike never pushed cake in Tina 's face leading to a food fight in a diner . That scene in the film dramatizes an incident Tina Turner accounted in her autobiography , which describes that while waiting for food , a waitress gave her cake . Though Tina said she had n't ordered it , Ike told her to eat it . * In one scene , Tina calls her mother and tells her she 's heading over to her house in St. Louis , to hide from Ike . After Ike locates Tina , he berates her for trying to escape and makes it appear as if Tina 's mother had informed Ike where Tina was . However , in her memoir , Tina said Ike knew where to seek her out . * When Ike and Tina are performing `` Proud Mary '' in the film , the timeline has it around 1968 , with them opening for The Rolling Stones . However , Creedence Clearwater Revival 's original version of `` Proud Mary '' was not released until January 1969 , and Ike and Tina did not include the song in their act until 1970 . Also , Ike and Tina opened for the Stones twice , in 1966 on their UK tour and in 1969 on their US tour . * The film alleges that Ike and Tina did not have a hit after `` A Fool in Love '' was released . However , in actuality , the duo had several hit singles between the release of `` A Fool in Love '' and `` River Deep - Mountain High '' , including `` It 's Gon na Work Out Fine '' , `` I Idolize You '' , `` Tra La La '' , and `` Poor Fool '' . * The film 's most infamous scene showcases `` Ike '' apparently raping `` Tina '' , after beating her up in the studio . Both Turners denied the rape scene reenacted in the film , but Tina writes in her memoirs that after Ike would physically assault her , he would ask for sex , stating Ike `` instilled fear '' in her and it `` felt like rape '' . * In a 1974 scene , according to the film 's timeline , `` Tina '' is shown in a drugged state , prompting the Ikettes to notice that she had attempted suicide . However , in real life , the incident occurred in 1968 , before a show in Los Angeles , shortly after Tina survived another bitter fight with Ike . * When Tina performs at the Ritz , the film has the timeline at 1983 , and the host announces her arrival as her `` debut solo performance '' . However , Tina had first performed at that theater in 1981 . Also inaccurate was the film 's portrayal of Ike 's visit to the theater , where he failed at silencing Tina with his gun . In truth , Ike was never at the Ritz ; he had not been seen in public for years following his and Tina 's divorce in 1978 and had remained in Los Angeles . The film 's loose depictions do , however , capture the reality that Ike made multiple dangerous attempts to get Tina back following her divorce suit , in which he did threaten bodily harm , and Tina bought a gun to protect herself from Ike and his friends at the time . * Though the film depicts Tina as having addressed the courtroom to request being allowed to retain her stage name , in an interview with Oprah Winfrey in 1996 , Tina denies speaking up but said her lawyer had brought it up in court , after Tina advised her lawyer to drop a potential financial support suit against Ike as their divorce case dragged on for a year . Awards and nominations Bassett won a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Comedy/Musical and an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Motion Picture . Laurence Fishburne was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role and Bassett was nominated for Best Actress in a Leading Role . The film won an American Choreography Award for one of its dance sequences . * Academy Awards * * Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress ( Angela Bassett ) * * Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actor ( Laurence Fishburne ) * Golden Globes * * Won — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy ( Angela Bassett ) Production Halle Berry , Robin Givens , Pam Grier , Whitney Houston , Janet Jackson , and Vanessa L. Williams and were all considered for the role of Tina Turner . Whitney Houston who was actually offered/received the role , but had to decline due to imminent maternity . Jenifer Lewis , who plays Tina 's mother in this film , originally auditioned to play Tina Turner , as well ; Lewis is only one year older than Bassett . Laurence Fishburne was offered the role of Ike Turner five times and turned it down each time . When he found out that Angela Bassett had been cast as Tina Turner , he changed his mind . All the Ike and Tina Turner songs used in the film were newly re-recorded versions featuring Tina Turner covering her own songs . On `` Proud Mary '' , Laurence Fishburne sings Ike Turner 's parts . For Tina Turner 's solo recordings , the original masters were used , including the Phil Spector-produced `` River Deep - Mountain High '' . In his autobiography Taking Back My Name , Ike Turner claims the movie damaged his reputation immensely and attacks many of the scenes for being either not strictly accurate or completely fabricated . Bassett was injured while filming the first spousal abuse sequence . She fell off the back of a high-rise sofa , put her hands out to reduce the impact , and suffered a hairline fracture of her right hand . She only tried the stunt fall once , and footage leading up to the mishap appears in the film . Actress Vanessa Bell Calloway , who plays the fictional character Jackie , was wary of chanting the Buddhist words because of her strong Christian faith . Director Brian Gibson allowed her to form the words with her lips silently during filming and added the words with a voice double in post-production . She also appeared alongside Tina in the music video of `` What 's Love Got to Do with It '' . Reception The movie received critical acclaim . It currently holds a 96 % `` fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes , based on 49 reviews with the consensus : `` With a fascinating real-life story and powerhouse performances from Angela Bassett and Laurence Fishburne , What 's Love Got to Do with It is a ca n't miss biopic . '' Ike Turner complained that Fishburne 's portrayal of him was inaccurate . Phil Spector slammed the movie ( and the book ) as a `` piece of trash '' , which `` demonized and vilified Ike '' .

qw_2883--What's_Love_Got_to_Do_with_It_(film).txt

"Who divorced her husband in 1978 after sixteen years of marriage, accusing him of years of severe spousal abuse and rampant drug addiction in her autobiography ""I, Tina"" (which was later adapted for the film ""What's Love Got to Do with It""), and left semi-retirement in 2008 to embark on her ""Tina!: 50th Anniversary Tour""?"

Scandinavia is a historical and cultural region in Northern Europe characterized by a common ethno-cultural North Germanic heritage and mutually intelligible North Germanic languages . The term Scandinavia always includes the mainlands of the three kingdoms of Denmark , Norway , and Sweden . Norwegian dependencies , including Svalbard and Jan Mayen , are usually not seen as a part of Scandinavia , nor is Danish Greenland . However , the Danish Faroe Islands are sometimes included , as sometimes are Iceland and Finland , because of their historical association with the Scandinavian countries and the Scandinavian peoples and languages . This looser definition almost equates to that of the Nordic countries . In Nordic languages , only mainland Denmark , Norway and Sweden , are commonly included in the definition . In English usage , Scandinavia sometimes refers to the geographical area , also known as the Scandinavian Peninsula . The name Scandinavia originally referred vaguely to the formerly Danish , now Swedish , region Scania . The terms Scandinavia and Scandinavian entered usage in the late 18th century as terms for Denmark , Norway and Sweden , their Germanic majority peoples and associated language and culture , the term being introduced by the early linguistic and cultural Scandinavist movement . The majority of the population of Scandinavia are descended from several ( North ) Germanic tribes who originally inhabited the southern part of Scandinavia , and spoke a Germanic language that evolved into Old Norse . Icelanders and the Faroese are to a significant extent descended from the Norse , and are therefore often seen as Scandinavian . Finland is mainly populated by Finns , with a significant minority of Swedish speakers . A small minority of Sami people live in the extreme north of Scandinavia . The Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish languages form a dialect continuum and are known as the Scandinavian languages—all of which are considered mutually intelligible with one another . Faroese and Icelandic , sometimes referred to as insular Scandinavian languages , are intelligible in continental Scandinavian languages only to a limited extent . Finnish and Meänkieli are closely related to each other and more distantly to the Sami languages , but are entirely unrelated to the Scandinavian languages . Apart from these , German , Yiddish and Romani are recognized minority languages in Scandinavia . The southern and by far most populous regions of Scandinavia have a temperate climate . Scandinavia extends north of the Arctic Circle , but has relatively mild weather for its latitude due to the Gulf Stream . Much of the Scandinavian mountains have an alpine tundra climate . There are many lakes and moraines , legacies of the last glacial period , which ended about ten millennia ago . Terminology and use Scandinavia usually refers to Denmark , Norway , and Sweden . Some sources argue for the inclusion of the Faroe Islands , Finland and Iceland , though that broader region is usually known by the countries concerned as Norden ( Finnish Pohjoismaat , Icelandic Norðurlöndin , Faroese Norðurlond ) , or the Nordic countries . The use of the name Scandinavia as a convenient general term for the three kingdoms of Denmark , Norway and Sweden is fairly recent ; according to some historians , it was adopted and introduced in the eighteenth century , at a time when the ideas about a common heritage started to appear and develop into early literary and linguistic Scandinavism . Before this time , the term Scandinavia was familiar mainly to classical scholars through Pliny the Elder 's writings , and was used vaguely for Scania and the southern region of the peninsula . As a political term , `` Scandinavia '' was first used by students agitating for Pan-Scandinavianism in the 1830s . The popular usage of the term in Sweden , Denmark and Norway as a unifying concept became established in the nineteenth century through poems such as Hans Christian Andersen 's `` I am a Scandinavian '' of 1839 . After a visit to Sweden , Andersen became a supporter of early political Scandinavism . In a letter describing the poem to a friend , he wrote : `` All at once I understood how related the Swedes , the Danes and the Norwegians are , and with this feeling I wrote the poem immediately after my return : 'We are one people , we are called Scandinavians ! ' '' Finland The clearest example of the use of the term `` Scandinavia '' as a political and societal construct is the unique position of Finland , based largely on the fact that most of modern-day Finland was part of the Swedish kingdom for hundreds of years , thus to much of the world associating Finland with all of Scandinavia . But the creation of a Finnish identity is unique in the region in that it was formed in relation to two different imperial models , the Swedish and the Russian , as described by the University of Jyväskylä based editorial board of the Finnish journal Yearbook of Political Thought and Conceptual History ; The term is often defined according to the conventions of the cultures that lay claim to the term in their own use . When a speaker wants to explicitly include Finland alongside Scandinavia-proper , the geographic terms Fenno-Scandinavia or Fennoscandia are sometimes used in English , although these terms are hardly if at all used within Scandinavia . More precisely , and subject to no dispute , is that Finland is included in the broader term 'Nordic countries ' . Societal and tourism promotional organizations Various promotional agencies of the Nordic countries in the United States ( such as The American-Scandinavian Foundation , established in 1910 by the Danish American industrialist Niels Poulsen ) serve to promote market and tourism interests in the region . Today , the five Nordic heads of state act as the organization 's patrons and according to the official statement by the organization , its mission is `` to promote the Nordic region as a whole while increasing the visibility of Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway and Sweden in New York City and the United States . '' The official tourist boards of Scandinavia sometimes cooperate under one umbrella , such as the Scandinavian Tourist Board . The cooperation was introduced for the Asian market in 1986 , when the Swedish national tourist board joined the Danish national tourist board to coordinate intergovernmental promotion of the two countries . Norway 's government entered one year later . All five Nordic governments participate in the joint promotional efforts in the United States through the Scandinavian Tourist Board of North America . Use of Nordic countries vs. Scandinavia While the term Scandinavia is commonly used for Denmark , Norway and Sweden , the term the Nordic countries is used unambiguously for Denmark , Norway , Sweden , Finland , and Iceland , including their associated territories ( Greenland , the Faroe Islands , and the Åland Islands ) . Scandinavia can thus be considered a subset of the Nordic countries . Furthermore , the term Fennoscandia refers to Scandinavia , Finland and Karelia , excluding Denmark and overseas territories ; however , the usage of this term is restricted to geology , when speaking of the Fennoscandian Shield ( Baltic Shield ) . In addition to the mainland Scandinavian countries of : * ( Constitutional monarchy with a Parliamentary system ) * ( Constitutional monarchy with a Parliamentary system , independent since 1905 ) * ( Ceremonial monarchy with a Parliamentary system ) the Nordic countries also consist of : * ( Parliamentary republic , independent since 1917 ) * ( Parliamentary republic , independent since 1944 ) * ( an autonomous province of Finland since 1920 ) * ( an autonomous country within the Danish Realm , self-governed since 1948 ) * ( an autonomous country within the Danish Realm , self-governed since 1979 ) * , which is under Norwegian sovereignty , is not considered part of Scandinavia as a cultural-historical region ; but as a part of the Kingdom of Norway ( since 1925 ) , it is part of the Nordic countries ( Norden ) . Estonia has applied for membership in the Nordic Council , referring to its cultural heritage and close linguistic links to Finland , and historical connections to both Denmark and Sweden , although normally Estonia is regarded as one of the Baltic countries . It is similar to the situation of Finland around the 1920s as Finland was considered to be one of the Baltic States as well , as it too had emerged from Russian domination along with the other three countries under similar circumstances . While Finnish and Estonian are Finnic languages , Latvian and Lithuanian are Baltic languages . It should be noted that whereas the term `` Scandinavia '' is relatively straightforward as traditionally relating to the three kingdoms of Denmark , Norway and Sweden there exists some ambiguity as regards the ethnic aspect of the concept in the modern era . Traditionally , the term refers specifically to the majority peoples of Denmark , Norway and Sweden , their states , their Germanic languages and their culture . In the modern era , the term will often include minority peoples such as the Sami and Meänkieli speakers in a political and to some extent cultural sense , as they are citizens of Scandinavian countries and speak Scandinavian languages either as their first or second language . However , Scandinavian is still also seen as an ethnic term for the Germanic majority peoples of Scandinavia , and as such , the inclusion of Sami and Finnish speakers can be seen as controversial within these groups . Etymology Scandinavia and Scania ( Skåne , the southernmost province of Sweden ) are considered to have the same etymology . Both terms are thought to go back to the Proto-Germanic compound * Skaðin-awjō , which appears later in Old English as Scedenig and in Old Norse as Skáney . The earliest identified source for the name Scandinavia is Pliny the Elder 's Natural History , dated to the first century A.D . Various references to the region can also be found in Pytheas , Pomponius Mela , Tacitus , Ptolemy , Procopius and Jordanes , usually in the form of Scandza . It is believed that the name used by Pliny may be of West Germanic origin , originally denoting Scania . According to some scholars , the Germanic stem can be reconstructed as * Skaðan- meaning `` danger '' or `` damage '' ( English scathing , German Schaden , Dutch schade ) . The second segment of the name has been reconstructed as * awjō , meaning `` land on the water '' or `` island '' . The name Scandinavia would then mean `` dangerous island '' , which is considered to refer to the treacherous sandbanks surrounding Scania . Skanör in Scania , with its long Falsterbo reef , has the same stem ( skan ) combined with -ör , which means `` sandbanks '' . In the reconstructed Germanic root * Skaðin-awjō ( the edh represented in Latin by t or d ) , the first segment is sometimes considered more uncertain than the second segment . The American Heritage Dictionary derives the second segment from Proto-Indo-European * akwa- , `` water '' , in the sense of `` watery land '' . The Old Norse goddess name Skaði , along with Sca ( n ) dinavia and Skáney , may be related to Gothic skadus , Old English sceadu , Old Saxon scado , and Old High German scato ( meaning `` shadow '' ) . Scholar John McKinnell comments that this etymology suggests that the goddess Skaði may have once been a personification of the geographical region of Scandinavia or associated with the underworld . Pliny the Elder 's descriptions Pliny 's descriptions of Scatinavia and surrounding areas are not always easy to decipher . Writing in the capacity of a Roman admiral , he introduces the northern region by declaring to his Roman readers that there are 23 islands `` Romanis armis cognitae '' ( `` known to Roman arms '' ) in this area . According to Pliny , the `` clarissima '' ( `` most famous '' ) of the region 's islands is Scatinavia , of unknown size . There live the Hilleviones . The belief that Scandinavia was an island became widespread among classical authors during the first century and dominated descriptions of Scandinavia in classical texts during the centuries that followed . Pliny begins his description of the route to Scatinavia by referring to the mountain of Saevo ( mons Saevo ibi ) , the Codanus Bay ( Codanus sinus ) and the Cimbrian promontory . The geographical features have been identified in various ways ; by some scholars `` Saevo '' is thought to be the mountainous Norwegian coast at the entrance to Skagerrak and the Cimbrian peninsula is thought to be Skagen , the north tip of Jutland , Denmark . As described , Saevo and Scatinavia can also be the same place . Pliny mentions Scandinavia one more time : in Book VIII he says that the animal called achlis ( given in the accusative , achlin , which is not Latin ) , was born on the island of Scandinavia . The animal grazes , has a big upper lip and some mythical attributes . The name `` Scandia '' , later used as a synonym for Scandinavia , also appears in Pliny 's Naturalis Historia , but is used for a group of Northern European islands which he locates north of Britannia . `` Scandia '' thus does not appear to be denoting the island Scadinavia in Pliny 's text . The idea that `` Scadinavia '' may have been one of the `` Scandiae '' islands was instead introduced by Ptolemy ( c. 90 – c. 168 AD ) , a mathematician , geographer and astrologer of Roman Egypt . He used the name `` Skandia '' for the biggest , most easterly of the three `` Scandiai '' islands , which according to him were all located east of Jutland . Neither Pliny 's nor Ptolemy 's lists of Scandinavian tribes include the Suiones mentioned by Tacitus . Some early Swedish scholars of the Swedish Hyperborean school and of the 19th-century romantic nationalism period proceeded to synthesize the different versions by inserting references to the Suiones , arguing that they must have been referred to in the original texts and obscured over time by spelling mistakes or various alterations . Germanic reconstruction The Latin names in Pliny 's text gave rise to different forms in medieval Germanic texts . In Jordanes ' history of the Goths ( AD 551 ) the form Scandza is the name used for their original home , separated by sea from the land of Europe ( chapter 1 , 4 ) . Where Jordanes meant to locate this quasi-legendary island is still a hotly debated issue , both in scholarly discussions and in the nationalistic discourse of various European countries . The form Scadinavia as the original home of the Langobards appears in Paulus Diaconus ' Historia Langobardorum ; in other versions of Historia Langobardorum appear the forms Scadan , Scandanan , Scadanan and Scatenauge . Frankish sources used Sconaowe and Aethelweard , an Anglo-Saxon historian , used Scani . In Beowulf , the forms Scedenige and Scedeland are used , while the Alfredian translation of Orosius and Wulfstan 's travel accounts used the Old English Sconeg . Sami etymology The earliest Sami yoik texts written down refer to the world as Skadesi-suolo ( north-Sami ) and Skađsuâl ( east-Sami ) , meaning `` Skaði 's island '' ( Svennung 1963 ) . Svennung considers the Sami name to have been introduced as a loan word from the North Germanic languages ; `` Skaði '' is the giant stepmother of Freyr and Freyja in Norse mythology . It has been suggested that Skaði to some extent is modeled on a Sami woman . The name for Skade 's father Thjazi is known in Sami as Čáhci , `` the waterman '' , and her son with Odin , Saeming , can be interpreted as a descendent of Saam the Sami population ( Mundel 2000 ) , ( Steinsland 1991 ) . Older joik texts give evidence of the old Sami belief about living on an island and state that the wolf is known as suolu gievra , meaning `` the strong one on the island . '' The Sami place name Sulliidčielbma means `` the island 's threshold '' and Suoločielgi means `` the island 's back . '' In recent substrate studies , Sami linguists have examined the initial cluster sk- in words used in Sami and concluded that sk- is a phonotactic structure of alien origin . Other etymologies Another possibility is that all or part of the segments of the name came from the Mesolithic people inhabiting the region . In modernity , Scandinavia is a peninsula , but between approximately 10,300 and 9,500 years ago , the southern part of Scandinavia was an island separated from the northern peninsula , with water exiting the Baltic Sea through the area where Stockholm is now located . Some Basque scholars have presented the idea that the segment sk that appears in * Skaðinawjō is connected to the name for the Euzko peoples , akin to Basques , that populated Paleolithic Europe . According to some of these intellects , Scandinavian people share particular genetic markers with the Basque people . Geography The geography of Scandinavia is extremely varied . Notable are the Norwegian fjords , the Scandinavian Mountains , the flat , low areas in Denmark , and the archipelagos of Sweden and Norway . Sweden has many lakes and moraines , legacies of the ice age . The climate varies from north to south and from west to east ; a marine west coast climate ( Cfb ) typical of western Europe dominates in Denmark , southernmost part of Sweden and along the west coast of Norway reaching north to 65°N , with orographic lift giving more mm/year precipitation ( Southwesterly winds further warmed by foehn wind can give warm temperatures in narrow Norwegian fjords in winter ; Tafjord has recorded 17.9 °C in January and Sunndal 18.9 °C in February . Languages in Scandinavia Two language groups have coexisted on the Scandinavian peninsula since prehistory—the North Germanic languages ( Scandinavian languages ) and the Sami languages . Due to later migrations , Finnish , Yiddish and Romani have also been spoken for over a hundred years . Denmark also has a minority of German-speakers . More recent migrations has added even more languages . Apart from Sami and the languages of minority groups speaking a variant of the majority language of a neighboring state , the following minority languages in Scandinavia are protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages : Yiddish , Romani Chib , Romanes and Romani . North Germanic languages The North Germanic languages of Scandinavia are traditionally divided into an East Scandinavian branch ( Danish and Swedish ) and a West Scandinavian branch ( Norwegian , Icelandic , and Faroese ) , but because of changes appearing in the languages since 1600 , the East Scandinavian and West Scandinavian branches are now usually reconfigured into Insular Scandinavian ( ö-nordisk/øy-nordisk ) featuring Icelandic and Faroese and Continental Scandinavian ( Skandinavisk ) , comprising Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . The modern division is based on the degree of mutual comprehensibility between the languages in the two branches . The populations of the Scandinavian countries , with a Scandinavian mother tongue , can—at least with some training—understand each other 's standard languages as they appear in print and are heard on radio and television . The reason Danish , Swedish and the two official written versions of Norwegian ( Nynorsk and Bokmål ) are traditionally viewed as different languages , rather than dialects of one common language , is that each is a well established standard language in its respective country . Danish , Swedish and Norwegian have , since medieval times , been influenced to varying degrees by Middle Low German and standard German . A substantial amount of that influence was a by-product of the economic activity generated by the Hanseatic League . Norwegians are accustomed to variation , and may perceive Danish and Swedish only as slightly more distant dialects . This is because they have two official written standards , in addition to the habit of strongly holding on to local dialects . The people of Stockholm , Sweden and Copenhagen , Denmark , have the greatest difficulty in understanding other Scandinavian languages . In the Faroe Islands and Iceland , learning Danish is mandatory . This causes Faroese people as well as Icelandic people to become bilingual in two very distinct North Germanic languages , making it relatively easy for them to understand the other two Mainland Scandinavian languages . Although Iceland was under the political control of Denmark until a much later date ( 1918 ) , very little influence and borrowing from Danish has occurred in the Icelandic language . Icelandic remained the preferred language among the ruling classes in Iceland ; Danish was not used for official communications , most of the royal officials were of Icelandic descent and the language of the church and law courts remained Icelandic . Finnish The Scandinavian languages are ( as a language family ) entirely unrelated to Finnish , Estonian , and Sami languages , which as Uralic languages are distantly related to Hungarian . Owing to the close proximity , there is still a great deal of borrowing from the Swedish and Norwegian languages in the Finnish and Sami languages . The long history of linguistic influence of Swedish on Finnish is also due to the fact that Finnish , the language of the majority in Finland , was treated as a minority language while Finland was part of Sweden . Finnish-speakers had to learn Swedish in order to advance to higher positions . Swedish spoken in today 's Finland includes a lot of words that are borrowed from Finnish , whereas the written language remains closer to that of Sweden . Finland is officially bilingual , with Finnish and Swedish having mostly the same status at national level . Finland 's majority population are Finns , whose mother tongue is either Finnish ( approximately 95 % ) , Swedish or both ; the Swedish speaking minority lives mainly on the coast from the city of Porvoo , in the Gulf of Finland , to the city of Kokkola , up in the Bothnian Bay . The Åland Islands , an autonomous province of Finland , situated in the Baltic Sea between Finland and Sweden , is entirely Swedish speaking . Children are taught the other official language at school ; for Swedish-speakers , this is Finnish ( usually from the 3rd grade ) , and for Finnish-speakers , Swedish ( usually from the 3rd , 5th or 7th grade ) . Finnish speakers constitute a language minority in Sweden and Norway . There are also languages derived from Finnish , having evolved separately , known as Meänkieli in Sweden and Kven in Norway . Sami languages The Sami languages are indigenous minority languages in Scandinavia . They belong to their own branch of the Uralic language family and are unrelated to the North Germanic languages other than by limited grammatical ( particularly lexical ) characteristics resulting from prolonged contact . Sami is divided into several languages or dialects . Consonant gradation is a feature in both Finnish and northern Sami dialects , but it is not present in south Sami , which is considered to have a different language history . According to the Sami Information Centre of the Sami Parliament in Sweden , southern Sami may have originated in an earlier migration from the south into the Scandinavian peninsula . History During a period of Christianization and state formation in the 10th–13th centuries , numerous Germanic petty kingdoms and chiefdoms were unified into three kingdoms : * Denmark , forged from the Lands of Denmark ( including Jutland , Zealand and Scania ( Skåneland ) on the Scandinavian Peninsula . ) * Sweden , forged from the Lands of Sweden on the Scandinavian Peninsula ( excluding the provinces Bohuslän , Härjedalen , Jämtland and Idre & Särna , Halland , Blekinge and Scania of modern-day Sweden , but including most of modern Finland . ) * Norway ( including Bohuslän , Härjedalen , Jämtland and Idre & Särna on the Scandinavian Peninsula , and its island colonies Iceland , Greenland , Faroe Islands , Shetland , Orkney , Isle of Man and the Hebrides . ) The three Scandinavian kingdoms joined in 1387 in the Kalmar Union under Queen Margaret I of Denmark . Sweden left the union in 1523 under King Gustav Vasa . In the aftermath of Sweden 's secession from the Kalmar Union , civil war broke out in Denmark and Norway . The Protestant Reformation followed . When things had settled , the Norwegian Privy Council was abolished—it assembled for the last time in 1537 . A personal union , entered into by the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway in 1536 , lasted until 1814 . Three sovereign successor states have subsequently emerged from this unequal union : Denmark , Norway and Iceland . The borders between the three countries got the shape they have had since in the middle of the seventeenth century : In the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro , Denmark–Norway ceded the Norwegian provinces of Jämtland , Härjedalen and Idre & Särna , as well as the Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and Ösel ( in Estonia ) to Sweden . The Treaty of Roskilde , signed in 1658 , forced Denmark–Norway to cede the Danish provinces Scania , Blekinge , Halland , Bornholm and the Norwegian provinces of Båhuslen and Trøndelag to Sweden . The 1660 Treaty of Copenhagen forced Sweden to return Bornholm and Trøndelag to Denmark–Norway , and to give up its recent claims to the island Funen . In the east , Finland , was a fully incorporated part of Sweden since medieval times until the Napoleonic wars , when it was ceded to Russia . Scandinavia has , despite many wars over the years since the formation of the three kingdoms , been politically and culturally close . Scandinavian unions Denmark–Norway as a historiographical name refers to the former political union consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway , including the Norwegian dependencies of Iceland , Greenland and the Faroe Islands . The corresponding adjective and demonym is Dano-Norwegian . During Danish rule , Norway kept its separate laws , coinage and army , as well as some institutions such as a royal chancellor . Norway 's old royal line had died out with the death of Olav IV in 1387 , but Norway 's remaining a hereditary kingdom became an important factor for the Oldenburg dynasty of Denmark–Norway in its struggles to win elections as kings of Denmark . The Treaty of Kiel ( 14 January 1814 ) formally dissolved the Dano-Norwegian union and ceded the territory of Norway proper to the King of Sweden , but Denmark retained Norway 's overseas possessions . However , widespread Norwegian resistance to the prospect of a union with Sweden induced the governor of Norway , crown prince Christian Frederick ( later Christian VIII of Denmark ) , to call a constituent assembly at Eidsvoll in April 1814 . The assembly drew up a liberal constitution and elected Christian Frederick to the throne of Norway . Following a Swedish invasion during the summer , the peace conditions of the Convention of Moss ( 14 August 1814 ) specified that king Christian Frederik had to resign , but Norway would keep its independence and its constitution within a personal union with Sweden . Christian Frederik formally abdicated on 10 August 1814 and returned to Denmark . The Norwegian parliament Storting elected king Charles XIII of Sweden as king of Norway on 4 November . The Storting dissolved the union between Sweden and Norway in 1905 , after which the Norwegians elected Prince Charles of Denmark as king of Norway : he reigned as Haakon VII . Political Scandinavism The modern use of the term Scandinavia has been influenced by Scandinavism ( the Scandinavist political movement ) , which was active in the middle of the nineteenth century , mainly between the First Schleswig War ( 1848–1850 ) , in which Sweden and Norway contributed with

wh_2290--Scandinavia.txt

Which is the largest city in Scandinavia by population ?

Jason Donovan ( born 1 June 1968 ) is an Australian actor and singer . He initially achieved fame in the Australian soap opera Neighbours , before beginning a career in music in 1988 . In the UK he has sold over 3 million records , and his début album Ten Good Reasons was one of the highest-selling albums of 1989 , with UK sales of over 1.5 million copies . He has had four UK No . 1 singles , one of which was `` Especially for You '' , his 1988 duet with fellow Neighbours co-star Kylie Minogue . He has also appeared in several stage musicals , most prominently in the lead role of Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat in the early 1990s . Born in Australia , he now resides in London , United Kingdom . Biography Jason Donovan was born in Malvern , Melbourne , and is the son of Sue Menlove ( now Sue McIntosh ) and actor Terence Donovan who has English and Irish ancestry . Following his parents ' separation and divorce , his father was awarded full custody of him in 1972 and brought him up on his own . Donovan has had no contact with his mother since the divorce . His half-sister is former Neighbours star Stephanie McIntosh . He attended De La Salle College Malvern . Donovan 's partner since 1998 has been Angela Malloch , a former stage manager , with whom he has three children . Donovan and Malloch were married in Bali in 2008 . Donovan was the subject of an episode of the BBC TV series Who Do You Think You Are ? on 30 August 2010 in which he discovered he is a descendant of the pioneer William Cox , who built the first road across Australia 's Blue Mountains in 1814 . Donovan confirmed he is Jewish through his maternal great-grandmother , Eileen Dawson ( née Lyons ) . His great-great-grandparents Joseph and Rosetta Lyons originated from Whitechapel , London . 1980–89 : Television career and Neighbours Donovan made his first television appearance at age 11 in a guest role on the Australian series Skyways in 1980 . In the episode , his on-screen sister was played by future Neighbours co-star Kylie Minogue . He also appeared in the series I Can Jump Puddles ( 1981 ) and Golden Pennies ( 1985 ) before entering the cast of Neighbours in 1986 as Scott Robinson ( replacing actor Darius Perkins , who had played the role for the first year of the series ) . His character 's story arcs included an onscreen romance and wedding to Charlene Mitchell ( played by Minogue ) . He won his first Logie Award for `` Best New Talent '' in 1987 and received a commendation in the category `` Performance by a Male Actor In a Series '' from the Television Society of Australia 's Penguin Awards . In 1988 he was awarded the Silver Logie for the `` Most Popular Actor '' on Australian television . In addition to his regular role in Neighbours , Donovan appeared as `` Happy Houston '' in the 1988 Australian World War II mini-series The Heroes , based on the historical novel by Ronald McKie . He won the 1990 Logie Award for `` Most Popular Actor in a Mini-Series '' . Donovan left Neighbours in 1989 . Twenty years later , he said that he had been asked to return to tie in with the show 's 25th anniversary in 2010 , but was unable to do so due to other work commitments . 1988–91 : Pop career While he was still appearing in Neighbours , Donovan followed Minogue ( who had already left the series by this point ) in signing a recording contract with Mushroom Records in Australia , and with PWL in the UK . His first single , `` Nothing Can Divide Us '' , was released in 1988 . Like Minogue 's material , it was written and produced by the production team of Stock Aitken Waterman . The single reached number five in the UK . Donovan 's next single was a duet with Minogue . `` Especially for You '' was released in December 1988 , and after spending four weeks at No . 2 in the UK , it hit No . 1 in January 1989 . It was the fourth-highest selling single in the UK in 1988 , and 17th in Australia for 1989 . His next single , `` Too Many Broken Hearts '' , reached number one in the UK in March 1989 . He released his début album , Ten Good Reasons , in May 1989 , which also reached number one ( for three weeks ) . For two weeks , Donovan held the number one positions in the singles chart and the albums chart simultaneously , when his next single , a cover of Brian Hyland 's `` Sealed With a Kiss '' , entered the UK charts at number one . In December 1989 , he took part in Band Aid II 's version of `` Do They Know it 's Christmas '' , which also included Minogue , whose exit from Neighbours had by now been shown on screen in both Australia and the UK . His own exit from the show had by this stage been shown on Australian television , although it was not aired on British television until several months later . Donovan released his second album , Between The Lines , in May 1990 , again produced by Stock Aitken Waterman . Although the album reached Platinum status in the UK , it was less successful than his debut a year before , peaking at no . 2 and selling only a fifth as many copies . Five singles were released from the album , and although they all reached the UK Top 30 , they also signaled a decline in his popularity . Between 1988 and 1992 , Donovan garnered 16 Top 40 hit singles in the UK . Donovan continued to act alongside his pop career , and in 1990 he appeared in his first feature film , Blood Oath ( released in some countries as Prisoners of the Sun ) . 1991–93 : Stage career and The Face lawsuit In 1991 , Donovan accepted the lead role in the restaged London Palladium version of Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat , directed by Steven Pimlott . Donovan had his third solo UK No . 1 single with one of its songs , `` Any Dream Will Do '' . Donovan left the production in early 1992 . In 1992 , Donovan launched a libel action against The Face magazine which had published allegations that he was homosexual . Donovan won £200,000 in damages and the magazine had to pay a further £100,000 in costs , but the lawsuit created a backlash with people accusing him of being homophobic . Although he had been a mild drug user who had smoked cannabis joints up until this point , in the months after his libel action Donovan began using cocaine . In a 2007 interview in the magazine Marie Claire and also in his 2007 autobiography Between The Lines : My Story Uncut , Donovan stated that suing The Face was the biggest mistake of his life . Donovan moved to Polydor Records and released his third album , All Around The World ( 1993 ) . 1995–99 : Drug addiction , The Last Bullet and continued musical work Donovan later admitted that by 1995 he had a serious drug problem , taking around two grams of cocaine a day . In early 1995 , he attended model Kate Moss 's 21st birthday party at The Viper Room in Los Angeles , where he suffered a drug-induced seizure . Later in 1995 , Donovan starred in the Australian TV film The Last Bullet [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0113606/ The Last Bullet ( 1995 ) ( TV ) ] with Koji Tamaki , directed by Michael Pattison , which was set in World War II on the Pacific island of Borneo . In 1998 , Donovan took the lead role of Dr. Frank N. Furter in the UK touring production of The Rocky Horror Show , where he met stage manager Angela Malloch . After the pair had a brief relationship , Malloch became pregnant and gave Donovan an ultimatum that he had to kick drugs once and for all if he wanted to be part of their child 's life . In late 1999 , Donovan stated that he still used cocaine , saying : `` I still have a joint and I still take coke , but not as much as I did two years ago . '' Donovan states he has been drug-free since 2000 , the year his first child was born . 2000–05 : Fatherhood , MDA and Sweeney Todd musical Donovan 's daughter Jemma was born in March 2000 . Since then , with his drug problems now under control , he continued to act on stage and television , and had a role in the medical-legal television drama MDA ( 2003–05 ) , on Australia 's ABC network . Since 2003 , Donovan has also lent his voice to the Buzz ! series of quiz video games . In late 2004 , he was headlining in the stage musical Chitty Chitty Bang Bang at the London Palladium . He finished his original run on 13 March 2005 , but was then invited back from June onwards to play in the final two months of the show , until its closure on 4 September 2005 . Following this , he has toured the UK performing a few gigs and returned to the stage in January 2006 to star in a UK tour of Stephen Sondheim 's Sweeney Todd . After this , he returned to Melbourne to star in David Eldrige 's Australian transfer of the London drama Festen . 2005–06 : Virgin Mobile phone controversy and participation in I 'm A Celebrity ... In 2005 , Donovan 's mobile phone number was circulated around the web in Australia , due to an image that was taken in Sydney . It appeared that Donovan was trying to sell his car , and unwittingly released his mobile phone number to the public . From 10 September , his answering machine had a special message on it , because he was frustrated by the number of calls he was receiving for no particular reason . Virgin placed advertisements in several high-profile Australian newspapers , urging people not to call Donovan , one of their customers . Virgin Mobile has since admitted the photos were all part of a marketing ploy . Virgin also ran TV advertisements showing Donovan answering prank calls , asking the viewer not to call him , then displaying his number . Donovan took part in I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! in 2006 and finished in 3rd place . While in the jungle , he became good friends with David Gest and Matt Willis . Donovan also took part in many Bushtucker Trials , which included wearing a helmet full of insects and playing a giant game of Operation . Donovan lost out on the King of the Jungle Crown to Matt Willis . However , during an interview on The Steve Wright Show on BBC Radio 2 ( January 2008 ) , he claimed that his appearance on I 'm A Celebrity ... had revitalised his career . 2007–09 : Return to music career and soap operas Donovan performed a medley of songs from Joseph along with other actors who have played the eponymous role ( Donny Osmond and Lee Mead ) at the Concert for Diana in July 2007 . In early 2008 , Donovan had a role in ITV 's post-watershed soap opera Echo Beach ; the series was cancelled after 12 episodes . He also presented Sunday Night with Jason Donovan , a programme on The One Network of British local radio stations . On 25 September 2008 , Donovan performed in the canteen at the head offices of Tesco in Welwyn Garden City , Hertfordshire . He was promoting his forthcoming album , Let It Be Me , which was released on 10 November 2008 . The album , his first for 15 years , reached No . 28 in Britain . Also in 2008 , Donovan performed at the Party In The Park in Wellingborough , Northamptonshire . In 2009 , Donovan performed as Tick ( Mitzi ) in the London stage musical production of Priscilla Queen of the Desert at the Palace Theatre . Also in 2009 , Donovan began appearing in television commercials ( with Kerry Katona and Coleen Nolan ) for the frozen food supermarket chain Iceland in the UK . 2010–present : Soundtrack of the 80s , Strictly Come Dancing , Sign of Your Love , Superstar In September 2010 , Donovan took part in the BBC television series Who Do You Think You Are ? , tracing his family tree back several generations . Donovan 's fifth studio album , Soundtrack Of The 80s , was released in October 2010 . The album is composed of cover versions of well known 1980s hits such as `` Drive '' ( The Cars ) , `` I Just Died In Your Arms '' ( Cutting Crew ) and `` Sign Your Name '' ( Terence Trent D'Arby ) and several others . The same year , Donovan played the role of The Artilleryman in the 2010–2011 stage show Jeff Wayne 's Musical Version of The War of the Worlds . The show toured the UK and Europe , starting in November 2010 and finished in Germany in January 2011 . Donovan also voiced the part of Toby the Kangaroo in the environmental animated film Animals United . In February 2011 , Donovan appeared on the BBC series Ready , Steady , Cook . Later in 2011 , he performed on the Here and Now Tour , and also toured in a production of The Sound of Music playing Captain Von Trapp . The production co-starred Verity Rushworth as Maria . From September 2011 , Donovan took part in the ninth series of the BBC 's Strictly Come Dancing . He was partnered with dancer Kristina Rihanoff and finished third in the competition . Donovan presents a voice-tracked radio show on Heart each Sunday from 10am - 12pm . In March 2012 , Donovan released a new album of covers , Sign Of Your Love , which peaked at number 36 in the UK Albums Chart . In May 2012 , Donovan was interviewed by Piers Morgan on the ITV series Piers Morgan 's Life Stories , in which he talked openly about his career , his past and ex relationship with Kylie Minogue , and his battle with drugs . During the interview , Donovan also admitted that he 'd undergone hair transplantation to counteract his thinning hair . In Summer 2012 , he appeared as a judge on ITV 's talent search show Superstar . In late 2012 , Donovan again toured the UK and Europe in a new version of Jeff Wayne 's War of the Worlds , this time playing Parson Nathaniel . In 2013 , Donovan reprised his role as Tick/Mitzi in the UK national touring production of Priscilla , Queen of the Desert . On 5 May 2013 , Donovan was heard narrating Pick TV 's budget version of Rude Tube , entitled Video Surf . Donovan revealed in January 2015 that he was invited to return to Neighbours for the show 's 30th anniversary celebrations , but he declined the offer , adding `` it 's just not something I want to do '' . However , he agreed to take part in the documentary special Neighbours 30th : The Stars Reunite , which aired in Australia and the UK in March 2015 . Since 2015 , Donovan presents the All 80 's Show on Heart Radio , which airs on Sunday evenings . In 2016 , Jason Donovan toured the UK with his Ten Good Reasons and Greatest Hits Tour . Discography Studio albums * Note : Several compilations of Donovan 's work have been released , including 1991 's `` Greatest Hits '' , which reached a UK chart peak of # 9 . Singles Acting credits

qb_4427--Jason_Donovan.txt

Phillip Schofield, Jason Donovan and Donny Osmond have all played the starring role in which stage musical?

The Joy Luck Club ( ) is a 1993 American film about the relationships between Chinese-American women and their Chinese mothers . It was directed by Wayne Wang and stars Ming-Na Wen , Rosalind Chao , Lauren Tom , Tamlyn Tomita , France Nguyen , Kieu Chinh , Lisa Lu , and Tsai Chin . The film is based on the eponymous 1989 novel by Amy Tan , who co-wrote the screenplay with Ronald Bass . The film was produced by Bass , Tan , Wang and Patrick Markey while Oliver Stone served as an executive producer . Four older women , all Chinese immigrants living in San Francisco , meet regularly to play mahjong , eat , and tell stories . Each of these women has an adult Chinese-American daughter . The film reveals the hidden pasts of the older women and their daughters and how their lives are shaped by the clash of Chinese and American cultures as they strive to understand their family bonds and one another . Development of the project began when Wang approached Tan in 1989 at the time of the novel 's release . Concerned about the novel 's complex storytelling and character development , they teamed up with Bass in January 1990 , who added a farewell party not in the original novel and voiceovers to compress the film 's storytelling without changing the main plot . In 1990 , Carolco Pictures initially supported the project until the filmmakers turned down the contract for not receiving the creative control that they demanded . After the first draft was written between August and November 1991 , the filmmakers shifted to Hollywood Pictures in spring 1992 . The filming took place in San Francisco , the novel and the film 's main setting , in October 1992 and then in China in February 1993 . The filming was completed in March 1993 . The film was privately screened in sneak previews in spring 1993 and film festivals in August and September 1993 . It premiered in Los Angeles , New York City , and San Francisco on September 8 , 1993 . With the film 's $ 10.5 million budget , it was moderately successful in the box office . It received positive critical reactions but also criticism of its perceived stereotypical presentation of Asian American male characters . Plot The Joy Luck Club was formed by four women in San Francisco : Lindo Jong ( Tsai Chin ) , Ying-Ying St. Clair ( France Nuyen ) , An-Mei Hsu ( Lisa Lu ) , and Suyuan Woo ( Kieu Chinh ) . The members have mainly played mahjong and told each other 's stories over the years . They emigrated from their native country , China , remarried , and gave birth to children in America . Suyuan 's daughter June ( Ming-Na Wen ) replaced her when Suyuan died four months before the time the film is set . The mothers have high hopes for their daughters ' success , but the daughters struggle through `` anxieties , feelings of inadequacy , and failures . '' Throughout the film , the mothers and daughters bond by learning to understand each other and by overcoming their conflicts . The film begins with June 's prologue tale . In the prologue , a woman ( presumably Suyuan ) bought a swan in China from a market vendor who was selling it as `` a duck that stretched its neck [ to become ] a goose . '' She kept it as her pet and brought it to the United States . When the immigration officials took it away from her , she plucked out only a swan feather instead while she struggled to grab the swan away . For a long time , the woman had kept the feather , planning to someday give the feather to her daughter . Then the film transits to June 's farewell surprise party in San Francisco for her upcoming reunion with her long-lost twin sisters in China . Among the guests are members of The Joy Luck Club , their daughters , other relatives , and friends . The following characters below narrate their journeys to the audience while they reflect upon their pasts . Lindo and Waverly Jong In China , four-year-old Lindo ( Ying Wu ) is arranged , by her mother ( Xi Meijuan ) and the matchmaker ( Hsu Ying Li ) , to be married to Mrs. Huang 's son when she grows up . When Lindo turns fifteen ( Irene Ng ) , her mother sends her to Mrs. Huang , so Lindo marries Huang 's son , Tyan Hu ( William Gong ) , a pre-pubescent boy who has no interest in her . During four years of childless and loveless marriage , she is frequently abused by her frustrated mother-in-law , who believes Lindo 's childlessness is her own fault . Lindo eavesdrops on the servant girl telling her lover that she is pregnant and he willfully abandons her . Lindo realizes her chance to leave the marriage without dishonoring herself , her family and her in-laws . Later , Lindo purportedly ruins her clothes and then claims that she had a nightmare in which Tyan Hu 's ancestors threatened to punish her , Tyan Hu and the matchmaker . Then Lindo claims that the ancestors impregnated the servant girl with Tyan Hu 's child . Mrs. Huang does not believe Lindo until Mrs. Huang quickly discovers the servant 's pregnancy through inspection . Finally , Lindo claims that the matchmaker intentionally and wrongly paired Lindo and Tyan Hu for more money . Furious , Mrs. Huang orders the matchmaker out of her family 's life , allowing the servant girl to have her marriage . Lindo is able to escape the house and moves to Shanghai . Years later in America , Lindo has a new husband , a son , and a daughter named Waverly ( Tamlyn Tomita ) . Aged between six and nine , Waverly ( Mai Vu ) has become a chess champion . Annoyed by Lindo using Waverly to `` show off '' at the streets , Waverly shouts at her mother and decides to quit chess . When she tries to play it again , Waverly loses one chess round , prompting her to retire from chess . Years later , she has a daughter Shoshana from her Chinese ex-husband and is going to marry a Caucasian fiancé , Rich ( Christopher Rich ) , much to Lindo 's chagrin . In order to make Lindo like Rich , Waverly brings him to a family dinner , but he fails to impress them especially by improperly using chopsticks and marinating the dish with a sauce , humiliating Waverly . A while later , at the hair salon , Lindo retells her moments with her own mother and declares that she likes Rich very much . She then gives marital blessings to Waverly and Rich , prompting her and Waverly to reconcile with each other . At June 's farewell party , Rich almost successfully uses a chopstick ( but accidentally drops a piece ) , impressing Lindo . But then Rich does not know the Chinese table manners , and then ends up criticizing Lindo 's cooking . Again . Ying-Ying and Lena St. Clair In China , Ying-Ying St. Clair was happily married to Lin-Xiao ( Russell Wong ) with a baby boy in China until Lin-Xiao abuses her and abandons her for an opera singer . Overcome by her depression , Ying-Ying drowns her baby son in the bathtub , which leaves her distraught afterwards because she feels that if she had killed Lin-Xiao earlier , she would not have lost `` the thing that mattered the most . '' Years after she immigrated to America , she has suffered from trauma and has been haunted by her past , worrying her new family , including her daughter Lena ( Lauren Tom ) . After Ying-Ying finally resolved her years of trauma , Lena shows Ying-Ying around her new apartment with her husband Harold ( Michael Paul Chan ) , who is also Lena 's boss . Ying-Ying learns that Lena is uncomfortable with her financial arrangements with Harold . They split the costs of their life evenly with a list of things that they share , making their home life contentious . Seeing that Lena is unhappy with her marriage , Ying-Ying reasserts herself by knocking over a table in the bedroom and causing the vase to fall from the table and break . Hearing the sudden noise , Lena goes to her mother and admits her unhappiness . Ying-Ying replies that Lena should leave and not come back until Harold gives her what she wants . At June 's farewell party , Lena is shown to have the new vibrant fiancé , who has given Lena what she wants and is accepting of Ying-Ying . An-Mei and Rose Hsu Nine-year-old An-Mei Hsu ( Yi Ding ) has been raised with her relatives and grandmother . She is reunited with her long-lost mother ( Vivian Wu ) , who was disowned by her family for her `` dalliance '' with a wealthy middle-aged man Wu-Tsing shortly after her husband 's death , and who arrives to see her dying mother ( Lucille Soong ) . In order to not lose her again , An-Mei moves out with her mother to Wu-Tsing 's house against her relatives ' wishes for her to remain with them . They claim that in allowing An-Mei live with her and Wu-Tsing , the mother will ruin her future . She finds that Wu-Tsing has another three wives , making An-Mei 's mother the Fourth Wife . Later , she learns that the Second Wife ( Elizabeth Sung ) tricked An-Mei 's mother into being raped and impregnated by Wu-Tsing . When the relatives did not believe An-Mei 's mother and kicked her out , she reluctantly became Wu-Tsing 's Fourth Wife as she had nowhere else to turn . After she gave birth to a boy , the Second Wife took him away from her and claimed him as her own . After An-Mei discovers the past , her mother ultimately commits suicide by eating `` sticky rice balls '' laced with opium , choosing the day of her death carefully to threaten Wu-Tsing with the vengeance of her angry ghost . Afraid of this curse , Wu-Tsing vows to raise An-Mei and her half-brother with great care and promises to honor their mother as an honorable first wife . When Second Wife tries to pay respects to An-Mei 's late mother , An-Mei subtly screams at the Second Wife , destroys the Second Wife 's faux pearl necklace with an object , and loudly yells out `` Mama ! '' Years later in America , An-Mei 's daughter Rose ( Rosalind Chao ) has been dating her boyfriend , Ted Jordan ( Andrew McCarthy ) since college . Ted is initially attracted to Rose 's assertive , forthright nature . When he confronts his aristocratic mother ( Diane Baker ) for insulting Rose due to her race , Rose is impressed and agrees to marry him . Over the course of their marriage , however , Rose and Ted become distant from each other mainly because Rose , desperate to prove herself to Ted 's milieu , becomes submissive and demure at the cost of her own identity and interests . They have a daughter , Jennifer , but this does not resolve their marital problems . To make matters worse , Ted cheats on her with another woman and neither are actually happy in their marriage . A while later , An-Mei comes for a visit and relays the story of her own mother 's fate to Rose . She encourages Rose to stand up for herself and Jennifer against Ted , or nothing will change . To avoid the same fate , Rose reclaims her strength and stands up to Ted by telling him to leave the house and not take their daughter away from her . This compels Ted to take her seriously and not continue taking her for granted . At June 's farewell party , it is revealed the couple have reconciled . Suyuan and June Woo In World War II , when the Japanese invaded China , Suyuan Woo escaped the invasion with her twin baby daughters . When Suyuan became ill during her quest for refuge , her cart breaks down , causing the babies to fall . Near death , Suyuan was unable to carry the babies herself and abandoned them along with all of her other possessions , including a photo of herself . Suyuan survived , but was haunted by guilt in the loss of her daughters and never knew what happened to them . After she remarried in America , Suyuan has high hopes for her new daughter June , but June constantly fails to meet her expectations out of a lack of interest . She performs badly during a piano recital at age nine ( Melanie Chang ) , and when Suyuan pushes her to continue training to be a concert pianist , June refuses , saying that she wishes herself dead like Suyuan 's other daughters , an action that offends Suyuan . When June grows into adulthood , at a dinner party a year before Suyuan 's passing , Waverly , June 's long-time rival whom she is freelancing for , turns down her business ideas , and Suyuan remarks that Waverly and June are not alike and that style is something one 's born with and can not be taught implying Waverly has style . June feels humiliated , believing her mother had betrayed her for being a failure in her eyes . The following day , June berates Suyuan for her remarks and admits she could never live up to her high expectations . June laments that Suyuan has always disappointed in her because June dropped out of college , is not married , and has an unsuccessful career . However , Suyuan gives her a jade necklace and assures June that she is the one who has the unteachable style and that while Waverly was the best in competitions , June always had the best heart which made her mother prouder than she would have been otherwise . Last Easter before the farewell party , June received the news from the Club that the long-lost twins were alive . When June could not understand the twins ' letter written in Chinese , Lindo purportedly mistranslated the letter to make June believe that the twins knew about Suyuan 's death and their long-lost half-sister June . Back to the present , when the farewell party ends , Lindo confesses that she wrote letters to the twins and then signed Suyuan 's name . June begs Lindo to tell them the truth , but Lindo tells her that it is too late because the twin sisters are anticipating their mother , Suyuan , still believing that Suyuan is alive . A short while later , June 's father ( Chao-Li Chi ) retells the war story of Suyuan and her long-lost twin daughters . Then he gives her the swan feather , which came from Suyuan's—the woman's—swan as explained earlier in the prologue , saying that the feather looks worthless but has `` good intentions . '' When she arrives in China to meet her sisters , June tells them the truth about Suyuan and embraces them . In finally accepting her Chinese heritage , June is able to make peace with her deceased mother . Cast ; Mothers * Kieu Chinh as Suyuan Woo * Tsai Chin as Lindo Jong * * Age 4 : Ying Wu * * Age 15 : Irene Ng * France Nuyen as Ying-Ying St. Clair * * Age 16–25 : Faye Yu * Lisa Lu as An-Mei Hsu * * Age 4 : Emmy Yu * * Age 9 : Yi Ding ; Daughters * Ming-Na Wen as June Woo * * Age 9 : Melanie Chang * Tamlyn Tomita as Waverly Jong * * Age 6–9 : Mai Vu * Lauren Tom as Lena St. Clair * Rosalind Chao as Rose Hsu Jordan ; Other characters * Michael Paul Chan as Harold , Lena 's Husband * Andrew McCarthy as Ted Jordan * Christopher Rich as Rich * Russell Wong as Lin Xiao * Xi Meijuan as Lindo 's Mother * Vivian Wu as An-Mei 's Mother * Chao-Li Chi as June 's Father ( in the novel , Canning Woo ) * Victor Wong as Old Chong the Piano Teacher * Hsu Ying Li as the matchmaker Production Amy Tan and Academy Award winner Ronald Bass wrote the film adaptation . Wayne Wang , who made prior films about Chinese Americans , such as his first film Chan Is Missing , was the director . Wang , Tan , Bass , and Patrick Markey were the producers . Oliver Stone and Janet Yang were the executive producers . The production designer was Don Burt . Maysie Hoy was the film editor . When the novel The Joy Luck Club was released in 1989 , Wayne Wang approached Amy Tan , the novel 's author , with the idea of adapting the novel that he admired into a film . Wang and Tan grew concerned about transforming it into a film , and Wang was almost reluctant to make another film about Chinese Americans since Eat a Bowl of Tea because Wang 's prior films had not attracted wide audiences . There were no known Hollywood movies with an all-Asian cast at the time , and making a film with Chinese protagonists was risky especially because Asian actors were not well known to American audiences . Ronald Bass , with whom Wang and Tan teamed up since their meeting at the Hotel Bel-Air in January 1990 , analyzed the novel and outlined how to bring it to the screen , with `` no single lead character . '' Because many studios found the novel 's `` characters and plot [ ... ] too internal and complex '' to adapt into a film , Bass added two additional changes without changing the main plot : June Woo 's farewell party as the film 's timeline setting and the first-person narration in addition to voiceovers to compress the film 's storytelling . Wayne Wang , Amy Tan , and Ronald Bass teamed up with the Ixtlan Corporation , including its staff members , Oliver Stone and Janet Yang , who was the company 's vice president and had a profound interest in the project . Before the project , Stone and Wang disagreed with each other about their own portrayals of Chinese people . Wang gave Stone 's thriller Year of the Dragon a negative review for portraying Chinese characters as `` [ mobsters ] , gangsters , and prostitutes . '' Stone responded by calling Wang 's Dim Sum : A Little Bit of Heart `` boring '' for its lack of action . Stone and Wang reconciled their differences enabling them to work together and finally agreed to produce the film together along with other producers . Carolco Pictures initially agreed to support the project in spring 1990 , but the company had fiscal problems , and the filmmakers turned down the contract six months later in fall 1990 due to not receiving the level of creative control that they demanded . Therefore , Tan , Wang , and Bass outlined the screenplay themselves `` in a narrative format '' over three days in January 1991 . Tan and Bass completed the first draft between August and November 1991 . When they returned to Ixtlan on March 1992 , Jeffrey Katzenberg , chairman of Walt Disney Studios , approved the project as proposed by Stone and Yang , and gave them full creative control . In spring 1992 , the Hollywood Pictures agreed to assist production and distribute the film . Despite that she lacked filmmaking experience , `` [ Amy ] Tan found the process not nearly as bad as she had feared . She was happy that collaborating meant discussions and that they were followed by time to write on her own . '' Janet Yang said that although several studios were interested , Disney `` was the only one to step up to the line '' . The producers were surprised , but Yang felt in retrospect that Joy Luck `` fits in with Disney 's agenda—taking a chance on low-budget projects not dependent on star power '' . She described Disney as being `` less hands-on than usual '' through not being familiar with the subject matter . Filming began in San Francisco in October 1992 and then in China in February 1993 . Amy Tan did not participate in the casting , even though Tan 's mother , aunts , and four-year-old niece were extras in the movie , as well as Janet Yang 's parents and Tan herself briefly . The filming was completed in March 1993 . The film 's budget totaled to $ 10.5–10.6 million . Hsu Ying Li ( 1910–1993 ) , who portrayed the matchmaker in the film , and worked as a culture consultant on set , was killed in a car accident in Oakland , California on April 28 , 1993 . Therefore , the film is dedicated in her memory in the end credits . Reception Audience and critical response Reviews of The Joy Luck Club were generally positive . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an `` A+ '' grade . Critic Gene Siskel , singled out the script and performances , praising the film for presenting images of Asian-Americans outside the narrow range of childhood violinists and spelling bee winners , opining that its main accomplishments were its depiction of how the brutality of the lives of women in China could continue to influence the lives of their American daughters , and its ability to allow audiences to relate to a large group of Chinese-Americans as individuals . Siskel picked it as the seventh of the top ten movies of 1993 , while Roger Ebert picked it as the fifth of his own top ten movies of 1993 . It was voted one of the favorite films of 1993 among 1,297 readers of The Arizona Daily Star , ranked number 14 out of 253 . However , when the film premiered in the United Kingdom , `` some British critics found it more schmaltzy than sour-sweet . '' It was one of 400 nominated movies as of 1998 to be listed as part AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies , but it failed to be listed in both the 1998 list and the 2007 list . Ty Burr from Entertainment Weekly graded it a C+ and wrote that the film `` covers primal issues of abandonment , infanticide , motherly love , and self-respect , pounds you with pathos [ and ] is extremely faithful to the novel '' . Burr found the story `` exhausting '' and preachy , he criticized the `` cringingly bald , full of self-help blather '' dialogue , and deemed male characters as `` perfidies '' . However , he found the acting `` generous [ and ] intelligent '' , and picked the segment of Rosalind Chao and Lisa Lu as `` the only one that feels genuinely cinematic [ yet ] too late to save the movie '' . David Denby from The New Yorker called the film `` a superb achievement '' and praised the director 's `` impressive visual skills '' . However , Denby criticized the film writing , `` [ I ] ts tone is relentlessly earnest , its meanings limited or wanly inspirational , and my emotions , rather than well [ ed ] up , remained small . '' Moreover , he deemed men in the film as `` caricatures '' and the mothers ' attempts to `` teach [ their daughters ] the lesson of self-worth '' as inadequate and pretentious . Film critic Emanuel Levy graded the film a B+ , calling it an `` emotionally heart-rending study of generational gap–but also continuity–between Chinese mothers and their Chinese-American daughters '' and a visually well-done propaganda for `` cultural diversity '' . However , he also found it too long with `` too many stories and [ .. ] flashbacks '' and too mainstream and broad to be an art film , especially when it was screened in `` prestigious film festivals . '' Matt Hinrichs from DVD Talk rated the film four and a half stars out of five , commenting , `` Despite the cultural and gender-specific nature of the story , [ .. ] there are a lot of overriding themes explored here ( such as the daughters fearing that they 're repeating their moms ' mistakes ) that have a universal scope and appeal . '' Pre-release and box office In April 1993 , Amy Tan watched the rough cut of The Joy Luck Club and praised it as an emotional tear-jerker . It was thereafter screened to a more sophisticated audience in mid-May , to a broader audience a few weeks later , to the Asian American Journalists Association on the week of August 16 , at the Telluride Film Festival on the Labor Day weekend , and at the Toronto Film Festival in mid-September . The film opened to theatres at limited release in Los Angeles , New York City , and San Francisco on September 8 , 1993 . It slowly expanded to several hundred theatres by October 1 nationwide , Record no . 10113706C551BD20 . including Salt Lake City , Utah , and St. Petersburg , Florida . It opened in some other cities on October 8 , like Austin , Texas . The film earned nearly $ 33 million in the United States . Awards and nominations Music The soundtrack was released by Hollywood Records on September 28 , 1993 . It was composed and produced by Rachel Portman , co-orchestrated by Portman and John Neufeld , conducted by J . A. C. Redford . Chinese instruments were used as well as Western music . Filmtracks website and Jason Ankeny from Allmusic gave the soundtrack four stars out of five . Filmtracks found the music cues not as `` outstanding '' as Portman 's `` other singular achievements in her career '' but the website noted that the whole album `` never becomes too repetitive to enjoy [ , ] '' even when the music cues lack diversity from each other . The first 14 tracks was composed by Rachel Portman . The 15th and final track , `` End Titles '' , was composed by David Arnold , Marvin Hamlisch , and Rachel Portman . The album duration is around 44 minutes . Notes =

sfq_24995--The_Joy_Luck_Club_(film).txt

Who wrote the 1993 novel “The Joy Luck Club”?

In modern popular fiction , a superhero ( sometimes rendered super-hero or super hero ) is a type of costumed heroic character who possesses supernatural or superhuman powers and who is dedicated to fighting crime , protecting the public , and usually battling supervillains . A female superhero is sometimes called a superheroine ( also rendered super-heroine or super heroine ) . Fiction centered on such characters , especially in American comic books since the 1930s , is known as superhero fiction . By most definitions , characters do not require actual supernatural or superhuman powers or phenomena to be deemed superheroes . While the Dictionary.com definition of 'superhero ' is `` A figure , especially in a comic strip or cartoon , endowed with superhuman powers and usually portrayed as fighting evil or crime '' , the longstanding Merriam-Webster dictionary gives the definition as `` a fictional hero having extraordinary or superhuman powers ; also : an exceptionally skillful or successful person '' . Terms such as masked crime fighters , costumed adventurers or masked vigilantes are sometimes used to refer to characters such as the Spirit , who may not be explicitly referred to as superheroes but nevertheless share similar traits . Some superheroes use their powers to counter day-to-day crime while also combating threats against humanity from supervillains , who are their criminal counterparts . Often at least one of these supervillains will be the superhero 's archenemy . Some long-running superheroes such as Superman , Batman , Spider-Man , Wonder Woman , Captain America , Wolverine , Green Lantern , The Flash , Hulk , Thor and Iron Man have a rogues gallery of many villains . History Early history The word 'superhero ' dates to at least 1917 . Antecedents of the archetype include such folkloric heroes as Robin Hood , who adventured in distinctive clothing . The 1903 play The Scarlet Pimpernel and its spinoffs popularized the idea of a masked avenger and the superhero trope of a secret identity . Shortly afterward , masked and costumed pulp-fiction characters such as Zorro ( 1919 ) and comic strip heroes , such as the Phantom ( 1936 ) began appearing , as did non-costumed characters with super strength , including Patoruzú ( 1928 ) , the comic-strip character Popeye ( 1929 ) and novelist Philip Wylie 's protagonist Hugo Danner ( 1930 ) . In the 1930s , both trends came together in some of the earliest superpowered costumed heroes such as Japan 's very own Ōgon Bat ( visualized in painted panels used by kamishibai oral storytellers in Japan since 1931 ) , Mandrake the Magician ( 1934 ) , and Superman in 1938 at the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books . 1940s This era saw the debut of first known female superhero , writer-artist Fletcher Hanks 's character Fantomah , an ageless ancient Egyptian woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil ; she debuted in Fiction House 's Jungle Comics # 2 ( Feb. 1940 ) , credited to the pseudonymous `` Barclay Flagg '' . The Invisible Scarlet O'Neil , a non-costumed character who fought crime and wartime saboteurs using the superpower of invisibility created by Russell Stamm , would debut in the eponymous syndicated newspaper comic strip a few months later on June 3 , 1940 . One superpowered character was portrayed as an antiheroine , a rarity for its time : the Black Widow , a costumed emissary of Satan who killed evildoers in order to send them to Hell — debuted in Mystic Comics # 4 ( Aug. 1940 ) , from Timely Comics , the 1940s predecessor of Marvel Comics . Most of the other female costumed crime-fighters during this era lacked superpowers . Notable characters include The Woman in Red , introduced in Standard Comics ' Thrilling Comics # 2 ( March 1940 ) ; Lady Luck , debuting in the Sunday-newspaper comic-book insert The Spirit Section June 2 , 1940 ; the comedic character Red Tornado , debuting in All-American Comics # 20 ( Nov 1940 ) ; Miss Fury , debuting in the eponymous comic strip by female cartoonist Tarpé Mills on April 6 , 1941 ; the Phantom Lady , introduced in Quality Comics Police Comics # 1 ( Aug. 1941 ) ; the Black Cat , introduced in Harvey Comics ' Pocket Comics # 1 ( also Aug. 1941 ) ; and the Black Canary , introduced in Flash Comics # 86 ( Aug. 1947 ) as a supporting character.Jim Amash & Eric Nolen-Weathington , ( 2010 ) , Carmine Infantino : Penciler , Publisher , Provocateur p.30-32 The most iconic comic book superheroine , who debuted during the Golden Age , is Wonder Woman . Inspired by the Amazons of Greek mythology , she was created by psychologist William Moulton Marston , with help and inspiration from his wife Elizabeth and their mutual lover Olive Byrne . Wonder Woman 's first appearance was in All Star Comics # 8 ( Jan. 1942 ) , published by All-American Publications , one of two companies that would merge to form DC Comics in 1944 . 1950s In 1952 , Osamu Tezuka 's manga Tetsuwan Atom ( more popularly known in the west as Astro Boy ) was published . The series focused upon a robot boy built by a scientist to replace his deceased son . Being built from an incomplete robot originally intended for military purposes Astro Boy possessed amazing powers such as flight through thrusters in his feet and the incredible mechanical strength of his limbs . The 1950s saw the Silver Age of Comics . During this era DC introduced the likes of Batwoman in 1956 , Supergirl , Miss Arrowette , and Bat-Girl ; all female derivatives of established male superheroes . 1958 saw the debut of superhero Moonlight Mask on Japanese television . 1960s The Marvel Comics teams of the early 1960s typically included at least one ( and often the only ) female member , much like DC 's flagship superhero team the Justice League of America ( whose initial roster included Wonder Woman as the token female ) ; examples include the Fantastic Four 's Invisible Girl , the X-Men 's Jean Grey ( originally known as Marvel Girl ) , the Avengers ' Wasp , and the Brotherhood of Mutants ' Scarlet Witch ( who later joined the Avengers ) . In 1963 , Astro Boy was adapted into a highly influential anime television series . Phantom Agents in 1964 focused on ninjas working for the Japanese government and would be the foundation for Sentai-type series . 1966 saw the debut of sci-fi/horror series Ultra Q created by Eiji Tsuburaya this would eventually lead on to the sequel Ultraman , spawning a successful franchise focused upon the Giant Hero subgenre where the Superheroes would be as big as giant monsters ( Kaiju ) that they fought . 1970s In 1972 , the Science Ninja Team Gatchaman anime debuted , which built upon the superhero team idea of the live-action Phantom Agents as well as introducing different colors for team members and special vehicles to support them , said vehicles could also combine into a larger one . Another important event was the debut of Mazinger Z by Go Nagai , creating the Super Robot genre . Go Nagai also wrote the manga Cutey Honey in 1973 , although the Magical Girl genre already existed , Nagai 's manga introduced Transformation sequences that would become a staple of Magical Girl media . The 1970s would see more anti-heroes introduced into Superhero fiction such examples included the debut of Shotaro Ishinomori 's Skull Man in 1970 , Go Nagai 's Devilman in 1972 and Gerry Conway and John Romita 's Punisher in 1974 . The dark Skull Man manga would later get a television adaptation and underwent drastic changes . The protagonist was redesigned resemble a grasshopper , becoming the renowned first masked hero of the Kamen Rider series . Kamen Rider is a motorcycle riding hero in an insect-like costume , who shouts Henshin ( Transform ) to don his costume and gain superhuman powers . The ideas of second-wave feminism , which spread through the 1960s into the 1970s , greatly influenced the way comic book companies would depict as well as market their female characters : Wonder Woman was for a time revamped as a mod-dressing martial artist directly inspired by the Emma Peel character from the British television series The Avengers ( no relation to the superhero team of the same name ) , but later reverted to Marston 's original concept after the editors of Ms. magazine publicly disapproved of the character being depowered and without her traditional costume ; Supergirl was moved from being a secondary feature on Action Comics to headline Adventure Comics in 1969 ; the Lady Liberators appeared in an issue of The Avengers as a group of mind-controlled superheroines led by Valkyrie ( actually a disguised supervillainess ) and were meant to be a caricatured parody of feminist activists ; and Jean Grey became the embodiment of a cosmic being known as the Phoenix Force with seemingly unlimited power in the late 1970s , a stark contrast from her depiction as the weakest member of her team a decade ago . Both major publishers began introducing new superheroines with a more distinct feminist theme as part of their origin stories and/or character development . Examples include Big Barda , Power Girl , and the Huntress by DC comics ; and from Marvel , the second Black Widow , Shanna the She-Devil , and The Cat . Female supporting characters who were successful professionals or hold positions of authority in their own right also debuted in the pages of several popular superhero titles from the late 1950s onward : Hal Jordan 's love interest Carol Ferris was introduced as the Vice-President of Ferris Aircraft and later took over the company from her father ; Medusa , who was first introduced in the Fantastic Four series , is a member of the Inhuman Royal Family and a prominent statesperson within her people 's quasi-feudal society ; and Carol Danvers , a decorated officer in the United States Air Force who would become a costumed superhero herself years later . In 1975 Shotaro Ishinomori 's Himitsu Sentai Gorenger debuted on what is now TV Asahi , it brought the concepts of multi-colored teams and supporting vehicles that debuted in Gatchaman into live-action . In 1978 , Toei adapted Spider-Man into a live-action series . In this continuity , Spider-Man had a vehicle called Marveller that could transform into a giant and powerful robot called Leopardon , this idea would be carried over to Toei 's Battle Fever J and now multi-colored teams not only had support vehicles but giant robots to fight giant monsters with . 1980s onwards In subsequent decades , popular characters like Dazzler , She-Hulk , Elektra , Catwoman , Witchblade , Spider-Girl , Batgirl and the Birds of Prey became stars of long-running eponymous titles . Female characters began assuming leadership roles in many ensemble superhero teams ; the Uncanny X-Men series and its related spin-off titles in particular have included many female characters in pivotal roles since the 1970s . Volume 4 of the X-Men comic book series featured an all-female team as part of the Marvel NOW ! branding initiative in 2013 . Internationally , the Japanese comic book character Sailor Moon is recognized as one of the most important and popular female superheroes ever created . Superpowered female characters like Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Darna have a tremendous influence on popular culture in their respective countries of origin . Superheroines can sport improbably large breasts and costumes that sexualize them . For example , Power Girl 's includes a small window between her breasts ; Emma Frost 's costume traditionally resembles erotic lingerie ; and Starfire 's started as a full-body covering and over the years became progressively much skimpier . This visual treatment of women in American comics has led to accusations of systemic sexism and objectification . Common traits Many superhero characters display the following traits : * Extraordinary powers or abilities . Superhero powers vary widely ; superhuman strength , the ability to fly , enhanced senses , and the projection of energy bolts are all common . Some characters like Batman , Mockingbird , the Phantom and the Question possess no superhuman powers but have mastered skills such as martial arts , espionage techniques , and applied or forensic sciences to a highly remarkable degree . Others rely on fantastical weapons or technology , such as Iron Man 's powered armor suits , Green Lantern ’ s power ring , and trick arrows employed by Green Arrow and Hawkeye , some have acquired their abilities from cosmic rays such as the Fantastic Four . Many characters supplement their innate superhuman powers with a special weapon or device ( e.g . Captain America 's shield , Wonder Woman 's lasso and bracelets , Thor 's weather manipulating hammer , and Wolverine 's adamantium claws ) . * A strong moral code , including a willingness to risk one 's own safety in the service of good without expectation of reward . Such a code often includes a refusal or strong reluctance to kill or wield lethal weapons . * A motivation , such as a sense of responsibility and guilt ( e.g . Spider-Man ) , a formal calling ( e.g . Wonder Woman ) , a childhood trauma or personal vendetta against criminals ( e.g . Batman ) , or a strong belief in justice and humanitarian service ( e.g . Superman ) . * A secret identity that protects the superhero 's friends and family from becoming targets of his or her enemies , such as Clark Kent ( Superman ) , or to protect themselves from getting arrested by the police , like Spider-Man , although many superheroes have a confidant ( usually a friend or relative who has been sworn to secrecy ) . Most superheroes use a descriptive or metaphoric code name for their public deeds . However , there are also rare ones whose true identities are common public knowledge , even with a costumed identity ( e.g . Iron Man and Captain America ) . * A distinctive costume , often used to conceal the secret identity ( see Common costume features ) . * An underlying motif or theme that affects the hero 's name , costume , personal effects , and other aspects of his or her character ( e.g . Batman wears a bat-themed costume , uses bat-themed gadgetry and equipment and operates at night ; Spider-Man can project artificial webbing from wrist-mounted web shooting gadgets , has a spider web pattern on his costume , and other spider-like abilities ) . * A supporting cast of recurring characters , including the hero 's friends , co-workers and/or love interests , who may or may not know of the superhero 's secret identity . Often the hero 's personal relationships are complicated by this dual life , a common theme in Batman , Spider-Man and Superman stories in particular . * A rogues gallery consisting of enemies that he/she fights repeatedly . In some cases superheroes begin by fighting run-of-the-mill criminals before supervillains surface in their respective story lines . In many cases the hero is in part responsible for the appearance of these supervillains ( the Scorpion was created as the perfect enemy to defeat Spider-Man ; the Sentinels were designed to hunt mutants who often represent the protagonists of Marvel stories ; and characters in Batman 's comics often accuse him of inadvertently creating the villains he fights ) . Often superheroes have a recurring archenemy who is especially threatening , or a nemesis who is depicted as a doppelganger or foil ( e.g . Wolverine is outmatched physically by Sabretooth , who embraces his savage instincts while the former attempts to suppress his ; the psychopathic Reverse-Flash 's costume and abilities are very similar to the Flash 's ; the Joker is flamboyant and colorful in contrast to the moody , grim Batman . Magneto is restless and hostile in contrast to the calm and peaceful Professor X . ) * Independent wealth ( e.g . Batman 's family fortune , the X-Men 's patron Professor X , Iron Man 's father 's weapon and technology company ) or an occupation that allows for minimal supervision ( e.g . Spider-Man 's civilian job as a freelance photographer ) . * A backstory that explains the circumstances by which the character acquired his or her abilities as well as his or her motivation for becoming a superhero . Many origin stories involve tragic elements and/or freak accidents that result in the development of the hero 's abilities . Many superheroes work independently . However , there are also many superhero teams . Some , such as the Fantastic Four , DNAgents , and the X-Men , have common origins and usually operate as a group . Some are families in which the parents and kids have superpowers , like The Incredibles . Others , such as DC Comics ’ s Justice League and Marvel ’ s Avengers , are `` all-star '' groups consisting of heroes with separate origins who also operate individually , yet will team up to confront larger threats . The shared setting or `` universes '' of Marvel , DC and other publishers also allow for regular superhero crossover team-ups . Some superheroes , especially those introduced in the 1940s , work with a young sidekick ( e.g . Batman and Robin , Captain America and Bucky ) . This has become less common since more sophisticated writing and older audiences have lessened the need for characters who specifically appeal to child readers . Sidekicks are seen as a separate classification of superheroes . Although superhero fiction is considered a form of fantasy/adventure , it crosses into many genres . Some superhero franchises resemble crime fiction ( e.g . Batman , Spider-Man , Daredevil ) , horror fiction ( e.g . Hellboy , The Spectre ) , paranoid fiction ( e.g . Watchmen , Marvelman/Miracleman ) , and conventional science fiction ( e.g . Green Lantern , Guardians of the Galaxy ) . Many of the earliest superheroes , such as the Sandman and the Clock , were rooted in the pulp fiction of their predecessors . Within their own fictional universes , public perception of superheroes varies greatly . Some , like Superman and the Fantastic Four , are adored and seen as important civic leaders or even celebrities . Others , like Hulk , Spider-Man and the characters of Watchmen , are met with public skepticism or outright hostility . A few , such as the X-Men and Doom Patrol , defend a populace that almost unanimously misunderstands and despises them . Common costume features A superhero 's costume helps make him or her recognizable to the general public . Costumes are often colorful to enhance the character 's visual appeal and frequently incorporate the superhero 's name and theme . For example , Daredevil resembles a red devil , Captain America 's costume echoes the American flag , Batman 's costume resembles a large bat , and Spider-Man 's costume features a spiderweb pattern . The convention of superheroes wearing masks ( frequently without visible pupils ) and skintight unitards originated with Lee Falk 's comic strip The Phantom . Many features of superhero costumes recur frequently , including the following : * Superheroes who maintain a secret identity often wear a mask , ranging from the domino of Robin and the Green Hornet to the full-face masks of Spider-Man and Black Panther . Most common are masks covering the upper face , leaving the mouth and jaw exposed . This allows for both a believable disguise and recognizable facial expressions . A notable exception is Superman , who wears nothing on his face while fighting crime , but uses large glasses in his civilian life as Clark Kent . Some characters wear helmets , such as Doctor Fate or Magneto . * A symbol , such as a stylized letter or visual icon , usually on the chest . Examples include the uppercase `` S '' of Superman , the bat emblem of Batman , and the spider emblem of Spider-Man . Often , they also wear a common symbol referring to their group or league , such as the `` 4 '' on the Fantastic Four 's suits , the `` X '' on the X-Men 's costumes , or the `` i '' on the Incredible Family 's costumes . * Form-fitting clothing , often referred to as tights or Spandex , although the exact material is usually unidentified . Such material displays a character ’ s athletic build and heroic sex appeal and allows a simple design for illustrators to reproduce . * While a great many superhero costumes do not feature capes , the garment is still closely associated with them , likely because two of the most widely recognized superheroes , Batman and Superman , wear capes . In fact , police officers in Batman ’ s home of Gotham City are depicted as using the word `` cape '' as a shorthand for all superheroes and costumed crime-fighters . The comic-book miniseries Watchmen and the animated movie The Incredibles commented on the potentially lethal impracticality of capes . In Marvel Comics , the term `` cape-killer '' has been used to describe the fictional Superhuman Restraint Unit organization , even though few notable Marvel heroes wear capes . * While most superhero costumes merely hide the hero ’ s identity and present a recognizable image , parts of the costume ( or the costume itself ) have functional uses . For example , the Venom symbiote suit and Spawn 's `` necroplasmic armor '' , with their supernatural abilities have both been of great assistance to the wearer . Iron Man 's armor , in particular , protects him and provides technological advantages . * When thematically appropriate , some superheroes dress like people from various professions or subcultures . Zatanna , who possesses wizard-like powers , dresses like a stage magician , and Ghost Rider , who rides a superpowered motorcycle , dresses in the leather garb of a biker . * Some characters eschew the traditional superhero outfit for apparel considered to be more practical and utilitarian . Shoulder , knee and elbow pads , Kevlar-coated vests , metal-plated armor , heavy-duty belts , and ammunition pouches appears on 1990s-era antiheroes such as Cable , Deadpool , and many Image Comics characters . Other characters , such as the Runaways and the various protagonists of the Infamous video game series , do not wear any distinctive outfits at all . Bases/headquarters Many superheroes ( and supervillains ) operate from a base or headquarters . These bases are often equipped with state-of-the-art , highly advanced , and/or alien technologies . They are typically set in disguised and/or in secret locations to avoid being detected by enemies or the general public ( for example , Superman 's Fortress of Solitude or the Batcave ) . Some bases , such as the Baxter Building or the Hall of Justice , are common public knowledge ( even if their precise location may remain secret ) . Many heroes and villains who do not have a permanent headquarters may have a mobile base of operations instead . To the heroes and villains who have secret bases , these bases can serve a variety of functions , including ( but not limited to ) the following : * a control room where specialized monitors and other advanced technology alert superheroes to activities requiring their intervention * a command center where they are allowed the ability to send out commands through monitoring equipment * an operations room that stores their technological and alien devices * a crime lab or laboratory , for experiments and scientific study * a safehouse , where the heroes can conceal themselves from their enemies * a research library , covering a variety of topics including science , history , or criminal profiling * an armory , for weapons design , construction and storage * a garage , hangar , or dock , for storage of vehicles * an information centre or communications center * a weapons platform , for defense of the facility ( these are more common to supervillains ) * a trophy room , where mementos of significant battles and adventures are displayed * a common area , for social activity ( typically for larger teams , such as the Justice League or the Avengers ) Trademark status Most dictionary definitions and common usages of the term are generic and not limited to the characters of any particular company or companies . Nevertheless , variations on the term `` Super Hero '' are jointly claimed by DC Comics and Marvel Comics as trademarks in the United States . Registrations of `` Super Hero '' marks have been maintained by DC and Marvel since the 1960s , including U.S . Trademark Serial Nos . 72243225 and 73222079 . In 2009 , the term `` Super Heroes '' was registered as a typography-independent `` descriptive '' US trademark co-owned by DC and Marvel . Critics in the legal community dispute whether the `` Super Hero '' marks meet the legal standard for trademark protection in the United States-distinctive designation of a single source of a product or service . Controversy exists over each element of that standard : whether `` Super Hero '' is distinctive rather than generic , whether `` Super Hero '' designates a source of products or services , and whether DC and Marvel jointly represent a single source . Some critics further characterize the marks as a misuse of trademark law to chill competition . Minority superheroes In keeping with their origin as representing the archetypical hero stock character in 1930s American comics , superheroes are predominantly depicted as white Anglo-Saxon American middle- or upper-class heterosexual young adult males who are typically tall , athletic , educated , physically attractive and in perfect health . Beginning in the 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States , and increasingly with the rising concern over political correctness in the 1980s , superhero fiction centered on cultural , ethnic , national and racial minority groups ( from the perspective of US demographics ) began to be produced . This began with depiction of black superheroes in the 1960s , followed in the 1970s with a number of other ethnic superheroes . In keeping with the political mood of the time , cultural diversity and inclusivism would be an important part of superhero groups starting from the 1980s . In the 1990s , this was further augmented by the first depictions of superheroes as homosexual . Ethnic and religious minorities In 1966 , Marvel Comics introduced the Black Panther , an African monarch who became the first non-caricatured black superhero . The first African-American superhero , the Falcon , followed in 1969 , and three years later , Luke Cage , a self-styled `` hero-for-hire '' , became the first black superhero to star in his own series . In 1989 , the Monica Rambeau incarnation of Captain Marvel was the first female black superhero from a major publisher to get her own title in a special one-shot issue . In 1971 , Red Wolf became the first Native American in the superheroic tradition to headline a series . In 1973 , Shang-Chi became the first prominent Asian superhero to star in an American comic book ( Kato had been the deuteragonist of the Green Hornet media franchise series since its inception in the 1930s . ) . Kitty Pryde , a member of the X-Men , was an openly Jewish superhero in mainstream American comic books as early as 1978 . Comic-book companies were in the early stages of cultural expansion and many of these characters played to specific stereotypes ; Cage and many of his contemporaries often employed lingo similar to that of blaxploitation films , Native Americans were often associated with shamanism and wild animals , and Asian Americans were often portrayed as kung fu martial artists . Subsequent minority heroes , such as the X-Men 's Storm and the Teen Titans ' Cyborg avoided such conventions ; they were both part of ensemble teams , which became increasingly diverse in subsequent years . The X-Men , in particular , were revived in 1975 with a line-up of characters culled from several nations , including the Kenyan Storm , German Nightcrawler , Russian Colossus , Irish Banshee , and Japanese Sunfire . In 1993 , Milestone Comics , an African-American-owned media/publishing company entered into

odql_5824--Superhero.txt

Which 'superhero's' alter ego is 'Peter Parker'?

Gro Harlem Brundtland ( ; born Gro Harlem , 20 April 1939 ) is a Norwegian politician , who served three terms as Prime Minister of Norway ( 1981 , 1986–89 , and 1990–96 ) and as Director-General of the World Health Organization from 1998 to 2003 . She is also known for having chaired the Brundtland Commission which presented the Brundtland Report on sustainable development . Educated as a physician , Brundtland joined the Labour Party and entered the government in 1974 as Minister of the Environment . From 1981 to 1992 she was leader of the Labour Party . After her surprise resignation as Prime Minister in 1996 , she became an international leader in sustainable development and public health , and served as Director-General of the World Health Organization and as a UN Special Envoy on Climate Change from 2007 . She is also deputy chair of The Elders and a former Vice-President of the Socialist International . Brundtland received the 1994 Charlemagne Prize , and has received many other awards and recognitions . Early life Brundtland was born in Oslo in 1939 , the daughter of physician and politician Gudmund Harlem . In 1963 , Brundtland graduated with a medical degree , a cand.med . from the University of Oslo . She took her master 's degree at Harvard University in 1965 , as a Master of Public Health . From 1966 to 1969 , she worked as a physician at the Directorate of Health ( Helsedirektoratet ) , and from 1969 she worked as a doctor in Oslo 's public school health service . Political career She was Norwegian Minister for Environmental Affairs from 1974 to 1979 . Prime Minister of Norway Brundtland became Norway 's first female Prime Minister in 1981 . She served as Prime Minister from February to October . Brundtland became Norwegian Prime Minister for two further , and more durable , terms . The second ministry was from 9 May 1986 until 16 October 1989 and this cabinet became known worldwide for its high proportion of female ministers : nearly half , or eight of the total eighteen ministers , were female . The third ministry was from 3 November 1990 to 25 October 1996 . Brundtland became leader of the Labour Party in 1981 and held the office until resigning in 1992 , during her third term as Prime Minister . In 1996 , she resigned as Prime Minister and retired completely from Norwegian politics . Her successor as both Labour Party leader in 1992 and as Prime Minister in 1996 was Thorbjørn Jagland . International career In 1983 , Brundtland was invited by then United Nations Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar to establish and chair the World Commission on Environment and Development ( WCED ) , widely referred to as the Brundtland Commission . She developed the broad political concept of sustainable development in the course of extensive public hearings , that were distinguished by their inclusiveness . The commission , which published its report , Our Common Future , in April 1987 , provided the momentum for the 1992 Earth Summit/UNCED , which was headed by Maurice Strong , who had been a prominent member of the commission . The Brundtland Commission also provided momentum for Agenda 21 . During her third ministry , the Norwegian government in 1993 took the initiative to sponsor secret peace talks between the Government of Israel led by Yitzchak Rabin - like Brundtland , leader of a Labour Party - and the PLO led by Yasser Arafat . This culminated with the signing of the Oslo Accords . For several years afterwards Norway continued to have a high-profile involvement in promoting Israeli-Palestinian peace , though increasingly displaced by the United States from its role as the mediator . After the end of her term as PM , Brundtland was then elected Director-General of the World Health Organization in May 1998 . In this capacity , Brundtland adopted a far-reaching approach to public health , establishing a Commission on Macroeconomics and Health , chaired by Jeffrey Sachs , and addressing violence as a major public health issue . Brundtland spearheaded the movement , now worldwide , to achieve the abolition of cigarette smoking by education , persuasion , and increased taxation . Under her leadership , the World Health Organization was one of the first major employers to make quitting smoking a condition of employment . Brundtland was recognized in 2003 by Scientific American as their 'Policy Leader of the Year ' for coordinating a rapid worldwide response to stem outbreaks of SARS . Brundtland was succeeded on 21 July 2003 by Jong-Wook Lee . In 1994 , Brundtland was awarded the Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen . In 2006 Brundtland was a member of the Panel of Eminent Persons who reviewed the work of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) . In May 2007 , UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon named Brundtland , as well as Ricardo Lagos ( the former president of Chile ) , and Han Seung-soo ( the former foreign minister of South Korea ) , to serve as UN Special Envoys for Climate Change . Brundtland 's hallmark political activities have been chronicled by her husband , Arne Olav Brundtland , in his two bestsellers , Married to Gro ( ISBN 82-516-1647-6 ) and Still married to Gro ( ISBN 82-05-30726-1 ) . In 2007 , Bruntlandt was working for Pepsi as a consultant . Gro Harlem Brundtland is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders , an international network of current and former women presidents and prime ministers whose mission is to mobilize collective action on issues of critical importance to women and equitable development . Brundtland is also a member of the Club of Madrid , an independent organization of former leaders of democratic states , which works to strengthen democratic governance and leadership . Brundtland serves as Deputy Chair of The Elders , a group of world leaders convened by Nelson Mandela , Graça Machel and Desmond Tutu in order to tackle some of the world 's toughest problems . Mandela announced the launch of the group on 18 July 2007 in Johannesburg , South Africa . Brundtland has been active in The Elders ’ work , participating in a broad range of the group ’ s initiatives . She has travelled with Elders delegations to Cyprus , the Korean Peninsula , Ethiopia , India and the Middle East . Brundtland has also been involved in The Elders ’ initiative on child marriage , including the founding of Girls Not Brides : The Global Partnership to End Child Marriage . Brundtland has attended the Bilderberg meetings . Assassination attempt by Breivik Brundtland narrowly escaped assassination by Anders Behring Breivik on 22 July 2011 . She had been on the island of Utøya hours before the massacre there to give a speech to the AUF camp ; Breivik stated that he originally intended Brundtland to be the main target of the attack ( along with Eskil Pedersen and Jonas Gahr Støre ) , but he had been delayed while travelling from Oslo . Breivik arrived on Utøya about two hours after Brundtland had left . During his trial in 2012 , Breivik revealed detailed assassination plans for Brundtland . He told the court that he had planned to handcuff her and then record himself reading out a prepared text detailing her `` crimes '' , before decapitating her on camera using a bayonet and uploading the footage to the internet . Breivik said that while Brundtland had been his main target , he had still planned to massacre everyone else on the island . Personal life She married Arne Olav Brundtland on 9 December 1960 . They had four children ; one is now deceased . They own a house in the south of France . Health issues Brundtland was operated on for uterine cancer in 2002 at Oslo University Hospital , Ullevål . In 2008 it became known that during 2007 she had received two treatments at Ullevål , paid for by Norwegian public expenditures . Since she had previously notified the Norwegian authorities that she had changed residence to France , she was no longer entitled to Norwegian social security benefits . Following media attention surrounding the matter , Brundtland decided to change residence once more , back to Norway , and she also announced that she would be paying for the treatments herself . Brundtland has claimed to suffer from electrical sensitivity which causes headaches when someone uses a mobile phone near her . Honours Brundtland has received many awards and honours , including * Indira Gandhi Prize ( 1988 ) * Charlemagne Prize ( 1994 ) * Thomas Jefferson Foundation Medal in Architecture ( 2008 ) * Tang Prize in Sustainable Development ( 2014 ) * Honorary member of the Norwegian Association for Women 's Rights ( 2016 ) * Member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters

odql_10502--Gro_Harlem_Brundtland.txt

Of which European country did Gro Harlem Bruntland become the first female Prime Minister in 1981, serving three terms between 1981 and 1996?

Bacteria ( ; singular : bacterium ) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms . Typically a few micrometres in length , bacteria have a number of shapes , ranging from spheres to rods and spirals . Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth , and are present in most of its habitats . Bacteria inhabit soil , water , acidic hot springs , radioactive waste , and the deep portions of Earth 's crust . Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals . There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water . There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth , forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals . Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients , with many of the stages in nutrient cycles dependent on these organisms , such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and putrefaction . In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps , bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds , such as hydrogen sulphide and methane , to energy . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested bacterial life forms thrive in the Mariana Trench , which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest part of the Earth 's oceans . Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States . According to one of the researchers , `` You can find microbes everywhere — they 're extremely adaptable to conditions , and survive wherever they are . '' Most bacteria have not been characterized , and only about half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory . The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology , a branch of microbiology . There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the human flora as there are human cells in the body , with the largest number of the human flora being in the gut flora , and a large number on the skin . The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system , and some are beneficial . However , several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases , including cholera , syphilis , anthrax , leprosy , and bubonic plague . The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections , with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year , mostly in sub-Saharan Africa . In developed countries , antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming , making antibiotic resistance a growing problem . In industry , bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills , the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation , and the recovery of gold , palladium , copper and other metals in the mining sector , as well as in biotechnology , and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals . Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes , bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes . Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes , bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles . Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes , the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor . These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea . Etymology The word bacteria is the plural of the New Latin ' , which is the latinisation of the Greek ( bakterion ) , the diminutive of βακτηρία ( bakteria ) , meaning `` staff , cane '' , because the first ones to be discovered were rod-shaped . Origin and early evolution The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth , about 4 billion years ago . For about 3 billion years , most organisms were microscopic , and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life . In 2008 , fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota . Although bacterial fossils exist , such as stromatolites , their lack of distinctive morphology prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution , or to date the time of origin of a particular bacterial species . However , gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny , and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage . Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence , that of the archaea and eukaryotes . Here , eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells , which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea . This involved the engulfment by proto-eukaryotic cells of alphaproteobacterial symbionts to form either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes , which are still found in all known Eukarya ( sometimes in highly reduced form , e.g . in ancient `` amitochondrial '' protozoa ) . Later on , some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also engulfed cyanobacterial-like organisms . This led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants . There are also some algae that originated from even later endosymbiotic events . Here , eukaryotes engulfed a eukaryotic algae that developed into a `` second-generation '' plastid . This is known as secondary endosymbiosis . Morphology Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes , called morphologies . Bacterial cells are about one-tenth the size of eukaryotic cells and are typically 0.5–5.0 micrometres in length . However , a few species are visible to the unaided eye — for example , Thiomargarita namibiensis is up to half a millimetre long and Epulopiscium fishelsoni reaches 0.7 mm . Among the smallest bacteria are members of the genus Mycoplasma , which measure only 0.3 micrometres , as small as the largest viruses . Some bacteria may be even smaller , but these ultramicrobacteria are not well-studied . Most bacterial species are either spherical , called cocci ( sing . coccus , from Greek kókkos , grain , seed ) , or rod-shaped , called bacilli ( sing . bacillus , from Latin baculus , stick ) . Elongation is associated with swimming . Some bacteria , called vibrio , are shaped like slightly curved rods or comma-shaped ; others can be spiral-shaped , called spirilla , or tightly coiled , called spirochaetes . A small number of species even have tetrahedral or cuboidal shapes . More recently , some bacteria were discovered deep under Earth 's crust that grow as branching filamentous types with a star-shaped cross-section . The large surface area to volume ratio of this morphology may give these bacteria an advantage in nutrient-poor environments . This wide variety of shapes is determined by the bacterial cell wall and cytoskeleton , and is important because it can influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients , attach to surfaces , swim through liquids and escape predators . Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells , others associate in characteristic patterns : Neisseria form diploids ( pairs ) , Streptococcus form chains , and Staphylococcus group together in `` bunch of grapes '' clusters . Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments , for example the Actinobacteria . Filamentous bacteria are often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells . Certain types , such as species of the genus Nocardia , even form complex , branched filaments , similar in appearance to fungal mycelia . Bacteria often attach to surfaces and form dense aggregations called biofilms or bacterial mats . These films can range from a few micrometers in thickness to up to half a meter in depth , and may contain multiple species of bacteria , protists and archaea . Bacteria living in biofilms display a complex arrangement of cells and extracellular components , forming secondary structures , such as microcolonies , through which there are networks of channels to enable better diffusion of nutrients . In natural environments , such as soil or the surfaces of plants , the majority of bacteria are bound to surfaces in biofilms . Biofilms are also important in medicine , as these structures are often present during chronic bacterial infections or in infections of implanted medical devices , and bacteria protected within biofilms are much harder to kill than individual isolated bacteria . Even more complex morphological changes are sometimes possible . For example , when starved of amino acids , Myxobacteria detect surrounding cells in a process known as quorum sensing , migrate toward each other , and aggregate to form fruiting bodies up to 500 micrometres long and containing approximately 100,000 bacterial cells . In these fruiting bodies , the bacteria perform separate tasks ; this type of cooperation is a simple type of multicellular organisation . For example , about one in 10 cells migrate to the top of these fruiting bodies and differentiate into a specialised dormant state called myxospores , which are more resistant to drying and other adverse environmental conditions than are ordinary cells . Cellular structure Intracellular structures The bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell membrane ( also known as a lipid , cytoplasmic or plasma membrane ) . This membrane encloses the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients , proteins and other essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell . As they are prokaryotes , bacteria do not usually have membrane-bound organelles in their cytoplasm , and thus contain few large intracellular structures . They lack a true nucleus , mitochondria , chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells . Bacteria were once seen as simple bags of cytoplasm , but structures such as the prokaryotic cytoskeleton and the localization of proteins to specific locations within the cytoplasm that give bacteria some complexity have been discovered . These subcellular levels of organization have been called `` bacterial hyperstructures '' . Bacterial microcompartments , such as carboxysomes , provide a further level of organization ; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells , rather than by lipid membranes . These `` polyhedral organelles '' localize and compartmentalize bacterial metabolism , a function performed by the membrane-bound organelles in eukaryotes . Many important biochemical reactions , such as energy generation , use concentration gradients across membranes . The general lack of internal membranes in bacteria means reactions such as electron transport occur across the cell membrane between the cytoplasm and the periplasmic space . However , in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and fills most of the cell with layers of light-gathering membrane . These light-gathering complexes may even form lipid-enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria . Other proteins import nutrients across the cell membrane , or expel undesired molecules from the cytoplasm . Bacteria do not have a membrane-bound nucleus , and their genetic material is typically a single circular DNA chromosome located in the cytoplasm in an irregularly shaped body called the nucleoid . The nucleoid contains the chromosome with its associated proteins and RNA . The phylum Planctomycetes and candidate phylum Poribacteria may be exceptions to the general absence of internal membranes in bacteria , because they appear to have a double membrane around their nucleoids and contain other membrane-bound cellular structures . Like all living organisms , bacteria contain ribosomes , often grouped in chains called polyribosomes , for the production of proteins , but the structure of the bacterial ribosome is different from that of eukaryotes and Archaea . Bacterial ribosomes have a sedimentation rate of 70S ( measured in Svedberg units ) : their subunits have rates of 30S and 50S . Some antibiotics bind specifically to 70S ribosomes and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis . Those antibiotics kill bacteria without affecting the larger 80S ribosomes of eukaryotic cells and without harming the host . Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules for later use , such as glycogen , polyphosphate , sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates . Certain bacterial species , such as the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria , produce internal gas vesicles , which they use to regulate their buoyancy – allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels . Intracellular membranes called chromatophores are also found in membranes of phototrophic bacteria . Used primarily for photosynthesis , they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids . An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes , but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy . Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes . The most common inclusions are glycogen , lipid droplets , crystals , and pigments . Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate . These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect ; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue . Gas vacuoles , which are freely permeable to gas , are membrane-bound vesicles present in some species of Cyanobacteria . They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy . Microcompartments are widespread , membrane-bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes . Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments that contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation . Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments , present in magnetotactic bacteria , that contain magnetic crystals . Extracellular structures In most bacteria , a cell wall is present on the outside of the cell membrane . The cell membrane and cell wall comprise the cell envelope . A common bacterial cell wall material is peptidoglycan ( called `` murein '' in older sources ) , which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by peptides containing D-amino acids . Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi , which are made of cellulose and chitin , respectively . The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea , which do not contain peptidoglycan . The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria , and the antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan . There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria , a thick one in the gram-positives and a thinner one in the gram-negatives . The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain , a test long-employed for the classification of bacterial species . Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids . In contrast , gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins . Lipopolysaccharides , also called endotoxins , are composed of polysaccharides and lipid A that is responsible for much of the toxicity of gram-negative bacteria . Most bacteria have the gram-negative cell wall , and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria have the alternative gram-positive arrangement . These two groups were previously known as the low G+C and high G+C gram-positive bacteria , respectively . These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility ; for instance , vancomycin can kill only gram-positive bacteria and is ineffective against gram-negative pathogens , such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa . If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed , it is called a protoplast , whereas if it is partially removed , it is called a spheroplast . β-Lactam antibiotics , such as penicillin , inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross-links in the bacterial cell wall . The enzyme lysozyme , found in human tears , also digests the cell wall of bacteria and is the body 's main defense against eye infections . Acid-fast bacteria , such as Mycobacteria , are resistant to decolorization by acids during staining procedures . The high mycolic acid content of Mycobacteria , is responsible for the staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention . The most common staining technique used to identify acid-fast bacteria is the Ziehl-Neelsen stain or acid-fast stain , in which the acid-fast bacilli are stained bright-red and stand out clearly against a blue background . L-form bacteria are strains of bacteria that lack cell walls . The main pathogenic bacteria in this class is Mycoplasma ( not to be confused with Mycobacteria ) . In many bacteria , an S-layer of rigidly arrayed protein molecules covers the outside of the cell . This layer provides chemical and physical protection for the cell surface and can act as a macromolecular diffusion barrier . S-layers have diverse but mostly poorly understood functions , but are known to act as virulence factors in Campylobacter and contain surface enzymes in Bacillus stearothermophilus . Flagella are rigid protein structures , about 20 nanometres in diameter and up to 20 micrometres in length , that are used for motility . Flagella are driven by the energy released by the transfer of ions down an electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane . Fimbriae ( sometimes called `` attachment pili '' ) are fine filaments of protein , usually 2–10 nanometres in diameter and up to several micrometers in length . They are distributed over the surface of the cell , and resemble fine hairs when seen under the electron microscope . Fimbriae are believed to be involved in attachment to solid surfaces or to other cells , and are essential for the virulence of some bacterial pathogens . Pili ( sing . pilus ) are cellular appendages , slightly larger than fimbriae , that can transfer genetic material between bacterial cells in a process called conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or `` sex pili '' ( see bacterial genetics , below ) . They can also generate movement where they are called type IV pili ( see movement , below ) . Glycocalyx are produced by many bacteria to surround their cells , and vary in structural complexity : ranging from a disorganised slime layer of extra-cellular polymer to a highly structured capsule . These structures can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells such as macrophages ( part of the human immune system ) . They can also act as antigens and be involved in cell recognition , as well as aiding attachment to surfaces and the formation of biofilms . The assembly of these extracellular structures is dependent on bacterial secretion systems . These transfer proteins from the cytoplasm into the periplasm or into the environment around the cell . Many types of secretion systems are known and these structures are often essential for the virulence of pathogens , so are intensively studied . Endospores Certain genera of gram-positive bacteria , such as Bacillus , Clostridium , Sporohalobacter , Anaerobacter , and Heliobacterium , can form highly resistant , dormant structures called endospores . In almost all cases , one endospore is formed and this is not a reproductive process , although Anaerobacter can make up to seven endospores in a single cell . Endospores have a central core of cytoplasm containing DNA and ribosomes surrounded by a cortex layer and protected by an impermeable and rigid coat . Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound that composes 5 % to 15 % of the dry weight of bacterial spores . It is implicated as responsible for the heat resistance of the endospore . Endospores show no detectable metabolism and can survive extreme physical and chemical stresses , such as high levels of UV light , gamma radiation , detergents , disinfectants , heat , freezing , pressure , and desiccation . In this dormant state , these organisms may remain viable for millions of years , and endospores even allow bacteria to survive exposure to the vacuum and radiation in space . According to scientist Dr. Steinn Sigurdsson , `` There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth — and we know they 're very hardened to radiation . '' Endospore-forming bacteria can also cause disease : for example , anthrax can be contracted by the inhalation of Bacillus anthracis endospores , and contamination of deep puncture wounds with Clostridium tetani endospores causes tetanus . Metabolism Bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic types . The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of bacteria has traditionally been used to define their taxonomy , but these traits often do not correspond with modern genetic classifications . Bacterial metabolism is classified into nutritional groups on the basis of three major criteria : the kind of energy used for growth , the source of carbon , and the electron donors used for growth . An additional criterion of respiratory microorganisms are the electron acceptors used for aerobic or anaerobic respiration . Carbon metabolism in bacteria is either heterotrophic , where organic carbon compounds are used as carbon sources , or autotrophic , meaning that cellular carbon is obtained by fixing carbon dioxide . Heterotrophic bacteria include parasitic types . Typical autotrophic bacteria are phototrophic cyanobacteria , green sulfur-bacteria and some purple bacteria , but also many chemolithotrophic species , such as nitrifying or sulfur-oxidising bacteria . Energy metabolism of bacteria is either based on phototrophy , the use of light through photosynthesis , or based on chemotrophy , the use of chemical substances for energy , which are mostly oxidised at the expense of oxygen or alternative electron acceptors ( aerobic/anaerobic respiration ) . Bacteria are further divided into lithotrophs that use inorganic electron donors and organotrophs that use organic compounds as electron donors . Chemotrophic organisms use the respective electron donors for energy conservation ( by aerobic/anaerobic respiration or fermentation ) and biosynthetic reactions ( e.g. , carbon dioxide fixation ) , whereas phototrophic organisms use them only for biosynthetic purposes . Respiratory organisms use chemical compounds as a source of energy by taking electrons from the reduced substrate and transferring them to a terminal electron acceptor in a redox reaction . This reaction releases energy that can be used to synthesise ATP and drive metabolism . In aerobic organisms , oxygen is used as the electron acceptor . In anaerobic organisms other inorganic compounds , such as nitrate , sulfate or carbon dioxide are used as electron acceptors . This leads to the ecologically important processes of denitrification , sulfate reduction , and acetogenesis , respectively . Another way of life of chemotrophs in the absence of possible electron acceptors is fermentation , wherein the electrons taken from the reduced substrates are transferred to oxidised intermediates to generate reduced fermentation products ( e.g. , lactate , ethanol , hydrogen , butyric acid ) . Fermentation is possible , because the energy content of the substrates is higher than that of the products , which allows the organisms to synthesise ATP and drive their metabolism . These processes are also important in biological responses to pollution ; for example , sulfate-reducing bacteria are largely responsible for the production of the highly toxic forms of mercury ( methyl- and dimethylmercury ) in the environment . Non-respiratory anaerobes use fermentation to generate energy and reducing power , secreting metabolic by-products ( such as ethanol in brewing ) as waste . Facultative anaerobes can switch between fermentation and different terminal electron acceptors depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves . Lithotrophic bacteria can use inorganic compounds as a source of energy . Common inorganic electron donors are hydrogen , carbon monoxide , ammonia ( leading to nitrification ) , ferrous iron and other reduced metal ions , and several reduced sulfur compounds . In unusual circumstances , the gas methane can be used by methanotrophic bacteria as both a source of electrons and a substrate for carbon anabolism . In both aerobic phototrophy and chemolithotrophy , oxygen is used as a terminal electron acceptor , whereas under anaerobic conditions inorganic compounds are used instead . Most lithotrophic organisms are autotrophic , whereas organotrophic organisms are heterotrophic . In addition to fixing carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , some bacteria also fix nitrogen gas ( nitrogen fixation ) using the enzyme nitrogenase . This environmentally important trait can be found in bacteria of nearly all the metabolic types listed above , but is not universal . Regardless of the type of metabolic process they employ , the majority of bacteria are able to take in raw materials only in the form of relatively small molecules , which enter the cell by diffusion or through molecular channels in cell membranes . The Planctomycetes are the exception ( as they are in possessing membranes around their nuclear material ) . It has recently been shown that Gemmata obscuriglobus is able to take in large molecules via a process that in some ways resembles endocytosis , the process used by eukaryotic cells to engulf external items . Growth and reproduction Unlike in multicellular organisms , increases in cell size ( cell growth ) and reproduction by cell division are tightly linked in unicellular organisms . Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through binary fission , a form of asexual reproduction . Under optimal conditions , bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly , and bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 9.8 minutes . In cell division , two identical clone daughter cells are produced . Some bacteria , while still reproducing asexually , form more complex reproductive structures that help disperse the newly formed daughter cells . Examples include fruiting body formation by Myxobacteria and aerial hyphae formation by Streptomyces , or budding . Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell . In the laboratory , bacteria are usually grown using solid or liquid media . Solid growth media , such as agar plates , are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain . However , liquid growth media are used when measurement of growth or large volumes of cells are required . Growth in stirred liquid media occurs as an even cell suspension , making the cultures easy to divide and transfer , although isolating single bacteria from liquid media is difficult . The use of selective media ( media with specific nutrients added or deficient , or with antibiotics added ) can help identify specific organisms . Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly . However , in natural environments , nutrients are limited , meaning that bacteria can not continue to reproduce indefinitely . This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies ( see r/K selection theory ) . Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available , such as the formation of algal ( and cyanobacterial ) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer . Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments , such as the production of multiple antibiotics by Streptomyces that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms . In nature , many organisms live in communities ( e.g. , biofilms ) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses . These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms ( syntrophy ) . Bacterial growth follows four phases . When a population of bacteria first enter a high-nutrient environment that allows growth , the cells need to adapt to their new environment . The first phase of growth is the lag phase , a period of slow growth when the cells are adapting to the high-nutrient environment and preparing for fast growth . The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates , as proteins necessary for rapid growth are produced . The second phase of growth is the log phase , also known as the logarithmic or exponential phase . The log phase is marked by rapid exponential growth . The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the growth rate ( k ) , and the time it takes the cells to double is known as the generation time ( g ) . During log phase , nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until one of the nutrients is depleted and starts limiting growth . The third phase of growth is the stationary phase and is caused by depleted nutrients . The cells reduce their metabolic activity and consume non-essential cellular proteins . The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to a stress response state and there is increased expression of genes involved in DNA repair , antioxidant metabolism and nutrient transport .

qw_3011--Bacteria.txt

What is the name for the infection of living tissues such as skin, lung or bowel by bacteria?

Henley-on-Thames is a town and civil parish on the River Thames in Oxfordshire , England , about 10 mi downstream and 7 mi northeast of Reading , 10 miles upstream and 7 miles west from Maidenhead . One of its boundaries has the tripoint of Oxfordshire , Berkshire and Buckinghamshire . The 2011 Census recorded the parish population as 11,619 . History Henley does not appear in Domesday Book of 1086 ; often it is mistaken for Henlei in the book which is in Surrey . The first record of Henley is from 1179 , when it is recorded that King Henry II `` had bought land for the making of buildings '' . King John granted the manor of Benson and the town and manor of Henley to Robert Harcourt in 1199 . A church at Henley is first mentioned in 1204 . In 1205 the town received a paviage grant , and in 1234 the bridge is first mentioned . In 1278 Henley is described as a hamlet of Benson with a chapel . The street plan was probably established by the end of the 13th century . As a demesne of the crown it was granted in 1337 to John de Molyns , whose family held it for about 250 years . It is said that members for Henley sat in parliaments of Edward I and Edward III , but no writs have been found to substantiate this . The existing Thursday market , it is believed , was granted by a charter of King John . A market was certainly in existence by 1269 ; however , the jurors of the assize of 1284 said that they did not know by what warrant the earl of Cornwall held a market and fair in the town of Henley . The existing Corpus Christi fair was granted by a charter of Henry VI . During the Black Death pandemic that swept through England in the 14th century , Henley lost 60 % of its population . By the beginning of the 16th century the town extended along the west bank of the Thames from Friday Street in the south to the Manor , now Phyllis Court , in the north and took in Hart Street and New Street . To the west it included Bell Street and the Market Place . Henry VIII granted the use of the titles `` mayor '' and `` burgess '' , and the town was incorporated in 1568 in the name of the warden , portreeves , burgesses and commonalty . The original charter was issued by Elizabeth I but replaced by one from George I in 1722 . Henley suffered at the hands of both parties in the Civil War . Later , William III rested here on his march to London in 1688 , at the nearby recently rebuilt Fawley Court , and received a deputation from the Lords . The town 's period of prosperity in the 17th and 18th centuries was due to manufactures of glass and malt , and trade in corn and wool . Henley-on-Thames supplied London with timber and grain . A workhouse to accommodate 150 people was built at West Hill in Henley in 1790 , and was later enlarged to accommodate 250 as the Henley Poor Law Union workhouse . Landmarks and structures Henley Bridge is a five arched bridge across the river built in 1786 . It is a Grade I listed building . During 2011 the bridge underwent a £200,000 repair programme after being hit by the boat Crazy Love in August 2010 . About a mile upstream of the bridge is Marsh Lock . Chantry House is the second Grade I listed building in the town . It is unusual in having more storeys on one side than on the other . The Church of England parish church of St Mary the Virgin is nearby , and has a 16th-century tower . The Old Bell is a pub in the centre of Henley . The building has been dated from 1325 : the oldest-dated building in the town . To celebrate Queen Victoria 's Jubilee , 60 oak trees were planted in the shape of a Victoria Cross near Fair Mile . Two notable buildings just outside Henley , in Buckinghamshire , are : * Fawley Court , a red-brick building designed by Christopher Wren for William Freeman ( 1684 ) with subsequent interior remodelling by James Wyatt and landscaping by Lancelot `` Capability '' Brown . * Greenlands , which took its present form when owned by W. H. Smith and is now home to Henley Business School Transport The town 's railway station is on a branch line from Twyford . There are direct trains into London Paddington during peak hours . At other times one must change trains at Twyford . There are express mainline rail services from Reading ( 10 km away ) to Paddington . Trains from High Wycombe ( 20 km away ) go to London Marylebone . The M4 motorway ( junction 8/9 ) and the M40 motorway ( junction 4 ) are both about 12 km away . The bus service around the town is operated by Whites Coaches as routes 151 , 152 , 153 and 154 ; other routes are provided by Arriva Shires & Essex , Thames Travel and Courtney Coaches . Well-known institutions and organisations The River and Rowing Museum , located in Mill Meadows , is the town 's one museum . It was established in 1998 , and officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II . The museum , designed by the architect David Chipperfield , features information on the River Thames , the sport of rowing , and the town of Henley itself . The University of Reading 's Henley Business School is near Henley , as is Henley College . Rowing Henley is a world-renowned centre for rowing . Each summer the Henley Royal Regatta is held on Henley Reach , a naturally straight stretch of the river just north of the town . It was extended artificially . The event became `` Royal '' in 1851 , when Prince Albert became patron of the regatta . Other regattas and rowing races are held on the same reach , including Henley Women 's Regatta , the Henley Boat Races for women 's and lightweight teams between Oxford and Cambridge University , Henley Town and Visitors Regatta , Henley Veteran Regatta , Upper Thames Small Boats Head , Henley Fours and Eights Head , and Henley Sculls . These `` Heads '' often attract strong crews that have won medals at National Championships . Local rowing clubs include : * Henley Rowing Club ( located upstream of Henley Bridge ) * Leander Club ( world famous , home to Olympic and World Champions , near Henley Bridge ) * Phyllis Court Rowing Club ( part of the Phyllis Court Club and set up for recreational rowing ) * Upper Thames Rowing Club ( located just upstream from the 3/4-mile mark/Fawley/Old Blades ) * Henley Whalers ( associated with UTRC ) focus on fixed-seat rowing and sailing . The regatta depicted throughout Dead in the Water , an episode of the British detective television series Midsomer Murders , was filmed at Henley . Other sports Henley has the oldest Football team Henley Town F.C . recognised by the Oxfordshire Football Association , they play at The Triangle ground . Henley also has a rugby union club Henley Hawks which plays at the Dry Leas ground and a hockey club Henley Hockey Club which plays at Jubilee Park . Notable people * Mary Blandy lived at Blandy House her family 's home in Henley , now a dental surgery . In 1752 , she was hanged for the murder , by poisoning , of her father , Francis Blandy who had opposed her engagement to a Scottish man who was already married . She proclaimed on the day of the hanging in Oxford : `` Gentlemen , do n't hang me high for the sake of decency '' . Mary is buried with her parents at St Mary The Virgin 's Church , despite that being forbidden at the time for a murderer . She is said to haunt the Kenton Theatre the family house and St Mary 's churchyard . * Winston Churchill led the Queen 's Own Oxfordshire Hussars , ( C Squadron ) who were based at `` The White House '' on Market Place in 1908 and some years after that . * Sir Frank Crisp ( 1843–1919 ) , first baronet , lawyer and microscopist , the ideator of Friar Park . The `` Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) '' composed by the former Beatle George Harrison is dedicated to him . * The American science fiction writer James Blish ( 1921–1975 ) lived in Henley from 1968 until his death . * British engineer Ross Brawn , best known for his role as the technical director of the Scuderia Ferrari f1 team and former team principal of Mercedes Grand Prix . * Esther Deuzeville ( 1786–1851 ) , as Esther Copley later a writer of children 's books and works on domestic economy addressed to the working people , lived here with her parents until her marriage in 1809 . There is a plaque to her and her family in the United Reformed Church . * French general Charles-François Dumouriez ( 1739–1823 ) is buried at St Mary the Virgin parish church . * The Freeman family of Fawley Court : Several generations of Freemans lived at Fawley Court on the outskirts of Henley from 1684 to 1852 . They contributed significantly to the development of Henley and the surrounding area as well as more generally to architecture and the study of antiquities ( John ( Cooke ) Freeman and Sambrooke Freeman ) , and veterinary science and equitation ( Strickland Freeman ) . * Humphrey Gainsborough ( 1718–1776 ) , brother of the artist Thomas Gainsborough , was a pastor and inventor who lived in Henley . A blue plaque marks his house , `` The Manse '' . * Michael Heseltine , Baron Heseltine of Thenford preceded Boris Johnson as Conservative MP for Henley . * Musician and former Beatle George Harrison ( 1943–2001 ) purchased and restored the buildings and gardens of Friar Park , Henley-on-Thames in 1970 , and lived there until his death . His widow , Olivia Harrison , continues to live on the estate . * Politician Boris Johnson was the Member of Parliament until he resigned after being elected Mayor of London in 2008 . * Politician William Lenthall ( 1591–1662 ) was born in Henley-on-Thames . He was Speaker of the House of Commons between 1629 and 1640 . * Author George Orwell ( 1903–1950 ) spent some of his formative years in Henley-on-Thames and the nearby village of Shiplake . * Prince Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł ( 1917–1976 ) is buried at St Anne 's church , Fawley Court just outside Henley , where he founded the Divine Mercy College . * Mathematician Marcus du Sautoy lives in Henley . * Singer Lee Ryan lives in Henley . * Broadcaster Phillip Schofield lives in Henley with his wife and two daughters . * Financier Urs Schwarzenbach lives at Culham Court , Aston , east of Henley . * Entrepreneur , philanthropist and workplace revolutionary Dame Stephanie Shirley lives in Henley with her husband . * Singer Dusty Springfield ( 1939–1999 ) has a gravesite and marker in the grounds of St Mary the Virgin parish church . Her ashes were scattered in Henley and in Ireland at the Cliffs of Moher . Each year her fans gather in Henley to celebrate `` Dusty Day '' on the closest Sunday to her birthday ( 16 April ) . * Sir Ninian Stephen , Australian judge and Governor-General of Australia ( 1982–1989 ) was born in Henley * Harry Stott , joint winner of I had Do Anything and star of TV show Roman Mysteries . * Actor David Tomlinson ( 1917–2000 ) was born and raised here . * Actor Orlando Bloom has property in Henley-on-Thames . * Scriptwriter Richard Curtis owns a holiday home in the parish . * Actor Jonathan Lloyd Walker was born and raised here . He now lives in West Vancouver , Canada . * Jonathan Bowden lived in Rotherfield Peppard ( post town Henley-on-Thames ) throughout the 1970s .

odql_13474--Henley-on-Thames.txt

Who wrote the book 'Friends, Voters, Countrymen' about his election as MP for Henley-on-Thames in 2001?

In music theory , an interval is the difference between two pitches . An interval may be described as horizontal , linear , or melodic if it refers to successively sounding tones , such as two adjacent pitches in a melody , and vertical or harmonic if it pertains to simultaneously sounding tones , such as in a chord . In Western music , intervals are most commonly differences between notes of a diatonic scale . The smallest of these intervals is a semitone . Intervals smaller than a semitone are called microtones . They can be formed using the notes of various kinds of non-diatonic scales . Some of the very smallest ones are called commas , and describe small discrepancies , observed in some tuning systems , between enharmonically equivalent notes such as C and D. Intervals can be arbitrarily small , and even imperceptible to the human ear . In physical terms , an interval is the ratio between two sonic frequencies . For example , any two notes an octave apart have a frequency ratio of 2:1 . This means that successive increments of pitch by the same interval result in an exponential increase of frequency , even though the human ear perceives this as a linear increase in pitch . For this reason , intervals are often measured in cents , a unit derived from the logarithm of the frequency ratio . In Western music theory , the most common naming scheme for intervals describes two properties of the interval : the quality ( perfect , major , minor , augmented , diminished ) and number ( unison , second , third , etc . ) . Examples include the minor third or perfect fifth . These names describe not only the difference in semitones between the upper and lower notes , but also how the interval is spelled . The importance of spelling stems from the historical practice of differentiating the frequency ratios of enharmonic intervals such as G–G and G–A . Size The size of an interval ( also known as its width or height ) can be represented using two alternative and equivalently valid methods , each appropriate to a different context : frequency ratios or cents . Frequency ratios The size of an interval between two notes may be measured by the ratio of their frequencies . When a musical instrument is tuned using a just intonation tuning system , the size of the main intervals can be expressed by small-integer ratios , such as 1:1 ( unison ) , 2:1 ( octave ) , 3:2 ( perfect fifth ) , 4:3 ( perfect fourth ) , 5:4 ( major third ) , 6:5 ( minor third ) . Intervals with small-integer ratios are often called just intervals , or pure intervals . Most commonly , however , musical instruments are nowadays tuned using a different tuning system , called 12-tone equal temperament . As a consequence , the size of most equal-tempered intervals can not be expressed by small-integer ratios , although it is very close to the size of the corresponding just intervals . For instance , an equal-tempered fifth has a frequency ratio of 27/12:1 , approximately equal to 1.498:1 , or 2.997:2 ( very close to 3:2 ) . For a comparison between the size of intervals in different tuning systems , see section Size in different tuning systems . Cents The standard system for comparing interval sizes is with cents . The cent is a logarithmic unit of measurement . If frequency is expressed in a logarithmic scale , and along that scale the distance between a given frequency and its double ( also called octave ) is divided into 1200 equal parts , each of these parts is one cent . In twelve-tone equal temperament ( 12-TET ) , a tuning system in which all semitones have the same size , the size of one semitone is exactly 100 cents . Hence , in 12-TET the cent can be also defined as one hundredth of a semitone . Mathematically , the size in cents of the interval from frequency f1 to frequency f2 is n = 1200 \cdot \log_2 \left ( \frac { f_2 } { f_1 } \right ) . Main intervals The table shows the most widely used conventional names for the intervals between the notes of a chromatic scale . A perfect unison ( also known as perfect prime ) '' Prime ( ii ) . See Unison '' ( from [ http : //www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/53859 Prime ] . Grove Music Online . Oxford University Press . Accessed August 2013 . ) is an interval formed by two identical notes . Its size is zero cents . A semitone is any interval between two adjacent notes in a chromatic scale , a whole tone is an interval spanning two semitones ( for example , a major second ) , and a tritone is an interval spanning three tones , or six semitones ( for example , an augmented fourth ) . Rarely , the term ditone is also used to indicate an interval spanning two whole tones ( for example , a major third ) , or more strictly as a synonym of major third . Intervals with different names may span the same number of semitones , and may even have the same width . For instance , the interval from D to F is a major third , while that from D to G is a diminished fourth . However , they both span 4 semitones . If the instrument is tuned so that the 12 notes of the chromatic scale are equally spaced ( as in equal temperament ) , these intervals will also have the same width . Namely , all semitones will have a width of 100 cents , and all intervals spanning 4 semitones will be 400 cents wide . The names listed here can not be determined by counting semitones alone . The rules to determine them are explained below . Other names , determined with different naming conventions , are listed in a separate section . Intervals smaller than one semitone ( commas or microtones ) and larger than one octave ( compound intervals ) are introduced below . Interval number and quality In Western music theory , an interval is named according to its number ( also called diatonic number ) and quality . For instance , major third ( or M3 ) is an interval name , in which the term major ( M ) describes the quality of the interval , and third ( 3 ) indicates its number . Number The number of an interval is the number of letter names it encompasses or staff positions it encompasses . Both lines and spaces ( see figure ) are counted , including the positions of both notes forming the interval . For instance , the interval C–G is a fifth ( denoted P5 ) because the notes from C to the G above it encompass five letter names ( C , D , E , F , G ) and occupy five consecutive staff positions , including the positions of C and G. The table and the figure above show intervals with numbers ranging from 1 ( e.g. , P1 ) to 8 ( e.g. , P8 ) . Intervals with larger numbers are called compound intervals . There is a one-to-one correspondence between staff positions and diatonic-scale degrees ( the notes of a diatonic scale ) . This means that interval numbers can be also determined by counting diatonic scale degrees , rather than staff positions , provided that the two notes which form the interval are drawn from a diatonic scale . Namely , C–G is a fifth because in any diatonic scale that contains C and G , the sequence from C to G includes five notes . For instance , in the A-major diatonic scale , the five notes are C–D–E–F–G ( see figure ) . This is not true for all kinds of scales . For instance , in a chromatic scale , the notes from C to G are eight ( C–C–D–D–E–F–F–G ) . This is the reason interval numbers are also called diatonic numbers , and this convention is called diatonic numbering . If one adds any accidentals to the notes that form an interval , by definition the notes do not change their staff positions . As a consequence , any interval has the same interval number as the corresponding natural interval , formed by the same notes without accidentals . For instance , the intervals C–G ( spanning 8 semitones ) and C–G ( spanning 6 semitones ) are fifths , like the corresponding natural interval C–G ( 7 semitones ) . Notice that interval numbers represent an inclusive count of encompassed staff positions or note names , not the difference between the endpoints . In other words , start counting the lower pitch as one , not zero . For that reason , the interval C–C , a perfect unison , is called a prime ( meaning `` 1 '' ) , even though there 's no difference between the endpoints . Continuing , the interval C–D is a second , but D is only one staff position , or diatonic-scale degree , above C. Similarly , C–E is a third , but E is only two staff positions above C , and so on . As a consequence , joining two intervals always yields an interval number one less than their sum . For instance , the intervals C–E and E–G are thirds , but joined together they form a fifth ( C–G ) , not a sixth . Similarly , a stack of three thirds , such as C–E , E–G , and G–B , is a seventh ( C–B ) , not a ninth . Read the Compound intervals section to determine the diatonic numbers of intervals larger than an octave . Quality The name of any interval is further qualified using the terms perfect ( P ) , major ( M ) , minor ( m ) , augmented ( A ) , and diminished ( d ) . This is called its interval quality . It is possible to have doubly diminished and doubly augmented intervals , but these are quite rare , as they occur only in chromatic contexts . The quality of a compound interval is the quality of the simple interval on which it is based . ; Perfect Perfect intervals are so-called because they were traditionally considered perfectly consonant , although in Western classical music the perfect fourth was sometimes regarded as a less than perfect consonance , when its function was contrapuntal . Conversely , minor , major , augmented or diminished intervals are typically considered to be less consonant , and were traditionally classified as mediocre consonances , imperfect consonances , or dissonances . Within a diatonic scale all unisons ( P1 ) and octaves ( P8 ) are perfect . Most fourths and fifths are also perfect ( P4 and P5 ) , with five and seven semitones respectively . There 's one occurrence of a fourth and a fifth which are not perfect , as they both span six semitones : an augmented fourth ( A4 ) , and its inversion , a diminished fifth ( d5 ) . For instance , in a C-major scale , the A4 is between F and B , and the d5 is between B and F ( see table ) . By definition , the inversion of a perfect interval is also perfect . Since the inversion does not change the pitch of the two notes , it hardly affects their level of consonance ( matching of their harmonics ) . Conversely , other kinds of intervals have the opposite quality with respect to their inversion . The inversion of a major interval is a minor interval , the inversion of an augmented interval is a diminished interval . ; Major and minor As shown in the table , a diatonic scale defines seven intervals for each interval number , each starting from a different note ( seven unisons , seven seconds , etc . ) . The intervals formed by the notes of a diatonic scale are called diatonic . Except for unisons and octaves , the diatonic intervals with a given interval number always occur in two sizes , which differ by one semitone . For example , six of the fifths span seven semitones . The other one spans six semitones . Four of the thirds span three semitones , the others four . If one of the two versions is a perfect interval , the other is called either diminished ( i.e . narrowed by one semitone ) or augmented ( i.e . widened by one semitone ) . Otherwise , the larger version is called major , the smaller one minor . For instance , since a 7-semitone fifth is a perfect interval ( P5 ) , the 6-semitone fifth is called `` diminished fifth '' ( d5 ) . Conversely , since neither kind of third is perfect , the larger one is called `` major third '' ( M3 ) , the smaller one `` minor third '' ( m3 ) . Within a diatonic scale , unisons and octaves are always qualified as perfect , fourths as either perfect or augmented , fifths as perfect or diminished , and all the other intervals ( seconds , thirds , sixths , sevenths ) as major or minor . ; Augmented and diminished Augmented intervals are wider by one semitone than perfect or major intervals , while having the same interval number ( i.e. , encompassing the same number of staff positions ) . Diminished intervals are narrower by one semitone than perfect or minor intervals of the same interval number . For instance , an augmented third such as C–E spans five semitones , exceeding a major third ( C–E ) by one semitone , while a diminished third such as C–E spans two semitones , falling short of a minor third ( C–E ) by one semitone . The augmented fourth ( A4 ) and the diminished fifth ( d5 ) are the only augmented and diminished intervals that appear in diatonic scales ( see table ) . Example Neither the number , nor the quality of an interval can be determined by counting semitones alone . As explained above , the number of staff positions must be taken into account as well . For example , as shown in the table below , there are four semitones between A and B , between A and C , between A and D , and between A and E , but * A–B is a second , as it encompasses two staff positions ( A , B ) , and it is doubly augmented , as it exceeds a major second ( such as A–B ) by two semitones . * A–C is a third , as it encompasses three staff positions ( A , B , C ) , and it is major , as it spans 4 semitones . * A–D is a fourth , as it encompasses four staff positions ( A , B , C , D ) , and it is diminished , as it falls short of a perfect fourth ( such as A–D ) by one semitone . * A-E is a fifth , as it encompasses five staff positions ( A , B , C , D , E ) , and it is triply diminished , as it falls short of a perfect fifth ( such as A–E ) by three semitones . Shorthand notation Intervals are often abbreviated with a P for perfect , m for minor , M for major , d for diminished , A for augmented , followed by the interval number . The indication M and P are often omitted . The octave is P8 , and a unison is usually referred to simply as `` a unison '' but can be labeled P1 . The tritone , an augmented fourth or diminished fifth is often TT . The interval qualities may be also abbreviated with perf , min , maj , dim , aug . Examples : * m2 ( or min2 ) : minor second , * M3 ( or maj3 ) : major third , * A4 ( or aug4 ) : augmented fourth , * d5 ( or dim5 ) : diminished fifth , * P5 ( or perf5 ) : perfect fifth . Inversion A simple interval ( i.e. , an interval smaller than or equal to an octave ) may be inverted by raising the lower pitch an octave , or lowering the upper pitch an octave . For example , the fourth from a lower C to a higher F may be inverted to make a fifth , from a lower F to a higher C . There are two rules to determine the number and quality of the inversion of any simple interval : # The interval number and the number of its inversion always add up to nine ( 4 + 5 = 9 , in the example just given ) . # The inversion of a major interval is a minor interval , and vice versa ; the inversion of a perfect interval is also perfect ; the inversion of an augmented interval is a diminished interval , and vice versa ; the inversion of a doubly augmented interval is a doubly diminished interval , and vice versa . For example , the interval from C to the E above it is a minor third . By the two rules just given , the interval from E to the C above it must be a major sixth . Since compound intervals are larger than an octave , `` the inversion of any compound interval is always the same as the inversion of the simple interval from which it is compounded . '' For intervals identified by their ratio , the inversion is determined by reversing the ratio and multiplying by 2 . For example , the inversion of a 5:4 ratio is an 8:5 ratio . For intervals identified by an integer number of semitones , the inversion is obtained by subtracting that number from 12 . Since an interval class is the lower number selected among the interval integer and its inversion , interval classes can not be inverted . Classification Intervals can be described , classified , or compared with each other according to various criteria . Melodic and harmonic An interval can be described as * Vertical or harmonic if the two notes sound simultaneously * Horizontal , linear , or melodic if they sound successively . Diatonic and chromatic In general , * A diatonic interval is an interval formed by two notes of a diatonic scale . * A chromatic interval is a non-diatonic interval formed by two notes of a chromatic scale . The table above depicts the 56 diatonic intervals formed by the notes of the C major scale ( a diatonic scale ) . Notice that these intervals , as well as any other diatonic interval , can be also formed by the notes of a chromatic scale . The distinction between diatonic and chromatic intervals is controversial , as it is based on the definition of diatonic scale , which is variable in the literature . For example , the interval B–E ( a diminished fourth , occurring in the harmonic C-minor scale ) is considered diatonic if the harmonic minor scales are considered diatonic as well . Otherwise , it is considered chromatic . For further details , see the main article . By a commonly used definition of diatonic scale ( which excludes the harmonic minor and melodic minor scales ) , all perfect , major and minor intervals are diatonic . Conversely , no augmented or diminished interval is diatonic , except for the augmented fourth and diminished fifth . The distinction between diatonic and chromatic intervals may be also sensitive to context . The above-mentioned 56 intervals formed by the C-major scale are sometimes called diatonic to C major . All other intervals are called chromatic to C major . For instance , the perfect fifth A–E is chromatic to C major , because A and E are not contained in the C major scale . However , it is diatonic to others , such as the A major scale . Consonant and dissonant Consonance and dissonance are relative terms that refer to the stability , or state of repose , of particular musical effects . Dissonant intervals are those that cause tension , and desire to be resolved to consonant intervals . These terms are relative to the usage of different compositional styles . * In 15th- and 16th-century usage , perfect fifths and octaves , and major and minor thirds and sixths were considered harmonically consonant , and all other intervals dissonant , including the perfect fourth , which by 1473 was described ( by Johannes Tinctoris ) as dissonant , except between the upper parts of a vertical sonority—for example , with a supporting third below ( `` 6-3 chords '' ) . In the common practice period , it makes more sense to speak of consonant and dissonant chords , and certain intervals previously thought to be dissonant ( such as minor sevenths ) became acceptable in certain contexts . However , 16th-century practice continued to be taught to beginning musicians throughout this period . * Hermann von Helmholtz ( 1821–1894 ) defined a harmonically consonant interval as one in which the two pitches have an upper partial ( an overtone ) in common This essentially defines all seconds and sevenths as dissonant , and the above thirds , fourths , fifths , and sixths as consonant . * David Cope ( 1997 ) suggests the concept of interval strength , in which an interval 's strength , consonance , or stability is determined by its approximation to a lower and stronger , or higher and weaker , position in the harmonic series . See also : Lipps–Meyer law and # Interval root All of the above analyses refer to vertical ( simultaneous ) intervals . Simple and compound A simple interval is an interval spanning at most one octave ( see Main intervals above ) . Intervals spanning more than one octave are called compound intervals , as they can be obtained by adding one or more octaves to a simple interval ( see below for details ) . Steps and skips Linear ( melodic ) intervals may be described as steps or skips . A step , or conjunct motion , Bonds , Mark Evan ( 2006 ) . A History of Music in Western Culture , p.123 . 2nd ed . ISBN 0-13-193104-0 . is a linear interval between two consecutive notes of a scale . Any larger interval is called a skip ( also called a leap ) , or disjunct motion . In the diatonic scale , a step is either a minor second ( sometimes also called half step ) or major second ( sometimes also called whole step ) , with all intervals of a minor third or larger being skips . For example , C to D ( major second ) is a step , whereas C to E ( major third ) is a skip . More generally , a step is a smaller or narrower interval in a musical line , and a skip is a wider or larger interval , with the categorization of intervals into steps and skips is determined by the tuning system and the pitch space used . Melodic motion in which the interval between any two consecutive pitches is no more than a step , or , less strictly , where skips are rare , is called stepwise or conjunct melodic motion , as opposed to skipwise or disjunct melodic motions , characterized by frequent skips . Enharmonic intervals Two intervals are considered to be enharmonic , or enharmonically equivalent , if they both contain the same pitches spelled in different ways ; that is , if the notes in the two intervals are themselves enharmonically equivalent . Enharmonic intervals span the same number of semitones . For example , the four intervals listed in the table below are all enharmonically equivalent , because the notes F and G indicate the same pitch , and the same is true for A and B . All these intervals span four semitones . When played on a piano keyboard , these intervals are indistinguishable as they are all played with the same two keys , but in a musical context the diatonic function of the notes incorporated is very different . Minute intervals There are also a number of minute intervals not found in the chromatic scale or labeled with a diatonic function , which have names of their own . They may be described as microtones , and some of them can be also classified as commas , as they describe small discrepancies , observed in some tuning systems , between enharmonically equivalent notes . In the following list , the interval sizes in cents are approximate . * A Pythagorean comma is the difference between twelve justly tuned perfect fifths and seven octaves . It is expressed by the frequency ratio 531441:524288 ( 23.5 cents ) . * A syntonic comma is the difference between four justly tuned perfect fifths and two octaves plus a major third . It is expressed by the ratio 81:80 ( 21.5 cents ) . * A septimal comma is 64:63 ( 27.3 cents ) , and is the difference between the Pythagorean or 3-limit `` 7th '' and the `` harmonic 7th '' . * A diesis is generally used to mean the difference between three justly tuned major thirds and one octave . It is expressed by the ratio 128:125 ( 41.1 cents ) . However , it has been used to mean other small intervals : see diesis for details . * A diaschisma is the difference between three octaves and four justly tuned perfect fifths plus two justly tuned major thirds . It is expressed by the ratio 2048:2025 ( 19.6 cents ) . * A schisma ( also skhisma ) is the difference between five octaves and eight justly tuned fifths plus one justly tuned major third . It is expressed by the ratio 32805:32768 ( 2.0 cents ) . It is also the difference between the Pythagorean and syntonic commas . ( A schismic major third is a schisma different from a just major third , eight fifths down and five octaves up , F in C . ) * A kleisma is the difference between six minor thirds and one tritave or perfect twelfth ( an octave plus a perfect fifth ) , with a frequency ratio of 15625:15552 ( 8.1 cents ) ( ) . * A septimal kleisma is six major thirds up , five fifths down and one octave up , with ratio 225:224 ( 7.7 cents ) . * A quarter tone is half the width of a semitone , which is half the width of a whole tone . It is equal to exactly 50 cents . Compound intervals A compound interval is an interval spanning more than one octave . Conversely , intervals spanning at most one octave are called simple intervals ( see Main intervals above ) . In general , a compound interval may be defined by a sequence or `` stack '' of two or more simple intervals of any kind . For instance , a major tenth ( two staff positions above one octave ) , also called compound major third , spans one octave plus one major third . Any compound interval can be always decomposed into one or more octaves plus one simple interval . For instance , a major seventeenth can be decomposed into two octaves and one major third , and this is the reason why it is called a compound major third , even when it is built by adding up four fifths . The diatonic number DNc of a compound interval formed from n simple intervals with diatonic numbers DN1 , DN2 , ... , DNn , is determined by : DN_c = 1

dpql_3555--Interval_(music).txt

Which number Beethoven symphony is known as ‘The Pastoral’?

Oman ( ; ' ) , officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ) , is an Arab country in the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula . Holding a strategically important position at the mouth of the Persian Gulf , the nation is bordered by the United Arab Emirates to the northwest , Saudi Arabia to the west , and Yemen to the south and southwest , and shares marine borders with Iran and Pakistan . The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast . The Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders , with the Strait of Hormuz ( which it shares with Iran ) and Gulf of Oman forming Musandam 's coastal boundaries . From the late 17th century , the Omani Sultanate was a powerful empire , vying with Portugal and Britain for influence in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean . At its peak in the 19th century , Omani influence or control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to modern-day Iran and Pakistan , and as far south as Zanzibar ( today part of Tanzania , also former capital ) . As its power declined in the 20th century , the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom . Historically , Muscat was the principal trading port of the Persian Gulf region . Muscat was also among the most important trading ports of the Indian Ocean . Oman 's official religion is Islam . Oman is an absolute monarchy . The Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said has been the hereditary leader of the country since 1970 . Sultan Qaboos is the longest-serving current ruler in the Middle East , and seventh-longest current-reigning monarch in the world . Oman has modest oil reserves , ranking 25th globally . Nevertheless , in 2010 the UNDP ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years . A significant portion of its economy is tourism and trade of fish , dates , and certain agricultural produce . This sets it apart from its neighbors ' solely oil-dependent economy . Oman is categorized as a high-income economy and ranks as the 74th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index . History Ancient history At Aybut Al Auwal , in the Dhofar Governorate of Oman , a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools , belonging to a regionally specific African lithic industry –the late Nubian Complex– known previously only from the northeast and Horn of Africa . Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old . This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene . Dereaze , located in the city of Ibri , is the oldest known human settlement in the area , dating back as many as 8,000 years to the Late Stone Age . Archaeological remains have been discovered here from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age . Findings have included stone implements , animal bones , shells and fire hearths , with the latter dating back to 7615 BC as the oldest signs of human settlement in the area . Other discoveries include hand-molded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks , heavy flint implements , pointed tools and scrapers . Sumerian tablets refer to a country called Magan or Makan , a name believed to refer to Oman 's ancient copper mines . Mazoon , another name used for the region , is derived from the word muzn , which means heavy clouds which carry abundant water . The present-day name of the country , Oman , is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen . Many such tribes settled in Oman , making a living by fishing , herding or stock breeding , and many present day Omani families are able to trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia . From the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD , Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties : the Achaemenids , Parthians and Sassanids . A few scholars believe that in the 6th century BC , the Achaemenids exerted a strong degree of control over the Omani peninsula , most likely ruling from a coastal center such as Sohar . Central Oman has its own indigenous so-called Late Iron Age cultural assemblage , the Samad al-Shan . By about 250 BC , the Parthian dynasty had brought the Persian Gulf under their control . They extended their influence as far as Oman , establishing garrisons there to exert control over the trade routes in the Persian Gulf . In the 3rd century AD , the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam , four centuries later . Omanis were among the first people to come in contact with and accept Islam . The conversion of the Omanis is usually ascribed to Amr ibn al-As , who was sent by the prophet Muhammad during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha ( Hisma ) . Portuguese colonization A decade after Vasco da Gama 's successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope and to India in 1497–98 , the Portuguese arrived in Oman and occupied Muscat for a 143-year period , from 1507 to 1650 . Their fortress still remains . In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes , the Portuguese built up and fortified the city , where remnants of their colonial architectural style still exist . An Ottoman fleet captured Muscat in 1552 , during the fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean . The Ottoman Turks captured Muscat from the Portuguese again between 1581–88 . Rebellious tribes eventually drove out the Portuguese , but were themselves pushed out about a century later , in 1741 , by the leader of an Omani tribe , who began the current line of ruling sultans . Except for a brief Persian invasion in the late 1740s , Oman has been self-governing ever since . 18th and 19th centuries In the 1690s , Saif bin Sultan , the Imam of Oman , pressed down the Swahili Coast . A major obstacle to his progress was Fort Jesus , housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa . After a two-year siege , the fort fell to bin Sultan in 1698 . Thereafter the Omanis easily ejected the Portuguese from Zanzibar and from all other coastal regions north of Mozambique , with the help of the Somali . The Persians invaded Oman in 1737 . They were driven out in 1749 when the Al Said dynasty came to power . It continues to rule Oman to this day . Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the Swahili Coast , and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire , a fact reflected by the decision of the 19th century Sultan of Oman , Sa'id ibn Sultan , to make it his main place of residence in 1837 . Sa'id built impressive palaces and gardens in Zanzibar . Rivalry between his two sons was resolved , with the help of forceful British diplomacy , when one of them , Majid , succeeded to Zanzibar and to the many regions claimed by the family on the Swahili Coast . The other son , Thuwaini , inherited Muscat and Oman . Zanzibar influences in the Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean indirectly introduced Omani customs to the Comorian culture . These influences include clothing traditions and wedding ceremonies . In 1783 , Oman 's Saiad Sultan , defeated ruler of Muscat , was granted sovereignty over Gwadar . This coastal city is located in the Makran region of what is now the far southwestern corner of Pakistan , near the present-day border of Iran , at the mouth of the Gulf of Oman.In 1783 , when Saiad Said succeeded to the `` masnad '' of Muscat and Oman ( an independent state founded in 1749 ) , he fell out with his brother Saiad Sultan , who fled to safety in Makran and entered into communication with Nasir Khan of Kalat . Saiad was granted the Kalat share of the revenues of Gwadar and lived there until 1797 when he achieved the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman . After regaining control of Muscat , this sovereignty was continued via an appointed wali ( `` governor '' ) . The Hajar Mountains , of which the Jebel Akhdar is a part , separate the country into two distinct regions : the interior , known as Oman , and the coastal area dominated by the capital , Muscat . In 1913 , control of the country split . The interior was ruled by Ibadite imams and the coastal areas by the sultan . Under the terms of the British-brokered Treaty of Seeb of 1920 , the sultan recognised the autonomy of the interior . The Sultan of Muscat would be responsible for the external affairs of Oman . Reign of Sultan Said ( 1932–1970 ) The rule of Sultan Said bin Taimur was characterised by a feudal and isolationist approach . Imam Ghalib Al Hinai was the elected Imam of the Imamate of Oman in May 1954 . Relations between the Sultan of Muscat , Said bin Taimur , and Imam Ghalib Al Hinai were ruptured over a dispute concerning the right to grant oil concessions . A subsidiary of the Iraq Petroleum Company was intensely interested in some promising geological formations near Fahud . Under the terms of the 1920 treaty of Seeb , the Sultan claimed all dealings with the oil company as his prerogative . The Imam , on the other hand , claimed that since the oil was in his territory , anything dealing with it was an internal matter . In December 1955 , Sultan Said bin Zubair sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the main centres in Oman , including Nizwa , the capital of the Imamate of Oman , and Ibri . Imam Ghalib Al Hinai and his younger brother , Talib bin Ali Al Hinai , led the Imamate of Oman in the Jebel Akhdar War against Sultan Said bin Taimur 's attack on his lands . In July 1957 , the Sultan 's forces were withdrawing , but they were repeatedly ambushed , sustaining heavy casualties . Sultan Said bin Taimur , however , with the intervention of infantry ( two companies of the Cameronians ) , armoured car detachments from the British Army and RAF aircraft , was able to suppress the rebellion . Talib 's forces retreated to the inaccessible Jebel Akhdar . Colonel David Smiley , who had been seconded to organize the Sultan 's Armed Forces , managed to isolate the mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to the plateau from Wadi Bani Kharu . On 27 January 1959 , they occupied the mountain in a surprise operation . Ghalib , Talib and Sulaiman managed to escape to Saudi Arabia , where the imamate 's cause was promoted until the 1970s . In 1955 , the exclave coastal Makran strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of its Balochistan province , while Gwadar was not included in Makran then . On 8 September 1958 , Pakistan purchased the Gwadar enclave from Oman for US $ 3 million.Gwadar remained an Omani possession as part of the sultanate until September 1958 Gwadar then became a tehsil in the Makran district . Oil reserves were discovered in 1964 and extraction began in 1967 . In the Dhofar Rebellion , which began in 1965 , leftist forces were pitted against government troops . As the rebellion threatened to overthrow the Sultan 's rule in Dhofar , Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a bloodless coup ( 1970 ) by his son Qaboos bin Said , who expanded the Sultan of Oman 's Armed Forces , modernised the state 's administration and introduced social reforms . The uprising was finally put down in 1975 with the help of forces from Iran , Jordan , Pakistan and the British Royal Air Force , army and Special Air Service . Reign of Sultan Qaboos ( from 1970 to now ) After deposing his father in 1970 , Sultan Qaboos opened up the country , embarked on economic reforms , and followed a policy of modernisation marked by increased spending on health , education and welfare . In 1981 Oman became a founding member of the six-nation Gulf Cooperation Council . Political reforms were eventually introduced . Historically , voters had been chosen from among tribal leaders , intellectuals , and businessmen . In 1997 Sultan Qaboos decreed that women could vote for , and stand for election too , the Majlis al-Shura , the Consultative Assembly of Oman . Two women were duly elected to the body . In 2002 , voting rights were extended to all citizens over the age of 21 , and the first elections to the Consultative Assembly under the new rules were held in 2003 . In 2004 , the Sultan appointed Oman 's first female minister with portfolio , Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel al-Sayabiyah . She was appointed to the post of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship , an office that attempts to preserve and promote Oman 's traditional crafts and stimulate industry Despite these changes , there was little change to the actual political make-up of the government . The Sultan continued to rule by decree . Nearly 100 suspected Islamists were arrested in 2005 and 31 people were convicted of trying to overthrow the government . They were ultimately pardoned in June of the same year . Inspired by the Arab Spring uprisings taking place throughout the region , protests also occurred in Oman during the early months of 2011 . Although they did not call for the ousting of the regime , demonstrators demanded political reforms , improved living conditions , and the creation of more jobs . They were dispersed by riot police in February 2011 . Sultan Qaboos reacted by promising jobs and benefits . In October 2011 , elections were held to the Consultative Assembly , for which Sultan Qaboos promised greater powers . The following year , the government began a crackdown on Internet criticism . In September 2012 , trials began of 'activists ' accused of posting `` abusive and provocative '' criticism of the government online . Six were given jail terms of 12–18 months and fines of around $ 2,500 each . Geography Oman lies between latitudes 16° and 28° N , and longitudes 52° and 60° E. A vast gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman , with mountain ranges along the north ( Al Hajar Mountains ) and southeast coast ( Qara or Dhofar Mountains ) , where the country 's main cities are also located : the capital city Muscat , Sohar and Sur in the north , and Salalah in the south . Oman 's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast . During past epochs , Oman was covered by ocean , witnessed by the large numbers of fossilized shells existing in areas of the desert away from the modern coastline . The peninsula of Musandam ( Musandem ) exclave , which has a strategic location on the Strait of Hormuz , is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates . The series of small towns known collectively as Dibba are the gateway to the Musandam peninsula on land and the fishing villages of Musandam by sea , with boats available for hire at Khasab for trips into the Musandam peninsula by sea . Oman 's other exclave , inside UAE territory , known as Madha , located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman , is part of the Musandam governorate , covering approximately 75 km2 . Madha 's boundary was settled in 1969 , with the north-east corner of Madha barely 10 m from the Fujairah road . Within the Madha exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa , belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah . Situated about 8 km along a dirt track west of the town of New Madha , consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange . The central desert of Oman is an important source of meteorites for scientific analysis . Climate Like the rest of the Persian Gulf , Oman generally has one of the hottest climates in the world — with summer temperatures in Muscat and northern Oman averaging 30 °C to 40 °C . Oman receives little rainfall , with annual rainfall in Muscat averaging 100 mm , falling mostly in January . In the south , the Dhofar Mountains area near Salalah has a tropical-like climate and receives seasonal rainfall from late June to late September as a result of monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean , leaving the summer air saturated with cool moisture and heavy fog . Summer temperatures in Salalah range from 20 °C to 30 °C — relatively cool compared to northern Oman . The mountain areas receive more rainfall , and annual rainfall on the higher parts of the Jabal Akhdar probably exceeds 400 mm . Low temperatures in the mountainous areas result in snow cover once every few years . Some parts of the coast , particularly near the island of Masirah , sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year . The climate generally is very hot , with temperatures reaching around 50 °C ( peak ) in the hot season , from May to September . Flora and fauna Desert shrub and desert grass , common to southern Arabia , are found in Oman , but vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau , which is largely gravel desert . The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant during summer ; coconut palms grow plentifully in the coastal plains of Dhofar and frankincense is produced in the hills , with abundant oleander and varieties of acacia . The Al Hajar Mountains are a distinct ecoregion , the highest points in eastern Arabia with wildlife including the Arabian tahr . Indigenous mammals include the leopard , hyena , fox , wolf , hare , oryx , and ibex . Birds include the vulture , eagle , stork , bustard , Arabian partridge , bee eater , falcon , and sunbird . In 2001 , Oman had nine endangered species of mammals , five endangered types of birds , and nineteen threatened plant species . Decrees have been passed to protect endangered species , including the Arabian leopard , Arabian oryx , mountain gazelle , goitered gazelle , Arabian tahr , green sea turtle , hawksbill turtle , and olive ridley turtle . However , the Oman Arabian oryx sanctuary is the first site ever to be deleted from UNESCO 's World Heritage List , due to the government 's decision to reduce the site to 10 % of its former size so that the remainder could be opened to oil prospectors . In recent years , Oman has become one of newer hot spots for whale watching , highlighting the critically endangered Arabian humpback whale , the most isolated and only non-migratory population in the world , sperm whales , and pygmy blue whales . Environmental issues Drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation 's water supply , so maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is one of Oman 's most pressing environmental problems , with limited renewable water resources . 94 % of available water is used in farming and 2 % for industrial activity , with the majority sourced from fossil water in the desert areas and spring water in hills and mountains . Drinking water is available throughout Oman , either piped or delivered . The soil in coastal plains , such as Salalah , have shown increased levels of salinity , due to over exploitation of ground water and encroachment by seawater in the water table . Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman is also a persistent risk . Local and national entities have noted unethical treatment of animals in Oman . In particular , stray dogs ( and to a lesser extent , stray cats ) are often the victims of torture , abuse or neglect . Currently , the only approved method of decreasing the stray dog population is shooting by police officers . Because of Islamic misgivings towards dogs , they are often stoned or beaten to death by neighborhood teens or adults . The Oman government has refused to implement a spay and neuter program or create any animal shelters in the country . Cats , while seen as more acceptable than dogs , are viewed as pests and frequently die of starvation or illness . Politics Oman is an absolute monarchy in which all legislative , executive , and judiciary power ultimately rests in the hands of the hereditary Sultan . Freedom House has routinely rated the country `` Not Free '' . Sultan Qaboos is the head of state and also directly controls the foreign affairs and defence portfolios . The sultan has absolute power and issues laws by decree . Sultan Qaboos is the longest-serving ruler in the Middle East . Legal system Oman is an absolute monarchy ruled by Sultan Qaboos . The judiciary branch is subordinate to the Sultan . According to Oman 's constitution , Sharia law is the source of all legislation . Sharia court departments within the civil court system are responsible for family-law matters , such as divorce and inheritance . Oman has no system of checks and balances , and thus no separation of powers . All power is concentrated in the Sultan , who is also chief of staff of the armed forces , Minister of Defence , Minister of Foreign Affairs and chairman of the Central Bank . All legislation since 1970 has been promulgated through royal decrees , including the 1996 Basic Law . The Sultan appoints judges , and can grant pardons and commute sentences . The Sultan 's authority is inviolable and the Sultan expects total subordination to his will . The administration of justice is highly personalized , with limited due process protections , especially in political and security-related cases . The Basic Statute of the State is supposedly the cornerstone of the Omani legal system and it operates as a constitution for the country . The Basic Statute was issued in 1996 and thus far has only been amended once , in 2011 , in response to protests . Though Oman ’ s legal code theoretically protects civil liberties and personal freedoms , both are regularly ignored by the regime . Women and children face legal discrimination in many areas . Women are excluded from certain state benefits , such as housing loans , and are refused equal rights under the personal status law . Women also experience restrictions on their self-determination in respect to health and reproductive rights . The National Human Rights Commission , established in 2008 , is not independent from the regime . It is chaired by the former deputy inspector general of Police and Customs and its members are appointed by royal decree . In June 2012 , one of its members requested that she be relieved of her duties because she disagreed with a statement made by the Commission justifying the arrest of intellectuals and bloggers and the restriction of freedom of expression in the name of respect for “ the principles of religion and customs of the country ” . Since the beginning of the “ Omani Spring ” in January 2011 , a number of serious violations of civil rights have been reported , amounting to a critical deterioration of the human rights situation . Prisons are not accessible to independent monitors . Members of the independent Omani Group of Human Rights have been harassed , arrested and sentenced to jail . There have been numerous testimonies of torture and other inhumane forms of punishment perpetrated by security forces on protesters and detainees . The detainees were all peacefully exercising their right to freedom of expression and assembly . Although authorities must obtain court orders to hold suspects in pre-trial detention , they do not regularly follow these procedures . The penal code was amended in October 2011 to allow the arrest and detention of individuals without an arrest warrant from public prosecutors . The Omani legislature is the bicameral Council of Oman , consisting of an upper chamber , the Council of State ( Majlis ad-Dawlah ) and a lower chamber , the Consultative Council ( Majlis ash-Shoura ) . Political parties are banned . The upper chamber has 71 members , appointed by the Sultan from among prominent Omanis ; it has only advisory powers . The 84 members of the Consultative Council are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms , but the Sultan makes the final selections and can negotiate the election results . The members are appointed for three-year terms , which may be renewed once . The last elections were held on October 2011 . Oman 's national anthem , As-Salam as-Sultani is dedicated to Sultan Qaboos . Human rights Oman is an absolute monarchy by male primogeniture . The present Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said is the hereditary leader of the country since 1970 . The practice of torture is widespread in Oman state penal institutions and has become the state 's typical reaction to independent political expression . Torture methods in use in Oman include mock execution , beating , hooding , solitary confinement , subjection to extremes of temperature and to constant noise , abuse and humiliation . There have been numerous reports of torture and other inhumane forms of punishment perpetrated by Omani security forces on protesters and detainees . Several prisoners detained in 2012 complained of sleep deprivation , extreme temperatures , and solitary confinement . Omani authorities kept Sultan al-Saadi in solitary confinement , denied him access to his lawyer and family , forced him to wear a black bag over his head whenever he left his cell , including when using the restroom , and told him his family had “ forsaken ” him and asked for him to be imprisoned . The Omani government decides who can or can not be a journalist and this permission can be withdrawn at any time . Censorship and self-censorship are a constant factor . Omanis have limited access to political information through the media . Access to news and information can be problematic : journalists have to be content with news compiled by the official news agency on some issues . Through a decree by the Sultan , the government has now extended its control over the media to blogs and other websites . Omanis can not hold a public meeting without the government 's approval . Omanis who want to set up a non-governmental organisation of any kind need a licence . To get a licence , they have to demonstrate that the organisation is `` for legitimate objectives '' and not `` inimical to the social order '' . The Omani government does not permit the formation of independent civil society associations . The law prohibits criticism of the Sultan and government in any form or medium . Oman 's police do not need search warrants in order to enter people 's homes . The law does not provide citizens with the right to change their government . The Sultan retains ultimate authority on all foreign and domestic issues . Government officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws . Libel laws and concerns for national security have been used to suppress criticism of government figures and politically objectionable views . Publication of books is limited and the government restricts their importation and distribution , as with other media products . Merely mentioning the existence of such restrictions can land Omanis in trouble . In 2009 , a web publisher was fined and given a suspended jail sentence for revealing that a supposedly live TV programme was actually pre-recorded in order to eliminate any criticisms of the government . Faced with so many restrictions , Omanis have resorted to unconventional methods for expressing their views . Omanis sometimes use donkeys to express their views . Writing about Gulf rulers in 2001 , Dale Eickelman observed :

qw_11243--Oman.txt

Which country shares a 530 km border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, a 450 km border with Oman on the southeast and northeast, and a smaller border with Qatar in the northwest?

Crossfire Hurricane is a 2012 documentary film about The Rolling Stones written and directed by Brett Morgen . The film chronicles the early years of the band through 1981 . The film is a series of interviews conducted without cameras , while showing various points of interest that the band is discussing as archival footage . The title of the film comes from the first line of the band 's 1968 hit `` Jumpin ' Jack Flash '' . Plot On their 50th anniversary , the Rolling Stones , with the support of archive footage and interviewed by director Brett Morgen , retrace the first 20 years of their career . The film discusses their early success in the sixties ; the way the media characterised the difference between them and the Beatles ; the exceptional musical talent of Brian Jones ; their first song-writing ; the difference between the boy fans ' aggressiveness that resulted in fights with the police and the girl fans ' screaming hysteria ; Mick Jagger and Keith Richards drug use and their arrest ; the musical contribution of Brian Jones that was waning due to excessive use of drugs , and his death a few weeks after the separation from the band ; Mick Taylor 's debut concert in Hyde Park in memory of Jones and the return to world tours ; the awful organization of the Altamont Free Concert ; their flight to tax exile in 1971 ; the recording of Exile on Main St. in a villa on the south of France ; Mick Taylor 's departure and the arrival of Ronnie Wood ; and the arrest of Keith Richards in Canada for possession of heroin and his decision to detox , to safeguard the future of the band . Critical reception The film received mostly positive reviews . Review aggregator website Metacritic , which assigns normalized scores , gave the film a 77 out of 100 , based on 17 critics . John Anderson of The Wall Street Journal : From James Poniewozik of Time magazine : From David Hinckley of New York Daily News : The film won a Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing : Long Form Documentary . Charts

qw_11437--Crossfire_Hurricane.txt

"Who ""was born in a cross-fire hurricane"" and ""howled at my ma in the driving rain""?"

In geometry , a cubeEnglish cube from Old French is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces , facets or sides , with three meeting at each vertex . The cube is the only regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids . It has 12 edges , 6 faces and 8 vertices . The cube is also a square parallelepiped , an equilateral cuboid and a right rhombohedron . It is a regular square prism in three orientations , and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations . The cube is dual to the octahedron . It has cubical or octahedral symmetry . Orthogonal projections The cube has four special orthogonal projections , centered , on a vertex , edges , face and normal to its vertex figure . The first and third correspond to the A2 and B2 Coxeter planes . Spherical tiling The cube can also be represented as a spherical tiling , and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection . This projection is conformal , preserving angles but not areas or lengths . Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane . Cartesian coordinates For a cube centered at the origin , with edges parallel to the axes and with an edge length of 2 , the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are ( ±1 , ±1 , ±1 ) while the interior consists of all points ( x0 , x1 , x2 ) with −1 i 3 In analytic geometry , a cube 's surface with center ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and edge length of 2a is the locus of all points ( x , y , z ) such that \max\ { |x-x_0| , |y-y_0| , |z-z_0| \ } = a . Formulas For a cube of edge length a : As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides a \times a \times a , third powers are called cubes , by analogy with squares and second powers . A cube has the largest volume among cuboids ( rectangular boxes ) with a given surface area . Also , a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same total linear size ( length+width+height ) . Point in space For a cube whose circumscribing sphere has radius R , and for a given point in its 3-dimensional space with distances di from the cube 's eight vertices , we have : \frac { \sum_ { i1 } ^8 d_i^4 } { 8 } + \frac { 16R^4 } { 9 } \left ( \frac { \sum_ { i=1 } ^8 d_i^2 } { 8 } + \frac { 2R^2 } { 3 } \right ) ^2 . Doubling the cube Doubling the cube , or the Delian problem , was the problem posed by ancient Greek mathematicians of using only a compass and straightedge to start with the length of the edge of a given cube and to construct the length of the edge of a cube with twice the volume of the original cube . They were unable to solve this problem , and in 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved it to be impossible because the cube root of 2 is not a constructible number . Uniform colorings and symmetry The cube has three uniform colorings , named by the colors of the square faces around each vertex : 111 , 112 , 123 . The cube has three classes of symmetry , which can be represented by vertex-transitive coloring the faces . The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color . The dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a prism , with all four sides being the same color . The lowest symmetry D2h is also a prismatic symmetry , with sides alternating colors , so there are three colors , paired by opposite sides . Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol . Geometric relations A cube has eleven nets ( one shown above ) : that is , there are eleven ways to flatten a hollow cube by cutting seven edges . To color the cube so that no two adjacent faces have the same color , one would need at least three colors . The cube is the cell of the only regular tiling of three-dimensional Euclidean space . It is also unique among the Platonic solids in having faces with an even number of sides and , consequently , it is the only member of that group that is a zonohedron ( every face has point symmetry ) . The cube can be cut into six identical square pyramids . If these square pyramids are then attached to the faces of a second cube , a rhombic dodecahedron is obtained ( with pairs of coplanar triangles combined into rhombic faces ) . Other dimensions The analogue of a cube in four-dimensional Euclidean space has a special name—a tesseract or hypercube . More properly , a hypercube ( or n-dimensional cube or simply n-cube ) is the analogue of the cube in n-dimensional Euclidean space and a tesseract is the order-4 hypercube . A hypercube is also called a measure polytope . There are analogues of the cube in lower dimensions too : a point in dimension 0 , a segment in one dimension and a square in two dimensions . Related polyhedra The quotient of the cube by the antipodal map yields a projective polyhedron , the hemicube . If the original cube has edge length 1 , its dual polyhedron ( an octahedron ) has edge length \scriptstyle \sqrt { 2 } /2 . The cube is a special case in various classes of general polyhedra : The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four , each forming a regular tetrahedron ; more generally this is referred to as a demicube . These two together form a regular compound , the stella octangula . The intersection of the two forms a regular octahedron . The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to those of a cube which map each tetrahedron to itself ; the other symmetries of the cube map the two to each other . One such regular tetrahedron has a volume of of that of the cube . The remaining space consists of four equal irregular tetrahedra with a volume of of that of the cube , each . The rectified cube is the cuboctahedron . If smaller corners are cut off we get a polyhedron with six octagonal faces and eight triangular ones . In particular we can get regular octagons ( truncated cube ) . The rhombicuboctahedron is obtained by cutting off both corners and edges to the correct amount . A cube can be inscribed in a dodecahedron so that each vertex of the cube is a vertex of the dodecahedron and each edge is a diagonal of one of the dodecahedron 's faces ; taking all such cubes gives rise to the regular compound of five cubes . If two opposite corners of a cube are truncated at the depth of the three vertices directly connected to them , an irregular octahedron is obtained . Eight of these irregular octahedra can be attached to the triangular faces of a regular octahedron to obtain the cuboctahedron . The cube is topologically related to a series of spherical polyhedra and tilings with order-3 vertex figures . The cuboctahedron is one of a family of uniform polyhedra related to the cube and regular octahedron . The cube is topologically related as a part of sequence of regular tilings , extending into the hyperbolic plane : { 4 , p } , p=3,4,5 ... With dihedral symmetry , Dih4 , the cube is topologically related in a series of uniform polyhedra and tilings 4.2n.2n , extending into the hyperbolic plane : All these figures have octahedral symmetry . The cube is a part of a sequence of rhombic polyhedra and tilings with [ n,3 ] Coxeter group symmetry . The cube can be seen as a rhombic hexahedron where the rhombi are squares . The cube is a square prism : As a trigonal trapezohedron , the cube is related to the hexagonal dihedral symmetry family . In uniform honeycombs and polychora It is an element of 9 of 28 convex uniform honeycombs : It is also an element of five four-dimensional uniform polychora : Cubical graph The skeleton of the cube ( the vertices and edges ) form a graph , with 8 vertices , and 12 edges . It is a special case of the hypercube graph . It is one of 5 Platonic graphs , each a skeleton of its Platonic solid . An extension is the three dimensional k-ary Hamming graph , which for k = 2 is the cube graph . Graphs of this sort occur in the theory of parallel processing in computers .

qw_8485--Cube.txt

What are the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedron known as?

The Championships , Wimbledon , commonly known simply as Wimbledon , is the oldest tennis tournament in the world , and is widely considered the most prestigious . It has been held at the All England Club in Wimbledon , London since 1877 . Wimbledon is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments , the others being the Australian Open , the French Open and the US Open . Since the Australian Open shifted to hardcourt in 1988 , Wimbledon is the only major still played on grass . The tournament takes place over two weeks in late June and early July , culminating with the Ladies ' and Gentlemen 's Singles Final , scheduled always for the second Saturday and Sunday of July respectively . Five major , junior , and invitational events are held each year . Wimbledon traditions include a strict dress code for competitors and Royal patronage . The tournament is also notable for the absence of sponsor advertising around the courts . In 2009 , Wimbledon 's Centre Court was fitted with a retractable roof to lessen the loss of playing time due to rain . History Beginning The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club is a private club founded on 23 July 1868 , originally as `` The All England Croquet Club '' . Its first ground was off Worple Road , Wimbledon . In 1876 , lawn tennis , a game devised by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield a year or so earlier and originally given the name Sphairistikè , was added to the activities of the club . In spring 1877 , the club was renamed `` The All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club '' and signalled its change of name by instituting the first Lawn Tennis Championship . A new code of laws , replacing the code administered by the Marylebone Cricket Club , was drawn up for the event . Today 's rules are similar except for details such as the height of the net and posts and the distance of the service line from the net . The inaugural 1877 Wimbledon Championship opened on 9 July 1877 . The Gentlemen 's Singles was the only event held and was won by Spencer Gore , an old Harrovian rackets player , from a field of 22 . About 200 spectators paid one shilling each to watch the final . The lawns at the ground were arranged so that the principal court was in the middle with the others arranged around it , hence the title `` Centre Court '' . The name was retained when the Club moved in 1922 to the present site in Church Road , although no longer a true description of its location . However , in 1980 four new courts were brought into commission on the north side of the ground , which meant the Centre Court was once more correctly defined . The opening of the new No . 1 Court in 1997 emphasised the description . By 1882 , activity at the club was almost exclusively confined to lawn tennis and that year the word `` croquet '' was dropped from the title . However , for sentimental reasons it was restored in 1899 . In 1884 , the club added Ladies ' Singles and Gentlemen 's Doubles competitions . Ladies ' Doubles and Mixed Doubles events were added in 1913 . Until 1922 , the reigning champion had to play only in the final , against whomever had won through to challenge him/her . As with the other three Major or Grand Slam events , Wimbledon was contested by top-ranked amateur players , professional players were prohibited from participating . This changed with the advent of the open era in 1968 . No British man won the singles event at Wimbledon between Fred Perry in 1936 and Andy Murray in 2013 , while no British woman has won since Virginia Wade in 1977 , although Annabel Croft and Laura Robson won the Girls ' Championship in 1984 and 2008 respectively . The Championship was first televised in 1937 . Though properly called `` The Championships , Wimbledon '' , depending on sources the event is also known as `` The All England Lawn Tennis Championships '' , `` The Wimbledon Championships '' or simply `` Wimbledon '' . From 1912 to 1924 , the tournament was recognized by the International Lawn Tennis Federation as the `` World Grass Court Championships '' . 21st century Wimbledon is considered the world 's premier tennis tournament and the priority of the Club is to maintain its leadership . To that end a long-term plan was unveiled in 1993 , intended to improve the quality of the event for spectators , players , officials and neighbours . Stage one ( 1994–1997 ) of the plan was completed for the 1997 championships and involved building the new No . 1 Court in Aorangi Park , a broadcast centre , two extra grass courts and a tunnel under the hill linking Church Road and Somerset Road . Stage two ( 1997–2009 ) involved the removal of the old No . 1 Court complex to make way for the new Millennium Building , providing extensive facilities for players , press , officials and members , and the extension of the West Stand of the Centre Court with 728 extra seats . Stage three ( 2000–2011 ) has been completed with the construction of an entrance building , club staff housing , museum , bank and ticket office . A new retractable roof was built in time for the 2009 championships , marking the first time that rain did not stop play for a lengthy time on Centre Court . The Club tested the new roof at an event called A Centre Court Celebration on Sunday , 17 May 2009 , which featured exhibition matches involving Andre Agassi , Steffi Graf , Kim Clijsters and Tim Henman . The first Championship match to take place under the roof was the completion of the fourth round women 's singles match between Dinara Safina and Amélie Mauresmo . The first match to be played in its entirety under the new roof took place between Andy Murray and Stanislas Wawrinka on 29 June 2009 , which Murray won . Murray was also involved in the match completed latest in the day at Wimbledon , which ended at 11:02 pm in a victory over Marcos Baghdatis at Centre Court in the third round of the 2012 Championships . The 2012 Men 's Singles Final on 8 July 2012 , between Roger Federer and Murray , was the first final to be played under the roof , which was activated during the third set . A new 4000-seat No . 2 Court was built on the site of the old No . 13 Court in time for the 2009 Championships . A new 2000-seat No . 3 Court was built on the site of the old No . 2 and No . 3 Courts . On 17 January 2016 , it was reported The Championships at Wimbledon were among several high-level tennis tournaments being investigated for instances of alleged match-fixing . Events Wimbledon consists of five main events , five junior events and five invitation events . Main events The five main events , and the number of players ( or teams , in the case of doubles ) are : * Gentlemen 's Singles ( 128 ) * Ladies ' Singles ( 128 ) * Gentlemen 's Doubles ( 64 ) * Ladies ' Doubles ( 64 ) * Mixed Doubles ( 48 ) Junior events The five junior events and the number of players or teams are : * Boys ' Singles ( 64 ) * Girls ' Singles ( 64 ) * Boys ' Doubles ( 32 ) * Girls ' Doubles ( 32 ) * Disabled Doubles ( 12 ) No mixed doubles event is held at this level . Invitation events The five invitational events and the number of pairs are : * Gentlemen 's Invitation Doubles ( 8 pairs Round Robin ) * Senior Gentlemen 's Invitation Doubles ( 8 pairs Round Robin ) * Ladies ' Invitation Doubles ( 8 pairs Round Robin ) * Gentlemen 's Wheelchair Doubles ( 4 pairs ) * Ladies ' Wheelchair Doubles ( 4 pairs ) From 2016 singles draws for the existing wheelchair events were added . Match formats Matches in the Gentlemen 's Singles and Gentlemen 's Doubles are best-of-five sets ; all other events are best-of-three sets . A tiebreak game is played if the score reaches 6–6 in any set except the fifth ( in a five-set match ) or the third ( in a three-set match ) , in which case a two-game lead must be reached . All events are single-elimination tournaments , except for the Gentlemen 's , Senior Gentlemen 's and the Ladies ' Invitation Doubles , which are round-robin tournaments . Until 1922 , the winners of the previous year 's competition ( except in the Ladies ' Doubles and Mixed Doubles ) were automatically granted byes into the final round ( then known as the challenge round ) . This led to many winners retaining their titles in successive years , as they were able to rest while their opponent competed from the start of the competition . From 1922 , the prior year 's champions were required to play all the rounds , like other tournament competitors . Schedule Each year the tournament begins on the last Monday in June , two weeks after the Queen 's Club Championships , which is one of the men 's major warm-up tournaments , together with the Gerry Weber Open , which is held in Halle , Germany , during the same week . Other grass-court tournaments before Wimbledon are Eastbourne , England , and Rosmalen in the Netherlands , both combining mixed events . The other women 's warm-up tournament for Wimbledon is Birmingham , also in England . The only grass-court tournament scheduled after the Championships is the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships at Newport , Rhode Island , USA , which takes place the week after Wimbledon . Wimbledon is scheduled for 14 days , beginning on a Monday and ending on a Sunday . The five main events span both weeks , but the junior and invitational events are held mainly during the second week . Traditionally , there is no play on the `` Middle Sunday '' , which is considered a rest day . However , rain has forced play on the Middle Sunday four times , in 1991 , 1997 , 2004 and 2016 . On each of these occasions , Wimbledon staged a `` People 's Sunday '' , with unreserved seating and readily available , inexpensive tickets , allowing those with more limited means to sit on the show courts . Since 2015 , the championships have begun one week later than in previous years , extending the gap between the tournament and the French Open from two to three weeks . Additionally the Stuttgart Open men 's tournament converted to a grass surface and was rescheduled from July to June , extending the grass court season . Players and seeding Both the men 's and ladies ' singles consist of 128 players . Players and doubles pairs are admitted to the main events on the basis of their international rankings , with 104 direct entries into the men 's and 108 into the ladies ' competitions . Both tournaments have 8 wild card entrants , with the remainder in each made up of qualifiers . Since the 2001 tournament 32 players have been given seedings in the Gentlemen 's and Ladies ' singles , 16 teams in the doubles events . The system of seeding was introduced during the 1924 Wimbledon Championships . This was a simplified version allowing countries to nominate four players who were placed in different quarters of the draw . This system was replaced for the 1927 Wimbledon Championships and from then on players were seeded on merit . The first players to be seeded as no . 1 were René Lacoste and Helen Wills . The Committee of Management decide which players receive wildcards . Usually , wild cards are players who have performed well during previous tournaments , or would stimulate public interest in Wimbledon by participating . The only wild card to win the Gentlemen 's Singles Championship was Goran Ivanišević in 2001 . Players and pairs who neither have high enough rankings nor receive wild cards may participate in a qualifying tournament held one week before Wimbledon at the Bank of England Sports Ground in Roehampton . The singles qualifying competitions are three-round events ; the same-sex doubles competitions last for only one round . There is no qualifying tournament for Mixed Doubles . The furthest that any qualifier has progressed in a Singles tournament is the semi-final round : John McEnroe in 1977 ( Gentlemen 's Singles ) , Vladimir Voltchkov in 2000 ( Gentlemen 's Singles ) , and Alexandra Stevenson in 1999 ( Ladies ' Singles ) . Players are admitted to the junior tournaments upon the recommendations of their national tennis associations , on their International Tennis Federation world rankings and , in the case of the singles events , on the basis of a qualifying competition . The Committee of Management determines which players may enter the four invitational events . The Committee seeds the top players and pairs on the basis of their rankings , but it can change the seedings based on a player 's previous grass court performance . Since 2002 a seeding committee has not been required for the Gentlemen 's Singles following an agreement with the ATP . While the seeds are still the top 32 players according to rankings , the seeding order is determined using the formula : ATP Entry System Position points + 100 % points earned for all grass court tournaments in the past 12 months + 75 % points earned for the best grass court tournament in the 12 months before that . A majority of the entrants are unseeded . Only two unseeded players have won the Gentlemen 's Singles : Boris Becker in 1985 and Goran Ivanišević in 2001 . In 1985 there were only 16 seeds and Becker was ranked 20th ; Ivanišević was ranked 125th when he won as a Wild Card entrant , although he had previously been a finalist three times , and been ranked no . 2 in the world ; his low ranking was due to having been hampered by a persistent shoulder injury for three years , which had only just cleared up . In 1996 , the title was won by Richard Krajicek , who was originally unseeded ( ranked 17th , and only 16 players were seeded ) but was promoted to a seeded position ( still with the number 17 ) when Thomas Muster withdrew before the tournament . No unseeded player has captured the Ladies ' Singles title ; the lowest seeded female champion was Venus Williams , who won in 2007 as the 23rd seed ; Williams was returning from an injury that had prevented her playing in previous tournaments , giving her a lower ranking than she would normally have had . Unseeded pairs have won the doubles titles on numerous occasions ; the 2005 Gentlemen 's Doubles champions were not only unseeded , but also ( for the first time ever ) qualifiers . Grounds Since 2001 , the courts used for Wimbledon have been sown with 100 % perennial ryegrass . Prior to 2001 a combination of 70 % ryegrass and 30 % Creeping Red Fescue was used . The change was made to improve durability and strengthen the sward to better withstand the increasing wear of the modern game . The main show courts , Centre Court and No . 1 Court , are normally used for only two weeks a year , during the Championships , but play can extend into a third week in exceptional circumstances . The remaining 17 courts are regularly used for other events hosted by the Club . The show courts were in action for the second time in three months in 2012 as Wimbledon hosted the tennis events of the 2012 Olympic Games . One of the show courts is also used for home ties of the GB teams in the Davis Cup on occasions . Wimbledon is the only Grand Slam event played on grass courts . At one time , all the Majors , except the French Open , were played on grass . The US Open abandoned grass in 1975 and the Australian Open in 1988 . The principal court , Centre Court , was opened in 1922 when the Club moved from Worple Road to Church Road . The Church Road venue was larger and was needed to meet the ever-growing public demand . Due to the possibility of rain during Wimbledon , a retractable roof was installed prior to the 2009 Championship . It is designed to close/open in about 20 minutes and will be closed primarily to protect play from inclement ( and , if necessary , extremely hot ) weather during The Championships . When the roof is being opened or closed , play is suspended . The first time the roof was closed during a Wimbledon Championship match was on Monday 29 June 2009 , involving Amélie Mauresmo and Dinara Safina . Because of the summer climate in southern England , Wimbledon employs 'Court Attendants ' each year , who work to maintain court conditions . Their principal responsibility is to ensure that the courts are quickly covered when it begins to rain , so that play can resume as quickly as possible once the referees decide to uncover the courts . The court attendants are mainly university students working to make summer money . Centre Court is covered by full-time groundstaff , however . The court has a capacity of 15,000 . At its south end is the Royal Box , from which members of the Royal Family and other dignitaries watch matches . Centre Court usually hosts the finals and semifinals of the main events , as well as many matches in the earlier rounds involving top-seeded players or local favourites . The second most important court is No . 1 Court . The court was constructed in 1997 to replace the old No.1 Court , which was adjacent to Centre Court . The old No.1 Court was demolished because its capacity for spectators was too low . The court was said to have had a unique , more intimate atmosphere and was a favourite of many players . The new No.1 Court has a capacity of approximately 11,000 . From 2009 , a new No . 2 Court is being used at Wimbledon with a capacity for 4,000 people . To obtain planning permission , the playing surface is around 3.5m below ground level , ensuring that the single-storey structure is only about 3.5m above ground level , and thus not affecting local views . Plans to build on the current site of Court 13 were dismissed due to the high capacity of games played at the 2012 Olympic Games . The old No.2 Court has been renamed as No.3 Court . The old No.2 Court was known as the `` Graveyard of Champions '' because many highly seeded players were eliminated there during early rounds over the years , including Ilie Năstase , John McEnroe , Boris Becker , Andre Agassi , Pete Sampras , Martina Hingis , Venus Williams , Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova . The court has a capacity of 2,192 + 770 standing . In 2011 a new No.3 Court and a new Court 4 were unveiled on the sites of the old No.2 and 3 courts . At the northern end of the grounds is a giant television screen on which important matches are broadcast . Fans watch from an area of grass officially known as the Aorangi Terrace . When British players do well at Wimbledon , the hill attracts fans for them , and is often renamed by the press for them : Greg Rusedski 's followers convened at `` Rusedski Ridge '' , and Tim Henman has had the hill nicknamed Henman Hill . As both of them have now retired and Andy Murray is the number 1 British player , the hill is occasionally referred to as `` Murray Mound '' or `` Murrayfield '' , as a reference to his Scottish heritage and the Scottish ground of the same name , but this has largely failed to catch on – the area is still usually referred to as Henman Hill . None of these nicknames are official . ; Grounds schedule The grounds open at 10:30 am on each day . On the Centre Court , play starts at 1 pm , with exception of the final two days of the competition ( Ladies ' and Gentlemen 's Finals ) , when play begins at 2 pm . On courts 2–19 , play begins at noon for at least the first eight days of the competition . It then starts at 11 am for the Junior matches on the middle Saturday and during the second week . Traditions Social commentator Ellis Cashmore describes Wimbledon as having `` a David Niven-ish propriety '' , conforming to the standards of behaviour common in the 1950s . Writer Peter York sees the event as representing a particular white and affluent type of Britishness , describing the area of Wimbledon as `` a southern , well off , late Victorian suburb with a particular social character '' . Cashmore has criticised the event for being `` remote and insulated '' from the changing multicultural character of modern Britain , describing it as `` nobody 's idea of all-things-British '' . Ball boys and ball girls In the championship games , ball boys and girls , known as BBGs , play a crucial role in the smooth running of the tournament , with a brief that a good BBG `` should not be seen . They should blend into the background and get on with their jobs quietly . '' From 1947 ball boys were supplied by Goldings , the only Barnardos school to provide them . Prior to this , from the 1920s onwards , the ball boys had been provided by The Shaftesbury Children 's Home . Since 1969 , BBGs have been provided by local schools . As of 2008 they are drawn from schools in the London boroughs of Merton , Sutton , Kingston , and Wandsworth , as well as from Surrey . Traditionally , Wandsworth Boys Grammar School in Sutherland Grove , Southfields and Mayfield Girls School on West Hill in Wandsworth , both now defunct , were the schools of choice for selection of BBGs . This was possibly owing to their proximity to the club . BBGs have an average age of 15 , being drawn from the school years nine and ten . BBGs will serve for one , or if re-selected , up to five tournaments , from Year Nine to Year Thirteen . Starting in 2005 , BBGs work in teams of six , two at the net , four at the corners , and teams rotate one hour on court , one hour off , ( two hours depending on the court ) for the day 's play . Teams are not told which court they will be working on the day , to ensure the same standards across all courts . With the expansion of the number of courts , and lengthening the tennis day , as of 2008 , the number of BBGs required is around 250 . From the second Wednesday , BBGs are told to leave the Championships , leaving around 80 on the final Sunday . Each BBG receives a certificate , a can of used balls , a group photograph and a programme when leaving . BBG service is paid , with a total of £120-£180 being paid to each ball boy or girl after the 13-day period depending on the number of days served . Every BBG keeps all of their kit , typically consisting of three or four shirts , two or three shorts or skorts , track suit bottoms and top , twelve pairs of socks , three pairs of wristbands , a hat , water bottle holder , bag and trainers . Along with this it is seen as a privilege , and seen as a valuable addition to a school leaver 's curriculum vitae , showing discipline . BBG places are split 50:50 between boys and girls , with girls having been used since 1977 , appearing on centre court since 1985 . Prospective BBGs are first nominated by their school headteacher , to be considered for selection . To be selected , a candidate must pass written tests on the rules of tennis , and pass fitness , mobility and other suitability tests , against initial preliminary instruction material . Successful candidates then commence a training phase , starting in February , in which the final BBGs are chosen through continual assessment . As of 2008 , this training intake was 600 . The training includes weekly sessions of physical , procedural and theoretical instruction , to ensure that the BBGs are fast , alert , self-confident and adaptable to situations . As of 2011 , early training occurs at the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis Club Covered Courts , to the side of the Grounds , and then moves to outside courts ( 8 , 9 , 10 ) the week before the Championships for a feel of the grass court . Colours and uniforms Dark green and purple are the traditional Wimbledon colours . However , all tennis players participating in the tournament are required to wear all-white or at least almost all-white clothing , a long-time tradition at Wimbledon . Wearing white clothing with some colour accents is also acceptable , provided the colour scheme is not that of an identifiable commercial brand logo ( the outfitter 's brand logo being the sole exception ) . Controversy followed Martina Navratilova 's wearing branding for `` Kim '' cigarettes in 1982 . Green clothing was worn by the chair umpire , linesmen , ball boys and ball girls until the 2005 Championships ; however , beginning with the 2006 Championships , officials , ball boys and ball girls were dressed in new navy blue- and cream-coloured uniforms from American designer Ralph Lauren . This marked the first time in the history of the Championships that an outside company was used to design Wimbledon clothing ; the contract with Polo Ralph Lauren is set to end in 2015 . Referring to players By tradition , the `` Men 's '' and `` Women 's '' competitions are referred to as `` Gentlemen 's '' and `` Ladies ' '' competitions at Wimbledon . The junior competitions are referred to as the `` Boys ' '' and `` Girls ' '' competitions . Prior to 2009 female players were referred to by the title `` Miss '' or `` Mrs '' on scoreboards . As dictated by strict rule of etiquette , married female players are referred to by their husbands ' names : for example , Chris Evert-Lloyd appeared on scoreboards as `` Mrs. J. M. Lloyd '' during her marriage to John Lloyd , since `` Mrs. X '' essentially designates the wife of X . This tradition has continued at least to some extent . For the first time during the 2009 tournament , players were referred to on scoreboards by both their first and last names . The title `` Mr '' is not used for male players who are professionals on scoreboards but the prefix is retained for amateurs , although chair umpires refer to players as `` Mr '' when they use the replay challenge . The chair umpire will say `` Mr is challenging the call ... '' and `` Mr has X challenges remaining . '' However , the umpires still say Miss when announcing the score of the Ladies ' matches . If a match is being played with two competitors of the same surname ( e.g . Venus and Serena Williams , Bob and Mike Bryan ) , the chair umpire will specify to whom they are referring by stating the player 's first name and surname during announcements ( e.g . `` Game , Miss Serena Williams '' , `` Advantage , Mike Bryan '' ) . Royal Family Previously

qw_1617--The_Championships,_Wimbledon.txt

The Wimbledon tennis tournament is held at which tennis club in London?

Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar ( ; born 24 April 1973 ) is a former Indian cricketer and captain , widely regarded as one of the greatest batsmen of all time . He took up cricket at the age of eleven , made his Test debut on 15 November 1989 against Pakistan in Karachi at the age of sixteen , and went on to represent Mumbai domestically and India internationally for close to twenty-four years . He is the only player to have scored one hundred international centuries , the first batsman to score a double century in a One Day International , the holder of the record for the number of runs in both ODI and Test cricket , and the only player to complete more than 30,000 runs in international cricket . In 2002 just half way through his career , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack ranked him the second greatest Test batsman of all time , behind Don Bradman , and the second greatest ODI batsman of all time , behind Viv Richards . Later in his career , Tendulkar was a part of the Indian team that won the 2011 World Cup , his first win in six World Cup appearances for India . He had previously been named `` Player of the Tournament '' at the 2003 edition of the tournament , held in South Africa . In 2013 , he was the only Indian cricketer included in an all-time Test World XI named to mark the 150th anniversary of Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack . Tendulkar received the Arjuna Award in 1994 for his outstanding sporting achievement , the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna award in 1997 , India 's highest sporting honour , and the Padma Shri and Padma Vibhushan awards in 1999 and 2008 , respectively , India 's fourth and second highest civilian awards . After a few hours of his final match on 16 November 2013 , the Prime Minister 's Office announced the decision to award him the Bharat Ratna , India 's highest civilian award . He is the youngest recipient to date and the first ever sportsperson to receive the award . He also won the 2010 Sir Garfield Sobers Trophy for cricketer of the year at the ICC awards . In 2012 , Tendulkar was nominated to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of the Parliament of India . He was also the first sportsperson and the first person without an aviation background to be awarded the honorary rank of group captain by the Indian Air Force . In 2012 , he was named an Honorary Member of the Order of Australia . In December 2012 , Tendulkar announced his retirement from ODIs . He retired from Twenty20 cricket in October 2013 and subsequently announced his retirement from all forms of cricket , retiring on 16 November 2013 after playing his 200th and final Test match , against the West Indies in Mumbai 's Wankhede Stadium . Tendulkar played 664 international cricket matches in total , scoring 34,357 runs . Early years Tendulkar was born at Nirmal Nursing Home in Dadar , Bombay on 24 April 1973 in a Maharashtrian family . His father , Ramesh Tendulkar , was a well-known Marathi novelist and his mother , Rajni , worked in the insurance industry . Ramesh named Tendulkar after his favourite music director , Sachin Dev Burman . Tendulkar has three elder siblings : two half-brothers Nitin and Ajit , and a half-sister Savita . They were Ramesh 's children from his first marriage . He spent his formative years in the Sahitya Sahawas Cooperative Housing Society in Bandra ( East ) . As a young boy , Tendulkar was considered a bully , and often picked up fights with new children in his school . He also showed an interest in tennis , idolising John McEnroe . To help curb his mischievous and bullying tendencies , Ajit introduced him to cricket in 1984 . He introduced the young Sachin to Ramakant Achrekar , a famous cricket coach and a club cricketer of repute , at Shivaji Park , Dadar . In the first meeting , the young Sachin did not play his best . Ajit told Achrekar that he was feeling self-conscious due to the coach observing him , and was not displaying his natural game . Ajit requested the coach to give him another chance at playing , but watch while hiding behind a tree . This time , Sachin , apparently unobserved , played much better and was accepted at Achrekar 's academy . Ajit is ten years elder and is credited by Sachin for playing a pivotal role in his life . Achrekar was impressed with Tendulkar 's talent and advised him to shift his schooling to Sharadashram Vidyamandir ( English ) High School , a school at Dadar which had a dominant cricket team and had produced many notable cricketers . Prior to this , Tendulkar had attended the Indian Education Society 's New English School in Bandra ( East ) . He was also coached under the guidance of Achrekar at Shivaji Park in the mornings and evenings . Tendulkar would practice for hours on end in the nets . If he became exhausted , Achrekar would put a one-rupee coin on the top of the stumps , and the bowler who dismissed Tendulkar would get the coin . If Tendulkar passed the whole session without getting dismissed , the coach would give him the coin . Tendulkar now considers the 13 coins he won then as some of his most prized possessions . He moved in with his aunt and uncle , who lived near Shivaji Park , during this period , due to his hectic schedule . Meanwhile , at school , he developed a reputation as a child prodigy . He had become a common conversation point in local cricketing circles , where there were suggestions already that he would become one of the greats . Sachin consistently featured in his school Shardashram Vidyamandir ( English ) team in the Matunga Gujarati Seva Mandal ( popularly coined MGSM ) Shield . Besides school cricket , he also played club cricket , initially representing John Bright Cricket Club in Bombay 's premier club cricket tournament , the Kanga League , and later went on to play for the Cricket Club of India . In 1987 , at the age of 14 , he attended the MRF Pace Foundation in Madras ( now Chennai ) to train as a fast bowler , but Australian fast bowler Dennis Lillee , who took a world record 355 Test wickets , was unimpressed , suggesting that Tendulkar focus on his batting instead . On 20 January 1987 , he also turned out as substitute for Imran Khan 's side in an exhibition game at Brabourne Stadium in Bombay , to mark the golden jubilee of Cricket Club of India . A couple of months later , former Indian batsman Sunil Gavaskar gave him a pair of his own ultra light pads and consoled him to not get disheartened for not getting the Bombay Cricket Association 's `` Best junior cricket award '' ( He was 14 years that time ) . `` It was the greatest source of encouragement for me , '' Tendulkar said nearly 20 years later after surpassing Gavaskar 's world record of 34 Test centuries . Sachin served as a ball boy in the 1987 Cricket World Cup when India played against England in the semifinal in Bombay . In his season in 1988 , Tendulkar scored a century in every innings he played . He was involved in an unbroken 664-run partnership in a Lord Harris Shield inter-school game against St. Xavier 's High School in 1988 with his friend and team-mate Vinod Kambli , who would also go on to represent India . The destructive pair reduced one bowler to tears and made the rest of the opposition unwilling to continue the game . Tendulkar scored 326 ( not out ) in this innings and scored over a thousand runs in the tournament . This was a record partnership in any form of cricket until 2006 , when it was broken by two under-13 batsmen in a match held at Hyderabad in India . Early domestic career On 14 November 1987 , Tendulkar was selected to represent Bombay in the Ranji Trophy , India 's premier domestic First-class cricket tournament , for the 1987–88 season . However , he was not selected for the final eleven in any of the matches , though he was often used as a substitute fielder . He narrowly missed out on playing alongside his idol Gavaskar , who had retired from all forms of cricket after the 1987 Cricket World Cup . A year later , on 11 December 1988 , aged just 15 years and 232 days , Tendulkar made his debut for Bombay against Gujarat at home and scored 100 not out in that match , making him the youngest Indian to score a century on debut in first-class cricket . He was handpicked to play for the team by the then Bombay captain Dilip Vengsarkar after watching him easily negotiating India 's best fast bowler at the time , Kapil Dev , in the Wankhede Stadium nets , where the Indian team had come to play against the touring New Zealand team . He followed this by scoring a century in his first Deodhar and Duleep Trophies , which are also Indian domestic tournaments . Tendulkar finished the 1988–89 season as Bombay 's highest run-scorer . He scored 583 runs at an average of 67.77 , and was the sixth highest run-scorer overall He also made an unbeaten century in the Irani Trophy match against Delhi at the start of the 1989–90 season , playing for the Rest of India . Sachin was picked for a young Indian team to tour England twice , under the Star Cricket Club banner in 1988 and 1989 . In the famous 1990–91 Ranji Trophy final , in which Haryana defeated Bombay by two runs after leading in the first innings , Tendulkar 's 96 from 75 deliveries was a key to giving Bombay a chance of victory as it attempted to chase 355 from only 70 overs on the final day . His first double century ( 204 * ) was for Mumbai while playing against the visiting Australian team at the Brabourne Stadium in 1998 . He is the only player to score a century on debut in all three of his domestic first-class tournaments ( the Ranji , Irani , and Duleep Trophies ) . Another double century was an innings of 233 * against Tamil Nadu in the semi-finals of the 2000 Ranji Trophy , which he regards as one of the best innings of his career . Yorkshire In 1992 , at the age of 19 , Tendulkar became the first overseas-born player to represent Yorkshire , which prior to Tendulkar joining the team , never selected players even from other English counties . Selected for Yorkshire as a replacement for the injured Australian fast bowler Craig McDermott , Tendulkar played 16 first-class matches for the county and scored 1070 runs at an average of 46.52 . International career Early career Raj Singh Dungarpur is credited for the selection of Tendulkar for the Indian tour of Pakistan in late 1989 , and that too after just one first class season . The Indian selection committee had shown interest in selecting Tendulkar for the tour of the West Indies held earlier that year , but eventually did not select him , as they did not want him to be exposed to the dominant fast bowlers of the West Indies so early in his career . Tendulkar made his Test debut against Pakistan in Karachi in November 1989 aged just 16 years and 205 days . He made just 15 runs , being bowled by Waqar Younis , who also made his debut in that match , but was noted for how he handled numerous blows to his body at the hands of the Pakistani pace attack . In the fourth and final Test in Sialkot , he was hit on the nose by a bouncer bowled by Younis , but he declined medical assistance and continued to bat even as he gushed blood from it . In a 20-over exhibition game in Peshawar , held in parallel with the bilateral series , Tendulkar made 53 runs off 18 balls , including an over in which he scored 27 runs ( 6 , 4 , 0 , 6 , 6 , 6 ) off leg-spinner Abdul Qadir . This was later called `` one of the best innings I have seen '' by the then Indian captain Krishnamachari Srikkanth . In all , he scored 215 runs at an average of 35.83 in the Test series , and was dismissed without scoring a run in the only One Day International ( ODI ) he played . Thus Sachin Tendulkar became the youngest player to debut for India in Tests at the age of 16 years and 205 days and also the youngest player to debut for India in ODIs at the age of 16 years and 238 days . The series was followed by a tour of New Zealand in which he scored 117 runs at an average of 29.25 in Tests including an innings of 88 in the second Test . He was dismissed without scoring in one of the two one-day games he played , and scored 36 in the other . On his next tour , to England in July–August 1990 , he became the second youngest cricketer to score a Test century as he made 119 not out in the second Test at Old Trafford in Manchester , an innings which contributed to a draw and saved India from certain defeat in the match . Wisden described his innings as `` a disciplined display of immense maturity '' and also wrote : He looked the embodiment of India 's famous opener , Gavaskar , and indeed was wearing a pair of his pads . While he displayed a full repertoire of strokes in compiling his maiden Test hundred , most remarkable were his off-side shots from the back foot . Though only 5ft 5in tall , he was still able to control without difficulty short deliveries from the English pacemen . Tendulkar further enhanced his reputation as a future great during the 1991–92 tour of Australia held before the 1992 Cricket World Cup , that included an unbeaten 148 in the third Test at Sydney and 114 on a fast , bouncing pitch in the final Test at Perth against a pace attack comprising Merv Hughes , Bruce Reid and Craig McDermott . Hughes commented to Allan Border at the time that `` This little prick 's going to get more runs than you , AB . '' Rise through the ranks Tendulkar 's performance through the years 1994–1999 coincided with his physical peak , in his early twenties . On the day of the Hindu festival Holi , Tendulkar was told to open the batting at Auckland against New Zealand in 1994 . He went on to make 82 runs off 49 balls . He scored his first ODI century on 9 September 1994 against Australia in Sri Lanka at Colombo . It took him 79 ODIs to score his first century . Tendulkar 's rise continued when he was the leading run scorer at the 1996 World Cup , scoring two centuries . He was the only Indian batsman to perform in the semi-final against Sri Lanka . Tendulkar fell amid a batting collapse and the match referee , Clive Lloyd awarded Sri Lanka the match after the crowd began rioting and throwing litter onto the field . After the World Cup , in the same year against Pakistan at Sharjah , Indian captain Mohammed Azharuddin was going through a lean patch . Tendulkar and Navjot Singh Sidhu both made centuries to set a then record partnership for the second wicket . After getting out , Tendulkar found Azharuddin in two minds about whether he should bat . Tendulkar convinced Azharuddin to bat and Azharuddin subsequently unleashed 24 runs off just one over . India went on to win that match . It enabled India to post a score in excess of 300 runs for the first time in an ODI . This was the beginning of a period at the top of the batting world , culminating in the Australian tour of India in early 1998 , with Tendulkar scoring three consecutive centuries . The focus was on the clash between Sachin Tendulkar , the world 's most dominating batsman and Shane Warne , and the world 's leading spinner , both at the peak of their careers , clashing in a full-fledged Test series after 7 long years . In the lead-up to the series , Tendulkar famously simulated scenarios in the nets with Laxman Sivaramakrishnan , the former India leg spinner , donning the role of Warne . In their tour opener , Australia faced the then Ranji Champions Mumbai at the Brabourne Stadium in a three-day first class match . Tendulkar made an unbeaten 204 as Shane Warne conceded 111 runs in 16 overs and Australia lost the match within three days . These were characterised by a premeditated plan to target Australian spinners Shane Warne and Gavin Robertson , to whom he regularly charged down the pitch to drive over the infield . This technique worked as India beat Australia in the ensuing Test series as well . He also had a role with the ball in the five-match ODI series in India following the Tests , including a five wicket haul in an ODI in Kochi . Set 310 runs to win , Australia were cruising at 203 for 3 in the 31st over when Tendulkar turned the match for India , taking the wickets of Michael Bevan , Steve Waugh , Darren Lehmann , Tom Moody and Damien Martyn for just 32 runs in 10 overs . The Test match success was followed by two consecutive centuries in April 1998 in a Triangular cricket tournament in Sharjah – the first in a must-win game to take India to the finals and then again in the finals , both against Australia tormenting Shane Warne once again . These twin knocks were also known as the Desert Storm innings . The innings in the finals was incidentally played on his 25th birthday . Following the series Warne ruefully joked that he was having nightmares about his Indian nemesis . Tendulkar single-handedly won the ICC 1998 quarterfinal at Dhaka to pave way for India 's entry into the semifinals , when he took four Australian wickets after scoring 141 runs in just 128 balls . The inaugural Asian Test Championship took place in February and March 1999 . Held just twice , the 1999 championship was contested by India , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka . The first Test match between India and Pakistan in Eden Gardens was previously scheduled as the third Test match of the tournament but later on was shifted to the first match . In the first match , Tendulkar was run out for nine after colliding with Pakistan bowler Shoaib Akhtar . Around 100,000 people came to support team India during the initial four days of the tournament . The aggregate Test attendance record which was made 63 years ago was broken during this Test . The crowd 's reaction to the dismissal was to throw objects at Akhtar , and the players were taken off the field . The match resumed after Tendulkar and the president of the ICC appealed to the crowd , however further rioting meant that the match was finished in front of a crowd of just 200 people . Tendulkar scored his 19th Test century in the second Test and the match resulted in a draw with Sri Lanka . India did not progress to the final , which was won by Pakistan , and refused to participate the next time the championship was held due to increasing political tensions between India and Pakistan . In the historic Test against Pakistan at Chepauk in 1999 , the first of a two-Test series , Sachin scored 136 in the fourth innings with India chasing 271 for victory . However , he was out when India needed 17 more runs to win , triggering a batting collapse , and India lost the match by 12 runs . The worst was yet to come as Professor Ramesh Tendulkar , Sachin 's father , died in the middle of the 1999 Cricket World Cup . Tendulkar flew back to India to attend the final rituals of his father , missing the match against Zimbabwe . However , he returned to the World Cup scoring a century ( 140 not out off 101 balls ) in his very next match against Kenya in Bristol . He dedicated this century to his father . Captaincy Tendulkar 's two tenures as captain of the Indian cricket team were not very successful . When Tendulkar took over as captain in 1996 , it was with huge hopes and expectations . However , by 1997 the team was performing poorly . Azharuddin was credited with saying `` Nahin jeetega ! Chote ki naseeb main jeet nahin hai ! `` , which translates into : `` He wo n't win ! It 's not in the small one 's destiny ! `` . Tendulkar , succeeding Azharuddin as captain for his second term , led India on a tour of Australia , where the visitors were beaten 3–0 by the newly crowned world champions . Tendulkar , however , won the player of the series award as well as player of the match in one of the games . After another Test series defeat , this time by a 0–2 margin at home against South Africa , Tendulkar resigned , and Sourav Ganguly took over as captain in 2000 . Tendulkar remained an integral part of the Indian team 's strategic processes . He was often seen in discussion with the captain , at times actively involved in building strategies . Former captain Rahul Dravid publicly acknowledged that Tendulkar had been suggesting moves such as the promotion of Irfan Pathan up the batting order which , although only temporary , had an immediate effect on the team 's fortunes . In 2007 , Tendulkar was appointed vice-captain to captain Rahul Dravid . During the Indian team 's 2007 tour of England , Dravid 's desire to resign from the captaincy became known . The BCCI President Sharad Pawar personally offered the captaincy to Tendulkar . However , Tendulkar asked Pawar not to appoint him captain , instead recommending Mahendra Singh Dhoni to take over the reins . Pawar later revealed this conversation , crediting Tendulkar for first forwarding the name of Dhoni , who since achieved much success as captain . Mike Denness incident In India 's 2001 tour of South Africa in the second test match between India and South Africa at St George 's Park , Port Elizabeth match referee Mike Denness fined four Indian players for excessive appealing as well as the Indian captain Sourav Ganguly for not controlling his team . Tendulkar was given a suspended ban of one game by Denness in light of alleged ball tampering . Television cameras picked up images that suggested Tendulkar may have been involved in cleaning the seam of the cricket ball . This can , under some conditions , amount to altering the condition of the ball . Denness found Sachin Tendulkar guilty of ball tampering charges and handed him a one Test match ban . The incident escalated to include allegations of racism , and led to Denness being barred from entering the venue of the third Test match . The ICC revoked the status of the match as a Test as the teams rejected the appointed referee . The charges against Tendulkar and Sehwag 's ban for excessive appealing triggered a massive backlash from the Indian public . Injuries and decline amid surpassing Bradman 's haul Sachin Tendulkar continued performing well in Test cricket in 2001 and 2002 , with some pivotal performances with both bat and ball . Tendulkar took three wickets on the final day of the famous Kolkata Test against Australia in 2001 . Tendulkar took the key wickets of Matthew Hayden and Adam Gilchrist , who were centurions in the previous Test . In the five-match ODI series that followed , he took his 100th wicket in ODIs , claiming the wicket of then Australian captain Steve Waugh in the final match at the Fatorda Stadium in Goa . In the 2002 series in the West Indies , Tendulkar started well , scoring 79 in the first Test . In the second Test at Port of Spain , Sachin Tendulkar scored 117 in the first innings , his 29th Test century in his 93rd Test match , to equal Sir Donald Bradman 's record of 29 Test hundreds . Then , in a hitherto unprecedented sequence , he scored 0 , 0 , 8 and 0 in the next four innings , getting out to technical `` defects '' and uncharacteristically poor strokes . He returned to form in the last Test scoring 41 and 86 . However , India lost the series . This might have been the beginning of the `` decline '' phase in his career which lasted till 2006 . In the third Test match against England in August 2002 , Sachin scored his 30th Test century to surpass Bradman 's haul , in his 99th Test match . Tendulkar made 673 runs in 11 matches in the 2003 Cricket World Cup , helping India reach the final . While Australia retained the trophy that they had won in 1999 , Tendulkar was given the Man of the Tournament award . He continued to score heavily in ODI cricket that year , with two hundreds in a tri-series involving New Zealand and Australia . As a part-time bowler , he dismissed an exhausted centurion , Matthew Hayden in the tri-series final . [ https : //www.youtube.com/watch ? v C0W7AkakdUQ From the Vault : Hayden too big , too strong ] The drawn series as India toured Australia in 2003–04 saw Tendulkar making his mark in the last Test of the series , with 241 not out in Sydney , putting India in a virtually unbeatable position . He followed up the innings with an unbeaten 60 in the second innings of the Test . Prior to this Test match , he had had an unusually horrible run of form , failing in all six innings in the preceding three Tests . It was no aberration that 2003 was his worst year in Test cricket , with an average of 17.25 and just one fifty . Tendulkar scored an unbeaten 194 against Pakistan at Multan in the following series . India declared before Tendulkar reached 200 ; had he done so it would have been the fourth time he passed the landmark in Tests . In meeting with the press that evening , Tendulkar stated that he was disappointed and that the declaration had taken him by surprise . Many former cricketers commented that Dravid 's declaration was in bad taste . After India won the match , the captain Rahul Dravid stated that the matter was spoken internally and put to rest . A tennis elbow injury then took its toll on Tendulkar , leaving him out of the side for most of the year , coming back only for the last two Tests when Australia toured India in 2004 . He played a part in India 's victory in Mumbai in that series with a fast 55 , though Australia took the series 2–1 . On 10 December 2005 at Feroz Shah Kotla , Tendulkar scored his record-breaking 35th Test century , against the Sri Lankans . After this , Tendulkar endured the longest spell of his career without a Test century : 17 innings elapsed before he scored 101 against Bangladesh in May 2007 . Tendulkar scored his 39th ODI hundred on 6 February 2006 in a match against Pakistan . He followed with a 42 in the second One-Day International against Pakistan on 11 February 2006 , and then a 95 in hostile , seaming conditions on 13 February 2006 in Lahore , which set up an Indian victory . On 19 March 2006 , after being dismissed for only one run against England in the first innings of the third Test in his home ground , Wankhede , Tendulkar was booed off the ground by a section of the crowd , the first time that he had ever faced such flak . Tendulkar was to end the three-Test series without a single half-century to his credit , and news of a shoulder operation raised more questions about his longevity . In July 2006 , the Board of Control for Cricket in India (

sfq_22204--Sachin_Tendulkar.txt

Which is the home city of cricketer Sachin Tendulkar, where he recently finished his career?

Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series , written by British author J. K. Rowling . The book was released on 21 July 2007 by Bloomsbury Publishing in the United Kingdom , in the United States by Scholastic , and in Canada by Raincoast Books , ending the series that began in 1997 with the publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . The novel chronicles the events directly following Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince ( 2005 ) , and the final confrontation between the wizards Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort , as well as revealing the previously concealed back story of several main characters . The title of the book refers to three mythical objects featured in the story , collectively known as the `` Deathly Hallows '' —an unbeatable wand , a stone to bring the dead to life , and a cloak of invisibility . Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in January 2007 . Before its release , Bloomsbury reportedly spent £10 million to keep the book 's contents safe before its release date . American publisher Arthur Levine refused any copies of the novel to be released in advance for press review , although two reviews were submitted early . Shortly before release , photos of all 759 pages of the U.S. edition were leaked and transcribed , leading Scholastic to look for the source that had leaked it . Released globally in 93 countries , Deathly Hallows broke sales records as the fastest-selling book ever , a record it still held in 2012 . It sold 15 million copies in the first 24 hours following its release , including more than 11 million in the U.S. and UK alone . The previous record , 9 million in its first day , had been held by Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince . The novel has also been translated into over 120 languages . The title proved difficult to translate and was often rendered closer to `` Harry Potter and the Relics of Death '' in other languages . Major themes in the novel are death and living in a corrupted society , and critics have compared them to Christian allegories . Generally well-received , the book won the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award , and the American Library Association named it a `` Best Book for Young Adults '' . A two-part film adaptation began showing in November 2010 when Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 was released ; Part 2 was released on 15 July 2011 . Plot Background Throughout the six previous novels in the series , the titular character Harry Potter has struggled with the difficulties of adolescence along with being famous as the only wizard to survive the Killing Curse . The curse was cast by the evil Tom Riddle , better known as Lord Voldemort , a powerful evil wizard , who had murdered Harry 's parents and attempted to kill Harry as a baby , in the belief this would frustrate a prophecy that Harry would become his equal . As an orphan , Harry was placed in the care of his Muggle ( non-magical ) relatives Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon . In Philosopher 's Stone , Harry re-enters the wizarding world at age 11 and enrols in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . He makes friends with fellow students Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , and is mentored by the school 's headmaster , Albus Dumbledore . He also meets Professor Severus Snape , who intensely dislikes and bullies him . Harry fights Voldemort several times while at school , as the wizard tries to regain a physical form . In Goblet of Fire , Harry is mysteriously entered in a dangerous magical competition called the Triwizard Tournament , which he discovers is a trap designed to allow the return of Lord Voldemort to full strength . During Order of the Phoenix , Harry and several of his friends face off against Voldemort 's Death Eaters , a group of Dark witches and wizards , and narrowly defeat them . In Half-Blood Prince , Harry learns that Voldemort has divided his soul into several parts , creating `` horcruxes '' from various unknown objects to contain them ; in this way he has ensured his immortality as long as at least one of the horcruxes still exists . Two of these had already been destroyed , one a diary destroyed by Harry in the events of Chamber of Secrets and one a ring destroyed by Dumbledore shortly before the events of Half-Blood Prince . Dumbledore takes Harry along in the attempt to destroy a third horcrux contained in a locket . However the horcrux has been taken by an unknown wizard , and upon their return Dumbledore is ambushed and disarmed by Draco Malfoy who can not bring himself to kill him , then killed by Snape . Summary Following Dumbledore 's death , Voldemort consolidates his support and power , including covert control of the Ministry of Magic , while Harry is about to turn seventeen , losing the protection of his home . The Order of the Phoenix move Harry to a new location before his birthday , but are attacked upon departure . Mad-Eye is killed , and George Weasley wounded , the rest arrive safely . Abandoning school , Ron and Hermione accompany Harry to finish Dumbledore 's quest : to hunt and destroy Voldemort 's four remaining Horcruxes . Initially they have very few clues—one is a locket once owned by Hogwarts ' co-founder Salazar Slytherin which was stolen by the mysterious `` R.A.B . `` , one is possibly a cup originally belonging to co-founder Helga Hufflepuff , a third might be connected to co-founder Rowena Ravenclaw , and the fourth might be Nagini , Voldemort 's snake familiar . They also receive apparently meaningless bequests from Dumbledore 's possessions—a Golden Snitch for Harry , a Deluminator for Ron , and a book of fairy tales for Hermione . Before leaving , they attend Ron 's brother Bill 's wedding , but the Ministry of Magic finally falls to Voldemort and the wedding is attacked . They flee to 12 Grimmauld Place in London , the family home of Sirius Black and headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix , where they identify R.A.B . as Sirius ' brother Regulus Black , and learn from the house-elf Kreacher that Slytherin 's locket was stolen from the house and then seized by Dolores Umbridge of the Ministry of Magic . They infiltrate the Ministry of Magic and take back the locket , but have no way to destroy it . Under the object 's evil influence and the strain of constant vigilance , they argue and Ron leaves . Harry and Hermione continue the quest , discovering more about Dumbledore 's past , including the death of Dumbledore 's younger sister and his connection to the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald . They travel to Godric 's Hollow , Harry 's birthplace and the place where his parents died , and meet the elderly magical historian Bathilda Bagshot , but she turns out to be Nagini in disguise , awaiting their arrival ; the snake attacks Harry and again they barely escape , this time to the Forest of Dean , where their luck appears to turn . A mysterious silver doe , similar to a Patronus , appears and silently guides Harry to an icy pond containing the Sword of Hogwarts co-founder Godric Gryffindor , a Goblin-made weapon and one of the few objects able to destroy Horcruxes . During Harry 's attempt to recover the sword , the Horcrux attempts to kill him . He is saved by Ron , who was guided back by the deluminator , and they realise Dumbledore 's gifts may be meaningful . Ron obtains the sword , and uses it to destroy the locket . Harry continues to have visions of Voldemort torturing and killing wizards , apparently in pursuit of some object . Hermione identifies in her book , a strange symbol also worn at the wedding by Xenophilius Lovegood . They visit him and are told the symbol represents the mythical Deathly Hallows , three objects from an old fairy tale titled The Tale of the Three Brothers : the Elder Wand , an unbeatable wand ; the Resurrection Stone , able to summon the dead ; and an infallible Invisibility Cloak . Harry realises that Voldemort is seeking ( and shortly afterwards , successfully obtains ) the Elder Wand , won by Dumbledore after Grindelwald 's defeat , recognises the Resurrection Stone as that found by Dumbledore which had become the second Horcrux , and his own inherited Invisibility Cloak as the third Hallow . The trio are captured and taken to Malfoy Manor , where Bellatrix Lestrange tortures Hermione to learn how the three acquired the sword , which she had believed was in her vault at Gringotts bank . They escape , along with Luna Lovegood , Ollivander , Dean Thomas , and the goblin Griphook , aided by the elf Dobby . During the escape Harry disarms Draco Malfoy and Dobby dies . Bellatrix ' terror in interrogating Hermione suggests to Harry that some exceptional object is in her vault , and when questioned , Griphook confirms that a gold cup is indeed in her vault . They break into the vault , retrieve the cup , and escape on a dragon , although they lose the sword . Harry has a vision of Voldemort and sees that he now understands their plan , and intends to make his remaining horcruxes even safer . The vision also confirms that the unidentified horcrux is at Hogwarts . They enter the school through an undiscovered secret entrance . The teachers drive out Snape , and defend the school to win time for Harry to locate the penultimate horcrux . Voldemort had set a guard in the Ravenclaw tower , corroborating Harry 's belief that the horcrux is Rowena Ravenclaw 's diadem , lost centuries ago . The Ravenclaw ghost 's story further confirms this belief , and Harry remembers an old diadem in the Room of Requirement . Ron and Hermione destroy the cup with basilisk fangs from the Chamber of Secrets as Voldemort and his army besiege the castle . They find the diadem but are ambushed by Draco Malfoy and his friends Crabbe and Goyle . Crabbe tries to kill them using Fiendfyre , a cursed fire , but is unable to control it ; the fire destroys the diadem and himself . Harry and his friends save Malfoy and Goyle , and several major characters are killed in the battle , including Remus Lupin , Nymphadora Tonks , and Fred Weasley . In his encampment , Voldemort feels that the Elder Wand is not performing as he expected . According to legend , its allegiance must be won by killing the previous owner , and Voldemort concludes—incorrectly—that as Snape killed Dumbledore , he will not be able to fully wield the wand 's power until he kills Snape , which he does . Harry arrives as Snape is dying , and Snape passes him memories to view in a pensieve . They reveal finally , that Snape had a lifelong love for Harry 's mother , and felt haunted by causing her death , that despite hating Harry 's father he agreed at Dumbledore 's request to watch over their son Harry and act as a double agent against Voldemort , that Dumbledore 's death was planned with Snape in advance , that Snape cast the doe Patronus to lead Harry to the sword , and that—apparently—he himself must die if Voldemort is to be killed . He accepts his death and Dumbledore 's scheming that has guided his life , and goes to seek out and be killed by Voldemort . On the way he tells Neville Longbottom that Voldemort 's snake Nagini—the last known horcrux—must be killed to make Voldemort vulnerable . He uses the Resurrection Stone to seek comfort and courage from his dead loved ones—his parents , Sirius and Lupin—dropping the stone in the forest before reaching Voldemort 's camp . Voldemort uses the Killing Curse and Harry does not defend himself . Harry awakens in a dreamlike location somewhat like Kings Cross Station , and is greeted by Dumbledore who explains that Voldemort 's original Killing Curse left a fragment of Voldemort 's soul in Harry which caused the connection they had felt , that when Voldemort used Harry 's blood to regain his full strength , this further protected Harry from Voldemort , that this fragment of Voldemort 's soul has now been killed by Voldemort 's own spell , and that Harry is free to return or `` go on '' . Harry chooses to return and feigns death . Voldemort displays Harry 's body and offers a truce if the defenders surrender , but Neville kills Nagini with the sword , leaving Voldemort unprotected , and Harry escapes under his cloak as the battle resumes . In a final onslaught , Bellatrix is killed and Harry reveals to Voldemort that he is alive . He explains to Voldemort that the Elder Wand 's loyalty transfers upon the defeat , not necessarily the killing , of its previous master . Although Voldemort believed he has won the wand 's allegiance by killing Snape , who killed Dumbledore , in fact he ( Harry ) had defeated Draco Malfoy who had previously disarmed Dumbledore . Therefore , the outcome of their duel will depend upon whether the Elder Wand knows its previous master was disarmed , which will have left Harry as its true master , even though neither Draco nor Harry ever physically held it . He also explains that his attempted self-sacrifice has protected the remaining defendants , who can now no longer be hurt by Voldemort . Harry urges Voldemort to feel remorse , in order to save his soul . Enraged , Voldemort attempts one final Killing Curse , but the Elder Wand refuses to act against Harry and the spell rebounds , killing him finally . After Voldemort 's death , Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his original broken wand , saying that he will return it to Dumbledore 's tomb , where its power may vanish if Harry dies undefeated and where it may drop out of history , and the wizarding world returns to peace once more . ; Epilogue In an epilogue set in King 's Cross station 19 years later , Harry and Ginny Weasley are a couple with three children : James Sirius , Albus Severus , and Lily Luna . Ron and Hermione also have two children , Rose and Hugo ; Harry 's godson Teddy Lupin , is found kissing Bill and Fleur Weasley 's daughter Victoire ; Neville Longbottom is now a Hogwarts professor ; and Draco Malfoy and his wife are also at the station to send off their son , Scorpius . Albus is departing for his first year at Hogwarts , and is worried he will be placed into Slytherin House . Harry reassures him , telling his son that he is named for two Hogwarts headmasters , and one of them ( Snape ) was a Slytherin and `` the bravest man he had ever met '' , but that the Sorting Hat could take account of personal preferences , as it did for Harry . The book ends with the words : `` The scar had not pained Harry for nineteen years . All was well . '' Background Franchise Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury , the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom , on 30 June 1997 . It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic—the American publisher of the books—as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , after Rowling had received US $ 105,000 for the American rights—an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then-unknown author . The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 , and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 , and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version . It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003 . Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 , and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release . Choice of title Shortly before releasing the title , J. K. Rowling announced that she had considered three titles for the book . The final title , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , named after the mythical Deathly Hallows in the novel , was released to the public on 21 December 2006 , via a special Christmas-themed hangman puzzle on Rowling 's website , confirmed shortly afterwards by the book 's publishers . When asked during a live chat about the other titles she had been considering , Rowling mentioned Harry Potter and the Elder Wand and Harry Potter and the Peverell Quest . Rowling on finishing the book Rowling completed the book while staying at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh in January 2007 , and left a signed statement on a marble bust of Hermes in her room which read : `` J. K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room ( 552 ) on 11 January 2007 '' . In a statement on her website , she said , `` I 've never felt such a mixture of extreme emotions in my life , never dreamed I could feel simultaneously heartbroken and euphoric . '' She compared her mixed feelings to those expressed by Charles Dickens in the preface of the 1850 edition of David Copperfield , `` a two-years ' imaginative task '' . `` To which , '' she added , `` I can only sigh , try seventeen years , Charles '' . She ended her message by saying `` Deathly Hallows is my favourite , and that is the most wonderful way to finish the series '' . When asked before publication about the forthcoming book , Rowling stated that she could not change the ending even if she wanted . `` These books have been plotted for such a long time , and for six books now , that they 're all leading a certain direction . So , I really ca n't '' . She also commented that the final volume related closely to the previous book in the series , Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince , `` almost as though they are two-halves of the same novel '' . She has said that the last chapter of the book was written `` in something like 1990 '' , as part of her earliest work on the series . Rowling also revealed she originally wrote the last words to be `` something like : 'Only those who he loved could see his lightning scar . Rowling changed this because she did not want people to think Voldemort would rise again and to say that Harry 's mission was over . Major themes Death In a 2006 interview , J. K. Rowling said that the main theme of the series is Harry dealing with death , which was influenced by her mother 's death in 1990 , from multiple sclerosis . Lev Grossman of Time stated that the main theme of the series was the overwhelming importance of continuing to love in the face of death . Living in a corrupted society Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books , some more complex than others , and some including political subtexts . Themes such as normality , oppression , survival , and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series . Similarly , the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and `` going over one 's most harrowing ordeals—and thus coming to terms with them '' has also been considered . Rowling has stated that the books comprise `` a prolonged argument for tolerance , a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry '' and that also pass on a message to `` question authority and ... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth '' . Some political commentators have seen J. K. Rowling 's portrayal of the bureaucratised Ministry of Magic and the oppressive measures taken by the Ministry in the later books ( like making attendance at Hogwarts School compulsory and the `` registration of Mudbloods '' with the Ministry ) as an allegory of criticising the state . Christian allegories The Harry Potter series has been criticised for supposedly supporting witchcraft and the occult . Before publication of Deathly Hallows , Rowling refused to speak out about her religion , stating , `` If I talk too freely , every reader , whether 10 or 60 , will be able to guess what 's coming in the books '' . However , many have noted Christian allegories apparent in Deathly Hallows . For example , Harry dies and then comes back to life to save mankind , like Christ . The location where this occurs is King 's Cross . Harry also urges Voldemort to show remorse , to restore his shattered soul . Rowling also stated that `` my belief and my struggling with religious belief ... I think is quite apparent in this book '' , which is shown as Harry struggles with his faith in Dumbledore . Deathly Hallows begins with a pair of epigraphs , one by Quaker leader William Penn and one from Aeschylus ' The Libation Bearers . Of this , Rowling said `` I really enjoyed choosing those two quotations because one is pagan , of course , and one is from a Christian tradition . I 'd known it was going to be those two passages since Chamber was published . I always knew [ that ] if I could use them at the beginning of book seven then I 'd cued up the ending perfectly . If they were relevant , then I went where I needed to go . They just say it all to me , they really do '' . When Harry visits his parents ' grave , the biblical reference `` The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death '' ( 1 Corinthians 15:26 ) is inscribed on the grave . The Dumbledores ' family tomb also holds a biblical quote : `` Where your treasure is , there your heart will be also '' , which is from Matthew 6:21 . Rowling states , `` They 're very British books , so on a very practical note Harry was going to find biblical quotations on tombstones ... [ but ] I think those two particular quotations he finds on the tombstones at Godric 's Hollow , they sum up – they almost epitomise the whole series '' . Harry Potter pundit John Granger additionally noted that one of the reasons the Harry Potter books were so popular is their use of literary alchemy ( similar to Romeo and Juliet , C. S. Lewis 's Perelandra and Charles Dickens 's A Tale of Two Cities ) and vision symbolism . In this model , authors weave allegorical tales along the alchemical magnum opus . Since the medieval period , alchemical allegory has mirrored the passion , death and resurrection of Christ . While the entire series utilises symbols common in alchemy , the Deathly Hallows completes this cycle , tying themes of death , rebirth , and the Resurrection Stone to the principal motif of alchemical allegory , and topics presented in the first book of the series . Release Marketing and promotion The launch was celebrated by an all-night book signing and reading at the Natural History Museum in London , which Rowling attended along with 1,700 guests chosen by ballot . Rowling toured the US in October 2007 , where another event was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City with tickets allocated by sweepstake . Scholastic , the American publisher of the Harry Potter series , launched a multimillion-dollar `` There will soon be 7 '' marketing campaign with a `` Knight Bus '' travelling to 40 libraries across the United States , online fan discussions and competitions , collectible bookmarks , tattoos , and the staged release of seven Deathly Hallows questions most debated by fans . In the build-up to the book 's release , Scholastic released seven questions that fans would find answered in the final book : # Who will live ? Who will die ? # Is Snape good or evil ? # Will Hogwarts reopen ? # Who ends up with whom ? # Where are the Horcruxes ? # Will Voldemort be defeated ? # What are the Deathly Hallows ? J. K. Rowling arranged with her publishers for a poster bearing the face of the missing British child Madeleine McCann to be made available to book sellers when Deathly Hallows was launched on 21 July 2007 , and said that she hoped that the posters would be displayed prominently in shops all over the world . After it was told that the novel would be released on 21 July 2007 , Warner Bros. shortly thereafter said that the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix would be released shortly before the novel would be released , on 13 July 2007 , making many people proclaim that July 2007 , was the month of Harry Potter . Spoiler embargo Bloomsbury invested £10 million in an attempt to keep the book 's contents secure until 21 July , the release date . Arthur Levine , U.S. editor of the Harry Potter series , denied distributing any copies of Deathly Hallows in advance for press review , but two U.S. papers published early reviews anyway . There was speculation that some shops would break the embargo and distribute copies of the book early , as the penalty imposed for previous instalments—that the distributor would not be supplied with any further copies of the series—would no longer be a deterrent . Online leaks and early delivery In the week before its release , a number of texts purporting to be genuine leaks appeared in various forms . On 16 July , a set of photographs representing all 759 pages of the U.S. edition was leaked and was fully transcribed prior to the official release date . The photographs later appeared on websites and peer-to-peer networks , leading Scholastic to seek a subpoena in order to identify one source . This represented the most serious security breach in the Harry Potter series ' history . Rowling and her lawyer confirmed that there were genuine online leaks . Reviews published in both The Baltimore Sun and The New York Times on 18 July 2007 , corroborated many of the plot elements from this leak , and about one day prior to release , The New York Times confirmed that the main circulating leak was real . Scholastic announced that approximately one-ten-thousandth ( 0.0001 ) of the U.S. supply had been shipped early — interpreted to mean about 1,200 copies . One reader in Maryland received a copy of the book in the mail from DeepDiscount.com four days before it was launched , which evoked incredulous responses from both Scholastic and DeepDiscount . Scholastic initially reported that they were satisfied it had been a `` human error '' and would not discuss possible penalties ; however , the following day Scholastic announced that it would be launching legal action against DeepDiscount.com and its distributor , Levy Home Entertainment . Scholastic filed for damages in Chicago 's Circuit Court of Cook County , claiming that DeepDiscount engaged in a `` complete and flagrant violation of the agreements that they knew were part of the carefully constructed release of this eagerly awaited book . '' Some of the early release books soon appeared on eBay , in one case being sold to Publishers Weekly for US $ 250 from an initial price of US $ 18 . Price wars and other controversies Asda , along with several

sfq_2318--Harry_Potter_and_the_Deathly_Hallows.txt

What is the title of the last Harry Potter novel, published in 2007?

A flower , sometimes known as a bloom or blossom , is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral ( plants of the division Magnoliophyta , also called angiosperms ) . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction , usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs . Flowers may facilitate outcrossing ( fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population ) or allow selfing ( fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower ) . Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization ( parthenocarpy ) . Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop . Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals , so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen . After fertilization , the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds . In addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants , flowers have long been admired and used by humans to beautify their environment , and also as objects of romance , ritual , religion , medicine and as a source of food . Morphology Floral parts The essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts : the vegetative part , consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth , and the reproductive or sexual parts . A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk . Each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle . The four main whorls ( starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards ) are as follows : Vegetative ( Perianth ) Collectively the calyx and corolla form the perianth ( see diagram ) . * Calyx : the outermost whorl consisting of units called sepals ; these are typically green and enclose the rest of the flower in the bud stage , however , they can be absent or prominent and petal-like in some species . * Corolla : the next whorl toward the apex , composed of units called petals , which are typically thin , soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination . Reproductive * Androecium ( from Greek andros oikia : man 's house ) : the next whorl ( sometimes multiplied into several whorls ) , consisting of units called stamens . Stamens consist of two parts : a stalk called a filament , topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis and eventually dispersed . * Gynoecium ( from Greek gynaikos oikia : woman 's house ) : the innermost whorl of a flower , consisting of one or more units called carpels . The carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary , which produces ovules internally . Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes . These give rise to egg cells . The gynoecium of a flower is also described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl ( consisting of an ovary , style and stigma ) is called a pistil . A pistil may consist of a single carpel or a number of carpels fused together . The sticky tip of the pistil , the stigma , is the receptor of pollen . The supportive stalk , the style , becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma . The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous ( beneath a superior ovary ) , perigynous ( surrounding a superior ovary ) , or epigynous ( above inferior ovary ) . Structure Although the arrangement described above is considered `` typical '' , plant species show a wide variation in floral structure . These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species . The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function . Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part . In some families , like Ranunculaceae , the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like . Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like ; the double flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens . Flowers show great variation and plant scientists describe this variation in a systematic way to identify and distinguish species . Specific terminology is used to describe flowers and their parts . Many flower parts are fused together ; fused parts originating from the same whorl are connate , while fused parts originating from different whorls are adnate ; parts that are not fused are free . When petals are fused into a tube or ring that falls away as a single unit , they are sympetalous ( also called gamopetalous ) . Connate petals may have distinctive regions : the cylindrical base is the tube , the expanding region is the throat and the flaring outer region is the limb . A sympetalous flower , with bilateral symmetry with an upper and lower lip , is bilabiate . Flowers with connate petals or sepals may have various shaped corolla or calyx , including campanulate , funnelform , tubular , urceolate , salverform or rotate . Referring to `` fusion , '' as it is commonly done , appears questionable because at least some of the processes involved may be non-fusion processes . For example , the addition of intercalary growth at or below the base of the primordia of floral appendages such as sepals , petals , stamens and carpels may lead to a common base that is not the result of fusion . Many flowers have a symmetry . When the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point , symmetrical halves are produced , forming a radial symmetry . These flowers are also known to be actinomorphic or regular , e.g . rose or trillium . When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic , e.g . snapdragon or most orchids . Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base ( sessile—the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent ) . The stem or stalk subtending a flower is called a peduncle . If a peduncle supports more than one flower , the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called pedicels . The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle . Inflorescence In those species that have more than one flower on an axis , the collective cluster of flowers is termed an inflorescence . Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower . The common example of this is most members of the very large composite ( Asteraceae ) group . A single daisy or sunflower , for example , is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers ( or florets ) . An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as bracts . Floral diagrams and floral formulae A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters , numbers and symbols , presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form . It can represent a taxon , usually giving ranges of the numbers of different organs , or particular species . Floral formulae have been developed in the early 19th century and their use has declined since . Prenner et al . ( 2010 ) devised an extension of the existing model to broaden the descriptive capability of the formula . The format of floral formulae differs in different parts of the world , yet they convey the same information . The structure of a flower can also be expressed by the means of floral diagrams . The use of schematic diagrams can replace long descriptions or complicated drawings as a tool for understanding both floral structure and evolution . Such diagrams may show important features of flowers , including the relative positions of the various organs , including the presence of fusion and symmetry , as well as structural details . Development A flower develops on a modified shoot or axis from a determinate apical meristem ( determinate meaning the axis grows to a set size ) . It has compressed internodes , bearing structures that in classical plant morphology are interpreted as highly modified leaves . Detailed developmental studies , however , have shown that stamens are often initiated more or less like modified stems ( caulomes ) that in some cases may even resemble branchlets . Taking into account the whole diversity in the development of the androecium of flowering plants , we find a continuum between modified leaves ( phyllomes ) , modified stems ( caulomes ) , and modified branchlets ( shoots ) . Flowering transition The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle . The transition must take place at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds , hence ensuring maximal reproductive success . To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of plant hormones and seasonable temperature and photoperiod changes . Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower . The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as florigen , which involves a variety of genes , including CONSTANS , FLOWERING LOCUS C and FLOWERING LOCUS T. Florigen is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in buds and growing tips to induce a number of different physiological and morphological changes . The first step of the transition is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia . This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf , bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs . Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end . These protuberances develop into the sepals , petals , stamens , and carpels . Once this process begins , in most plants , it can not be reversed and the stems develop flowers , even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue . Once the process begins , even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower . Organ development The molecular control of floral organ identity determination appears to be fairly well understood in some species . In a simple model , three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem . These gene functions are called A , B and C-gene functions . In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed , leading to the formation of sepals . In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed , leading to the formation of petals . In the third whorl , B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels . The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon , Antirrhinum majus . For example , when there is a loss of B-gene function , mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual , but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation . In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl , leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl . See also The ABC Model of Flower Development . Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ . Floral function The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and the species . All flowering plants are heterosporous , producing two types of spores . Microspores are produced by meiosis inside anthers while megaspores are produced inside ovules , inside an ovary . In fact , anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium . Both types of spores develop into gametophytes inside sporangia . As with all heterosporous plants , the gametophytes also develop inside the spores ( are endosporic ) . In the majority of species , individual flowers have both functional carpels and stamens . Botanists describe these flowers as being perfect or bisexual and the species as hermaphroditic . Some flowers lack one or the other reproductive organ and called imperfect or unisexual . If unisex flowers are found on the same individual plant but in different locations , the species is said to be monoecious . If each type of unisex flower is found only on separate individuals , the plant is dioecious . Flower specialization and pollination Flowering plants usually face selective pressure to optimize the transfer of their pollen , and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behaviour of the plants . Pollen may be transferred between plants via a number of 'vectors ' . Some plants make use of abiotic vectors — namely wind ( anemophily ) or , much less commonly , water ( hydrophily ) . Others use biotic vectors including insects ( entomophily ) , birds ( ornithophily ) , bats ( chiropterophily ) or other animals . Some plants make use of multiple vectors , but many are highly specialised . Cleistogamous flowers are self-pollinated , after which they may or may not open . Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers . The flowers of plants that make use of biotic pollen vectors commonly have glands called nectaries that act as an incentive for animals to visit the flower . Some flowers have patterns , called nectar guides , that show pollinators where to look for nectar . Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color . Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators . Some species of orchids , for example , produce flowers resembling female bees in color , shape , and scent . Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant ( such as nectar , pollen , or a mate ) . In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species , the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits . Anemophilous flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next . Examples include grasses , birch trees , ragweed and maples . They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be `` showy '' flowers . Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers , the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens , and the female flowers having long , feather-like stigmas . Whereas the pollen of animal-pollinated flowers tends to be large-grained , sticky , and rich in protein ( another `` reward '' for pollinators ) , anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained , very light , and of little nutritional value to animals . Pollination The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction . Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of plant , they mediate the joining of the sperm , contained within pollen , to the ovules — contained in the ovary . Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma . The joining of the sperm to the ovules is called fertilization . Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another , but many plants are able to self pollinate . The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation . Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring , allowing for adaptation . Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species . Many plants are dependent upon external factors for pollination , including : wind and animals , and especially insects . Even large animals such as birds , bats , and pygmy possums can be employed . The period of time during which this process can take place ( the flower is fully expanded and functional ) is called anthesis . The study of pollination by insects is called anthecology . Pollen The types of pollen that most commonly cause allergic reactions are produced by the plain-looking plants ( trees , grasses , and weeds ) that do not have showy flowers . These plants make small , light , dry pollen grains that are custom-made for wind transport . The type of allergens in the pollen is the main factor that determines whether the pollen is likely to cause hay fever . For example , pine tree pollen is produced in large amounts by a common tree , which would make it a good candidate for causing allergy . It is , however , a relatively rare cause of allergy because the types of allergens in pine pollen appear to make it less allergenic . Among North American plants , weeds are the most prolific producers of allergenic pollen . Ragweed is the major culprit , but other important sources are sagebrush , redroot pigweed , lamb 's quarters , Russian thistle ( tumbleweed ) , and English plantain . There is much confusion about the role of flowers in allergies . For example , the showy and entomophilous goldenrod ( Solidago ) is frequently blamed for respiratory allergies , of which it is innocent , since its pollen can not be airborne . Instead the allergen is usually the pollen of the contemporary bloom of anemophilous ragweed ( Ambrosia ) , which can drift for many kilometers . Scientists have collected samples of ragweed pollen 400 miles out at sea and 2 miles high in the air . A single ragweed plant can generate a million grains of pollen per day . It is common to hear people say they are allergic to colorful or scented flowers like roses . In fact , only florists , gardeners , and others who have prolonged , close contact with flowers are likely to be sensitive to pollen from these plants . Most people have little contact with the large , heavy , waxy pollen grains of such flowering plants because this type of pollen is not carried by wind but by insects such as butterflies and bees . Attraction methods Plants can not move from one location to another , thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations . Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous ; literally `` insect-loving '' in Greek . They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution . Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar . Birds and bees have color vision , enabling them to seek out `` colorful '' flowers . Some flowers have patterns , called nectar guides , that show pollinators where to look for nectar ; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light , which is visible to bees and some other insects . Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell . Not all flower scents are appealing to humans ; a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals , often called Carrion flowers , including Rafflesia , the titan arum , and the North American pawpaw ( Asimina triloba ) . Flowers pollinated by night visitors , including bats and moths , are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white . Other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators . Some species of orchids , for example , produce flowers resembling female bees in color , shape , and scent . Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate . Pollination mechanism The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized . Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods : Entomophilous : flowers attract and use insects , bats , birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next . Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant ( such as nectar , pollen , or a mate ) . In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species , the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits . Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination . Others , such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids , have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination . Anemophilous : flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next , examples include the grasses , Birch trees , Ragweed and Maples . They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to grow large blossoms . Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained , sticky , and rich in protein ( another `` reward '' for pollinators ) , anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained , very light , and of little nutritional value to insects , though it may still be gathered in times of dearth . Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn ( maize ) pollen , though it is of little value to them . Some flowers are self-pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open , these flowers are called cleistogamous . Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers . Flower-pollinator relationships Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms . Many flowers , for example , attract only one specific species of insect , and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction . This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution , as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other 's needs . This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction . The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well . Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations . Fertilization and dispersal Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization , which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation . The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize , such as many dandelions . Conversely , many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization . Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time , or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules . The latter flower types , which have chemical barriers to their own pollen , are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible . Evolution While land plants have existed for about 425 million years , the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts : spores . In the sea , plants—and some animals—can simply scatter out genetic clones of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere . This is how early plants reproduced . But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea . The protection became the seed , though it had not yet evolved the flower . Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo and conifers . The earliest fossil of a flowering plant , Archaefructus liaoningensis , is dated about 125 million years old . Several groups of extinct gymnosperms , particularly seed ferns , have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved . The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an `` abominable mystery '' by Charles Darwin . Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus , along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms , suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps . Recent DNA analysis ( molecular systematics ) shows that Amborella trichopoda , found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia , is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants , and morphological studies suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants . The general assumption is that the function of flowers , from the start , was to involve animals in the reproduction process . Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes , which would therefore be a liability , using the plant 's resources , unless they provide some other benefit . One proposed reason for the sudden , fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island , or chain of islands , where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal ( a wasp , for example ) , the way many island species develop today . This symbiotic relationship , with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today , could have eventually resulted in both the plant ( s ) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization . Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation , especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms . Note that the wasp example is not incidental ; bees , apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships , are descended from wasps . Likewise , most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower . This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it , and thus scattering the seeds it contains . While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms , flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production , spreading ( whatever their actual origin ) to become the dominant form of land plant life . While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago , there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago . A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers , oleanane , has been detected in fossil plants that old , including gigantopterids , which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern , flowering plants , though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves , because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail ; one of the earliest examples of petrification . The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important , because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants , a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots . The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts , often separate from ( but in contact with ) each other . The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern , to be bisexual ( in plants , this means both male and female parts on the same flower ) , and to

wh_1390--Flower.txt

Which common flower has the Latin name Bellis Perennis ?

Dora Spenlow is a character in the novel David Copperfield by Charles Dickens . She is portrayed as beautiful but childish . David , who is employed by her father , the lawyer Mr Spenlow , falls in love with Dora at first sight and marries her . She proves unable to cope with the responsibilities of married life , and is more interested in playing with her dog , Jip , than in acting as David 's housekeeper . All this has a profound effect on David , but he still loves her . However , a year into their marriage she suffers a miscarriage , and her health steadily declines until she eventually dies . Charles Dickens named his daughter Dora Annie Dickens after the character on her birth in 1850 , but she died the following year at the age of eight months .

odql_13482--Dora_Spenlow.txt

'Dora Spenlow' was the first wife of which Dickens character?

The human flea ( Pulex irritans ) is a cosmopolitan flea species that has , in spite of the common name , a wide host spectrum . It is one of six species in the genus Pulex ; the other five are all confined to the Nearctic and Neotropical regions . The species is thought to have originated in South America , where its original host may have been the guinea pig or peccary . Morphology and behavior Pulex irritans is a holometabolous insect with a four-part lifecycle consisting of eggs , larvae , pupae , and adults . Eggs are shed by the female in the environment and hatch into larvae in about 3–4 days . Larvae feed on organic debris in the environment . Larvae eventually form pupae , which are in cocoons that are often covered with debris from the environment ( sand , pebbles , etc . ) . The larval and pupal stages are completed in about 3–4 weeks when the adults hatch from pupae , then must seek out a warm-blooded host for blood meals . The flea eggs are about 0.5 mm in length . They are oval-shaped and pearly white in color . Eggs are often laid on the body of the host , but they often fall off in many different places . The larvae are about 6 mm in length . They are creamy white or yellow in color . Larvae have 13 segments with bristles on each segment . The larvae feed on a variety of organic debris . The pupa are around 4 x 2 mm . After undergoing three separate molts , the larvae pupate , then emerge as adults . If conditions are unfavorable , a cocooned flea can remain dormant for up to a year in the pupal phase . The adults are roughly 1.5 to 4 mm in length and are laterally flattened . They are dark brown in color , are wingless , and have piercing-sucking mouthparts that aid in feeding on the host ’ s blood . Both genal and pronotal combs are absent and the adult flea has a rounded head . Most fleas are distributed in the egg , larval , or pupal stages . Relationship with host Direct effects of bites Fleas are a pest species to their hosts , causing an itching sensation that results in discomfort and leads to scratching in the vicinity of the bite . Flea bites generally cause the skin to raise , swell , and itch . The bite site has a single puncture point in the center . Bites often appear in clusters or small rows and can remain inflamed for up to several weeks . This species bites many species of mammals and birds , including domesticated ones . It has been found on dogs and wild canids , monkeys in captivity , opossums , domestic cats , wild felids in captivity , chickens , black rats and Norwegian rats , wild rodents , pigs , free-tailed bats , and other species . It can also be an intermediate host for the cestode Dipylidium caninum . Fleas can spread rapidly and move between areas to include eyebrows , eyelashes , and pubic regions . Hair loss as a result of itching is common , especially in wild and domestic animals . Anemia is also possible in extreme cases of high-volume infestations . Vector capabilities Plague , a disease that affects humans and other mammals , is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis . The human flea can be a carrier of the plague bacterium . Plague is infamous for killing millions of people in Europe during the Middle Ages . Without prompt treatment , the disease can cause serious illness or death . Today , human plague infections continue to occur in the western United States , but significantly more cases occur in parts of Africa and Asia . Plague is a very serious illness , but is treatable with commonly available antibiotics . The earlier a patient seeks medical care and receives treatment that is appropriate for plague , the better their chances are of a full recovery . People in close contact with very sick pneumonic plague patients may be evaluated and possibly placed under observation . Preventive antibiotic therapy may also be given , depending on the type and timing of personal contact . Treatment and prevention Common treatments include body shaving and medicated shampoos and combing . When preventing fleas , it is important to treat both the host and the environment . Household pets should be treated to prevent being infested . Carpets , and other floor surfaces , should be shampooed and vacuumed regularly to prevent fleas . When dealing with an infestation , bedding and clothing that may have been exposed should be washed thoroughly in hot water and kept away from other materials that have not been exposed . In extreme cases , extermination by a professional is necessary .

dpql_737--Human_flea.txt

Pulex irritans is the Latin name for which insect?

Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? ( sometimes informally known as Millionaire ) is an international television game show franchise of British origin , created by David Briggs , Mike Whitehill and Steven Knight . In its format , currently owned and licensed by Sony Pictures Television , large cash prizes are offered for correctly answering a series of multiple-choice questions of increasing ( or , in some cases , random ) difficulty . The maximum cash prize ( in the original British version ) was one million pounds . Most international versions offer a top prize of one million units of the local currency ; the actual value of the prize varies widely , depending on the value of the currency . The original British version of the show debuted on 4 September 1998 , and aired on ITV with Chris Tarrant as its host until 11 February 2014. International variants have aired in around 160 countries worldwide . The show 's format is a twist on the game show genre—only one contestant plays at a time ( similar to some radio quizzes ) , and the emphasis is on suspense rather than speed . In most versions there are no time limits to answer the questions , and contestants are given the question before they must decide whether to attempt an answer . Gameplay Original rules The contestants must first play a preliminary round , called `` Fastest Finger First '' ( or , in the U.S. version , simply `` Fastest Finger '' ) , where they are all given a question and four answers from the host and are asked to put those four answers into a particular order ; in the first series of the British version and in pre-2003 episodes of the Australian version , the round instead required the contestants to answer one multiple-choice question correctly as quickly as possible . The contestant who does so correctly and in the fastest time goes on to play the main game for the maximum possible prize ( often a million units of the local currency ) . In the event that two or more contestants are tied for the fastest time , those contestants play another question to break the tie . If no one gets the question right , that question is discarded and another question is played in the same manner . If any contestants are visually impaired , the host reads the question and four choices all at once , then repeats the choices after the music begins . Main game contestants are asked increasingly difficult general knowledge questions by the host . Questions are multiple choice : four possible answers are given ( labelled A , B , C and D ) , and the contestant must choose the correct one . The 'D ' answer on the first question ( except in the Shuffle format like in the US version ) is always incorrect and humorous . Upon answering a question correctly , the contestant wins a certain amount of money . In most versions , there is no time limit to answer a question ; a contestant may ( and often does ) take as long as they need to ponder an answer . After the first few questions , the host will ask the contestant if that is their `` final answer '' . When a contestant says `` final '' in conjunction with one of the answers , it is official , and can not be changed . The first five questions usually omit this rule , because the questions are generally so easy that requiring a final answer would significantly slow the game down ; thus , there are five chances for the contestant to leave with no money if they were to provide a wrong answer before obtaining the first guaranteed amount ; going for 1,000 units of currency after winning 500 units is the last point in the game at which a contestant can still leave empty-handed . Subsequent questions are played for increasingly large sums , roughly doubling at each turn . The first few questions often have some joke answers . On episodes of the UK version aired between 1998 and 2007 , the payout structure was as follows : first going from £100 to £300 in increments of £100 , then from £500 to £64,000 with the pound value doubling for each new question , and finally from £125,000 to £1,000,000 with the pound value doubling for each new question . After viewing a question , the contestant can leave the game with the money already won rather than attempting an answer . If the contestant answers a question incorrectly , then all of their winnings are lost , except that the £1,000 and £32,000 prizes are guaranteed : if a player gets a question wrong above these levels , then the prize drops to the previous guaranteed prize . Answering the £2,000 and £64,000 questions wrong does not reduce the prize money . The prizes are generally non-cumulative ; for example , answering the £500 question gives the contestant £500 , not the previous £300 plus £500 ( i.e . £800 ) . The game ends when the contestant answers a question incorrectly , decides not to answer a question , or answers all questions correctly . New formats and variations When the U.S. Millionaires syndicated version debuted in 2002 , Fastest Finger was eliminated for the reduced episode length ( 30 minutes as opposed to the previous network version 's length of 60 minutes ) . Thus , contestants immediately take the Hot Seat , each of them called in after their predecessors ' games end . Contestants are required to pass a more conventional game show qualification test at auditions ; however , when the U.S. Millionaire revived its primetime version for specials , it also restored the Fastest Finger round ; this was done in 2004 for the Super Millionaire series which raised the top prize to $ 10,000,000 and in August 2009 for an eleven-night special that celebrated the U.S. version 's tenth anniversary . Long after the U.S. version eliminated its Fastest Finger round , numerous other versions ( including the Australian , Italian , Turkish , British , Dutch and French versions ) followed suit by eliminating their respective Fastest Finger First rounds ; additionally , some versions ( such as the British , Dutch , French and Russian versions ) have eliminated their respective Fastest Finger First rounds for special events wherein celebrities play for charity . In 2007 , it was announced that the UK version was changing its format , reducing the number of questions in the game from fifteen to twelve . The new payout structure was as follows : first going from £500 to £2,000 with the prize values doubling for each new question , then from £5,000 to £20,000 with the prize values doubling for each new question , then to £50,000 , £75,000 and £150,000 , and finally from £250,000 to £1,000,000 with the prize value doubling for each new question . Whereas the first safe haven remained at £1,000 , the second safe haven was moved to £50,000 . The new rules debuted in an episode that aired on 18 August 2007 . Within a period of four years following its introduction to the British Millionaire , the 12-question format was subsequently carried over to a number of international versions , including the Arab , Bulgarian , Dutch , French , Polish , Spanish , and Turkish versions . In 2007 , the German version modified its format , so that contestants would be allowed to choose the option of playing in a new variant called `` Risk Mode '' . If the contestant chooses to play this variant , they are given access to a fourth lifeline that allows them to discuss a question with a volunteer from the audience , but the tenth-question safe haven is forfeited . This means that if the contestant answers any of questions 11–15 incorrectly , they drop all the way to the guaranteed winnings gained by answering question 5 correctly . If the contestant chooses to the play the classic format , they keep the second safe haven . The risk format was subsequently adopted by such markets as Austria , the Czech Republic , Hungary , the Philippines , Poland , Russia , Switzerland and Venezuela . In 2008 , the U.S. version changed its format so that contestants were required to answer questions within a set time limit . The time limits were 15 seconds for questions 1–5 , 30 seconds for questions 6-10 , and 45 seconds for questions 11-14 . After each of the 14 questions were answered correctly , the remaining time after giving an answer was banked for the million-dollar question . The clock for each question began counting down immediately after all of the question was revealed , and was temporarily paused when a lifeline was used . Contestants who exceeded the time limit were forced to walk away with any prize money they had won up to that point . The clock was later adopted by other international versions ; for example , the British version adopted it on 3 August 2010 , and the Indian version adopted it on 11 October the same year . On 15 December 2008 , the Norway version introduced a new format , called wherein 6 contestants play at once , with each taking turns to climb the money tree . Contestants are allowed to `` pass '' the onus of answering the question to the next contestant in line , who is unable to re-pass to the next contestant for that question . Also added were time limits on every question , with 15 seconds allocated for the first five questions , 30 for the middle five , and 45 for the last five . In addition , the option of walking away is eliminated , rendering several questions ' values pointless , as they can not be won . Also , if a player fails to give an answer within the time limit , it is considered an automatic pass . If a contestant can not pass on or correctly answer a question , he or she is eliminated and the highest value on the money tree is removed . The game ends either when all contestants are eliminated , or when the question for the highest value in the money tree is answered . If the final question is answered correctly , the answering player receives the amount of money ; if it is answered incorrectly or all contestants are eliminated before the final question is reached , the last contestant to be eliminated receives either nothing , or a smaller prize if the fifth question milestone is reached . This format was later introduced to various markets ( including Norway , Hungary , Vietnam , Indonesia , Australia , Chile and Spain ) over the course of a four-year period from 2009 to 2012 . On 13 September 2010 , the U.S. version adopted its `` shuffle format '' . Ten questions are asked in round one , each assigned one of ten different money amounts . The dollar values are randomised at the beginning of the game . The contestant is then shown the original order of difficulty for the ten questions as well as their categories , and those are then randomised as well . This means that the difficulty of the question is not tied to its value . The dollar values for each question remain hidden until a contestant either provides a correct answer or chooses to `` jump '' their question . In this format , the value of each question answered correctly is added to the contestant 's bank , for a maximum total of $ 68,600 . A contestant who completes the round successfully can walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank , or can walk before the round is completed with half that amount ( e.g. , a contestant who banked $ 30,000 would leave with $ 15,000 ) . Contestants who give an incorrect answer at any point in the round leave with $ 1,000 . After completing round one , the contestant moves on to a second round of gameplay ( the `` Classic Millionaire '' round ) , in which four non-categorised questions are played for set non-cumulative values and a correct answer augments the contestant 's winnings to that point , as in the older formats . The contestant is now allowed to walk away with all the money in their bank ; an incorrect answer drops their winnings to $ 25,000 . The shuffle format was replaced with a modified version of the original format ( with only 14 questions ) for the fourteenth syndicated season ; the values of the last four questions remain unchanged . Lifelines Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions . After using a lifeline , the contestant can either answer the question , use another lifeline , or walk away and keep the money ( although using the `` Double Dip '' lifeline requires the contestant to immediately answer and using the `` Jump the Question '' lifeline naturally prevents them from continuing with that question ) . Except for the first three seasons of the `` Jump the Question '' lifeline 's use , each lifeline can only be used once . In the Hot Seat format , the concept of lifelines is discarded in favor of the option to pass . The show 's original three lifelines are `` 50/50 '' , in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers ; `` Phone a Friend '' , in which the contestant makes a thirty-second call to one of a number of friends ( who provide their phone numbers in advance ) and reads them the question and answer choices , after which the friend provides input ; and `` Ask the Audience '' , in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be , after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant . In countries where the show is broadcast live , friends selected for Phone-a-Friend are alerted when their contestant begins to play the main game , and are told to keep the phone free and to wait for three rings before answering . Phone-a-Friend was removed from the U.S. version beginning with the episode that aired on 11 January 2010 , after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using web search engines and other Internet resources to assist them , which unfairly privileged individuals who had computer access over those who did not , and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline , by which friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew . From 2004 to 2008 , the U.S. version had a fourth lifeline called `` Switch the Question '' , earned upon answering question ten , in which the computer replaced , at the contestant 's request , one question with another of the same monetary value ; however , any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question . Switch the Question returned as Cut the Question for a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014 . During the U.S. Millionaires Super Millionaire spin-off , two new lifelines were introduced : `` Double Dip '' , which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question , but required them to play out the question , forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines ; and `` Three Wise Men '' , in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers ( one of which was usually a former Millionaire winner and at least one being female ) , appearing via face-to-face audio and video feeds , which answer they believed was correct , within a time limit of thirty seconds . When the clock format was implemented , Double Dip replaced the 50:50 lifeline , and the show also introduced a new lifeline called `` Ask the Expert '' , similar to Three Wise Men but only had one person ( usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant ) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people , lacked the time limit of its predecessor , and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question . Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question , but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone-a-Friend was removed . The U.S. version sometimes used corporate sponsorship for its lifelines . Phone-a-Friend was sponsored by the original AT & T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version , then by the current AT & T for the 2009 primetime episodes . From 2004 to 2006 , Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL , which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their contact list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers , to which the users replied with their choices . In addition , the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds . The German Millionaires risk format features an extra lifeline called `` Ask One of the Audience '' , in which the host will reread the question and ask the audience who think they would be able to answer that question to stand up . The contestant may choose one of these ( judging by looks only ) and discuss the question at length with said audience member . He may or may not choose an answer after that . If he chooses the suggested answer and it proves to be correct , the audience member will also receive a prize of €500 . This lifeline is also implemented in the Costa Rican version , after the first milestone is reached . Starting in its thirteenth season , the U.S. syndicated version uses a variant of this lifeline , called `` Plus One '' , which allows the contestant to bring a companion with them for help , rather than having them select their companion from the audience . The U.S. Millionaires shuffle format introduced a new lifeline , `` Jump the Question '' , which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve of the syndicated version . At any point prior to selecting a final answer , a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one , thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer . However , if the contestant uses Jump the Question , they do not gain any money from the question they choose to skip ( for example , a contestant with a bank of $ 68,100 may jump the $ 100,000 question , but will still have only $ 68,100 instead of the typical $ 100,000 when they face the $ 250,000 question ) . Unlike other lifelines throughout the show 's history , this lifeline can not be used on the $ 1 million question , since it is the final question in the game . The introduction of Plus One reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one . On occasional specially designated weeks , starting with a Halloween-themed week that aired from 29 October to 2 November 2012 , the shuffle format uses a special lifeline called `` Crystal Ball '' , which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer . Jump the Question was removed from the show at the end of the thirteenth syndicated season . Top prize winners Out of all contestants that have played the game , few have been able to win the top prize on any international version of the show . The first was John Carpenter , who won the top prize on the U.S. version on 19 November 1999 . Carpenter did not use a lifeline until the final question , using his Phone-a-Friend not for help but to call his father to tell him he had won the million . Other notable top prize winners include Judith Keppel , the first winner of the UK version ; Kevin Olmstead from the U.S. version , who won a progressive jackpot of $ 2.18 million ; Martin Flood from the Australian version , who was investigated by producers after suspicions that he had cheated , much like Charles Ingram , but was later cleared ; and Sushil Kumar from the Indian version , who is often referred to in Western media as the `` real-life Slumdog Millionaire '' . International versions The original British version of Millionaire , hosted by Chris Tarrant , debuted on the ITV network on 4 September 1998 . At its peak in 1999 , one edition of the show was watched by over 19 million viewers ( one out of every three Britons ) . Originally the contestants were predominantly members of the general public , but in the show 's later years , only celebrities appeared on the show , in special live editions that coincided with holidays and the like . On 22 October 2013 , Tarrant decided to quit the show after 15 years , and ITV decided to cancel the show after his contract finished , stating that there would not be any further specials beyond the ones that had already been planned . Tarrant 's final live celebrity edition aired on 19 December 2013 , and the final episode , a clip show entitled `` Chris ' Final Answer '' , aired on 11 February 2014 . The U.S. version of the show was launched in the primetime by ABC on 16 August 1999 , and was originally hosted by Regis Philbin . The original network version was the highest-rated of all television shows in the 1999–2000 season , reaching an average audience of approximately 29 million viewers , but before long , ABC overexposed the primetime series and the audience tired of the show , which ultimately grilled it to cancellation , with its final episode airing on 27 June 2002 . A daily syndicated version of the programme debuted on 16 September 2002 , and was launched by Meredith Vieira , who remained host for eleven seasons , with her final first-run episodes airing in May 2013 . Later hosts after Vieira 's departure included Cedric the Entertainer and Terry Crews , who each held one-season tenures as host in 2013 and 2014 respectively ; and Chris Harrison , who became host in the fall of 2015 . The Australian version of the show debuted on the Nine Network on 18 April 1999 , and was hosted by Eddie McGuire until he became the CEO of the Nine Network , a position that required him to sacrifice his on-air commitments . The final episode of the original Australian series aired on 3 April 2006 ; however , after his resignation as Nine Network CEO , McGuire resumed his duties as Millionaire host for subsequent versions . Millionaire returned to Australia in 2007 , as six episodes with a new format aired during October and November of that year . This was followed by an abbreviated version called Millionaire Hot Seat which debuted on 20 April 2009 . An Indian version of the program , titled Kaun Banega Crorepati ( `` Who will become a millionaire '' ) , debuted on 3 July 2000 , with Amitabh Bachchan hosting in his first appearance on Indian television . Subsequent seasons of the show aired in 2005–06 , 2007 , and every year since 2010 . The Indian version was immortalised by director Danny Boyle in his 2008 drama film Slumdog Millionaire , adapted from the 2005 Indian novel Q & A by Vikas Swarup , which won eight U.S. Academy Awards ( including Best Picture and Best Director ) and seven BAFTA Awards . A Filipino version of Millionaire was broadcast from 2000 to 2002 by the government-sequestered Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation , produced by Viva Television , and was hosted by Christopher de Leon . On 23 May 2009 , the show returned with a new home on TV5 , with Vic Sotto as the new host . The show aired its season finale on 7 October 2012 to give way to another game show hosted by Sotto , The Million Peso Money Drop ( the Philippine version of The Million Pound Drop Live created by Endemol ) . However , the show returned to the air on 15 September 2013 for a new season together with Pinoy Explorer and Wow Mali ! Pa Rin after the cancellation of the talent show Talentadong Pinoy ( which would be revived just one year later ) . A Russian version of Millionaire debuted as О , счастливчик ! ( `` Oh , lucky man ! ! ! '' ) on NTV from 1 October 1999 to 28 January 2001 . [ http : //schastlivchik.com/history_ru The history of the game `` Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? '' on Russian TV ] schastlivchik.com On 19 February 2001 , the show was relaunched as Кто хочет стать миллионером ? ( `` Who wants to become a millionaire ? `` ) , which aired on Channel One and was hosted by Maxim Galkin before 2008 , and Dmitry Dibrov after that . A Dutch version of the show , titled Lotto Weekend Miljonairs , first aired on SBS 6 from 1999 to 2006 with Robert ten Brink as its host , then was moved to RTL 4 , where it aired until 2008 ( later to be revived in 2011 ) with Jeroen van der Boom hosting . A Japanese version called Quiz $ Millionaire , hosted by Monta Mino , was launched by Fuji Television on 20 April 2000 ; it was a regular weekly programme for its first seven years , after which it only aired in occasional specials . Millionaire has also existed in many other countries , including a Chinese version aired in 2007 and 2008 with Lǐ Fán as its host ; a French version on TF1 , which debuted on 3 July 2000 and is hosted by Jean-Pierre Foucault ; a German version launched by RTL Television on 3 September 1999 , hosted by Günther Jauch ; and a Hong Kong version called Baak Maan Fu Yung , which was broadcast by Asia Television from 2001 to 2005 , with actor Kenneth Chan as its host . In total , over 100 different international variations of Millionaire have been produced since the original UK version made its 1998 debut . Production In March 2006 , original producer Celador announced that it was seeking to sell the worldwide rights to Millionaire , together with the rest of its British programme library , as the first phase of a sell-off of the company 's format and production divisions . Millionaire and all of Celador 's other programmes were ultimately acquired by Dutch company 2waytraffic . Two years later , Sony Pictures Entertainment purchased 2waytraffic for £137.5 million . The format of the show is currently owned and licensed by Sony Pictures Television ; however , the U.S. version is distributed not by Sony but by the Walt Disney Company 's in-home sales and content distribution firm , Disney–ABC Domestic Television . The idea to transform the UK programme into a global franchise was conceived by British television producer Paul Smith . He laid out a series of rules that the international variants in the franchise were to follow : for example , all hosts were required to appear on-screen wearing Armani suits , as Tarrant did in the UK ; producers were forbidden from hiring local composers to create original music , instead using the same music cues used by the British version ; and the lighting system and set design were required to adhere faithfully to the way they were presented on the British version . However , some of Smith 's rules have been slightly relaxed over the years as the franchise 's history has progressed . Creation The format of the show was created by David Briggs , Mike Whitehill and Steven Knight , who had earlier created a number of the promotional games for Tarrant 's morning show on Capital FM radio , such as the bong game . Tentatively known as Cash Mountain , the show takes its finalised title from a song written by Cole Porter for the 1956 film High Society , in which it was sung by Frank Sinatra and Celeste Holm . Since the original version launched , several individuals

qw_8045--Who_Wants_to_Be_a_Millionaire?.txt

Judith Keppel was the first winner of the top prize on which UK programme?

A fraction ( from Latin ' , `` broken '' ) represents a part of a whole or , more generally , any number of equal parts . When spoken in everyday English , a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are , for example , one-half , eight-fifths , three-quarters . A common , vulgar , or simple fraction ( examples : \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } and 17/3 ) consists of an integer numerator displayed above a line ( or before a slash ) , and a non-zero integer denominator , displayed below ( or after ) that line . Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common , including compound fractions , complex fractions , and mixed numerals . The numerator represents a number of equal parts , and the denominator , which can not be zero , indicates how many of those parts make up a unit or a whole . For example , in the fraction 3/4 , the numerator , 3 , tells us that the fraction represents 3 equal parts , and the denominator , 4 , tells us that 4 parts make up a whole . The picture to the right illustrates \tfrac { 3 } { 4 } or ¾ of a cake . Fractional numbers can also be written without using explicit numerators or denominators , by using decimals , percent signs , or negative exponents ( as in 0.01 , 1 % , and 10−2 respectively , all of which are equivalent to 1/100 ) . An integer such as the number 7 can be thought of as having an implicit denominator of one : 7 equals 7/1 . Other uses for fractions are to represent ratios and to represent division . Thus the fraction ¾ is also used to represent the ratio 3:4 ( the ratio of the part to the whole ) and the division 3 ÷ 4 ( three divided by four ) . In mathematics the set of all numbers that can be expressed in the form a/b , where a and b are integers and b is not zero , is called the set of rational numbers and is represented by the symbol Q , which stands for quotient . The test for a number being a rational number is that it can be written in that form ( i.e. , as a common fraction ) . However , the word fraction is also used to describe mathematical expressions that are not rational numbers , for example algebraic fractions ( quotients of algebraic expressions ) , and expressions that contain irrational numbers , such as √2/2 ( see square root of 2 ) and π/4 ( see proof that π is irrational ) . Vocabulary In a fraction , the number of equal parts being described is the numerator ( equivalent to the dividend in division ) and the number of equal parts that make up a whole is the denominator ( equivalent to the divisor ) . Informally , they may be distinguished by placement alone but in formal contexts they are always separated by a fraction bar . The fraction bar may be horizontal ( as in − ) , oblique ( as in 1/5 or −1∕7 ) , or diagonal ( as in ) . These marks are respectively known as the horizontal bar , the slash ( US ) or stroke ( UK ) , the division slash , and the fraction slash . In typography , horizontal fractions are also known as `` en '' or `` nut fractions '' and diagonal fractions as `` em fractions '' , based on the width of a line they take up .. The denominators of English fractions are generally expressed as ordinal numbers , in the plural if the numerator is not one . ( For example , and are both read as a number of `` fifths '' . ) Exceptions include the denominator 2 , which is always read `` half '' or `` halves '' , the denominator 4 , which may be alternatively expressed as `` quarter '' / '' quarters '' or as `` fourth '' / '' fourths '' , and the denominator 100 , which may be alternatively expressed as `` hundredth '' / '' hundredths '' or `` percent '' . When the denominator is 1 , it may be expressed in terms of `` wholes '' but is more commonly ignored , with the numerator read out as a whole number . ( For example , may be described as `` three wholes '' or as simply `` three '' . ) When the numerator is one , it may be omitted . ( For example , `` a tenth '' or `` each quarter '' . ) A fraction may be expressed as a single composition , in which case it is hyphenated , or as a number of fractions with a numerator of one , in which case they are not . ( For example , `` two-fifths '' is the fraction and `` two fifths '' is the same fraction understood as 2 instances of . ) Fractions should always be hyphenated when used as adjectives . Alternatively , a fraction may be described by reading it out as the numerator `` over '' the denominator , with the denominator expressed as a cardinal number . ( For example , may also be expressed as `` three over one '' . ) The term `` over '' is used even in the case of solidus fractions , where the numbers are placed left and right of a slash mark . ( For example , ½ may be read `` one-half '' , `` one half '' , or `` one over two '' . ) Fractions with large denominators that are not powers of ten are often rendered in this fashion ( e.g. , as `` one over a hundred and seventeen '' ) while those with denominators divisible by ten are typically read in the normal ordinal fashion ( e.g. , as `` six-millionths '' , `` six millionths '' , or `` six one-millionths '' ) . Forms of fractions Simple , common , or vulgar fractions A simple fraction ( also known as a common fraction or vulgar fraction ) is a rational number written as a/b or \tfrac { a } { b } , where a and b are both integers . As with other fractions , the denominator ( b ) can not be zero . Examples include \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } , -\tfrac { 8 } { 5 } , \tfrac { -8 } { 5 } , \tfrac { 8 } { -5 } , and 3/17 . Simple fractions can be positive or negative , proper , or improper ( see below ) . Compound fractions , complex fractions , mixed numerals , and decimals ( see below ) are not simple fractions , though , unless irrational , they can be evaluated to a simple fraction . Proper and improper fractions Common fractions can be classified as either proper or improper . When the numerator and the denominator are both positive , the fraction is called proper if the numerator is less than the denominator , and improper otherwise . In general , a common fraction is said to be a proper fraction if the absolute value of the fraction is strictly less than one—that is , if the fraction is greater than −1 and less than 1 . It is said to be an improper fraction , or sometimes top-heavy fraction , if the absolute value of the fraction is greater than or equal to 1 . Examples of proper fractions are 2/3 , –3/4 , and 4/9 ; examples of improper fractions are 9/4 , –4/3 , and 3/3 . Mixed numbers A mixed numeral ( often called a mixed number , also called a mixed fraction ) is the sum of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction . This sum is implied without the use of any visible operator such as `` + '' . For example , in referring to two entire cakes and three quarters of another cake , the whole and fractional parts of the number are written next to each other : 2+\frac { 3 } { 4 } =2\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } . This is not to be confused with the algebra rule of implied multiplication . When two algebraic expressions are written next to each other , the operation of multiplication is said to be `` understood '' . In algebra , a \tfrac { b } { c } for example is not a mixed number . Instead , multiplication is understood where a \tfrac { b } { c } = a \times \tfrac { b } { c } . To avoid confusion , the multiplication is often explicitly expressed . So a \tfrac { b } { c } may be written as a \times \frac { b } { c } , a \cdot \frac { b } { c } , or a \left ( \frac { b } { c } \right ) . An improper fraction is another way to write a whole plus a part . A mixed number can be converted to an improper fraction as follows : # Write the mixed number 2\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } as a sum 2+\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } . # Convert the whole number to an improper fraction with the same denominator as the fractional part , 2=\tfrac { 8 } { 4 } . # Add the fractions . The resulting sum is the improper fraction . In the example , 2\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } \tfrac { 8 } { 4 } +\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } \tfrac { 11 } { 4 } . Similarly , an improper fraction can be converted to a mixed number as follows : # Divide the numerator by the denominator . In the example , \tfrac { 11 } { 4 } , divide 11 by 4 . 11 ÷ 4 = 2 with remainder 3 . # The quotient ( without the remainder ) becomes the whole number part of the mixed number . The remainder becomes the numerator of the fractional part . In the example , 2 is the whole number part and 3 is the numerator of the fractional part . # The new denominator is the same as the denominator of the improper fraction . In the example , they are both 4 . Thus \tfrac { 11 } { 4 } =2\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } . Mixed numbers can also be negative , as in -2\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } , which equals - ( 2+\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } ) = -2-\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } . Ratios A ratio is a relationship between two or more numbers that can be sometimes expressed as a fraction . Typically , a number of items are grouped and compared in a ratio , specifying numerically the relationship between each group . Ratios are expressed as `` group 1 to group 2 ... to group n '' . For example , if a car lot had 12 vehicles , of which * 2 are white , * 6 are red , and * 4 are yellow , then the ratio of red to white to yellow cars is 6 to 2 to 4 . The ratio of yellow cars to white cars is 4 to 2 and may be expressed as 4:2 or 2:1 . A ratio is often converted to a fraction when it is expressed as a ratio to the whole . In the above example , the ratio of yellow cars to all the cars on the lot is 4:12 or 1:3 . We can convert these ratios to a fraction and say that 4/12 of the cars or ⅓ of the cars in the lot are yellow . Therefore , if a person randomly chose one car on the lot , then there is a one in three chance or probability that it would be yellow . Reciprocals and the `` invisible denominator '' The reciprocal of a fraction is another fraction with the numerator and denominator exchanged . The reciprocal of \tfrac { 3 } { 7 } , for instance , is \tfrac { 7 } { 3 } . The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1 , hence the reciprocal is the multiplicative inverse of a fraction . Any integer can be written as a fraction with the number one as denominator . For example , 17 can be written as \tfrac { 17 } { 1 } , where 1 is sometimes referred to as the invisible denominator . Therefore , every fraction or integer except for zero has a reciprocal . The reciprocal of 17 is \tfrac { 1 } { 17 } . Complex fractions Not to be confused with fractions involving complex numbers In a complex fraction , either the numerator , or the denominator , or both , is a fraction or a mixed number , corresponding to division of fractions . For example , \frac { \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } } { \tfrac { 1 } { 3 } } and \frac { 12\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } } { 26 } are complex fractions . To reduce a complex fraction to a simple fraction , treat the longest fraction line as representing division . For example : \frac { \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } } { \tfrac { 1 } { 3 } } \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } \times\tfrac { 3 } { 1 } \tfrac { 3 } { 2 } =1\tfrac { 1 } { 2 } \frac { 12\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } } { 26 } 12\tfrac { 3 } { 4 } \cdot \tfrac { 1 } { 26 } \tfrac { 12 \cdot 4 + 3 } { 4 } \cdot \tfrac { 1 } { 26 } \tfrac { 51 } { 4 } \cdot \tfrac { 1 } { 26 } \tfrac { 51 } { 104 } \frac { \tfrac { 3 } { 2 } } 5\tfrac { 3 } { 2 } \times\tfrac { 1 } { 5 } \tfrac { 3 } { 10 } \frac { 8 } { \tfrac { 1 } { 3 } } 8\times\tfrac { 3 } { 1 } 24 . If , in a complex fraction , there is no clear way to tell which fraction lines takes precedence , then the expression is improperly formed , and ambiguous . Thus 5/10/20/40 is a poorly constructed mathematical expression , with multiple possible values . Compound fractions A compound fraction is a fraction of a fraction , or any number of fractions connected with the word of , corresponding to multiplication of fractions . To reduce a compound fraction to a simple fraction , just carry out the multiplication ( see the section on multiplication ) . For example , \tfrac { 3 } { 4 } of \tfrac { 5 } { 7 } is a compound fraction , corresponding to \tfrac { 3 } { 4 } \times \tfrac { 5 } { 7 } = \tfrac { 15 } { 28 } . The terms compound fraction and complex fraction are closely related and sometimes one is used as a synonym for the other . Decimal fractions and percentages A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator is not given explicitly , but is understood to be an integer power of ten . Decimal fractions are commonly expressed using decimal notation in which the implied denominator is determined by the number of digits to the right of a decimal separator , the appearance of which ( e.g. , a period , a raised period ( • ) , a comma ) depends on the locale ( for examples , see decimal separator ) . Thus for 0.75 the numerator is 75 and the implied denominator is 10 to the second power , viz . 100 , because there are two digits to the right of the decimal separator . In decimal numbers greater than 1 ( such as 3.75 ) , the fractional part of the number is expressed by the digits to the right of the decimal ( with a value of 0.75 in this case ) . 3.75 can be written either as an improper fraction , 375/100 , or as a mixed number , 3\tfrac { 75 } { 100 } . Decimal fractions can also be expressed using scientific notation with negative exponents , such as , which represents 0.0000006023 . The represents a denominator of . Dividing by moves the decimal point 7 places to the left . Decimal fractions with infinitely many digits to the right of the decimal separator represent an infinite series . For example , ⅓ = 0.333 ... represents the infinite series 3/10 + 3/100 + 3/1000 + ... . Another kind of fraction is the percentage ( Latin per centum meaning `` per hundred '' , represented by the symbol % ) , in which the implied denominator is always 100 . Thus , 51 % means 51/100 . Percentages greater than 100 or less than zero are treated in the same way , e.g . 311 % equals 311/100 , and −27 % equals −27/100 . The related concept of permille or parts per thousand has an implied denominator of 1000 , while the more general parts-per notation , as in 75 parts per million , means that the proportion is 75/1,000,000 . Whether common fractions or decimal fractions are used is often a matter of taste and context . Common fractions are used most often when the denominator is relatively small . By mental calculation , it is easier to multiply 16 by 3/16 than to do the same calculation using the fraction 's decimal equivalent ( 0.1875 ) . And it is more accurate to multiply 15 by 1/3 , for example , than it is to multiply 15 by any decimal approximation of one third . Monetary values are commonly expressed as decimal fractions , for example $ 3.75 . However , as noted above , in pre-decimal British currency , shillings and pence were often given the form ( but not the meaning ) of a fraction , as , for example 3/6 ( read `` three and six '' ) meaning 3 shillings and 6 pence , and having no relationship to the fraction 3/6 . Special cases * A unit fraction is a vulgar fraction with a numerator of 1 , e.g . \tfrac { 1 } { 7 } . Unit fractions can also be expressed using negative exponents , as in 2−1 , which represents 1/2 , and 2−2 , which represents 1/ ( 22 ) or 1/4 . * An Egyptian fraction is the sum of distinct positive unit fractions , for example \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } +\tfrac { 1 } { 3 } . This definition derives from the fact that the ancient Egyptians expressed all fractions except \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } , \tfrac { 2 } { 3 } and \tfrac { 3 } { 4 } in this manner . Every positive rational number can be expanded as an Egyptian fraction . For example , \tfrac { 5 } { 7 } can be written as \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } + \tfrac { 1 } { 6 } + \tfrac { 1 } { 21 } . Any positive rational number can be written as a sum of unit fractions in infinitely many ways . Two ways to write \tfrac { 13 } { 17 } are \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } +\tfrac { 1 } { 4 } +\tfrac { 1 } { 68 } and \tfrac { 1 } { 3 } +\tfrac { 1 } { 4 } +\tfrac { 1 } { 6 } +\tfrac { 1 } { 68 } . * A dyadic fraction is a vulgar fraction in which the denominator is a power of two , e.g . \tfrac { 1 } { 8 } . Arithmetic with fractions Like whole numbers , fractions obey the commutative , associative , and distributive laws , and the rule against division by zero . Equivalent fractions Multiplying the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same ( non-zero ) number results in a fraction that is equivalent to the original fraction . This is true because for any non-zero number n , the fraction \tfrac { n } { n } = 1 . Therefore , multiplying by \tfrac { n } { n } is equivalent to multiplying by one , and any number multiplied by one has the same value as the original number . By way of an example , start with the fraction \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } . When the numerator and denominator are both multiplied by 2 , the result is \tfrac { 2 } { 4 } , which has the same value ( 0.5 ) as \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } . To picture this visually , imagine cutting a cake into four pieces ; two of the pieces together ( \tfrac { 2 } { 4 } ) make up half the cake ( \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } ) . Dividing the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same non-zero number will also yield an equivalent fraction . This is called reducing or simplifying the fraction . A simple fraction in which the numerator and denominator are coprime ( that is , the only positive integer that goes into both the numerator and denominator evenly is 1 ) is said to be irreducible , in lowest terms , or in simplest terms . For example , \tfrac { 3 } { 9 } is not in lowest terms because both 3 and 9 can be exactly divided by 3 . In contrast , \tfrac { 3 } { 8 } is in lowest terms—the only positive integer that goes into both 3 and 8 evenly is 1 . Using these rules , we can show that \tfrac { 5 } { 10 } \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } \tfrac { 10 } { 20 } = \tfrac { 50 } { 100 } . A common fraction can be reduced to lowest terms by dividing both the numerator and denominator by their greatest common divisor . For example , as the greatest common divisor of 63 and 462 is 21 , the fraction \tfrac { 63 } { 462 } can be reduced to lowest terms by dividing the numerator and denominator by 21 : \tfrac { 63 } { 462 } \tfrac { 63 \div 21 } { 462 \div 21 } \tfrac { 3 } { 22 } The Euclidean algorithm gives a method for finding the greatest common divisor of any two positive integers . Comparing fractions Comparing fractions with the same denominator only requires comparing the numerators . \tfrac { 3 } { 4 } > \tfrac { 2 } { 4 } because 3 > 2 . If two positive fractions have the same numerator , then the fraction with the smaller denominator is the larger number . When a whole is divided into equal pieces , if fewer equal pieces are needed to make up the whole , then each piece must be larger . When two positive fractions have the same numerator , they represent the same number of parts , but in the fraction with the smaller denominator , the parts are larger . One way to compare fractions with different numerators and denominators is to find a common denominator . To compare \tfrac { a } { b } and \tfrac { c } { d } , these are converted to \tfrac { ad } { bd } and \tfrac { bc } { bd } . Then bd is a common denominator and the numerators ad and bc can be compared . \tfrac { 2 } { 3 } ? \tfrac { 1 } { 2 } gives \tfrac { 4 } { 6 } > \tfrac { 3 } { 6 } It is not necessary to determine the value of the common denominator to compare fractions . This short cut is known as `` cross multiplying '' – you can just compare ad and bc , without computing the denominator . \tfrac { 5 } { 18 } ? \tfrac { 4 } { 17 } Multiply top and bottom of each fraction by the denominator of the other fraction , to get a common denominator : \tfrac { 5 \times 17 } { 18 \times 17 } ? \tfrac { 4 \times 18 } { 17 \times 18 } The denominators are now the same , but it is not necessary to calculate their value – only the numerators need to be compared . Since 5×17 ( 85 ) is greater than 4×18 ( 72 ) , \tfrac { 5 } { 18 } > \tfrac { 4 } { 17 } . Also note that every negative number , including negative fractions , is less than zero , and every positive number , including positive fractions , is greater than zero , so every negative fraction is less than any positive fraction . Addition The first rule of addition is that only like quantities can be added ; for example , various quantities of quarters . Unlike quantities , such as adding thirds to quarters , must first be converted to like quantities as described below : Imagine a pocket containing two quarters , and another pocket containing three quarters ; in total , there are five quarters . Since four quarters is equivalent to one ( dollar ) , this can be represented as follows : \tfrac24+\tfrac34\tfrac54 1\tfrac14 . Adding unlike quantities To add fractions containing unlike quantities ( e.g . quarters and thirds ) , it is necessary to convert all amounts to like quantities . It is easy to work out the chosen type of fraction to convert to ; simply multiply together the two denominators ( bottom number ) of each fraction . For adding quarters to thirds , both types of fraction are converted to twelfths , thus : \frac14\ + \frac13\frac { 1\times3 } { 4\times3 } \ + \frac { 1\times4 } { 3\times4 } \frac3 { 12 } \ + \frac4 { 12 } =\frac7 { 12 } . Consider adding the following two quantities : \frac35+\frac23 First , convert \tfrac35 into fifteenths by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by three : \tfrac35\times\tfrac33=\tfrac9 { 15 } . Since \tfrac33 equals 1 , multiplication by \tfrac33 does not change the value of the fraction . Second , convert \tfrac23 into fifteenths by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by five : \tfrac23\times\tfrac55=\tfrac { 10 } { 15 } . Now it can be seen that : \frac35+\frac23 is equivalent to : \frac9 { 15 } +\frac { 10 } { 15 } \frac { 19 } { 15 } 1\frac4 { 15 } This method can be expressed algebraically : \frac { a } { b } + \frac { c } { d } = \frac { ad+cb } { bd } And for expressions consisting of the addition of three fractions : \frac { a } { b } + \frac { c } { d } + \frac { e } { f } = \frac { a ( df ) +c ( bf ) +e ( bd ) } { bdf } This method always works , but sometimes there is a smaller denominator that can be used ( a least common denominator ) . For example , to add \tfrac { 3 } { 4 } and \tfrac { 5 } { 12 } the denominator 48 can be used (

qw_6697--Fraction_(mathematics).txt

What is the name of the line separating the numerator and denominator of a fraction if it is written as a diagonal line?

George Best Belfast City Airport is a single-runway airport in Belfast , County Antrim , Northern Ireland . Situated adjacent to the Port of Belfast it is from Belfast City Centre . It shares the site with the Short Brothers/Bombardier aircraft manufacturing facility . The airport began commercial operations in 1983 . The airport was formerly known as `` Belfast City Airport '' until it was renamed in 2006 in memory of George Best , the professional footballer from Belfast . The airport handled over 2.7 million passengers in 2010 , a record total for the airport , though the total was only slightly below 2.7 million in 2015 . The airport is a major base for Flybe , which began operations at the airport in 1993 and is now the largest operator at Belfast City . The airport has a CAA public use aerodrome licence ( number P862 ) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction . Ground handling is provided by Swissport and Menzies Aviation . In 2012 Aer Lingus opened a base at the airport transferring operations from Belfast International Airport . History Early years Sydenham Airport was established by Shorts beside its Belfast factory at Sydenham in 1937 . This became Belfast 's main civilian airport from 1938 to 1939 . The airfield was requisitioned by the Royal Navy during the Second World War and named HMS Gadwall . RAF Nutts Corner then became Belfast 's main airport ( while Aldergrove would later become the primary airport in Northern Ireland ) . The Sydenham airfield continued to be used for military purposes until the 1970s , including use by the Fleet Air Arm as a naval aircraft storage unit , after which it was used solely by Shorts . In 1983 , following interest from airlines and customers , the airfield was opened for commercial flights as Belfast Harbour Airport ( subsequently Belfast City Airport and now in its current guise ) . Development from 2000 to 2010 Following major capital investment Bombardier sold the airport in 2003 for £35 million to the Spanish company Ferrovial , the owner of BAA Airports . Ferrovial re-sold the airport in September 2008 for £132.5 million to ABN Amro Global Infrastructure Fund . In March 2006 , it was announced that the airport would be renamed in memory of Northern Irish footballer George Best . The new name , George Best Belfast City Airport , and signage were revealed at the renaming ceremony attended by Best 's family and friends on 22 May 2006 , which would have been Best 's 60th birthday . The renaming of the airport caused controversy , with many articles in local and national print media highlighting the mixed feelings of Belfast residents . Also in March 2006 Flybe announced that it would be naming its Belfast City – Manchester service after the footballer , dedicating a plane to him . On 30 October 2007 , Ryanair established its 23rd base at the airport . The newest route was between Belfast and London Stansted , following Air Berlin 's announcement that it would discontinue the route on 31 October 2007 . On 31 August 2010 , Ryanair announced it would close its Belfast City base , meaning all Ryanair services were lost from 31 October 2010 . Five routes and 800,000 passengers per annum will be lost at the airport as a result . The closure of the base was due to the planned runway extension being delayed for a further two years . The airline had stated it would fly to European destinations from the airport if the runway was extended . Passenger numbers increased by 4.5 % from 2,621,763 in 2009 to 2,740,341 in 2010 , the highest total on record at the airport . Figure for 2014 is 2,555,111 passengers , up 0.5 % on 2013 's figure and 2,692,729 for 2015 , up 5.4 % from the previous year . In late 2010 Manx2 moved its Isle of Man service to the airport . Many airlines followed the Manx airline in moving to the City airport . Development since 2011 In early 2011 Easyjet operated its London Luton route from the airport . This was to see if there was any benefit to the airline and its customers . The airline noticed no difference and moved the route back to Belfast International . In January 2011 Bmibaby moved to George Best Belfast City Airport in order to keep its operation under one roof with sister company BMI . In June 2012 Bmibaby ceased all routes from Belfast City , prior to its total cessation of operations , leading Flybe to increase schedule frequency on some routes . The carrier added routes from Belfast to Málaga , Alicante , Palma , Faro and Ibiza for summer 2012 , in addition to a new year-round six-times weekly service to Amsterdam from October 31 , 2011 , and a twice-weekly winter service to Geneva from December 17 , 2011 . They all ceased in summer 2012 . In October 2012 Aer Lingus moved its services from Belfast International to the Airport . They launched flights to London Heathrow and London Gatwick and summer seasonal destinations that included Faro , Málaga and Palma . In late 2014 , they also hinted that they were considering launching further routes . In November 2014 , Spanish airline Vueling announced that it was going to launch flights to Barcelona from May 2015 . Flybe also announced that it would commence flights to Liverpool in February 2015 . Both of these new routes would be in direct competition with easyJet , who flies from Belfast International . In January 2015 , Dutch carrier KLM announced that it was going to launch flights to Amsterdam from May 2015 using Fokker 70 aircraft . This will be the first time the airline has flown to Northern Ireland since it suspended flights to Belfast International in 1999 . The route will be in direct competition with easyJet , who flies from Belfast International . Expansion plans and objections As the airport is adjacent to residential areas , the issue of noise pollution is a major one and a source of public debate . The airport has developed a noise management strategy following a planning agreement , under which the airport operates , and has established operational noise abatement procedures . The airport has recently applied for a complete removal of the limit on the seats it can sell – a key element of the 1997 planning agreement , which guards against over-expansion of an airport which is sited in a densely populated location . As a result , numerous residents ' groups have formed a coalition – The Coalition Against Belfast City Airport Expansion – to protest against the airport 's proposed expansion plans , and to represent the views of residents at the Examination in Public held during 2006 . Restrictions applied to the airport include : * The requirement for flights to be scheduled between 6:30 am and 9:30 pm . The exception to this is for delayed flights where extensions may be granted . * That there would be a limit of 45,000 commercial ( and unlimited general aviation ) aircraft movements in any year , restricted further in 2008 to 48,000 combined commercial and general aviation aircraft movements . * That airlines must not offer more than 4 million seats for sale on flights from the airport per year . * The majority of flights must approach and depart the airport over Belfast Lough ( currently 57 % as of December 2008 ) , rather than over the city of Belfast . * Any flight departing over the lough must turn left to head north ( further from land ) at 500 feet . Only after reaching 2,000 feet ( for turboprops ) or 3,000 feet ( for jet aircraft ) may they then turn south to move over land again . * Any flight departing over the city must head in a straight line until 2,000 feet ( for turboprop aircraft ) or 3,000 feet ( for jet aircraft ) before they are allowed to turn . Airlines and destinations Statistics Ground transportation Rail Sydenham railway station is adjacent to the southern perimeter of the airport , across the A2 from the old passenger terminal . It is served by frequent Northern Ireland Railways trains between Bangor and Portadown . Trains towards Portadown call at the Belfast Central and Great Victoria Street railway stations . With the construction of the new passenger terminal further northeast , passengers arriving or departing by train can request an airport courtesy bus to take them to or from the terminal . Car The airport is located on the A2 , Sydenham by-pass road between Belfast and Holywood . Bus Translink Metro route 600 is the Belfast City Airlink service , from the terminal to the Belfast Europa Buscentre adjacent to the Europa Hotel and Belfast Great Victoria Street railway station . Buses run up to every twenty minutes throughout the day . In addition Metro bus 3A operates every 10 minutes from Sydenham to Belfast City Hall . The Airporter service operates 12 coach services to the airport on weekdays as well as 5 coaches on Saturdays and 8 coaches on Sundays to Derry .

sfq_3816--George_Best_Belfast_City_Airport.txt

After who is the Belfast City Airport named?

Australia ( , , ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania , and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . Neighbouring countries include Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east ; and New Zealand to the south-east . For about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians , who spoke languages grouped into roughly 250 language groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades ; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies were established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Since federation , Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states and on the coast . Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world , with the world 's 12th-largest economy . In 2014 Australia had the world 's fifth-highest per capita income . Australia 's military expenditure is the world 's 13th-largest . With the second-highest human development index globally , Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance , such as quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and the protection of civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum . Name The name Australia ( pronounced in Australian English ) is derived from the Latin Terra Australis ( `` southern land '' ) a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times . The earliest recorded use of the word Australia in English was in 1625 in `` A note of Australia del Espíritu Santo , written by Sir Richard Hakluyt '' , published by Samuel Purchas in Hakluytus Posthumus , a corruption of the original Spanish name `` Austrialia del Espíritu Santo '' ( Southern Land of the Holy Spirit ) for an island in Vanuatu . The Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia ( Jakarta ) in 1638 , to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south . The first time that the name Australia appears to have been officially used was in a despatch to Lord Bathurst of 4 April 1817 in which Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledges the receipt of Matthew Flinders ' charts of Australia . On 12 December 1817 , Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted . In 1824 , the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia . History Prehistory Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago , possibly with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea-crossings from what is now Southeast Asia . These first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians . At the time of European settlement in the late 18th century , most Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherers , with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime . The Torres Strait Islanders , ethnically Melanesian , were originally horticulturists and hunter-gatherers . The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia . European arrival The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland , and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent , are attributed to the Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon . He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606 , and made landfall on 26 February at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York.Davison , Hirst and Macintyre , p. 233 . The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent `` New Holland '' during the 17th century , but made no attempt at settlement . William Dampier , an English explorer and privateer , landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688 and again in 1699 on a return trip . In 1770 , James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast , which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain . With the loss of its American colonies in 1783 , the British Government sent a fleet of ships , the `` First Fleet '' , under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip , to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales . A camp was set up and the flag raised at Sydney Cove , Port Jackson , on 26 January 1788 , a date which became Australia 's national day , Australia Day , although the British Crown Colony of New South Wales was not formally promulgated until 7 February 1788 . The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney , and the exploration and settlement of other regions . A British settlement was established in Van Diemen 's Land , now known as Tasmania , in 1803 , and it became a separate colony in 1825 . The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Western Australia ( the Swan River Colony ) in 1828 . Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales : South Australia in 1836 , Victoria in 1851 , and Queensland in 1859 . The Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia . South Australia was founded as a `` free province '' —it was never a penal colony . Victoria and Western Australia were also founded `` free '' , but later accepted transported convicts . A campaign by the settlers of New South Wales led to the end of convict transportation to that colony ; the last convict ship arrived in 1848 . The indigenous population , estimated to have been between 750,000 and 1,000,000 in 1788 , declined for 150 years following settlement , mainly due to infectious disease . Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers . A government policy of `` assimilation '' beginning with the Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 resulted in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities—often referred to as the Stolen Generations—a practice which may also have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population . The Federal government gained the power to make laws with respect to Aborigines following the 1967 referendum . Traditional ownership of land—aboriginal title—was not recognised until 1992 , when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland ( No 2 ) overturned the legal doctrine that Australia had been terra nullius ( `` land belonging to no one '' ) before the European occupation . Colonial expansion A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s and the Eureka Rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience . Between 1855 and 1890 , the six colonies individually gained responsible government , managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire . The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters , notably foreign affairs , defence , and international shipping . Nationhood On 1 January 1901 , federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning , consultation and voting . This established the Commonwealth of Australia as a dominion of the British Empire . The Federal Capital Territory ( later renamed the Australian Capital Territory ) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra . Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed . The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911 . In 1914 , Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I , with support from both the outgoing Commonwealth Liberal Party and the incoming Australian Labor Party . Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front . Of about 416,000 who served , about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded . Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZACs ) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action . The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II . Britain 's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK . Australia adopted it in 1942 , but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II . The shock of the United Kingdom 's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector . Since 1951 , Australia has been a formal military ally of the US , under the ANZUS treaty . After World War II Australia encouraged immigration from Europe . Since the 1970s and following the abolition of the White Australia policy , immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also promoted . As a result , Australia 's demography , culture , and self-image were transformed . The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986 , ending any British role in the government of the Australian States , and closing the option of judicial appeals to the Privy Council in London . In a 1999 referendum , 55 % of voters and a majority in every state rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by a two-thirds vote in both Houses of the Australian Parliament . Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972 , there has been an increasing focus in foreign policy on ties with other Pacific Rim nations , while maintaining close ties with Australia 's traditional allies and trading partners . Government Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II at its apex as the Queen of Australia , a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms . The Queen is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors at the state level , who by convention act on the advice of her ministers . The most notable exercise to date of the Governor-General 's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister 's request was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975 . The federal government is separated into three branches : * The legislature : the bicameral Parliament , defined in section 1 of the constitution as comprising the Queen ( represented by the Governor-General ) , the Senate , and the House of Representatives ; * The executive : the Federal Executive Council , which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet , comprising the prime minister and ministers of state who advise the Governor-General ; * The judiciary : the High Court of Australia and other federal courts , whose judges are appointed by the Governor-General on advice of the Federal Executive Council . In the Senate ( the upper house ) , there are 76 senators : twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories ( the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory ) . The House of Representatives ( the lower house ) has 150 members elected from single-member electoral divisions , commonly known as `` electorates '' or `` seats '' , allocated to states on the basis of population , with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats . Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously ; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories , whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house ; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution . Australia 's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which , along with the Senate and most state upper houses , combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote . Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction , as is enrolment ( with the exception of South Australia ) . The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister . In cases where no party has majority support , the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and , if necessary , dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament . There are two major political groups that usually form government , federally and in the states : the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner , the National Party . Within Australian political culture , the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left . Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments , mostly in upper houses . The most recent federal election was held on 7 September 2013 and resulted in a majority government for the Coalition . Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott was sworn into office as Prime Minister by the Governor-General of Australia on 18 September . In September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged Abbott for leadership of the Coalition , and was sworn in as the 29th Prime Minister of Australia . States and territories Australia has six states—New South Wales ( NSW ) , Queensland ( QLD ) , South Australia ( SA ) , Tasmania ( TAS ) , Victoria ( VIC ) and Western Australia ( WA ) —and two major mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) and the Northern Territory ( NT ) . In most respects these two territories function as states , but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments . By contrast , federal legislation overrides state legislation only in areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution ; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers , including those over schools , state police , the state judiciary , roads , public transport and local government , since these do not fall under the provisions listed in Section 51 . Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory , the ACT and Queensland , and bicameral in the other states . The states are sovereign entities , although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution . The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly ( the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania ) ; the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council . The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister . The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor ; and in the Northern Territory , the Administrator . In the Commonwealth , the Queen 's representative is the Governor-General . The federal parliament directly administers the following territories : * Ashmore and Cartier Islands * Australian Antarctic Territory * Christmas Island * Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands * Coral Sea Islands * Heard Island and McDonald Islands * Jervis Bay Territory , a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the Queen . In 2015 , the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government , integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council . Macquarie Island is administered by Tasmania , and Lord Howe Island by New South Wales . Foreign relations and military Over recent decades , Australia 's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact , and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific , particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum . In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia , and in 2011 attended the Sixth East Asia Summit in Indonesia . Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for co-operation . Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation . It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization , and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements , most recently the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand , with another free trade agreement being negotiated with China—the Australia–China Free Trade Agreement—and Japan , South Korea in 2011 , Australia–Chile Free Trade Agreement , and as of November 2015 has put the Trans-Pacific Partnership before parliament for ratification . Along with New Zealand , the United Kingdom , Malaysia and Singapore , Australia is party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements , a regional defence agreement . A founding member country of the United Nations , Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance . The 2005–06 budget provides A $ 2.5 billion for development assistance . Australia ranks fifteenth overall in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index . Australia 's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force ( ADF ) —comprise the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) , the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , in total numbering 81,214 personnel ( including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists ) as of November 2015 . The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General , who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government . Day-to-day force operations are under the command of the Chief , while broader administration and the formulation of defence policy is undertaken by the Minister and Department of Defence . In the 2015–16 budget , defence spending was A $ 31.9 billion or 1.92 % of GDP , representing the 13th largest defence budget . Australia has been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping , disaster relief and armed conflict , including the 2003 invasion of Iraq ; it currently has deployed about 2,241 personnel in varying capacities to 12 international operations in areas including Iraq and Afghanistan . Geography and climate Australia 's landmass of 7617930 km2 is on the Indo-Australian Plate . Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans , it is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas , with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast , and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand . The world 's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area , Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the `` island continent '' , and is sometimes considered the world 's largest island . Australia has 34218 km of coastline ( excluding all offshore islands ) , and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8148250 km2 . This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory . Apart from Macquarie Island , Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44°S , and longitudes 112° and 154°E . The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest coral reef , lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2000 km . Mount Augustus , claimed to be the world 's largest monolith , is located in Western Australia . At 2228 m , Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland . Even taller are Mawson Peak ( at 2745 m ) , on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island , and , in the Australian Antarctic Territory , Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies , at 3492 m and 3355 m respectively . Australia 's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes , with tropical rainforests in the north-east , mountain ranges in the south-east , south-west and east , and dry desert in the centre . It is the flattest continent , with the oldest and least fertile soils ; desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land . The driest inhabited continent , its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm . The population density , 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre , is among the lowest in the world , although a large proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline . Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range , which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland , New South Wales and much of Victoria . The name is not strictly accurate , because parts of the range consist of low hills , and the highlands are typically no more than 1600 m in height . The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains , while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland . These include the western plains of New South Wales , and the Einasleigh Uplands , Barkly Tableland , and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland . The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested Cape York Peninsula . The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Countrywith their tropical climateinclude forest , woodland , wetland , grassland , rainforest and desert . At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley , and below that the Pilbara . To the south of these and inland , lie more areas of grassland : the Ord Victoria Plain and the Western Australian Mulga shrublands . At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia . Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru ( also known as Ayers Rock ) , the famous sandstone monolith , and the inland Simpson , Tirari and Sturt Stony , Gibson , Great Sandy , Tanami , and Great Victoria deserts , with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast . The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents , including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation , which is correlated with periodic drought , and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia . These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year . Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical , predominantly summer-rainfall ( monsoon ) climate . The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate . Much of the south-east ( including Tasmania ) is temperate . Environment Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert , it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests , and is recognised as a megadiverse country . Fungi typify that diversity ; an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5 % have been described—occur in Australia . Because of the continent 's great age , extremely variable weather patterns , and long-term geographic isolation , much of Australia 's biota is unique . About 85 % of flowering plants , 84 % of mammals , more than 45 % of birds , and 89 % of in-shore , temperate-zone fish are endemic . Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country , with 755 species . Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species , particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions ; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts . Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes ( the platypus and echidna ) ; a host of marsupials , including the kangaroo , koala , and wombat , and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra . Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world . The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE . Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement , including the Australian megafauna ; others have disappeared since European settlement , among them the thylacine . Many of Australia 's ecoregions , and the species within those regions , are threatened by human activities and introduced animal , chromistan , fungal and plant species . All these factors have led to Australia having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world . The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species . Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia 's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems ; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention , and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established . Australia was ranked 3rd out of 178 countries in the world on the 2014 Environmental Performance Index . Environmental issues Protection of the environment is a major political issue in Australia . In 2007 , the First Rudd Government signed the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol . Nevertheless , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are among the highest in the world , lower than those of only a few other industrialised nations . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10–20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . According to the Bureau of Meteorology 's 2011 Australian Climate Statement , Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a La Niña weather pattern ; however , `` the country 's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures , with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia , at above the long-term average '' . Furthermore , 2014 was Australia 's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910 . Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought . Throughout much of the continent , major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought , flushing out inland river systems , overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains , as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in 2010 , 2011 and 2012 after the 2000s Australian drought . A carbon tax was introduced in 2012 and helped to reduce Australia 's emissions but was scrapped in 2014 under the Liberal Government . Since the carbon tax was repealed , emissions have again continued to rise . Australian biota has been severely impacted by changes occurring since European settlement began in 1788 , with more than 10 % of mammal species lost in the past 225 years . There have also been 23 bird species or subspecies , 4 amphibians and more than 60 plant species known to be lost during this period . The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999 was designed to minimise further impacts on ecological communities in Australia and its territories . Economy Australia is a wealthy country ; it generates its income from various sources including mining-related exports , telecommunications , banking and manufacturing . It has a market economy , a relatively high GDP per capita , and a relatively low rate of poverty . In terms of average wealth , Australia ranked

jp_3704--Australia.txt

What is Australia's largest island?

The Hobbit , or There and Back Again is a children 's fantasy novel by English author J. R. R. Tolkien . It was published on 21 September 1937 to wide critical acclaim , being nominated for the Carnegie Medal and awarded a prize from the New York Herald Tribune for best juvenile fiction . The book remains popular and is recognized as a classic in children 's literature . Set in a time `` Between the Dawn of Færie and the Dominion of Men '' , The Hobbit follows the quest of home-loving hobbit Bilbo Baggins to win a share of the treasure guarded by the dragon , Smaug . Bilbo 's journey takes him from light-hearted , rural surroundings into more sinister territory . The story is told in the form of an episodic quest , and most chapters introduce a specific creature , or type of creature , of Tolkien 's geography . By accepting the disreputable , romantic , fey and adventurous sides of his nature and applying his wits and common sense , Bilbo gains a new level of maturity , competence and wisdom . The story reaches its climax in the Battle of the Five Armies , where many of the characters and creatures from earlier chapters re-emerge to engage in conflict . Personal growth and forms of heroism are central themes of the story . Along with motifs of warfare , these themes have led critics to view Tolkien 's own experiences during World War I as instrumental in shaping the story . The author 's scholarly knowledge of Germanic philology and interest in fairy tales are often noted as influences . Encouraged by the book 's critical and financial success , the publisher requested a sequel . As Tolkien 's work on the successor The Lord of the Rings progressed , he made retrospective accommodations for it in The Hobbit . These few but significant changes were integrated into the second edition . Further editions followed with minor emendations , including those reflecting Tolkien 's changing concept of the world into which Bilbo stumbled . The work has never been out of print . Its ongoing legacy encompasses many adaptations for stage , screen , radio , board games and video games . Several of these adaptations have received critical recognition on their own merits . Characters Bilbo Baggins , the titular protagonist , is a respectable , reserved hobbit . During his adventure , Bilbo often refers to the contents of his larder at home and wishes he had more food . Until he finds a magic ring , he is more baggage than help . Gandalf , an itinerant wizard , introduces Bilbo to a company of thirteen dwarves . During the journey the wizard disappears on side errands dimly hinted at , only to appear again at key moments in the story . Thorin Oakenshield , the proud , pompous head of the company of dwarves and heir to the destroyed dwarvish kingdom under the Lonely Mountain , makes many mistakes in his leadership , relying on Gandalf and Bilbo to get him out of trouble , but he proves himself a mighty warrior . Smaug is a dragon who long ago pillaged the dwarvish kingdom of Thorin 's grandfather and sleeps upon the vast treasure . The plot involves a host of other characters of varying importance , such as the twelve other dwarves of the company ; two types of elves : both puckish and more serious warrior types ; Men ; man-eating trolls ; boulder-throwing giants ; evil cave-dwelling goblins ; forest-dwelling giant spiders who can speak ; immense and heroic eagles who also speak ; evil wolves , or wargs , who are allied with the goblins ; Elrond the sage ; Gollum , a strange creature inhabiting an underground lake ; Beorn , a man who can assume bear form ; and Bard the Bowman , a grim but honourable archer of Lake-town . Plot Gandalf tricks Bilbo into hosting a party for Thorin and his band of dwarves , who sing of reclaiming the Lonely Mountain and its vast treasure from the dragon Smaug . When the music ends , Gandalf unveils a map showing a secret door into the Mountain and proposes that the dumbfounded Bilbo serve as the expedition 's `` burglar '' . The dwarves ridicule the idea , but Bilbo , indignant , joins despite himself . The group travels into the wild , where Gandalf saves the company from trolls and leads them to Rivendell , where Elrond reveals more secrets from the map . Passing over the Misty Mountains , they are caught by goblins and driven deep underground . Although Gandalf rescues them , Bilbo gets separated from the others as they flee the goblins . Lost in the goblin tunnels , he stumbles across a mysterious ring and then encounters Gollum , who engages him in a game of riddles . As a reward for solving all riddles Gollum will show him the path out of the tunnels , but if Bilbo fails , his life will be forfeit . With the help of the ring , which confers invisibility , Bilbo escapes and rejoins the dwarves , improving his reputation with them . The goblins and Wargs give chase , but the company are saved by eagles before resting in the house of Beorn . The company enters the black forest of Mirkwood without Gandalf . In Mirkwood , Bilbo first saves the dwarves from giant spiders and then from the dungeons of the Wood-elves . Nearing the Lonely Mountain , the travellers are welcomed by the human inhabitants of Lake-town , who hope the dwarves will fulfil prophecies of Smaug 's demise . The expedition travels to the Lonely Mountain and finds the secret door ; Bilbo scouts the dragon 's lair , stealing a great cup and learning of a weakness in Smaug 's armour . The enraged dragon , deducing that Lake-town has aided the intruder , sets out to destroy the town . A thrush had overheard Bilbo 's report of Smaug 's vulnerability and reports it to Lake-town defender Bard . His arrow finds the chink and slays the dragon . When the dwarves take possession of the mountain , Bilbo finds the Arkenstone , an heirloom of Thorin 's dynasty , and hides it away . The Wood-elves and Lake-men besiege the mountain and request compensation for their aid , reparations for Lake-town 's destruction , and settlement of old claims on the treasure . Thorin refuses and , having summoned his kin from the Iron Hills , reinforces his position . Bilbo tries to ransom the Arkenstone to head off a war , but Thorin is intransigent . He banishes Bilbo , and battle seems inevitable . Gandalf reappears to warn all of an approaching army of goblins and Wargs . The dwarves , men and elves band together , but only with the timely arrival of the eagles and Beorn do they win the climactic Battle of Five Armies . Thorin is fatally wounded and reconciles with Bilbo before he dies . Bilbo accepts only a small portion of his share of the treasure , having no want or need for more , but still returns home a very wealthy hobbit . Concept and creation Background In the early 1930s Tolkien was pursuing an academic career at Oxford as Rawlinson and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon , with a fellowship at Pembroke College . Several of his poems had been published in magazines and small collections , including Goblin Feet and The Cat and the Fiddle : A Nursery Rhyme Undone and its Scandalous Secret Unlocked , a reworking of the nursery rhyme Hey Diddle Diddle . His creative endeavours at this time also included letters from Father Christmas to his children—illustrated manuscripts that featured warring gnomes and goblins , and a helpful polar bear—alongside the creation of elven languages and an attendant mythology , which he had been creating since 1917 . These works all saw posthumous publication . In a 1955 letter to W. H. Auden , Tolkien recollects that he began work on The Hobbit one day early in the 1930s , when he was marking School Certificate papers . He found a blank page . Suddenly inspired , he wrote the words , `` In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit . '' By late 1932 he had finished the story and then lent the manuscript to several friends , including C. S. Lewis and a student of Tolkien 's named Elaine Griffiths . In 1936 , when Griffiths was visited in Oxford by Susan Dagnall , a staff member of the publisher George Allen & Unwin , she is reported to have either lent Dagnall the book or suggested she borrow it from Tolkien . In any event , Dagnall was impressed by it , and showed the book to Stanley Unwin , who then asked his 10-year-old son Rayner to review it . Rayner 's favourable comments settled Allen & Unwin 's decision to publish Tolkien 's book . Influences One of the greatest influences on Tolkien was the 19th century Arts and Crafts polymath William Morris . Tolkien wished to imitate Morris 's prose and poetry romances , following the general style and approach of the work . The Desolation of Smaug as portraying dragons as detrimental to landscape , has been noted as an explicit motif borrowed from Morris . Tolkien wrote also of being impressed as a boy by Samuel Rutherford Crockett 's historical novel The Black Douglas and of basing the Necromancer—Sauron—on its villain , Gilles de Retz . Incidents in both The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings are similar in narrative and style to the novel , and its overall style and imagery have been suggested as having had an influence on Tolkien . Tolkien 's portrayal of goblins in The Hobbit was particularly influenced by George MacDonald 's The Princess and the Goblin . However , MacDonald influenced Tolkien more profoundly than just to shape individual characters and episodes ; his works further helped Tolkien form his whole thinking on the role of fantasy within his Christian faith . Tolkien scholar Mark T. Hooker has cataloged a lengthy series of parallels between The Hobbit and Jules Verne 's Journey to the Center of the Earth . These include , among other things , a hidden runic message and a celestial alignment that direct the adventurers to the goals of their quests . Tolkien 's works incorporate much influence from Norse mythology reflecting his lifelong passion for those stories and his academic career in Germanic philology . The Hobbit is no exception to this ; the work shows influences from northern European literature , myths and languages and the strong influence of Norse mythology , especially from the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda . Examples include the names of some characters , such as Fili , Kili , Oin , Gloin , Bifur , Bofur , Bombur , Dori , Nori , Dwalin , Balin , Dain , Nain , Thorin Oakenshield and Gandalf ( deriving from the Old Norse names Fíli , Kíli , Oin , Glói , Bivör , Bávörr , Bömburr , Dori , Nóri , Dvalinn , Bláin , Dain , Nain , Þorin Eikinskialdi and Gandálfr ) . But whilst their names are from Old Norse , the characters of the dwarves are more directly taken from fairy tales such as Snow White and Snow-White and Rose-Red as collected by the Brothers Grimm . The latter of these tales may have also influenced the character of Beorn . Tolkien 's use of descriptive personal and place names such as Misty Mountains and Bag End echoes the descriptive names used in Old Norse sagas . The names of the dwarf-friendly ravens are also derived from Old Norse for 'raven ' and 'rook ' , but their characters are unlike the typical war-carrion from Old Norse and Old English literature . Tolkien , however , is not simply skimming historical sources for effect : linguistic styles , especially the relationship between the modern and ancient , has been seen to be one of the major themes explored by the story . Another characteristic of The Hobbit found in Old Norse sagas is maps accompanying the text of the story . Several of the author 's illustrations ( including the dwarven map , the frontispiece and the dust jacket ) make use of Anglo-Saxon runes , an English extension of the Germanic runic alphabets . Themes found in Old English literature , and specifically in the poem Beowulf , have a heavy presence in defining the ancient world Bilbo stepped into . Tolkien , an accomplished Beowulf scholar , claims the poem to be among his `` most valued sources '' in writing The Hobbit . Tolkien is credited with being the first critic to expound on Beowulf as a literary work with value beyond merely historical , and his 1936 lecture Beowulf : the Monsters and the Critics is still required in some Old English courses . The Beowulf poem contains several elements that Tolkien borrowed for The Hobbit , including a monstrous , intelligent dragon . Certain descriptions in The Hobbit seem to have been lifted straight out of Beowulf with some minor rewording , such as when each dragon stretches out its neck to sniff for intruders . Likewise , Tolkien 's descriptions of the lair as accessed through a secret passage mirror those in Beowulf . Other specific plot elements and features in The Hobbit that show similarities to Beowulf include the title thief as Bilbo is called by Gollum and later by Smaug , and Smaug 's personality which leads to the destruction of Lake-town . Tolkien refines parts of Beowulf plot that he appears to have found less than satisfactorily described , such as details about the cup-thief and the dragon 's intellect and personality . Another influence from Old English sources is the appearance of named blades of renown , adorned in runes . It is in the use of his elf-blade that we see Bilbo finally taking his first independent heroic action . By his naming the blade `` Sting '' we see Bilbo 's acceptance of the kinds of cultural and linguistic practices found in Beowulf , signifying his entrance into the ancient world in which he found himself . This progression culminates in Bilbo stealing a cup from the dragon 's hoard , rousing him to wrath—an incident directly mirroring Beowulf , and an action entirely determined by traditional narrative patterns . As Tolkien wrote , `` The episode of the theft arose naturally ( and almost inevitably ) from the circumstances . It is difficult to think of any other way of conducting the story at this point . I fancy the author of Beowulf would say much the same . '' The name of the wizard Radagast is widely recognized to be taken from the name of the Slavic deity Rodegast . The representation of the dwarves in The Hobbit was influenced by his own selective reading of medieval texts regarding the Jewish people and their history . The dwarves ' characteristics of being dispossessed of their ancient homeland at the Lonely Mountain , and living among other groups whilst retaining their own culture are all derived from the medieval image of Jews , whilst their warlike nature stems from accounts in the Hebrew Bible . The Dwarven calendar invented for The Hobbit reflects the Jewish calendar in beginning in late autumn . And although Tolkien denied allegory , the dwarves taking Bilbo out of his complacent existence has been seen as an eloquent metaphor for the `` impoverishment of Western society without Jews . '' Publication George Allen & Unwin Ltd. of London published the first edition of The Hobbit on 21 September 1937 with a print run of 1,500 copies , which sold out by December because of enthusiastic reviews . This first printing was illustrated in black and white by Tolkien , who designed the dust jacket as well . Houghton Mifflin of Boston and New York reset type for an American edition , to be released early in 1938 , in which four of the illustrations would be colour plates . Allen & Unwin decided to incorporate the colour illustrations into their second printing , released at the end of 1937 . Despite the book 's popularity , paper rationing brought on by wartime conditions and not ending until 1949 meant that the Allen & Unwin edition of the book was often unavailable during this period . Subsequent editions in English were published in 1951 , 1966 , 1978 and 1995 . The novel has been reprinted frequently by many publishers . In addition , The Hobbit has been translated into over forty languages , with more than one published version for some languages . Revisions In December 1937 , The Hobbit publisher , Stanley Unwin , asked Tolkien for a sequel . In response Tolkien provided drafts for The Silmarillion , but the editors rejected them , believing that the public wanted `` more about hobbits '' . Tolkien subsequently began work on The New Hobbit , which would eventually become The Lord of the Rings , a course that would not only change the context of the original story , but lead to substantial changes to the character of Gollum . In the first edition of The Hobbit , Gollum willingly bets his magic ring on the outcome of the riddle-game , and he and Bilbo part amicably . In the second edition edits , to reflect the new concept of the ring and its corrupting abilities , Tolkien made Gollum more aggressive towards Bilbo and distraught at losing the ring . The encounter ends with Gollum 's curse , `` Thief ! Thief , Thief , Baggins ! We hates it , we hates it , we hates it forever ! '' This presages Gollum 's portrayal in The Lord of the Rings . Tolkien sent this revised version of the chapter `` Riddles in the Dark '' to Unwin as an example of the kinds of changes needed to bring the book into conformity with The Lord of the Rings , but he heard nothing back for years . When he was sent galley proofs of a new edition , Tolkien was surprised to find the sample text had been incorporated . In The Lord of the Rings , the original version of the riddle game is explained as a `` lie '' made up by Bilbo under the harmful influence of the Ring , whereas the revised version contains the `` true '' account . The revised text became the second edition , published in 1951 in both the UK and the US . Tolkien began a new version in 1960 , attempting to adjust the tone of The Hobbit to its sequel . He abandoned the new revision at chapter three after he received criticism that it `` just was n't The Hobbit '' , implying it had lost much of its light-hearted tone and quick pace . After an unauthorized paperback edition of The Lord of the Rings appeared from Ace Books in 1965 , Houghton Mifflin and Ballantine asked Tolkien to refresh the text of The Hobbit to renew the US copyright . This text became the 1966 third edition . Tolkien took the opportunity to align the narrative even more closely to The Lord of the Rings and to cosmological developments from his still unpublished Quenta Silmarillion as it stood at that time . These small edits included , for example , changing the phrase `` elves that are now called Gnomes '' from the first and second editions on page 63 , to `` High Elves of the West , my kin '' in the third edition . Tolkien had used `` gnome '' in his earlier writing to refer to the second kindred of the High Elves—the Noldor ( or `` Deep Elves '' ) —thinking `` gnome '' , derived from the Greek gnosis ( knowledge ) , was a good name for the wisest of the elves . However , because of its common denotation of a garden gnome , derived from the 16th-century Paracelsus , Tolkien abandoned the term . Posthumous editions Since the author 's death , two editions of The Hobbit have been published with commentary on the creation , emendation and development of the text . In The Annotated Hobbit Douglas Anderson provides the entire text of the published book , alongside commentary and illustrations . Later editions added the text of The Quest of Erebor . Anderson 's commentary shows many of the sources Tolkien brought together in preparing the text , and chronicles in detail the changes Tolkien made to the various published editions . Alongside the annotations , the text is illustrated by pictures from many of the translated editions , including images by Tove Jansson . The edition also presents a number of little-known texts such as the 1923 version of Tolkien 's poem `` Iumonna Gold Galdre Bewunden '' . With The History of The Hobbit , published in two parts in 2007 , John Rateliff provides the full text of the earliest and intermediary drafts of the book , alongside commentary that shows relationships to Tolkien 's scholarly and creative works , both contemporary and later . Rateliff moreover provides the abandoned 1960s retelling and previously unpublished illustrations by Tolkien . The book keeps Rateliff 's commentary separate from Tolkien 's text , allowing the reader to read the original drafts as contained stories . Illustration and design Tolkien 's correspondence and publisher 's records show that he was involved in the design and illustration of the entire book . All elements were the subject of considerable correspondence and fussing over by Tolkien . Rayner Unwin , in his publishing memoir , comments : `` In 1937 alone Tolkien wrote 26 letters to George Allen & Unwin ... detailed , fluent , often pungent , but infinitely polite and exasperatingly precise ... I doubt any author today , however famous , would get such scrupulous attention . '' Even the maps , of which Tolkien originally proposed five , were considered and debated . He wished Thror 's map to be tipped in ( that is , glued in after the book has been bound ) at first mention in the text , and with the moon-letters ( Anglo-Saxon runes ) on the reverse so they could be seen when held up to the light . In the end the cost , as well as the shading of the maps , which would be difficult to reproduce , resulted in the final design of two maps as endpapers , Thror 's map , and the Map of Wilderland , both printed in black and red on the paper 's cream background . Originally Allen & Unwin planned to illustrate the book only with the endpaper maps , but Tolkien 's first tendered sketches so charmed the publisher 's staff that they opted to include them without raising the book 's price despite the extra cost . Thus encouraged , Tolkien supplied a second batch of illustrations . The publisher accepted all of these as well , giving the first edition ten black-and-white illustrations plus the two endpaper maps . The illustrated scenes were : The Hill : Hobbiton-across-the-Water , The Trolls , The Mountain Path , The Misty Mountains looking West from the Eyrie towards Goblin Gate , Beorn 's Hall , Mirkwood , The Elvenking 's Gate , Lake Town , The Front Gate , and The Hall at Bag-End . All but one of the illustrations were a full page , and one , the Mirkwood illustration , required a separate plate . Satisfied with his skills , the publishers asked Tolkien to design a dust jacket . This project , too , became the subject of many iterations and much correspondence , with Tolkien always writing disparagingly of his own ability to draw . The runic inscription around the edges of the illustration are a phonetic transliteration of English , giving the title of the book and details of the author and publisher . The original jacket design contained several shades of various colours , but Tolkien redrew it several times using fewer colours each time . His final design consisted of four colours . The publishers , mindful of the cost , removed the red from the sun to end up with only black , blue , and green ink on white stock . The publisher 's production staff designed a binding , but Tolkien objected to several elements . Through several iterations , the final design ended up as mostly the author 's . The spine shows Anglo Saxon runes : two `` þ '' ( Thráin and Thrór ) and one `` D '' ( Door ) . The front and back covers were mirror images of each other , with an elongated dragon characteristic of Tolkien 's style stamped along the lower edge , and with a sketch of the Misty Mountains stamped along the upper edge . Once illustrations were approved for the book , Tolkien proposed colour plates as well . The publisher would not relent on this , so Tolkien pinned his hopes on the American edition to be published about six months later . Houghton Mifflin rewarded these hopes with the replacement of the frontispiece ( The Hill : Hobbiton-across-the Water ) in colour and the addition of new colour plates : Rivendell , Bilbo Woke Up with the Early Sun in His Eyes , Bilbo comes to the Huts of the Raft-elves and a Conversation with Smaug , which features a dwarvish curse written in Tolkien 's invented script Tengwar , and signed with two `` þ '' ( `` Th '' ) runes . The additional illustrations proved so appealing that George Allen & Unwin adopted the colour plates as well for their second printing , with exception of Bilbo Woke Up with the Early Sun in His Eyes . Different editions have been illustrated in diverse ways . Many follow the original scheme at least loosely , but many others are illustrated by other artists , especially the many translated editions . Some cheaper editions , particularly paperback , are not illustrated except with the maps . `` The Children 's Book Club '' edition of 1942 includes the black-and-white pictures but no maps , an anomaly . Tolkien 's use of runes , both as decorative devices and as magical signs within the story , has been cited as a major cause for the popularization of runes within `` New Age '' and esoteric literature , stemming from Tolkien 's popularity with the elements of counter-culture in the 1970s . Genre The Hobbit takes cues from narrative models of children 's literature , as shown by its omniscient narrator and characters that young children can relate to , such as the small , food-obsessed , and morally ambiguous Bilbo . The text emphasizes the relationship between time and narrative progress and it openly distinguishes `` safe '' from `` dangerous '' in its geography . Both are key elements of works intended for children , as is the `` home-away-home '' ( or there and back again ) plot structure typical of the Bildungsroman . While Tolkien later claimed to dislike the aspect of the narrative voice addressing the reader directly , the narrative voice contributes significantly to the success of the novel . Emer O'Sullivan , in her Comparative Children 's Literature , notes The Hobbit as one of a handful of children 's books that has been accepted into mainstream literature , alongside Jostein Gaarder 's Sophie 's World ( 1991 ) and J. K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series ( 1997–2007 ) . Tolkien intended The Hobbit as a `` fairy-story '' and wrote it in a tone suited to addressing children although he said later that the book was not specifically written for children but had rather been created out of his interest in mythology and legend . Many of the initial reviews refer to the work as a fairy story . However , according to Jack Zipes writing in `` The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales '' , Bilbo is an atypical character for a fairy tale . The work is much longer than Tolkien 's ideal proposed in his essay On Fairy-Stories . Many fairy tale motifs , such as the repetition of similar events seen in the dwarves ' arrival at Bilbo 's and Beorn 's homes , and folklore themes , such as trolls turning to stone , are to be found in the story . The book is popularly called ( and often marketed as ) a fantasy novel , but like Peter Pan and Wendy by J. M. Barrie and The Princess

qw_15255--The_Hobbit.txt

"How many films were made by director Sir Peter Jackson from Tolkien's short book, ""The Hobbit""?"

Macau ( ; ) , also spelled Macao , officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China , is an autonomous territory on the western side of the Pearl River Delta , China . Macau is also bordered by the city of Zhuhai in Mainland China to the North and the Pearl River Estuary to the East and South . Hong Kong lies about 64 kilometers to its East across the Delta . With an estimated population of around 649,100 living in an area of 30.4 km2 ( 11.7 sq mi ) , it is the most densely populated region in the world . Macau was administered by the Portuguese Empire and its inheritor states from the mid-16th century until late 1999 , when it was the last remaining European colony in Asia . Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in the 1550s . In 1557 , Macau was rented to Portugal from Ming China as a trading port . The Portuguese Empire administered the city under Chinese authority and sovereignty until 1887 , when Macau , through a mutual agreement between the two countries , became a colony . Sovereignty over Macau was transferred to China on 20 December 1999 . The Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau and Macau Basic Law stipulate that Macau operate with a high degree of autonomy until at least 2049 , fifty years after the transfer . Under the policy of `` one country , two systems '' , the State Council of the People 's Republic of China is responsible for military defense and foreign affairs while Macau maintains its own legal system , the public security force , monetary system , customs policy , and immigration policy . Macau participates in international organizations and events that do not require members to possess national sovereignty . Macau is among the world 's richest regions , and its GDP per capita by purchasing power parity is higher than that of any country in the world , according to the World Bank . It became the world 's largest gambling centre in 2006 , with the economy heavily dependent on gambling and tourism , as well as manufacturing . According to The World Factbook , Macau has the fourth highest life expectancy in the world . Moreover , it is one of only a few regions in Asia with a `` very high Human Development Index '' , ranking 18th . Etymology Macau is otherwise known in Chinese as Haojing ( , literally `` Oyster Mirror '' ) or Jinghai ( , literally `` Mirror Sea '' ) . The name Macau is thought to be derived from the A-Ma Temple ( ) , a temple built in 1448 dedicated to Mazu , the goddess of seafarers and fishermen . It is said that when the Portuguese sailors landed at the coast just outside the temple and asked the name of the place , the natives replied `` '' ( ) . The Portuguese then named the peninsula `` Macau '' . The present Chinese name ( ) means `` Inlet Gates '' . History The history of Macau is traced back to the Qin dynasty ( 221–206 BCE ) , when the region now called Macau came under the jurisdiction of Panyu County , Nanhai Prefecture ( modern Guangdong ) . The first recorded Chinese inhabitants of the area were people seeking refuge in Macau from invading Mongols during the Southern Song . Under the Ming dynasty ( 1368–1644 ) , fishermen migrated to Macau from Guangdong and Fujian . The Macau native people were Tanka boat people . Macau did not develop as a major settlement until the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century . In 1513 , Jorge Álvares became the first Portuguese to land in China . In 1535 , Portuguese traders obtained the rights to anchor ships in Macau 's harbours and to carry out trading activities , though not the right to stay onshore . Around 1552–1553 , they obtained temporary permission to erect storage sheds onshore , in order to dry out goods drenched by sea water ; they soon built rudimentary stone houses around the area now called Nam Van . In 1557 , the Portuguese established a permanent settlement in Macau , paying an annual rent of 500 taels ( 18.9 kilograms41.6 pounds ) of silver . The Portuguese continued to pay an annual tribute up to 1863 in order to stay in Macau . By 1564 , Portugal commanded western trade with India , Japan , and China . But their pride was shocked by the indifference with which the Chinese treated them . The senate of Macau once complained to the viceroy of Goa of the contempt with which the Chinese authorities treated them , confessing however that `` it was owing more to the Portuguese themselves than to the Chinese '' . In 1631 the Chinese restricted Portuguese commerce in China to the port of Macau . During the 17th century , some 5,000 slaves lived in Macau , in addition to 2,000 Portuguese and 20,000 Chinese . As more Portuguese settled in Macau to engage in trade , they made demands for self-administration ; but this was not achieved until the 1840s . In 1576 , Pope Gregory XIII established the Roman Catholic Diocese of Macau . In 1583 , the Portuguese in Macau were permitted to form a Senate to handle various issues concerning their social and economic affairs under strict supervision of the Chinese authority , but there was no transfer of sovereignty . Macau prospered as a port but it was the target of repeated failed attempts by the Dutch to conquer it in the 17th century . On June 24 , 1622 , the Dutch attacked Macau in the Battle of Macau , in the hope of turning it into a Dutch possession . The Portuguese repulsed their attack and the Dutch never tried to conquer Macau again . The majority of the defenders were African slaves , with only a few Portuguese soldiers and priests . Captain Kornelis Reyerszoon was commander of the 800-strong Dutch invasion force . The Dutch Governor Jan Pz . Coen said after the defeat that `` The slaves of the Portuguese at Macau served them so well and faithfully , that it was they who defeated and drove away our people there last year '' , and `` Our people saw very few Portuguese '' during the battle . Following the First Opium War ( 1839–42 ) , Portugal occupied Taipa and Coloane in 1851 and 1864 respectively . On 1 December 1887 , the Qing and Portuguese governments signed the Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking , under which China ceded the right of `` perpetual occupation and government of Macau by Portugal '' in compliance with the statements of the Protocol of Lisbon . In return , Macau Government would cooperate with Hong Kong 's smuggle of Indian opium and China would be able to increase profits through customs taxes . Portugal was also obliged `` never to alienate Macau without previous agreement with China '' , therefore ensuring that negotiation between Portugal and France ( regarding a possible exchange of Macau and Portuguese Guinea with the French Congo ) or with other countries would not go forward – so that the British commercial interests would be secured ; Macau officially became a territory under Portuguese administration . In 1928 , after the Qing dynasty had been overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution , the Kuomintang ( KMT ) government officially notified Portugal that it was abrogating the Treaty of Amity and Commerce ; the two powers signed a new Sino-Portuguese Friendship and Trade Treaty in place of the abrogated treaty . Making only a few provisions concerning tariff principles and matters relating to business affairs , the new treaty did not alter the sovereignty of Macau and Portuguese government of Macau remained unchanged . During World War II , unlike Portuguese Timor , which was occupied by the Japanese in 1942 along with Dutch Timor , the Japanese respected Portuguese neutrality in Macau , but only up to a point . As such , Macau enjoyed a brief period of economic prosperity as the only neutral port in South China after the Japanese had occupied Guangzhou and Hong Kong . In August 1943 , Japanese troops seized the British steamer Sian in Macau and killed about 20 guards . The next month they demanded the installation of Japanese `` advisors '' under the alternative of military occupation . The result was that a virtual Japanese protectorate was created over Macau . When it was discovered that neutral Macau was planning to sell aviation fuel to Japan , aircraft from the bombed and strafed the hangar of the Naval Aviation Centre on 16 January 1945 to destroy the fuel . American air raids on targets in Macau were also made on 25 February and 11 June 1945 . Following Portuguese government protest , in 1950 the United States paid US $ 20,255,952 to the government of Portugal . Between the end of the Pacific War and the establishment of the People 's Republic of China , Macau served as a safe haven for refugees of the Chinese Civil War . After the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , the Beijing government declared the Sino-Portuguese Treaty invalid as an `` unequal treaty '' imposed by foreigners on China . However , Beijing was not ready to settle the treaty question , leaving the maintenance of `` the status quo '' until a more appropriate time . Influenced by the Cultural Revolution in mainland China and by general dissatisfaction with Portuguese government , riots broke out in Macau in 1966 . In the most serious , the so-called 12-3 incident , 6 people were killed and more than 200 people were injured . On 28 January 1967 , the Portuguese government issued a formal apology by means of an `` admission of guilt '' . Shortly after Portugal 's 1974 Carnation Revolution , which overthrew the Estado Novo dictatorship , the new government determined it would relinquish all its overseas possessions . In 1976 , Lisbon redefined Macau as a `` Chinese territory under Portuguese administration '' and granted it a large measure of administrative , financial , and economic autonomy . Three years later , Portugal and China agreed to regard Macau as `` a Chinese territory under ( temporary ) Portuguese administration '' . The Chinese and Portuguese governments commenced negotiations on the question of Macau in June 1986 . The two signed a Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration the next year , making Macau a special administrative region ( SAR ) of China . The Chinese government assumed formal sovereignty over Macau on 20 December 1999 . The economy since then has continued to prosper with the sustained growth of tourism from mainland China and the construction of new casinos . Government and politics The Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration and Macau Basic Law , Macau 's constitution , promulgated by China 's National People 's Congress in 1993 , specify that Macau 's social and economic system , lifestyle , rights , and freedoms are to remain unchanged for at least 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1999 . Under the principle of `` one country , two systems '' , Macau enjoys a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs . Macau officials , rather than PRC officials , run Macau through the exercise of separate executive , legislative , and judicial powers , as well as the right to final adjudication . Macau maintains its own currency ( the Macanese pataca ) , customs territory , immigration and border controls and police force . Executive The government in Macau is headed by the Chief Executive of Macau , who is appointed by the central government upon the recommendation of an election committee , whose three hundred members are nominated by corporate and community bodies . The recommendation is made by an election within the committee . The chief executive 's cabinet is made up of five policy secretaries and is advised by the Executive Council of Macau , which has between seven and eleven members . Edmund Ho , a community leader and former banker , was the first chief executive of the Macau SAR , replacing General Vasco Rocha Vieira at midnight on 20 December 1999 . Fernando Chui is the current Chief Executive . The chief executive and the cabinet have their offices in the Macau Government Headquarters , located in the area of São Lourenço . Legislature The legislative organ of the territory is the Legislative Assembly , a 33-member body comprising 14 directly elected members , 12 indirectly elected members representing functional constituencies and seven members appointed by the chief executive . Any permanent residents at or over 18 years of age are eligible to vote in direct elections . Indirect election is limited to organizations registered as `` corporate voters '' and a 300-member election committee drawn from broad regional groupings , municipal organizations , and central government bodies . Judiciary The original framework of the legal system , based largely on the Law of Portugal , the Portuguese civil law system , was preserved after 1999 . The territory has its own independent judicial system with a High Court . Judges are selected by a committee and appointed by the chief executive . Foreign judges may serve on the courts . Macau has a three-tier court system : the Court of the First Instance , the Court of the Second Instance and the Court of Final Appeal . In February 2009 , the Legislative Assembly passed the Macau national security law based on a withdrawn security legislation previously introduced in Hong Kong . Democracy advocates feared that the bill 's excessively broad scope could lead to abuses , a concern which has been heightened after a number of prominent supporters of democracy in Hong Kong were denied entry into Macau in the run-up to the bill 's passage . Military Under Portuguese rule , Macau often served as an expeditionary base to Japan and other regions of East Asia from the 16th century onwards , while maintaining a strong garrison mainly to repel Dutch and mainland Chinese attacks . However , since the allied British settled Hong Kong , the need for a strong military presence in Macau dimmed and it became limited before ceasing in 1974 . However , despite having no Portuguese garrison left on the territory , a small security force managed by the local PSP was kept , which proved useful with the escalating triad warfare tensions towards the last decades of Portuguese administration . Also the Capitania dos Portos kept operating a coast guard and the Portuguese airforce kept airfields active until the opening of Macau International Airport in the mid-1990s . In 1999 , upon handover to the PRC , a substantial garrison of the People 's Liberation Army was established in the city helping deliver the last blow to the violence perpetrated by the triads , who were weakened by police action and arrests prior to the handover . The garrison remains , with a large portion of the forces stationed in neighbouring Zhuhai as well . File : Macau Government Headquarters 01.JPG|Headquarters of the Government of Macau , previously the Governor 's House until 1999 . File : Assembleia Legislativa.jpg|Office building of the Legislative Assembly of Macau . Geography File : Macau skyline 2013 ( panorama ) .JPG|Macau Skyline Macau is situated 60 km southwest of Hong Kong and 145 km from Guangzhou of Mainland China . It also has 41 km of coastline , yet only 310 m of land border with Guangdong of Mainland China . It consists of the Macau Peninsula itself and the islands of Taipa and Coloane , which are now connected by landfill forming Cotai . The peninsula is formed by the Zhu Jiang ( Pearl River ) estuary on the east and the Xi Jiang ( West River ) on the west . It borders the Zhuhai Special Economic Zone in mainland China . The main border crossing between Macau and China is known as the Portas do Cerco ( Barrier Gate ) on the Macau side , and the Gongbei Port of Entry on the Zhuhai side . Macau Peninsula was originally an island , but a connecting sandbar gradually turned into a narrow isthmus , thus changing Macau into a peninsula . Land reclamation in the 17th century transformed Macau into a peninsula with generally flat terrain , though numerous steep hills still mark the original land mass . Alto de Coloane is the highest point in Macau , with an altitude of . With a dense urban environment , Macau has no arable land , pastures , forest , or woodland . File : THE MAP OF THE MACAO SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE REGION OF THE PEOPLE 'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA 2015.jpg|The map of Macau , showing Macau Peninsula , Cotai , Taipa and Coloane . File : Macau peninsula.jpg|Macau Peninsula . File : Macau Penha Hill.jpg|Landscape of Penha Hill in Macau . File : Vista_de_Taipa , _Macao , _2013-08-08 , _DD_01.jpg|Macau , in 2013 File : Museu de Macau ( 2052750102 ) .jpg|Museum of Macau File : Coloane Village.JPG|Coloane Village with the artistic Portuguese pavement Vistas de Macao , 2013-08-08 , DD 02.jpg|View of the old city in Macau with tenement housing in the foreground Climate Macau has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cwa ) , with average relative humidity between 75 % and 90 % . Similar to much of South China , seasonal climate is greatly influenced by the monsoons , and differences in temperature and humidity between summer and winter are noticeable , though not as great as in mainland China . The average annual temperature of Macau is . July is the warmest month , the average temperature being . The coolest month is January , with a mean temperature of . Located on China 's southern coast , Macau has ample rainfall , with average annual precipitation being 2120 mm . However , winter is mostly dry due to the influence of the vast Siberian High affecting much of East Asia . Autumn in Macau , from October to November , is sunny and still pleasantly warm with lower humidity . Winter ( December to early March ) is generally mild with temperatures above 13 °C most of the time , although it can drop below 8 °C at times . Humidity starts to increase from late March . Summer is very warm to hot ( often rising above 30 °C during the day ) . The hot weather is often followed by heavy rain , thunderstorms and occasional typhoons . Economy Macau 's economy is based largely on tourism . Other chief economic activities in Macau are export-geared textile and garment manufacturing , banking and other financial services . The clothing industry has provided about three quarters of export earnings , and the gaming , tourism and hospitality industry is estimated to contribute more than 50 % of Macau 's GDP , and 70 % of Macau government revenue . Macau is a founding member of the WTO and has maintained sound economic and trade relations with more than 120 countries and regions , with European Union and Portuguese-speaking countries in particular ; Macau is also a member of the IMF . The World Bank classifies Macau as a high income economy and the GDP per capita of the region in 2006 was US $ 28,436 . After the Handover in 1999 , there has been a rapid rise in the number of mainland visitors due to China 's easing of travel restrictions . Together with the liberalization of Macau 's gaming industry in 2001 that induces significant investment inflows , the average growth rate of the economy between 2001 and 2006 was approximately 13.1 % annually . In a World Tourism Organization report of international tourism for 2006 , Macau ranked 21st in the number of tourists and 24th in terms of tourism receipts . From 9.1 million visitors in 2000 , arrivals to Macau has grown to 18.7 million visitors in 2005 and 22 million visitors in 2006 , with over 50 % of the arrivals coming from mainland China and another 30 % from Hong Kong . Starting in 1962 , the gambling industry had been operated under a government-issued monopoly license by Stanley Ho 's Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau . The monopoly ended in 2002 and several casino owners from Las Vegas attempted to enter the market . With the opening of the Sands Macao , in 2004 and Wynn Macau in 2006 , gambling revenues from Macau 's casinos were greatly prosperous . In 2007 , Venetian Macau , at the time the second ( now seventh ) largest building in the world by floor space , opened its doors to the public , followed by MGM Grand Macau . Numerous other hotel casinos , including Galaxy Cotai Megaresort , opened in 2011 , and plans for a $ 3.9 billion complex that will be known as Lisboa Palace is expected to be completed by 2017 . In February 2015 , the gambling revenue in Macau fell by 48.6 percent from a year earlier to 19.5 billion patacas ( $ 2.4 billion ) , the biggest monthly decline that has ever been recorded . Reasons for this fall of revenue are related to the slowdown that the Chinese economy is having & a corruption crackdown by Chinese officials which has constrained lavish spending . In 2002 , the Macau government ended the monopoly system and six casino operating concessions and subconcessions are granted to Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau , Wynn Resorts , Las Vegas Sands , Galaxy Entertainment Group , the partnership of MGM Mirage and Pansy Ho ( daughter of Stanley Ho ) , and the partnership of Melco and Publishing and Broadcasting Limited ( PBL ) . Today , there are 16 casinos operated by the STDM , and they are still crucial in the casino industry in Macau , but in 2004 , the opening of the Sands Macau ushered in the new era . Gambling revenue has made Macau the world 's top casino market , surpassing Las Vegas . The amount of performances performed in Macau has also shown an increasing trend since the early 2010s , including the show House of Dancing Water , concerts , industry trade shows and international art crossovers . Macau is an offshore financial centre , a tax haven , and a free port with no foreign exchange control regimes . The Monetary Authority of Macau regulates offshore finance , while the Macau Trade and Investment Promotion Institute provides services for investment in Macau . In 2007 , Moody 's Investors Service upgraded Macau 's foreign and local currency government issuer ratings to 'Aa3 ' from 'A1 ' , citing its government 's solid finances as a large net creditor . The rating agency also upgraded Macau 's foreign currency bank deposit ceiling to 'Aa3 ' from 'A1 ' . As prescribed by the Macau Basic Law , the government follows the principle of keeping expenditure within the limits of revenues in drawing up its budget , and strives to achieve a fiscal balance , avoid deficits and keep the budget commensurate with the growth rate of its gross domestic product . All financial revenue of the Macau Special Administrative Region shall be managed and controlled by the region itself and shall not be handed over to the Central People 's Government . The Central People 's Government shall not levy any taxes in the Macau Special Administrative Region . File : Casinos , Macao , 2013-08-08 , DD 01.jpg|Grand Lisboa and Casino Lisboa File : Nightview of mtower.jpg|Macau Tower File : Bnu-tower01.jpg|BNU tower File : Restos de la Catedral de San Pablo , Macao , 2013-08-08 , DD 05.jpg|Ruins of St. Paul 's , façade originally built in 1602 . File : Catedral de la Natividad de Nuestra Señora , Macao , 2013-08-08 , DD 01.jpg|Macau Cathedral File : MGM Grand , Macao , 2013-08-08 , DD 14.jpg|Casino Resort MGM Macau File : Santa Casa de Misericordia , Macao , 2013-08-08 , DD 02.jpg|Senado Square , Macau Fisherman 's Wharf , Macao , 2013-08-08 , DD 01.jpg|Fisherman 's Wharf Monetary system In Macau , the unit of currency is the pataca , which is currently pegged to the Hong Kong dollar at a rate of HK $ 1 MOP1.03 . The name pataca is a Portuguese word which was applied to the Mexican dollars that were the main circulating coin in the wider region in the second half of the 19th century . In 1894 , the pataca was introduced in both Macau and Portuguese Timor as a unit of account for the Mexican dollar and the other silver dollar coins in circulation . However , the pataca was not the official currency when it was first enacted . In 1901 , it was decided to grant the Banco Nacional Ultramarino the exclusive rights to issue banknotes denominated in patacas , and in the year 1906 , all foreign coins were outlawed . However , the Chinese were suspicious of these paper patacas , being so accustomed to using silver for barter , and as such , the paper patacas circulated at a discount in relation to the silver dollar coins . In 1935 , when China and Hong Kong abandoned the silver standard , the Hong Kong dollar was pegged to sterling at the fixed rate of 1 shilling and 3 pence , whereas the pataca was pegged to the Portuguese escudo at a sterling equivalent rate of only 1 shilling . From 1945 to 1951 , fractional coins of the pataca were minted for issue in Portuguese Timor ; and , in 1952 , similar issues were minted for Macau including an actual pataca coin for the first time . Demographics Macau is the most densely populated region in the world , with a population density of 20,497 persons per square kilometre in 2013 ( 18,428 persons/km2 in a 2004 projection 47,728/sq mi ) . 95 % of Macau 's population is Chinese ; another 2 % is of Portuguese and/or mixed Chinese/Portuguese descent , an ethnic group often referred to as Macanese . According to the 2006 by-census , 47 % of the residents were born in mainland China , of whom 74.1 % were born in Guangdong and 15.2 % in Fujian . Meanwhile , 42.5 % of the residents were born in Macau , and those born in Hong Kong , the Philippines and Portugal shared 3.7 % , 2.0 % and 0.3 % respectively . The growth of population in Macau mainly relies on immigrants from mainland China and the influx of overseas workers since its birth rate is one of the lowest in the world . According to The World Factbook , Macau has the fourth highest life expectancy in the world , while its infant mortality rate ranks among the lowest in the world . Macau 's official languages are Chinese ( Cantonese ) and Portuguese . Macau still retains its own dialect of Portuguese , called Macanese Portuguese . Other languages such as Mandarin , English , and Hokkien are spoken by local communities . The Macanese language , a distinctive creole generally known as Patuá , is still spoken by several dozen Macanese . Since Macau has an economy driven by tourism , 14.6 % of the workforce is employed in restaurants and hotels , and 10.3 % in the gambling industry . With the opening of several casino resorts and other major constructions underway , many sectors reportedly experience a shortage of labor , and the government seeks to import labor from neighboring regions . The number of imported workers stood at a record high of 98,505 in the second quarter of 2008 , representing more than 25 % of the labor force in Macau . Some local workers complain about the lack of jobs due to the influx of cheap imported labor . Some also claim that the problem of illegal labor is severe . Another concern is the widening of income inequality in the region . Macau 's Gini coefficient , a popular measure of income inequality where a low value indicates a more equal income distribution , rose from 0.43 in 1998 to 0.48 in 2006 . It is higher than those of neighboring regions , such as mainland China ( 0.447 ) , South Korea ( 0.316 ) and Singapore ( 0.425 ) . Religion Most Chinese in Macau are profoundly influenced by their own

tb_1447--Macau.txt

The 1997 transfer of Hong Kong from Great Britain to China is well-known. But in 1999, which country similarly relinquished its claim on Macau also handing it over to China?

Eric Anthony Roberts ( born April 18 , 1956 ) is an American actor . His career began with a well-received performance in King of the Gypsies ( 1978 ) , for which he earned his first Golden Globe Award nomination . His second Golden Globe nomination came for his portrayal of Paul Snider in Star 80 ( 1983 ) , followed by Globe and Academy Award nominations for his supporting role in Runaway Train ( 1985 ) . In a career spanning almost forty years , Roberts has performed in over 200 films , including Raggedy Man ( 1981 ) , The Pope of Greenwich Village ( 1984 ) , The Specialist ( 1994 ) , Cecil B. Demented ( 2000 ) , National Security ( 2003 ) , The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , The Expendables ( 2010 ) and Inherent Vice ( 2014 ) . His equally varied television work includes three seasons with the sitcom Less than Perfect , as well as recurring roles on the NBC drama Heroes and the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless . His sisters Julia Roberts and Lisa Roberts Gillan , and daughter Emma Roberts , also have acting careers . Early life Roberts was born in Biloxi , Mississippi , to Betty Lou Bredemus ( 1934-2015 ) and Walter Grady Roberts ( 1933-1977 ) , one-time actors and playwrights , who met while touring a production of George Washington Slept Here for the armed forces . In 1963 , they co-founded the Atlanta Actors and Writers Workshop in Atlanta , Georgia , off Juniper Street in Midtown . They ran a children 's acting school in Decatur , Georgia while they were expecting Julia . Roberts ' mother became a church secretary and real estate agent , and his father , a vacuum cleaner salesman . Roberts ' younger siblings , Julia Roberts ( from whom he was estranged until 2004 ) and Lisa Roberts Gillan , are also actors . Roberts ' parents filed for divorce in 1971 and it was finalized early in 1972 . Eric stayed with his father Walter in Atlanta , estranged from his sisters . Walter died of cancer in March 1977 . [ http : //www.info2india.com/hollywood/celebrity/julia-roberts.html Julia Roberts Profile - Info 2 India ] Lisa , Julia and Betty moved to Smyrna , Georgia , after the divorce . In 1972 , Betty married Michael Motes , and had a daughter with him in 1976 , Nancy Motes , who died February 9 , 2014 , at age 37 , of an apparent drug overdose . Motes was abusive and often unemployed . In 1983 , Betty divorced Motes , citing cruelty and stating that marrying him was the biggest mistake of her life . Roberts is of English , Scottish , Irish , Welsh , German , and Swedish descent . Film career Mainstream films and television Roberts got his start on the now-defunct NBC daytime soap opera Another World originating the role of Ted Bancroft from February 14 , 1977 , to June 17 , 1977 . Roberts received Golden Globe Award nominations for his early starring roles in King of the Gypsies ( 1978 ) and Star 80 ( 1983 ) . He was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1985 for his role as the escaped convict Buck in the film Runaway Train ; the award went to Don Ameche in Cocoon . In 1987 , he won the Theatre World Award for his Broadway debut performance in Burn This . Roberts ' other starring roles included Raggedy Man ( 1981 ) , The Pope of Greenwich Village ( 1984 ) , The Coca-Cola Kid ( 1985 ) , Nobody 's Fool ( 1986 ) , Best of the Best ( 1989 ) , By the Sword ( 1991 ) , Best of the Best 2 ( 1993 ) , The Immortals ( 1995 ) , La Cucaracha ( 1998 ) , Purgatory ( 1999 ) , and Stiletto Dance ( 2001 ) . He also had major supporting roles in the films Final Analysis ( 1992 ) , The Specialist ( 1994 ) , and Shannon 's Rainbow ( 2009 ) . He played the Archangel Michael in The Prophecy II ( 1997 ) . In 1996 , he appeared in the Doctor Who Television film in the role of the Master . When SFX listed previous Masters in Doctor Who , the magazine said of Roberts : `` Out-acted by a CGI snake in the same production . '' In a darkly comic touch , the onscreen wife of Roberts ' human character , who is killed by her newly possessed husband ( who is taken over by the Master in the form of the above-mentioned CGI snake ) , is played by his real-life wife . He starred opposite John Ritter in the movie Tripfall in 1998 . His recent projects include A Guide to Recognizing Your Saints , DOA : Dead or Alive and Royal Kill . He appeared in The Dark Knight as Sal Maroni , a Gotham City Mafia boss who hires The Joker to kill the titular superhero and a renegade mob accountant . Roberts co-starred on the ABC situation comedy Less than Perfect . He appeared in an episode of CSI : Miami as Ken Kramer , a murderer on death row convicted of killing a young couple . Another notable TV appearance was the episode `` Victims '' of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit where he played Sam Winfield , a former cop turned vigilante . In the same year , he was also guest starred on The L Word as Gabriel McCutcheon , the father of Shane McCutcheon . In early January 2007 , Roberts starred in the two-part miniseries Pandemic as the mayor of Los Angeles . Roberts voiced the Superman villain Mongul in the animated series Justice League , and reprised his role in Justice League Unlimited in the episode `` For the Man Who Has Everything '' . He performed the voice of Dark Danny in Nickelodeon 's Danny Phantom . He appeared in the first season of Heroes as Thompson , an associate of Mr. Bennet . He then reprised the role in the third-season episode `` Villains '' and in the fourth-season `` The Wall '' . In 2002 Roberts portrayed a FBI detective in Ja Rule 's music video for his song `` Down Ass Bitch '' , as well as its sequel `` Down 4 U '' . Roberts also appeared in The Killers ' music video for their song `` Mr. Brightside '' and `` Miss Atomic Bomb '' as well as in the music videos for Mariah Carey 's `` We Belong Together '' and `` It 's Like That '' . In 2006 , he appeared in the video for Akon 's `` Smack That '' , featuring Eminem . In 2007 , he appeared in the video for Godhead 's `` Hey You '' . In 2015 he appeared in the Rihanna video `` Bitch Better Have My Money '' . He appeared as a panelist on the television game show Hollywood Squares . In February 2009 , Oscar nominee Mickey Rourke , who starred with Roberts in The Pope of Greenwich Village , said he hoped that Roberts would soon be offered a role which would resurrect his career in the way that The Wrestler rejuvenated Rourke 's . He portrayed Seth Blanchard on the second season of the Starz series Crash , from 2009 . In 2009 , Roberts appeared as himself in `` Tree Trippers '' , a season five episode of Entourage . He is portrayed as a mushroom and drug fanatic as he gives the boys mushrooms and joins them to Joshua Tree National Park to trip as they contemplate Vince 's next movie decision . It was announced in June 2010 that he would be joining the cast of the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless starting July 12 . In 2010 , he appeared in the action film The Expendables . Later that year , he appeared alongside Steve Austin and Gary Daniels , his co-stars from The Expendables , in the 2010 action film Hunt to Kill . December 2010 saw the premiere of the fourth season of Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew , which documented Roberts ' struggle with dependency on medical marijuana . Roberts starred in the 2012 mystery thriller Deadline , playing the role of politically incorrect reporter Ronnie Bullock . Since 2014 Roberts has played the recurring character Charles Forstman in the TV legal drama Suits . In 2015 , he appeared in season 5 of Lost Girl , a very appreciated Canadian TV show by Showcase , as the main character 's father , Bo . He plays an Ancient god of Darkness and calls himself `` The Darkness '' . Personal life Roberts 's daughter Emma Roberts , with his then-girlfriend Kelly Cunningham , was born on February 10 , 1991 . Emma eventually became an actress as well , making her major-film debut at age 10 in the 2001 drama Blow . On January 12 , 2001 , Roberts visited The Howard Stern Radio Show with his wife during a segment called `` The Gossip Game '' with Mike Walker of the National Enquirer . He confirmed that he and Julia had been estranged for several years . The source of the estrangement had been his past drug abuse and her siding with his ex-girlfriend over the custody of his daughter . In 2004 , he told People magazine that he and his sister reconciled when he visited her in the hospital after she gave birth to twins . Roberts is a vegan and supporter of animal rights . Arrests and drug problems In 1987 , Roberts was arrested for possession of cocaine and marijuana , and resisting arrest after he tried to assault a New York police officer . He spent 36 hours in jail , pleaded guilty to harassment , and had all other charges dropped . In February 1995 , Roberts was arrested for shoving his wife , Eliza Garrett , into a wall . He subsequently announced that he was giving up drug use entirely . In 2010 , Roberts appeared as a cast member in the fourth season of the VH1 reality television series Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew for dependency on medical marijuana . His wife Eliza and his stepson Keaton Simons appeared in episode 6 to discuss the effects of his addiction on their lives . Filmography

sfq_1748--Eric_Roberts.txt

Which Dr. Who villain has been played by Roger Delgado, Anthony Ainley, Eric Roberts, etc?

Soup is a primarily liquid food , generally served warm ( but may be cool or cold ) , that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock , juice , water , or another liquid . Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted , forming a broth . Traditionally , soups are classified into two main groups : clear soups and thick soups . The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé . Thick soups are classified depending upon the type of thickening agent used : purées are vegetable soups thickened with starch ; bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream ; cream soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce ; and veloutés are thickened with eggs , butter , and cream . Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg , rice , lentils , flour , and grains ; many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes . Soups are similar to stews , and in some cases there may not be a clear distinction between the two ; however , soups generally have more liquid than stews . History Evidence of the existence of soup can be found as far back as about 20,000 BC . Boiling was not a common cooking technique until the invention of waterproof containers ( which probably came in the form of clay vessels ) . Animal hides and watertight baskets of bark or reeds were used before this . To boil the water hot rocks were used . This method was also used to cook acorns and other plants . The word soup comes from French soupe ( `` soup '' , `` broth '' ) , which comes through Vulgar Latin suppa ( `` bread soaked in broth '' ) from a Germanic source , from which also comes the word `` sop '' , a piece of bread used to soak up soup or a thick stew . The word restaurant ( meaning `` [ something ] restoring '' ) was first used in France in the 16th century , to refer to a highly concentrated , inexpensive soup , sold by street vendors , that was advertised as an antidote to physical exhaustion . In 1765 , a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups . This prompted the use of the modern word restaurant for the eating establishments . In the US , the first colonial cookbook was published by William Parks in Williamsburg , Virginia , in 1742 , based on Eliza Smith 's The Compleat Housewife ; or Accomplished Gentlewoman 's Companion and it included several recipes for soups and bisques . A 1772 cookbook , The Frugal Housewife , contained an entire chapter on the topic . English cooking dominated early colonial cooking ; but as new immigrants arrived from other countries , other national soups gained popularity . In particular , German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups . In 1794 , Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien , a refugee from the French Revolution , opened an eating establishment in Boston called `` The Restorator '' , and became known as the `` Prince of Soups '' . The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing : Soups and Soup Making . Portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick , resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time . Commercial products Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century , and today a great variety of canned and dried soups are on the market . Canned Doctor John T. Dorrance , a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company , invented condensed soup in 1897 . Today , Campbell 's Tomato , Cream of Mushroom , and Chicken Noodle Soup are three of the most popular soups in America . Americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year . Canned soup can be condensed , in which case it is prepared by adding water ( or sometimes milk ) , or it can be `` ready-to-eat , '' meaning that no additional liquid is needed before eating . Canned soup ( condensed with liquid added , or `` ready-to-eat '' ) can be prepared by heating in a pan , on the stovetop or in the microwave . Such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups , with the consumer adding anything from a few vegetables to eggs , meat , cream or pasta . Condensing soup allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can and sold at a lower price than other canned soups . The soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a `` can full '' of water or milk ( about 10 ounces ) . Since the 1990s , the canned soup market has burgeoned with soups marketed as `` ready-to-eat , '' which require no additional liquid to prepare . Microwaveable bowls have expanded the ready-to-eat canned soup market even more , offering convenience ( especially in workplaces ) and are popular lunch items . In response to concern over the health effects of excessive salt intake , some soup manufacturers have introduced reduced-salt versions of popular soups . Dried Dry soup mixes are sold by many manufacturers , and are reconstituted with hot water ; other fresh ingredients may then be added . The first dried soup was bouillon cubes ; the earlier meat extract did not require refrigeration , but was a viscous liquid . East Asian-style instant noodle soups include ramen and seasonings , and are marketed as a convenient and inexpensive instant meal , requiring only hot water for preparation . Western-style dried soups include vegetable , chicken base , potato , pasta and cheese flavors . Types In French cuisine , soup is often served before other dishes in a meal . In 1970 , Richard Olney gave the place of the entrée in a French full menu : `` A dinner that begins with a soup and runs through a fish course , an entrée , a sorbet , a roast , salad , cheese and dessert , and that may be accompanied by from three to six wines , presents a special problem of orchestration '' . Dessert * Chè , a Vietnamese cold dessert soup containing sugar and coconut milk , with many different varieties of other ingredients including taro , cassava , adzuki bean , mung bean , jackfruit , and durian . * Ginataan , Filipino soup made from coconut milk , milk , fruits and tapioca pearls , served hot or cold * Shiruko , a Japanese azuki bean soup * Tong sui , a collective term for Chinese sweet soups * Sawine , a soup made with milk , spices , parched vermicelli , almonds and dried fruits , served during the Muslim festival of Eid ul-Fitr in Trinidad and Tobago * Chinese dessert soups include douhua and black sesame soup Fruit Fruit soups are prepared using fruit as a primary ingredient , and may be served warm or cold depending on the recipe . Many varieties of fruit soups exist , and they may be prepared based upon the availability of seasonal fruit . Cold Salmorejo is a thick variant of gazpacho originating from Andalusia . Cold soups are a particular variation on the traditional soup , wherein the temperature when served is kept at or below room temperature . They may be sweet or savory . In summer , sweet cold soups can form part of a dessert tray . An example of a savory chilled soup is gazpacho , a chilled vegetable-based soup originating from Spain . Another example is mool naeng myun which is a Korean cold beef broth . Asian A feature of East Asian soups not normally found in Western cuisine is the use of tofu in soups . Many traditional East Asian soups are typically broths , `` clear soups '' , or starch thickened soups . Traditional regional varieties * Asopao is a rice soup very popular in Puerto Rico . * Ajiaco is a chicken soup from Colombia . * Avgolemono is a Greek chicken soup with lemon and egg . * Bánh canh , a Vietnamese udon noodle soup , popular variants include bánh canh cua ( crab udon soup ) , bánh canh chả cá ( fish cake udon soup ) * Bird 's nest soup is a delicacy in Chinese cuisine . * Bisque is a thick , creamy , highly seasoned soup , classically of pureed crustaceans , of French origin . * Borscht is a beet-vegetable soup originally from Ukraine . * Bouillabaisse , a fish soup from Marseille , is also made in other Mediterranean regions ; in Catalonia it is called bullebesa . * Bourou-bourou is a vegetable and pasta soup from the island of Corfu , Greece . * Bún bò Huế , a spicy lemongrass-flavored beef noodle soup from Huế , Central Vietnam , topped with fresh herbs , sliced onions and shallots and other crunchy toppings like pork rind * Caldo verde is a Portuguese minced kale soup * Callaloo is a thick , creamy soup made with okra and , often , crab meat from Trinidad and Tobago * Canh chua ( sour soup ) made with rice , fish , various vegetables , and in some cases pineapple is from Vietnam . * Canja de galinha is a Portuguese soup of chicken , rice and lemon . * Cazuela is a Chilean soup of medium thick flavoured stock obtained from cooking several kinds of meats and vegetables mixed together . * Clam chowder is found in two major types , New England clam chowder , made with potatoes and cream , and Manhattan clam chowder , made with a tomato base . * Cock-a-leekie soup is leek and potato soup made with chicken stock , from Scotland . * Cullen skink , also from Scotland , is a fish soup made with smoked haddock , potatoes , onions and cream . * Egg drop soup , a savory Chinese soup , is made by adding already-beaten eggs into boiling water or broth . * Egusi soup , a traditional soup from Nigeria , is made with vegetables , meat , fish , and balls of ground melon seed . It is often eaten with fufu . * Etrog , a fruit soup made from the citron used in Jewish rituals at the feast of Succoth , is eaten by Ashkenazi Jews at Tu Bishvat . * Ezogelin soup is a traditional Turkish variety of lentil soup , also very common in Turkey . * Faki soupa is a Greek lentil soup , with carrots , olive oil , herbs and possibly tomato sauce or vinegar . * Fanesca is a traditional cod soup from Ecuador . * Fasolada is a traditional Greek bean soup . * French onion soup is a clear soup made with beef broth and sautéed ( caramelized ) onions . * Garbure is a traditional dish in Gascony ( southwest France ) , midway between a soup and a stew . * Gazpacho ( from Spain and Portugal ) is a savory soup based on tomato . * Goulash is a Hungarian soup of beef , paprika and onion . * Gumbo , a traditional Creole soup from the Southern United States , is thickened with okra pods , roux and sometimes filé powder . * Halászlé ( fisherman 's soup ) , a very hot and spicy Hungarian river fish soup , is made with hot paprika . * Íslensk Kjötsúpa is a traditional Icelandic meat soup made with lamb and vegetables . * Kharcho is a Georgian soup of lamb , rice , vegetables and a highly spiced bouillon . * Kulajda is a Czech sour cream soup . * Kuy teav ( Vi : hủ tiếu ) , a Cambodian/Southern Vietnamese pork rice noodle soup , often in combination with shrimp , squid and other seafood , topped with fresh herbs and bean sprouts * Kyselo is a traditional Bohemian ( Krkonoše region ) sour soup made from sourdough , mushrooms , cumin , potatoes and scrambled eggs . * Lagman , a tradition in Uzbekistan , is made with pasta , vegetables , ground lamb and numerous spices . * Lan Sikik is a Thai soup made with noodles , dried fish and tomato extract . * Leek soup , a simple soup made from leeks , is popular in Wales during Saint David 's Day . * Lentil soup is popular in Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines . * London particular is a thick soup of pureed ( dry or split ) peas and ham from England ; purportedly it is named after the thick fogs of 19th century London . * Magiritsa soup made in Greece and Cyprus using lamb offal . * Maryland crab soup is made of vegetables , blue crab meat , and Old Bay Seasoning in a tomato base , from Maryland . * Menudo , a traditional Mexican soup , is with tripe ( usually beef ) and hominy . * Michigan bean soup has been a staple for over a hundred years in the U.S. Senate dining room in the form of Senate bean soup . * Minestrone is an Italian vegetable soup . * Miso soup is made from fish broth and fermented soy in Japan . * Mulligatawny is an Anglo-Indian curried soup . * Nässelsoppa ( nettle soup ) , made with stinging nettles , and traditionally eaten with hard boiled egg halves , is considered a spring delicacy in Sweden . * Nkatenkwan is a heavily spiced soup from Ghana based on groundnut with meat , most often chicken , and vegetables added . It is generally eaten with fufu . * Noodle soup is the common name for a diverse collection of soups with varied ingredients , including noodles . * Okroshka is a cold soup of Russian origin . * Partan bree is a Scottish soup made with crabmeat and rice * Patsás is made with tripe in Greece . It is also cooked in Turkey and the Balkan Peninsula . * `` Peasants ' soup '' is a catch-all term for soup made by combining a diverse—and often eclectic—assortment of ingredients . Variations on peasants ' soup are popular in Eastern Europe , Russia , and Central Africa . * Philadelphia pepper pot soup , a Philadelphia specialty , is traditionally made with tripe . * Phở is Vietnamese beef or chicken soup with scallions , welsh onion , cherred ginger , wild coriander ( Eryngium foetidum ) , basil , cinnamon , star anise , clove and black cardamom . * Psarosoupa , a Greek fish soup , is made in various versions with a variety of fish types . * Revithia is a Greek chickpea soup . * Sancocho is chicken soup with vegetables in Latin America . * Scotch broth is made from mutton or lamb , barley and root vegetables . * Shchav , a sorrel soup in Polish , Russian and Yiddish cuisines , is sour from the sorrel . * Shchi , a Russian soup with cabbage as the primary ingredient . * She-crab soup , from Charleston , South Carolina , is a creamy soup made with blue crab meat and crab roe . * Sinigang , from the Philippines , is a clear sour soup made from tamarind paste and meat , fish , or vegetables . * Snert ( erwtensoep ) , a thick pea soup , is eaten in the Netherlands as a winter dish , and is traditionally served with sliced sausage . * Solyanka – Russian soup on a meat , fish or vegetable broth with pickles , spices and smoked meat or fish . * Sopa da Pedra , is a rich traditional Portuguese soup with lots of ingredients . * Sopa de Peixe , is a traditional Portuguese fish soup . * Soto , a traditional Indonesian soup made with turmeric , galangal , etc. , usually contains either beef or chicken . * Soupe aux Pois Jaunes traditional Canadian pea soup that is made with yellow peas and often incorporates ham . * Svartsoppa a traditional Swedish soup , whose main ingredient is goose and , sometimes , pig 's blood , and is made in Skåne , the southernmost region of Sweden . The other ingredients typically include vinegar , port wine or cognac and spices such as cloves , ginger and allspice . The soup is served warm with boiled pieces of apple and plums , goose liver sausage and the boiled innards of the goose . * Split peas soup , a thick soup made in the Caribbean from split peas ( chickpeas or garbanzos ) , usually includes `` ground provision '' vegetable staples and some type of meat . * Tarator is a Bulgarian cold soup made from yogurt and cucumbers . * Thukpa bhatuk is a Tibetan cuisine noodle soup which centers on little hand-rolled bhatsa noodles . * Tomato soup comes in several varieties , with tomatoes in common . * Tom yum is the name for two similar hot and sour soups with fragrant herbs from Laos and Thailand . * Tarhana soup , from Persian cuisine is made with fermented grains and yogurt . * Trahanas is a variation of the above soup using chicken and Halloumi cheese * `` Tuscan bean soup '' is an Italian classic , using cannellini and borlotti beans , and prosciutto * Vichyssoise , a French-style soup invented by a French chef at the Ritz Hotel in New York City , is a cold purée of potatoes , leeks , and cream . * Waterzooi is a Belgian fish soup . * Yukgaejang , a Korean spicy beef soup , also includes vegetables . * Żurek , a Polish sour rye soup with sausages , is often served in a bowl made of bread . * Ärtsoppa , Swedish split pea soup , served with mustard and fresh marjoram or thyme . It is traditionally eaten as lunch on Thursdays . It is served together with Swedish punsch as beverage and Swedish pancakes with preserved berries for dessert . As a figure of speech In the English language , the word `` soup '' has developed several uses in phrase . * Alphabet soup , a large number of acronyms used by an administration . The term has its roots in a common tomato-based soup containing pasta shaped in the letters of the alphabet . * '' In the soup '' refers to being in a bad situation . * Primordial soup , the organic mixture leading to the development of life . * A soup kitchen , a place that serves prepared food of any kind to the homeless . * Souperism , the practice of bible societies during the Irish Great Famine to feed the hungry in exchange for religious instruction . The expression 'took the soup ' is used to refer to those who converted at the behest of these organizations offers of food . * Stone soup , a popular children 's fable about a poor man who encourages villagers to share their food with him by telling them that he can make soup with a stone . * Duck soup , a simple soup , stands for a task that is particularly easy . * Duck Soup , title of a Marx Brothers ' film in 1933 . * Tag soup , poorly coded HTML . * `` From soup to nuts '' means from beginning to end , referring to the traditional position of soup as the first course in a multi-course meal .

wh_2809--Soup.txt

Which Spanish soup containing onions, tomatoes, peppers and cucumbers and traditionally thickened with stale breadcrumbs is always served cold ?

Olaudah Equiano ( c. 1745 – 31 March 1797 ) , known in his lifetime as Gustavus Vassa , was a prominent African in London , a freed slave who supported the British movement to end the slave trade . His autobiography , published in 1789 and attracting wide attention , was considered highly influential in gaining passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807 , which ended the African trade for Britain and its colonies . Since the late 20th century , there has been some debate on his origins , but most of his account has been extensively documented . His last master was Robert King , an American Quaker merchant who allowed Equiano to trade on his own account and purchase his freedom in 1766 . Equiano settled in England in 1767 and worked and traveled for another 20 years as a seafarer , merchant , and explorer in the Caribbean , the Arctic , the American colonies , South and Central America , and the United Kingdom . In London , Equiano ( identifying as Gustavus Vassa during his lifetime ) was part of the Sons of Africa , an abolitionist group composed of prominent Africans living in Britain , and he was active among leaders of the anti-slave trade movement in the 1780s . He published his autobiography , The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano ( 1789 ) , which depicted the horrors of slavery . It went through nine editions and aided passage of the British Slave Trade Act of 1807 , which abolished the African slave trade . Since 1967 , his memoir has been regarded as the `` true beginning of modern African literature '' . As a free man , Equiano had a stressful life ; he had suffered suicidal thoughts before he became a born-again Christian and found peace in his faith . After settling in London , in 1792 Equiano married an English woman named Susannah Cullen and they had two daughters . He died in 1797 in London ; his gravesite is unknown . Equiano 's death was recognized in Britain as well as by American newspapers . Plaques commemorating his life have been placed at buildings where he lived in London . Since the late 20th century , when his autobiography was published in a new edition , he has been increasingly studied by a range of scholars , including many from Nigeria . Early life and enslavement Equiano recounted an incident when an attempted kidnapping of children was thwarted by adults in his villages . When he was around the age of eleven , he and his sister were left alone to look after their family 's compound , as was common when adults went out of the house for work . They were both kidnapped and taken far away from their hometown , separated , and sold to slave traders . After changing hands several times , Equiano met his sister again , but they were separated and he was taken over a large river to the coast , where he was held by European slave traders . He was transported with 244 other enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to Barbados in the West Indies . He and a few other slaves were sent on to the British colony of Virginia . Literary scholar Vincent Carretta argued in his 2005 biography of Equiano that the activist may have been born in colonial South Carolina rather than Africa based on Carretta 's discovery of a 1759 parish baptismal record and a 1773 ship 's muster , both of which list Equiano 's place of birth as South Carolina . Robin Blackburn , [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20080704140459/http : //www.thenation.com/doc/20051121/blackburn/single `` The True Story of Equiano '' ] , The Nation , 2 November 2005 ( archived ) , accessed 28 September 2014 A number of scholars agree with Carretta , while his conclusion is disputed by other scholars who believe the weight of evidence supports Equiano 's account of coming from Igboland . In Virginia , Equiano was bought in 1754 by Michael Pascal , a lieutenant in the Royal Navy . Pascal renamed the boy as `` Gustavus Vassa , '' after the Swedish noble who had become Gustav I of Sweden , king in the 16th century . Equiano had already been renamed twice : he was called Michael while on the slave ship that brought him to the Americas ; and Jacob , by his first owner . This time Equiano refused and told his new owner that he would prefer to be called Jacob . His refusal , he says , `` gained me many a cuff '' – and eventually he submitted to the new name . He used this name for the rest of his life , including on all official records . He only used Equiano in his autobiography . Equiano wrote in his narrative that domestic slaves in Virginia were treated cruelly and suffered punishments such as the `` iron muzzle '' ( scold 's bridle ) , which was used to keep house slaves quiet , leaving them unable to speak or eat . He thought that the eyes of portraits followed him wherever he went , and that a clock could tell his master about anything Equiano did wrong . Shocked by this culture , Equiano tried washing his face in an attempt to change its colour . Pascal took Equiano with him when he returned to England , and had him accompany him as a valet during the Seven Years ' War with France . Also trained in seamanship , Equiano was expected to assist the ship 's crew in times of battle ; his duty was to haul gunpowder to the gun decks . Pascal favoured Equiano and sent him to his sister-in-law in Great Britain , so that the youth could attend school and learn to read and write . At this time , Equiano converted to Christianity . He was baptized in St Margaret 's , Westminster , in February 1759 . His godparents were Mary Guerin and her brother , Maynard , who were cousins of his master Pascal . They had taken an interest in him and helped him to learn English . Later , when Equiano 's origins were questioned after his book was published , the Guerins testified to his lack of English when he first came to London . Pascal sold Equiano to Captain James Doran of the Charming Sally at Gravesend , from where he was transported back to the Caribbean , to Montserrat , in the Leeward Islands . There he was sold to Robert King , an American Quaker merchant from Philadelphia who traded in the Caribbean . Release Robert King set Equiano to work on his shipping routes and in his stores . In 1765 , when Equiano was about 20 years old , King promised that for his purchase price of 40 pounds , the slave could buy his freedom . King taught him to read and write more fluently , guided him along the path of religion , and allowed Equiano to engage in profitable trading for his own account , as well as on his master 's behalf . Equiano sold fruits , glass tumblers , and other items between Georgia and the Caribbean islands . King enabled Equiano to buy his freedom , which he achieved in 1767 . The merchant urged Equiano to stay on as a business partner , but the African found it dangerous and limiting to remain in the British colonies as a freedman . While loading a ship in Georgia , he was almost kidnapped back into slavery . Freedom By about 1767 , Equiano had gained his freedom and went to England . He continued to work at sea , travelling sometimes as a deckhand based in England . In 1773 on the British Royal Navy ship Racehorse , he travelled to the Arctic in an expedition to find a northern route to India . On that voyage he worked with Dr. Charles Irving , who had developed a process to distill seawater and later made a fortune from it . Two years later , Irving recruited Equiano for a project on the Mosquito Coast in Central America , where he was to use his African background and Igbo language to help select slaves and manage them as labourers on sugar cane plantations . Irving and Equiano had a working relationship and friendship for more than a decade , but the plantation venture failed . Equiano expanded his activities in London , learning the French horn and joining debating societies , including the London Corresponding Society . He continued his travels , visiting Philadelphia and New York in 1785 and 1786 , respectively . Pioneer of the abolitionist cause Equiano settled in London , where in the 1780s he became involved in the abolitionist movement . The movement to end the slave trade had been particularly strong among Quakers , but the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787 as a non-denominational group , with Anglican members , in order to directly influence parliament . At the time , Quakers were prohibited from being elected as MPs . Equiano had become a Methodist , having been influenced by George Whitefield 's evangelism in the New World . As early as 1783 , Equiano informed abolitionists such as Granville Sharp about the slave trade ; that year he was the first to tell Sharp about the Zong massacre , which was being tried in London as litigation for insurance claims . ( It became a cause célèbre for the abolitionist movement and contributed to its growth . ) Lovejoy ( 2006 ) , pp.337 , 344 . Equiano was befriended and supported by abolitionists , many of whom encouraged him to write and publish his life story . He was supported financially in this effort by philanthropic abolitionists and religious benefactors . His lectures and preparation for the book were promoted by , among others , Selina Hastings , Countess of Huntingdon . Memoir Entitled The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano , or Gustavus Vassa , the African ( 1789 ) , the book rapidly went through nine editions in his lifetime . It is one of the earliest-known examples of published writing by an African writer to be widely read in England . It was the first influential slave narrative of what became a large literary genre . But Equiano 's experience in slavery was quite different from that of most slaves ; he did not participate in field work , he served his masters personally and went to sea , was taught to read and write , and he worked in trading . Equiano 's personal account of slavery , his journey of advancement , and his experiences as a black immigrant caused a sensation on publication . The book fueled a growing anti-slavery movement in Great Britain , Europe , and the New World . His account surprised many with the quality of its imagery , description , and literary style . Some readers felt shame at learning of the suffering he had endured . In his account , Equiano gives details about his hometown Essaka and the laws and customs of the Eboe ( Igbo ) people . After being captured as a boy , he described communities he passed through as a captive on his way to the coast . His biography details his voyage on a slave ship , and the brutality of slavery in the colonies of West Indies , Virginia , and Georgia . Using a published database of slave ships , Vincent Carretta believes the boy may have been on the `` 1753 voyage of the Ogden , a mid-sized two-masted `` snow '' from Liverpool trading at Bonny on the Calabar coast . '' As Carretta notes , this ship was `` the most probable vessel bearing Equiano from the Bight of Biafra to Barbados . '' The Ogden arrived at Bridgetown , Barbados , on 9 May 1754 . Equiano said he was kept a short time there , then put aboard `` a sloop for North America , '' and `` landed up a river a good way from the sea , about Virginia county [ sic ] '' . Carretta documented a sloop , the Nancy , that cleared Barbados on 21 May 1754 and arrived in Virginia on 13 June , going up the York River . Equiano commented on the reduced rights that freed people of colour had in these same places , and they also faced risks of kidnapping and enslavement . Equiano had embraced Christianity at the age of 14 and its importance to him is a recurring theme in his autobiography ; he identified as a Protestant of the Church of England . He was baptized while in London . Several events in Equiano 's life led him to question his faith . He was severely distressed in 1774 by the kidnapping of his friend , a black cook named John Annis , who was taken forcibly off the English ship Anglicania on which they were both serving . His master Mr. Kirkpatrick did not abide by the decision in the Somersett Case ( 1772 ) , that slaves could not be taken from England without their permission , as common law did not support the institution . Kirkpatrick had Annis transported to Saint Kitts , where he was punished severely and worked as a plantation labourer until he died . With the aid of Granville Sharp , Equiano tried to get Annis released before he was shipped from England , but was unsuccessful . He heard that Annis was not free from suffering until he died in slavery . Despite his questioning , he affirms his faith in Christianity as seen in the penultimate sentence of his work that quotes the prophet Micah : `` After all , what makes any event important , unless by its observation we become better and wiser , and learn 'to do justly , to love mercy , and to walk humbly before God ? ' '' In his account , Equiano also told of his settling in London . He married an English woman and lived with her in Soham , Cambridgeshire , where they had two daughters . He became a leading abolitionist in the 1780s , lecturing in numerous cities against the slave trade . Equiano records his and Granville Sharp 's central roles in the anti-slave trade movement , and their effort to publicize the Zong massacre , which became known in 1783 . Reviewers have found that his book vividly demonstrated the full and complex humanity of Africans as much as the inhumanity of slavery . The book was considered an exemplary work of English literature by a new African author . Equiano did so well in sales that he achieved independence from his benefactors . He travelled extensively throughout England , Scotland , and Ireland promoting the book . He worked to improve economic , social and educational conditions in Africa . Specifically , he became involved in working in Sierra Leone , a colony founded in 1792 for freed slaves by Britain in West Africa . Later years During the American Revolutionary War , Britain had recruited blacks to fight with it by offering freedom to those who left rebel masters . In practice , it also freed women and children , and attracted thousands of slaves to its lines in New York City , which it occupied , and in the South , where its troops occupied Charleston . When British troops were evacuated at the end of the war , its officers also evacuated American slaves . They were resettled in the Caribbean , in Nova Scotia and in London . Britain refused to return the slaves , which the United States sought in peace negotiations . In the years following United States ' gaining independence , in 1783 Equiano became involved in helping the Black Poor of London , who were mostly those African-American slaves freed during and after the American Revolution by the British . There were also some freed slaves from the Caribbean , and some who had been brought by their masters to England , and freed later after the decision that Britain had no basis in common law for slavery . The black community numbered about 20,000 . After the Revolution some 3,000 former slaves had been transported from New York to Nova Scotia , where they became known as Black Loyalists , among other Loyalists also resettled there . Many of the freedmen found it difficult to make new lives in London and Canada . Equiano was appointed to an expedition to resettle London 's Black Poor in Freetown , a new British colony founded on the west coast of Africa , at present-day Sierra Leone . The blacks from London were joined by more than 1,200 Black Loyalists who chose to leave Nova Scotia . They were aided by John Clarkson , younger brother of abolitionist Thomas Clarkson . Jamaican maroons , as well as slaves liberated from illegal ships after Britain abolished the slave trade , also settled at Freetown in the early decades . Equiano was dismissed from the new settlement after protesting against financial mismanagement and he returned to London . Equiano was a prominent figure in London and often served as a spokesman for the black community . He was one of the leading members of the Sons of Africa , a small abolitionist group composed of free Africans in London . They were closely allied with the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade . Equiano 's comments on issues were frequently published in newspapers such as the Public Advertiser and the Morning Chronicle . He had much more of a public voice than most Africans or Black Loyalists , and he seized various opportunities to use it . Marriage and family As part of settling in Britain , Equiano decided to marry and have a family . On 7 April 1792 , he married Susannah Cullen , a local girl , in St Andrew 's Church in Soham , Cambridgeshire . The original marriage register containing the entry for Vassa and Cullen is held today by the Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies at the County Record Office in Cambridge . He included his marriage in every edition of his autobiography from 1792 onwards . Critics have suggested he believed that his marriage symbolised an expected commercial union between Africa and Great Britain . The couple settled in the area and had two mixed-race daughters , Anna Maria ( 1793–1797 ) and Joanna ( 1795–1857 ) . Susannah died in February 1796 , aged 34 , and Equiano died a year after that on 31 March 1797 , aged 52 ( sources differ on his age . ) . Soon after , the elder daughter died at the age of four , leaving the youngest child Joanna Vassa to inherit Equiano 's estate . It was valued at £950 : a considerable sum , worth more than £80,000 in 2008 . A guardianship would have been established for her . Joanna Vassa married the Rev . Henry Bromley , and they ran a Congregational Chapel at Clavering near Saffron Walden in Essex . They moved to London in the middle of the 19th century . They are both buried at the Congregationalists ' non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery , in Stoke Newington North London . Last days and will Although Equiano 's death is recorded in London in 1797 , the location of his burial is undocumented . One of his last addresses appears to have been Plaisterers ' Hall in the City of London , where he drew up his will on 28 May 1796 . He moved to John Street , Tottenham Court Road , close to Whitefield 's Methodist chapel . ( It was renovated in the 1950s for use by Congregationalists . Now the site of the American Church in London , the church recently installed a small memorial to Equiano . ) Lastly , he lived in Paddington Street , Middlesex , where he died . Equiano 's death was reported in newspaper obituaries . At this time , due to having lost the British colonies after long warfare and especially the violent excesses of the French Revolution , British society was tense because of fears of open revolution . Reformers were considered more suspect than in other periods . Equiano had been an active member of the London Corresponding Society , which campaigned to extend the vote to working men . Equiano 's will provided for projects he considered important . In case of his surviving daughter 's death before reaching the age of majority ( 21 ) , he bequeathed half his wealth to the Sierra Leone Company for continued assistance to West Africans , and half to the London Missionary Society , which promoted education overseas . This organization had formed in November 1796 at the Spa Fields Chapel of the Countess of Huntingdon in north London . By the early 19th century , The Missionary Society had become well known worldwide as non-denominational ; many of its members were Congregational . Controversy related to memoir Following publication in 1967 of a newly edited version of Equiano 's memoir by Paul Edwards , interest in the African was revived ; additional editions of his work have been published since then . Nigerian scholars have also become involved in studying him , and there has been debate about the extent to which his work was fact or fiction . He was especially valued as a pioneer writer in asserting `` the dignity of African life in the white society of his time . '' In researching his life , some scholars since the late 20th century have disputed Equiano 's account of his origins . In 1999 , Vincent Carretta , a professor of English editing a new version of Equiano 's memoir , found two records that led him to question the former slave 's account of being born in Africa . He first published his findings in the journal Slavery and Abolition . At a 2003 conference in England , Carretta defended himself against Nigerian academics , like Obiwu , who accused him of `` pseudo-detective work '' and indulging `` in vast publicity gamesmanship '' . In his 2005 biography , Carretta suggested that Equiano may have been born in South Carolina rather than Africa , as he was twice recorded from there . Carretta wrote : Equiano was certainly African by descent . The circumstantial evidence that Equiano was also African-American by birth and African-British by choice is compelling but not absolutely conclusive . Although the circumstantial evidence is not equivalent to proof , anyone dealing with Equiano 's life and art must consider it . According to Carretta , Vassa 's baptismal record and a naval muster roll document him as from South Carolina . Carretta interpreted these anomalies as possible evidence that Equiano had made up the account of his African origins , and adopted material from others . But , Paul Lovejoy , Alexander X. Byrd , and Douglas Chambers note how many general and specific details Carretta can document from sources that related to the slave trade in the 1750s as described by Equiano , including the voyages from Africa to Virginia , sale to Captain Michael Henry Pascal in 1754 , and others . They conclude he was more likely telling what he understood as fact than creating a fictional account ; his work is shaped as an autobiography , as are all such works . Lovejoy wrote that : `` circumstantial evidence indicates that he was born where he said he was , and that , in fact , The Interesting Narrative is reasonably accurate in its details , although , of course , subject to the same criticisms of selectivity and self-interested distortion that characterize the genre of autobiography . `` Lovejoy uses the name of Vassa in his article , since that was what the man used throughout his life , in `` his baptism , his naval records , marriage certificate and will '' . He emphasizes that Vassa only used his African name in his autobiography . Other historians also argue that the fact that many parts of Equiano 's account can be proven lends weight to accepting his account of African birth . As historian Adam Hochschild has written : `` In the long and fascinating history of autobiographies that distort or exaggerate the truth . ... Seldom is one crucial portion of a memoir totally fabricated and the remainder scrupulously accurate ; among autobiographers ... both dissemblers and truth-tellers tend to be consistent . '' He also noted that `` since the ‘ rediscovery ’ of Vassa ’ s account in the 1960s , ‘ scholars have valued it as the most extensive account of an eighteenth-century slave ’ s life ’ and the difficult passage from slavery to freedom . '' In her book on Equiano and what she says are his Igbo origins , Nigerian writer Catherine Obianuju Acholonu wrote in 1989 that he was born in a Nigerian town known as Isseke , where she said local oral history told of his upbringing . In his 1991 review of her work , O.S . Ogede criticized the lack of intellectual rigor and noted serious errors in her research , beginning with how she determined Isseke as the village of origin and claimed she saw people with features traditionally associated with his family , although he had left there 250 years ago . He also criticized her effort to determine Equiano 's origins based on analysis of language that she interpreted through his transcriptions . He argued for the memoir being considered `` literary biography '' and noted that she did not refer to the current debate on whether Equiano 's account `` should be considered fiction or fact '' . Lovejoy summarized his argument by saying : `` As in other autobiographical accounts , the account of his childhood was filtered through additional information learned later in life , as well as reflections on what he remembered and how he attempted to understand his early experiences . That there should be variance in detail between what is stated and what probably happened is a methodological problem that faces anyone working in autobiography . '' Byrd examines Equiano 's changing ways for referring to the Eboe people , nations , and communities in his account , related both from his memory of his perspective as a child and later as an adult with wider knowledge of the world . He says , `` At times The Interesting Narrative presents an author whose understanding of himself appears firmly based in the experiences of a youth raised in the Biafran interior . At other times it presents an author whose self-consciousness was quite obviously affected by a long time in the British Atlantic world . At other moments , still , the book offers a protagonist whose self-awareness is clearly indicative of someone intimately familiar with and socialized within and between Africa , the Americas , and Europe . `` Byrd believes that the ethnographic language of references as noted above , `` reflects ... a deep connection to the social consequences of enslavement in the Biafran interior . '' In the mid-18th century , Byrd says , ideas of the Ibo people , or nations and communities in the sense they later accrued , were not yet formed . He believes that Equiano 's account reflects the more fluid concepts at that time of what constitute connections and barriers among the peoples : language , shared practices and culture , but these varied as Equiano tried to describe them . He also thought this was appropriate given the boy 's young age when he left home , as his most important ties were family and village . Byrd thinks the concept of an Ibo `` nation , '' was a new social formation . He suggests that `` notions of self and ethnicity developed and were expressed historically across the Atlantic world , '' some developing in the Americas after people left their homelands . Legacy and honours * The Equiano Society was formed in London in November 1996 . Its main objective is to publicise and celebrate the life and work of Olaudah Equiano . * Equiano lived at 13 Tottenham Street , London , in 1788 ; in 1789 he moved to what was then 10 Union Street and is now 73 Riding House Street . A City of Westminster commemorative green plaque was unveiled there on 11 October 2000 as part of Black History Month celebrations . Student musicians from Trinity College of Music played a fanfare specially composed by Professor Ian Hall for

qw_10077--Olaudah_Equiano.txt

Between 1783 and 1865, Englishmen William Wilberforce, Sir Cecil Wray and Dr Beilby Porteus, Africans Olaudah Equiano and Ignatius Sancho and, in the USA, William Lloyd Garrison, John Greenleaf Whittier, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Frederick Douglass, Charles Henry Langston and John Mercer Langston were leading figures in which movement?

Bubbles , originally titled A Child 's World , is a painting by Sir John Everett Millais that became famous when it was used over many generations in advertisements for Pears soap . During Millais 's lifetime it led to widespread debate about the relationship between art and advertising . Painting The painting was one of many child pictures for which Millais had become well known in his later years . It was modelled by his five-year-old grandson William Milbourne James and was based on 17th-century Dutch precursors in the tradition of vanitas imagery , which commented upon the transience of life . These sometimes depicted young boys blowing bubbles , typically set against skulls and other signs of death . The painting portrays a young golden-haired boy looking up at a bubble , symbolising the beauty and fragility of life . On one side of him is a young plant growing in a pot , emblematic of life , and on the other is a fallen broken pot , emblematic of death . He is spot-lit against a gloomy background . The painting was first exhibited in 1886 under the title A Child 's World at the Grosvenor Gallery in London . Reproductions The painting was acquired by Sir William Ingram of The Illustrated London News , who wished to reproduce it in his newspaper . When it was reproduced and presented in the weekly newspaper as a colour plate , it was seen by Thomas J. Barratt , managing director of A & F Pears . Barratt purchased the original painting from Ingram for £2,200 which gave him exclusive copyright on the picture . Millais ' permission was sought in order to alter the picture by the addition of a bar of Pears Soap , so that it could be used for the purposes of advertising . At the time Millais was one of the most popular artists in Britain and he was initially apprehensive at the prospect of his work and his grandson being the subject of commercial exploitation . However , when he was shown the proofs of the proposed advertisements he grew to appreciate the idea , which portrayed the soap as if the child had used it to make the bubbles . Later developments Following the success of this advertisement Millais was attacked in print by the novelist Marie Corelli who accused him in her novel The Sorrows of Satan of prostituting his talent to sell soap . Millais wrote to her pointing out that he had sold the copyright of the painting and so was unable to stop the company from altering it in reproduction . Millais 's son later claimed that he had tried to stop the advertisement being made , but had been advised that he had no legal power to do so . Corelli retracted her comments in a later edition of the book . The advertisement became so well known that William Milbourne James , who later rose to the rank of Admiral in the Royal Navy , was known as `` Bubbles '' for the rest of his life . Since A & F Pears was acquired by Lever Brothers , the painting has been in their ownership . It was lent to the Royal Academy , but was transferred to the Lady Lever Art Gallery in Port Sunlight in 2006 .

odql_3474--Bubbles_(painting).txt

The painting by Millais entitled 'Bubbles' was used for many years in an advertisement for which product?

Sbrinz is a very hard cheese produced in central Switzerland . It is often used instead of Parmesan cheese in Swiss cuisine . The cheese is produced in only 42 dairies in central Switzerland . Only local cow 's milk is used when producing this cheese . It is kept in the region until ready for consumption . Contrary to popular belief , the name Sbrinz does not originally refer to a particular place or region . Nevertheless , the Swiss Cheese Union added to this myth by launching an advertising campaign in the 1990s . As a result of this campaign , there is now an area called Sbrinz . Character Sbrinz is an extra hard full fat cheese . It contains approximately 40 % to 45 % of fat when dry . The cheese must ripen for 16 months before it can be sold as Sbrinz , and the full flavour only develops after about 24–30 months in storage . History Sbrinz is claimed to be the oldest European cheese . The Celtic ancestors of the Swiss were making cheese centuries before the recorded birth of Christ ; this cheese may have been an ancestor to modern Sbrinz . The official web site claims that the cheese was first mentioned in 70 AD , but does not give any details . Other sources claim that the cheese is mentioned in contracts dated around 1200 . It seems certain , however , that it is mentioned in documents dating from 1530 , which are kept in the state archive in Bern . Since 2001 , Sbrinz is an appellation d'origine contrôlée ( AOC ) . The AOC provides specifications for the origin of the milk and the processes that must be followed in order for the cheese to labeled as Sbrinz . In 2013 , it was replaced by the appellation d'origine protégée ( AOP ) certification . Consumption Sbrinz is commonly consumed in several ways ; it can be used grated , such as on pasta . It can be eaten in small pieces , often to accompany wine . It is also eaten in thin slices planed from the hard cheese . Sbrinz is often simply enjoyed with bread and butter .

qb_3093--Sbrinz.txt

Raclette, Tilsit and Sbrinz are all types of which foodstuff?

Blind Faith was an English blues rock band , composed of Eric Clapton , Ginger Baker , Steve Winwood , and Ric Grech . The band , which was one of the first `` super-groups '' , released their only album , Blind Faith , in August 1969 . They were stylistically similar to the bands in which Winwood , Baker , and Clapton had most recently participated , Traffic and Cream . They helped to pioneer the genre of blues/rock fusion . Formation and early history The beginnings of Blind Faith begin in mid-1968 , with the break-up of Cream . Today considered to be the first true `` super-group , '' Cream had become a financial powerhouse , selling millions of records within a few years and bringing international popularity to both the group and each individual member . Despite that success , the band was crumbling from within because of frequent animosity between Jack Bruce and Ginger Baker , with Eric Clapton doing his best to mediate . In addition , Clapton had tired of playing commercially-driven blues and hoped to move forward with a new , experimental , less straitjacketed approach to the genre . Steve Winwood was facing similar problems in The Spencer Davis Group , where he had been the lead singer for three years . Winwood wanted to experiment with the band 's sound by infusing jazz elements , but left due to his musical differences , instead forming a new band—Traffic—in 1967 . That band split temporarily in 1969 , and Winwood started to jam with his good friend Clapton in Clapton 's basement in Surrey , England . Winwood and Clapton had previously collaborated on the `` Powerhouse '' project . Clapton was pleased with the jam sessions , but was hesitant to start a serious group . Ginger Baker turned up again one day to sit in with them in 1969 , and the band took near-final form . Clapton questioned letting Baker in the band , because he had promised Jack Bruce that , if they were to work with one another again , all three of them would play . Moreover , Clapton did n't want to reunite with Cream barely nine weeks after the break-up , and also did n't want to deal with another `` Cream-like '' super-stardom situation . Winwood ultimately persuaded Clapton to finalize Baker 's inclusion in the line-up , arguing that Ginger Baker strengthened their musicianship and that it would be hard to find an equally talented drummer . By May 1969 , Ric Grech , bassist with Family , was invited to join them ( leaving Family in mid-tour ) . Debut and touring News of the group 's formation created a buzz of excitement among the public and press , which even heralded the band as `` super Cream '' . The group debuted at a free concert at London 's Hyde Park on 7 June 1969 . The performance was well received by fans there , but troubled Clapton , who thought that the band 's playing was sub-par and that the adulation was undeserved and reminiscent of his Cream days when the crowds would applaud for nearly everything . Clapton , knowing the band had not rehearsed enough and was unprepared , was reluctant to tour and feared that the band would develop into a Cream repeat . Because Steve Winwood was signed to Island Records , he had to be `` leased '' to Polydor Records ( to whom Clapton and Baker were signed in the U.K. ) . Possibly as part of this deal , a promotional single was released by Island , although the promotion was for Island itself . It was a single announcing the fact that they were moving their offices . Titled `` Change Of Address From 23 June 1969 '' , the one-sided promo featured an instrumental jam by the group which was not mentioned on the label ( the only other label info is the new address , phone number , and new cable address of Island ) . Recorded at Olympic , probably sometime between March and May 1969 , it is thought that around 500 copies of the single were pressed , mostly sent to UK disc jockeys and other music industry insiders . The track was finally released widely when it appeared as a bonus track on the two-CD `` Deluxe Edition '' of the Blind Faith album in 2000 ( titled `` Change Of Address Jam '' ) . The recording of their album continued , followed by a short tour of Scandinavia , where the band played smaller gigs and was able to rehearse their sound and prepare it for bigger audiences in the US and UK . After Scandinavia , the band toured the United States , making their debut at Madison Square Garden on 12 July before more than 20,000 . The band toured for seven more weeks in the US , finishing their tour in Hawaii on 24 August 1969 . A major problem with the tour was that the band had only a few songs in their catalogue – barely enough to fill an hour . They were forced to play old Cream and Traffic songs , to the delight of a crowd which usually preferred their older , popular material to their new Blind Faith material . Clapton was now exactly where he did n't want to be – stuck in a `` super Cream '' that was causing riots during their live shows . They were playing the same material from his Cream days , to appease the audience and to fill the void left by the lack of adequate new material . Opening acts for the band included the bands Free , Taste and an R & B-based rock act called Delaney & Bonnie . Because Clapton liked the soulful , folksy-sounding blues of Delaney & Bonnie , he began spending most of his time with them instead of Blind Faith , letting Winwood take a more prominent role in the band . Clapton even began sitting in on their opening sets , sometimes simply playing percussion , and showing more interest in them than his own band . Baker has since said it was obvious that Clapton was going to leave the band as soon as the tour was over . Album release and controversy Upon its release in July of 1969 , Blind Faith topped both the UK chart and Billboard 's chart for Pop Album in the U.S. , and peaked at No . 40 on the Black Albums chart – an impressive feat for a British rock quartet . The album sold more than half million copies in the first month of its release and was a huge profit-making device for both Atlantic Records ( on their Atco label in the US ) and for Clapton and Baker ( Blind Faith sales were helping to stimulate demand for Cream albums , also distributed by Atco ) . The release of the album provoked controversy because the cover featured a topless pubescent girl , holding in her hands a silver space ship designed by Mick Milligan , a jeweller at the Royal College of Art . Some perceived the ship as a phallic symbol . The silver spaceship is , or strongly resembles , the hood ornament of a 1955 Chevrolet . The US record company issued it with an alternative cover with a photograph of the band on the front . In the UK an alternative cover was also issued simultaneously with the topless one , a thin and laminated cover with the back and front consistent with the inside of the foldout version . The original record number on the alternative cover is the same but ends with a `` B '' ( 583 059B ) . The record is the same and , since this was only issued for a short time , always had early matrix numbers and mothers . The cover art was created by photographer Bob Seidemann , a personal friend and former flatmate of Clapton , who is known primarily for his photos of Janis Joplin and the Grateful Dead . Rumours about the girl 's relationship to the band fuelled the controversy ; among them were that she was Baker 's illegitimate daughter , and that she was a groupie kept as a slave by the band members . Actually , the young girl was a London suburbanite , who posed upon consent by her parents and for a fee , as described in Seidemann 's mini essay about the origins of the Blind Faith album cover artwork . The cover was nameless – only the wrapping paper told the buyer who the artist was and the name of the album . Though initially banned in some countries , the original artwork was quite popular and collectible . It also became available later in the 1970s on the RSO label worldwide . Under licensing agreement during the mid-1980s , the Blind Faith album was remastered to high definition vinyl and gold compact disc by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab . During 2000 the entire album was remastered and re-released as a two-CD deluxe edition release from Polydor that includes alternates , out-takes and studio rehearsal versions of the band 's music created during the early months of 1969 . Dissolution and separate paths After the tour finished in August , the band returned to England surrounded by rumours of break-up or a possible UK tour . By October , the band had effectively dissolved within a year of its creation , and it did not produce another studio or live album – though several live tracks from the band can be found on Steve Winwood 's 1995 retrospective album The Finer Things . Out-takes and other recordings were included in the two-CD issue Blind Faith - Deluxe Edition mentioned above . Thereafter , Clapton stepped out of the spotlight , first to sit in with the Plastic Ono Band and then to tour as a sideman for Delaney & Bonnie and Friends , with whom he had become good friends during the U.S. tour . This freed him of the limelight that he had considered a plague to both Cream and Blind Faith . After his sideman stint , he took several members from Delaney & Bonnie to form a new super-group , Derek and the Dominos . Clapton never dropped his Blind Faith repertoire completely , as `` Presence of the Lord '' and `` Ca n't Find My Way Home '' have been performed occasionally throughout his solo career . Unlike Clapton , Ginger Baker had enjoyed his Blind Faith experience and looked to carry on an offshoot of the band in the form of Ginger Baker 's Air Force with both Grech and Winwood . After a few shows together , Winwood left with Grech and went to Island Records to reunite and reform Traffic ( Grech is featured on bass on the Traffic albums The Low Spark of High Heeled Boys and Welcome to the Canteen ) . Winwood would later go on to have a successful solo career and Grech was a member of various groups before his death in 1990 due to a brain hemorrhage . Eric Clapton and Steve Winwood both appeared in the movie Blues Brothers 2000 . Clapton and Winwood would later look favourably on their work in the band and featured several Blind Faith songs in the Clapton ( Crossroads ) and Winwood collections and catalogues . Clapton and Winwood together again In July 2007 , Clapton and Winwood reunited for a performance during the second Crossroads Guitar Festival held at the Toyota Park Center of Bridgeview ( Illinois ) , where the duo performed a number of Blind Faith songs as part of their set . That performance inspired the two to perform three reunion concerts at Madison Square Garden that took place on 25 , 26 and 28 February 2008 . It was not an official Blind Faith reunion ; rather `` Winwood and Clapton '' . They performed the four songs on the first side of Blind Faith as well as selections from Traffic , Derek and the Dominos , Clapton 's solo career and some covers . Their band consisted of Willie Weeks on bass , Ian Thomas on drums and Chris Stainton on keyboards . A DVD and a 2 disc CD of these performances was released in 2009 . On 10 June 2009 , Winwood and Clapton began a 14-date United States summer tour at the Izod Center in New Jersey . Their backing band was similar to the one at Madison Square Garden , with Ian Thomas replaced by Abe Laboriel Jr. and backing vocalists Michelle John and Sharon White added . The former Blind Faith bandmates ran their third European tour from 18 May to 13 June 2010 with drummer Steve Gadd . Winwood and Clapton met again for a series of five concerts at London 's Royal Albert Hall from 26 May to 1 June 2011 . The former Blind Faith members then performed on a 15-date tour in Japan from 17 November to 10 December 2011 . Members * Eric Clapton – guitar , vocals * Steve Winwood – organ , bass , guitar , piano , keyboards , vocals , harmonica * Ginger Baker – percussion , drums * Ric Grech – bass , violin , vocals Discography * Blind Faith August 1969 No . 1 ( US ) ( Platinum ) , September 1969 No . 1 ( UK ) ( Gold ) . Videography * London Hyde Park 1969 Chart positions Blind Faith on the Billboard ( North America ) :

qb_8296--Blind_Faith.txt

What was the name of the 1960’s rock band which comprised Eric Clapton, Ginger Baker, Steve Winwood and Ric Grech?

The 1980 Summer Olympics , officially known as the Games of the XXII Olympiad ( ) , was an international multi-sport event held in Moscow , Soviet Union , in present-day Russia . The 1980 Games were the first Olympic Games to be staged in Eastern Europe , and remain the only Summer Olympics held there . They were also the first Olympic Games to be held in a communist country , and the only Summer Games to be held in such a country until the 2008 edition in Beijing , China . These were the final Olympic Games under the IOC Presidency of Michael Morris , 3rd Baron Killanin . Led by the United States at the insistence of U.S. President Jimmy Carter , 65 countries boycotted the games because of the Soviet war in Afghanistan , though some athletes from some of the boycotting countries participated in the games under the Olympic Flag . This prompted the Soviet-led boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics . Host city selection The only two cities to bid for the 1980 Summer Olympics were Moscow and Los Angeles . The choice between them was made on 23 October 1974 in the 75th IOC Session in Vienna , Austria . Participation overview and boycott Eighty nations were represented at the Moscow Games – the smallest number since 1956 . Six nations made their first Olympic appearance in 1980 : Angola , Botswana , Jordan , Laos , Mozambique , and Seychelles . Cyprus made its debut at the Summer Olympics , but had appeared earlier at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid , New York . Sri Lanka competed for the first time under its new name ( previously as Ceylon ) , Benin had competed previously as Dahomey and Zimbabwe competed for the first time under that name ( previously as Rhodesia ) . Although approximately half of the 24 countries that boycotted the 1976 Summer Olympics ( in protest against the IOC not expelling New Zealand who sanctioned a rugby tour of apartheid South Africa ) participated in the Moscow Games , the 1980 Summer Olympics were disrupted by another , even larger , boycott led by the United States in protest at the 1979 Soviet war in Afghanistan . The Soviet invasion spurred Jimmy Carter to issue an ultimatum on January 20 , 1980 that the US would boycott the Moscow Olympics if Soviet troops did not withdraw from Afghanistan within one month . 65 countries and regions invited did not take part in the 1980 Olympics . Many of these followed the United States ' boycott initiative , while others cited economic reasons for not coming . Iran , under Ayatollah Khomeini hostile to both superpowers , boycotted when the Islamic Conference condemned the invasion . Many of the boycotting nations participated instead in the Liberty Bell Classic ( also known as the `` Olympic Boycott Games '' ) in Philadelphia . However , the nations that did compete had won 71 percent of all medals , and similarly 71 percent of the gold medals , at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal . As a form of protest against the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan , fifteen countries marched in the Opening Ceremony with the Olympic Flag instead of their national flags , and the Olympic Flag and Olympic Hymn were used at medal ceremonies when athletes from these countries won medals . Competitors from three countries – New Zealand , Portugal , and Spain – competed under the flags of their respective National Olympic Committees . Some of these teams that marched under flags other than their national flags were depleted by boycotts by individual athletes , while some athletes did not participate in the march . The impact of the boycott was mixed . Some events , such as field hockey and equestrian sports , were hard hit . Others such as boxing , judo , rowing , swimming , track and field and weightlifting had more participants than in 1976 . Athletes from 25 countries won Olympic gold ( the same total as in the 1984 Games and one fewer than in the 1976 Games ) and competitors from 36 countries became Olympic medalists . Italy won four times more gold medals than they won in Montreal and France multiplied its gold medal talley by three . Romania won more gold medals than it had at any previous Olympics . In terms of total medals , the Moscow Olympics was Ireland 's most successful games since Melbourne 1956 ( winning 2 medals ) . The same was true for Great Britain . `` Third World '' athletes qualified for more events and took more medals than they did at any previous Olympics . 21 percent of the competitors were women – a higher percentage than at any previous Olympics . Events , records and drug tests overview There were 203 events – more than at any previous Olympics . 36 World records , 39 European records and 74 Olympic records were set . In total this was more records than were set at Montreal . New Olympic records were set 241 times over the course of the competitions and world records were beaten 97 times . Three Olympic records set in 1980 still stood – East German women 4 × 100 meter relay 41.6 seconds ( broken by Jamaica in 2012 ) ; Soviet Nadezhda Olizarenko 800 meters , 1:53.43 ; Modern Pentathlon Soviet Anatoli Starostin 5568 points . Prince Alexandre de Merode of Belgium , Chairman of the IOC Medical Commission , stated : `` There were 9,292 drug tests . None positive '' . Media and broadcasting Major broadcasters of the Games were USSR State TV and Radio ( 1,370 accreditation cards ) , Eurovision ( 31 countries , 818 cards ) and Intervision ( 11 countries , 342 cards ) . TV Asahi with 68 cards provided coverage for Japan , while OTI representing the Latin America received 59 cards and the Seven Network provided coverage for Australia ( 48 cards ) . NBC , which had intended to be another major broadcaster , canceled its coverage in response to the U.S. boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics , and became a minor broadcaster with 56 accreditation cards , although the network did air highlights and recaps of the games on a regular basis . ( ABC aired scenes of the opening ceremony during its Nightline program , and promised highlights each night , but the next night , the show announced that they could not air any highlights as NBC still had exclusive broadcast rights in the USA . ) The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation almost canceled their plans for coverage after Canada took part in the boycott and was represented by nine cards . The television center used 20 television channels , compared to 16 for the Montreal Games , 12 for the Munich Games , and seven for the Mexico City Games . During the opening ceremony , Salyut 6 crew Leonid Popov and Valery Ryumin sent their greetings to the Olympians and wished them happy starts in the live communication between the station and the Central Lenin Stadium . They appeared on the stadium 's scoreboard and their voices were translated via loud speakers . Spectators and commemoration The Games attracted five million spectators , an increase of 1.5 million from the Montreal Games . There were 1,245 referees from 78 countries . A series of commemorative coins was released in the USSR in 1977–1980 to commemorate the event . It consisted of five platinum coins , six gold coins , 28 silver coins and six copper-nickel coins . Budget According to the Official Report , submitted to the IOC by the NOC of the USSR , total expenditures for the preparations for and staging of the Games were 862.7 million rubles , total revenues being 744.8 million rubles . Olympic games handover At the closing ceremony , the flag of the city of Los Angeles rather than the United States flag , was raised to symbolise the next host of the Olympic Games . This followed the raising of the Greek flag to symbolize the past and that of the Soviet Union to represent the present . It was the first time that a future host city had refused to allow their national flag to be used . The ceremonial Olympic flag had been handed over to Moscow at the opening ceremony and was kept by the city authorities until 1984 . Opening ceremony Highlights of the different events Archery * Tomi Poikolainen of Finland , who had not finished any of the previous three days ' shooting higher than fourth , came from fourth on the last day to win the men 's archery competition , scoring 2455 points . He won gold just three points ahead of a Soviet . * The women 's archery gold was won by Ketevan Losaberidze ( USSR ) who was also the world , European and Soviet champion . * The women 's archery silver was won by Natalia Butuzova ( USSR ) . In 1979 she had set nine national records and three world records . * The U.S. archery team was one of the strongest ever fielded but due to the boycott the team never had a chance to prove itself . This team held every record and featured 1976 Olympic Champion Darrell O . Pace , who was averaging 100 points more than the winning score in Moscow at the time . Athletics * Ethiopian Miruts Yifter won the 5,000 metres and 10,000 metres athletics double , emulating Lasse Virén 's 1972 and 1976 performances . * `` I have a 90 % chance of winning the 1,500 metres '' wrote Steve Ovett in an article he did for one of Britain 's Sunday papers just before the start of the Olympics . After he won the 800 metres Olympic gold , beating world-record holder Sebastian Coe , Ovett stated that he would not only win the 1,500 metres race , but would beat the world record by as much as four seconds . Ovett had won 45 straight 1,500 metres races since May 1977 . In contrast Coe had competed in only eight 1,500 metres races between 1976–1980 . Coe won the race , holding off Ovett in the final lap . Ovett finished third . * Aided by the absence of American opposition , Allan Wells beat Cuban Silvio Leonard to become the first Briton since 1924 to win the Olympic 100 metres race . It was the closest 100 m race at the Olympics in 28 years , ending with a photo finish in which both runners timed at 10.25 seconds . * Gerd Wessig – who had made the East German team only 2 weeks before the Games – easily won the gold medal with a high jump . This was 9 cm higher than he had ever jumped before . * The 1980 Olympic women 's long jump competition produced a surprise when the third string Soviet jumper , Tatiana Kolpakova , bested her compatriots and other competitors by setting a new Olympic record of . * Poland 's Władysław Kozakiewicz won the pole vault with a jump of – only the second pole vaulting world record to be established during an Olympics . The previous time had been at the Antwerp Olympics 1920 . * In the pole vault competition , despite pleas for silence in three languages , jeers , chants and whistles among the different factions in the crowd supporting French , Soviet and Polish pole vaulters could be heard . Immediately after Kozakiewicz secured his gold medal , he responded to the jeering Soviet crowds with an obscene bent elbow gesture . This gesture is now referred to in Polish as `` Kozakiewicz 's gesture '' . * In the pole vault an athlete topped the Olympic record by 15 cm , yet finished fourth . Similarly , athletes who broke the Olympic record in men 's high jump by 5 cm , the women 's long jump by 13 cm , and the women 's javelin by 60 cm , wound up no better than fourth . A total of twelve track and field athletes performed so well that their scores would have won any previous Olympics , yet failed to win a medal at Moscow . * In the long jump competition , three women beat 23 ft for the first time ever in one competition . * Waldemar Cierpinski of the German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ) won his second consecutive marathon gold . * Bärbel Wöckel , also of the GDR , winner of the 200 metres in Montreal , became the first woman to retain the title . * Tatiana Kazankina ( USSR ) retained the 1,500m title that she had won in Montreal . * In the women 's pentathlon the Soviet Nadezhda Tkachenko scored 5,083 points to become the first athlete to exceed 5,000 points in the event during Olympic competition . * Although she won the silver medal in the pentathlon , Olga Rukavishnikova ( USSR ) held the world record for 0.4 seconds as she finished first in the last event of 800m . That gave her the shortest reign of any world record holder ever . * Soviet walker Anatoly Solomin was leading the 20 km walk with one lap to go when he was disqualified . The race was won by a hitherto little known Italian , Maurizio Damilano , in an Olympic record time . * For the first time in the history of the Olympics all eight male participants in the long jump final beat the mark of 8 m . * Spain and Bulgaria earned their first ever medals in men 's track . * Lutz Dombrowski ( GDR ) won the long jump gold . His was the longest jump recorded at sea level and he became only the second human to jump further than 28 ft . * In the triple jump final Viktor Saneyev who won gold at Mexico , Munich and Montreal won silver behind his compatriot Jaak Uudmäe . * Yuriy Sedykh ( USSR ) won gold in the hammer throw event . 4 of his 6 throws broke the world record of 80m . No hammer thrower in the world had ever achieved this before . As in Montreal the USSR won gold , silver and bronze in this event . * Evelin Jahl ( GDR ) the 1976 Olympic champion won discus gold again . She won with a new Olympic record – . She had been undefeated since Montreal . * Cuba 's María Caridad Colón won the women 's javelin setting a new Olympic record and beating the favoured Soviet throwers . * Sara Simeoni of Italy won the women 's high jump , setting a new Olympic record . She had won a silver in the 1976 Games and would go on to win a silver in the 1984 Games . * In track-and-field six world records , eighteen Olympic records and nine best results of the year were registered . * In women 's track and field events alone either a world or Olympic record was broken in almost every event . * Daley Thompson of Great Britain won the gold in the Decathlon . He won gold again at the Los Angeles Olympics . * Soviet Dainis Kula won gold in the men 's javelin . He also had the best sum total of throws , showing his consistency . He finished ahead of his teammate Alexander Makarov . * IAAF President Adrian Paulen of the Netherlands said `` Whereas at the 1976 Games in Montreal the Jury of Appeal had to deal with sixteen protests , the fact remains that in Moscow there were only two . This was the smallest number of protests at any Olympic Games since Tokyo 1964 '' . Basketball * Basketball was one of the hardest hit sports due to the boycott . Though replacements were found , five men 's teams including the defending Olympic Champion United States withdrew from the competition in addition to the US Women 's team . * In the Women 's competition , the host Soviet Union won the competition beating Bulgaria for Gold , Yugoslavia won Bronze . * The Men 's competition featured only the second instance of the US Men 's Basketball team failing to win Gold with the first one being in Munich . Yugoslavia took home the gold beating Italy in the final . The hosts , Soviet Union , winners in 1972 , won the bronze . Boxing * Teófilo Stevenson of Cuba became the first boxer to win three consecutive Olympic titles in heavyweight , and indeed the only boxer to win the same event in three Games . ( László Papp from Hungary was the first boxer to win three titles ) . In boxing Cuba won six gold , two silvers and two bronzes , a haul only equaled once before in the entire history of the Olympics ( by the USA at St. Louis in 1904 when there were hardly any other boxers from other nations present ) . The USSR won one gold medal , the same as Italy , Yugoslavia , East Germany and Bulgaria . * The Val Barker Trophy is presented by the International Amateur Boxing Association ( IABA ) to the competitor adjudged to be the best stylist at the Games . The winner was Patrizio Oliva of Italy who won gold at light-welterweight . In his final Oliva defeated Serik Konakbaev ( USSR ) . In 1979 Konakbaev had beaten Oliva in the final of the European Championships . * Donald F. Hull , U.S. president of the Amateur International Boxing Federation ( IABA ) said `` I consider the organization of the present boxing tournament to be the best among the last three Olympics '' . Canoeing * The prophets of the canoeing world had predicted that the USSR would triumph in at least nine of the eleven classes for which there were gold medals to be won at the 1980 Olympic regatta . At Montreal the USSR had won six of eleven titles and at Munich six out of seven . * Uladzimir Parfianovich of the USSR won three gold medals in canoeing . * Sergei Postrekhin ( USSR ) was favored to win the single canoe 1,000 metres gold but is beaten by Lubomir Lubenov of Bulgaria . * In canoeing Australia won its first medal since 1956 . * Ivan Patzaichin ( Romania ) won gold medals over a 16-year period,1968–1984 . * Apart from the boycotted Los Angeles Olympics Birgit Fischer of East Germany won medals in each Olympics from 1980–2004 . In the 500 metres kayak singles for women she won gold in Moscow , silver in Seoul , gold in Barcelona . Cycling * Lothar Thoms of East Germany won the 1,000-metre individual pursuit cycling gold , breaking the world record by nearly four seconds . * The surprise winner of the bronze in that race was Jamaica 's David Weller who also broke the sixteen-year-old world record . * In the 4,000-metre team pursuit qualifying heats new world indoor records were set eight times . * In the 4,000-metre individual pursuit the Olympic flag was flown for all three medal winning positions – Switzerland gold , France silver , Denmark bronze . Robert Dill-Bundi became the first Olympic champion in the history of Swiss cycling . * The 189-kilometer individual road race gold was won by Sergei Sukhoruchenkov ( USSR ) . British team manager Peter Crinnon called it `` The greatest exhibition of power riding ever '' . Sukhoruchenkov is voted best racer in the world by the International Amateur Cycling Federation . * In this race only a photo-finish can tell the next two finishers apart , giving the silver medal to the Polish cyclist and the bronze to a Soviet cyclist . * The cycling team road race is won by the Soviet team as they had done in Munich and Montreal . * In cycling world records were toppled 21 times . Diving * As Aleksandr Portnov waited to do a 2 and ½ reverse somersault in the springboard final , cheers broke out in three adjoining swimming pool during the closing stages of Salnikov 's world record breaking 1,500m swim . The diver delayed his start until the noise had subsided but , as he took his first steps along the board , even greater cheers broke out as Salnikov touched in under 15 minutes . Under the rules Portnov , having started , could not stop before take-off . He crashed badly . On protest to the Swedish referee G.Olander he was allowed to repeat the dive and went ahead again of Mexico 's Carlos Girón . Later protests by Mexico against the re-dive and by East Germany that their Falk Hoffmann wanted to re-dive after allegedly being disturbed by photographic flashlights were both turned down by the International Amateur Swimming Federation ( FINA ) . FINA President Javier Ostas of Mexico stated that the decision taken by the Swedish referee was the `` correct one . FINA assessed all the Olympic diving events and considers the judging to have been objective '' . Portnov remained the winner with Giron taking silver and Cagnotto of Italy bronze . * Martina Jaschke ( East Germany ) was fourth after the preliminary high dives , behind two Soviets and a Mexican , but came back to win gold on the second day of competition . * Irina Kalinina ( USSR ) won gold in the springboard final . As a result of her ten dives in the preliminaries she amassed a unique number of points : 478.86 . In the previous four years no diver had scored so many . * In this final the Mexican judge A. Marsikal allowed Karin Guthke ( East Germany ) to re-take a dive . Guthke then won bronze ahead of the Soviet Zhanna Tsirulnikova . Equestrian * In the individual show jumping event Poland 's Jan Kowalczyk and the USSR 's Nikolai Koralkov each had 8 faults , but Kowalczyk won gold as his horse completed the course the quicker . So Poland won the last of the 203 gold medals contested . * Austrian horsewoman Elisabeth Theurer , despite the decision of the federation of equestrian sports of her country not to participate in the Olympics , was flown to Moscow by former racing driver Niki Lauda . Theurer won the gold medal in the dressage competition . * The oldest medalist at the Moscow Olympics was Petre Rosca ( Romania ) in the dressage at 57 years 283 days . Fencing * Soviet foil fencers , who had taken possession of all the World and Olympic titles , were not among the six challengers in the finals . The Soviet five-time world champion Alexander Romankov won a bronze . * France took four gold medals in fencing , an Olympic record in the post World War II era . * In the team sabre fencing final , for the fifth Olympics in a row , Italy and the USSR met . The USSR won as they did in Tokyo , Mexico and Montreal . * In the men 's foil final the USSR and France record eight wins each but the Frenchmen made more hits and this won them the gold . Football * The USSR were favorites to win gold in football but won bronze instead . Czechoslovakia won the gold medal beating German Democratic Republic ( East Germany ) 1:0 in the final . After many years in the doldrums , Olympic football had a revival in 1980 when the matches attracted nearly 2 million spectators . Gymnastics * Soviet gymnast Alexander Dityatin won a medal in each of the eight gymnastics events , including three titles . He was the first athlete to win eight medals at an Olympics . He scored several 10s , the first perfect scores in men 's gymnastics since the 1924 Paris Olympics . * Nikolai Andrianov who had won gold on floor at both Munich and Montreal was pipped this time by Roland Bruckner of East Germany . Andrianov retained the vault title he had won in Montreal . * Zoltán Magyar ( Hungary ) retained the Olympic title on pommel horse that he had won in Montreal . He was also 3 times World champion and 3 times European champion on this piece of apparatus . * In women 's gymnastics the USSR won one medal in the All-Around competition . In each Olympics before this they had won minimally two and in Rome 1960 had won all three . In the Friendship Games at Olomouc and at Seoul 1988 they would again win two . In the Team Competition they won the gold medal for the eighth time , continuing the `` gold '' series started in 1952 . * In the women 's gymnastics event finals , a Romanian gymnast medals on each piece of apparatus for the first time : * * Balance Beam – Nadia Comăneci ( gold ) * * Floor – Nadia Comăneci ( gold ) * * Uneven Bar – Emilia Eberle ( silver ) & Melita Ruhn ( bronze ) * * Vault – Melita Ruhn ( bronze ) * In women 's gymnastics there was a judging scandal when the Romanian head judge refused to post the score of her fellow Romanian Nadia Comăneci . This score gave Comăneci a silver medal behind Yelena Davydova of the USSR , but the Romanian judge , Mili Simionescu , tried to persuade the other judges to increase Comaneci 's score so that she would win gold . After the Olympics , Simionescu was severely criticized by the International Gymnastics Federation . Before the Los Angeles Olympics , the United States gymnastics federation proposed a change in the rules so that a head judge can not interfere and meddle in the scoring of competitors . Handball * East Germany beat the USSR 23–22 in the handball final to take their first medal of any sort in the men 's event . Field hockey * Women 's field hockey was an Olympic sport for the first time . Six countries competed : Austria , India , Poland , Czechoslovakia , USSR , and Zimbabwe . The gold medal was won by the team of Zimbabwe ahead of the firm favorites of the USSR who won bronze . Zimbabwe did not learn it would get a place in the tournament until 35 days before the Games began and chose its team only the weekend before the opening ceremony . None of their players had prior playing experience on an artificial surface . They had not trained at all together before the tournament and warmed up by playing some friendly matches with different Soviet club teams . * India won a record eighth title in men 's field hockey . Judo * In Japan 's absence , the USSR was expected to improve its showing in judo but wound up with five medals , the same as Montreal , despite the fact that there were two more weight categories . Fifteen countries shared the medals in judo , more than the record twelve countries in Munich and Montreal . Modern Pentathlon * In the men 's Pentathlon Anatoly Starostin ( USSR ) became the youngest ever Olympic champion in this sport . * 26 competitors scored over 5,000 points . In Munich 12 topped this mark and in Montreal 21 . * It was the first time ever at either a world championship or an Olympics that as many as eight teams topped the 15,000-point level . * In the modern pentathlon George Horvath ( Sweden ) recorded a perfect score in the pistol shoot . It had been achieved only once before , at the 1936 Olympics . Rowing * East Germany dominated rowing , winning eleven of the fourteen titles . The East German men won seven out of eight events , foiled from achieving a clean sweep by Pertti Karppinen of Finland ( who defended his Olympic title from Montreal ) . East German women won four of their six events . The Soviets had been expected to win most of these titles considering their success at Munich and Montreal . * The East German women 's eights team win gold despite only having been selected

qb_5271--1980_Summer_Olympics.txt

Which city hosted the 1980 Summer Olympics, which were boycotted by over 60 nations?

Operetta is a genre of light opera , light in terms both of music and subject matter . Operetta in French Origins Operetta grew out of the French opéra comique around the middle of the 19th century , to satisfy a need for short , light works in contrast to the full-length entertainment of the increasingly serious opéra comique . By this time , the `` comique '' part of the genre name had become misleading : Carmen ( 1875 ) is an example of an opéra comique with a tragic plot . The definition of `` comique '' meant something closer to `` humanistic , '' meant to portray `` real life '' in a more realistic way , representing tragedy and comedy next to each other , as Shakespeare had done centuries earlier . With this new connotation , opéra comique had dominated the French operatic stage since the decline of tragédie lyrique . Most researchers acknowledge that the credit for creating the operetta form should go to Hervé ( 1825–1892 ) , a singer , composer , librettist , conductor , and scene painter . In 1842 he wrote the little opérette , L'Ours et le pacha , based on the popular vaudeville show by Scribe and Saintine . In 1848 , Hervé made his first notable appearance on the Parisian stage , with Don Quichotte et Sancho Pança ( after Cervantes ) , which can be considered the starting point for the new French musical theatre tradition . Hervé 's most famous works are the Gounod-parody Le Petit Faust ( 1869 ) and Mam'zelle Nitouche ( 1883 ) . Offenbach Jacques Offenbach further developed and popularized operetta , giving it its enormous vogue during the Second Empire and afterwards . Offenbach 's earliest one-act pieces included Les deux aveugles , Le violoneux and Ba-ta-clan ( all 1855 ) , and his first full-length operetta success was Orphée aux enfers ( 1858 ) . These led to the so-called `` Offenbachiade '' : works including Geneviève de Brabant 1859 , Le pont des soupirs 1861 , La belle Hélène 1864 , Barbe-bleue and La Vie parisienne both 1866 , La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein 1867 , La Périchole 1868 and Les brigands 1869 . Offenbach 's tradition was then carried on by Robert Planquette , André Messager , and others . What characterizes Offenbach 's operettas is both the grotesque way they portray life , and the extremely frivolous way this is done , often bordering on the pornographic . Émile Zola describes the back-stage and on-stage situation in the Théâtre des Variétés during the Second Empire in his novel Nana , which takes place in late 1860s and describes the career of operetta diva/courtesan Nana . The character was closely modeled after Offenbach 's female star Hortense Schneider , and Offenbach 's librettist Ludovic Halévy gave Émile Zola the details . Considering how Zola 's Nana describes an Offenbach-style operetta performance in Paris , it is not surprising that the mostly male , upper-class audience crowded the various theaters every evening . Upper-class audiences in other cities like Vienna and Berlin longed to see these shows in their home towns as well , which inspired worldwide performance of Offenbach 's works . The highly erotic way Offenbach 's operettas were originally played , with stars like Hortense Schneider created a scandalized reaction from certain parts of the general public . Operetta was considered a `` frivolous '' art form . Indeed , together with its grotesque qualities , frivolity is one of the defining elements of `` authentic '' operetta à la Offenbach and Hervé . It was only later , when audiences widened and became more middle and lower class , that operetta became more `` serious '' and `` nostalgic '' . Many of the originally pornographic French ( and Viennese ) operettas were later played in a toned-down , `` classical '' version , which is how audiences today are mostly presented with the genre—in an opera house with opera singers , rather than in a private theatre with courtesans in the lead roles . Operetta in German Austria-Hungary The most significant composer of operetta in the German language was the Austrian Johann Strauss II ( 1825–1899 ) . His first operetta was Indigo und die vierzig Räuber ( 1871 ) . His third operetta , Die Fledermaus ( 1874 ) , became the most performed operetta in the world , and remains his most popular stage work . Its libretto was based on a comedy written by Offenbach 's librettists . In all , Strauss wrote 16 operettas and one opera , most with great success when first premiered . Many of his lesser operettas are now largely forgotten , since his later librettists were less talented and he often composed independently of the plot . Strauss 's operettas , waltzes , polkas , and marches often have a strongly Viennese style , and his popularity causes many to think of him as the national composer of Austria . The Theater an der Wien never failed to draw huge crowds when his stage works were first performed . After many of the numbers the audience would call noisily for encores . Franz von Suppé , a contemporary of Strauss , closely modeled his operettas after Offenbach . The Viennese tradition was carried on by Franz Lehár , Oscar Straus , Carl Zeller , Karl Millöcker , Leo Fall , Richard Heuberger , Edmund Eysler , Ralph Benatzky , Robert Stolz , Emmerich Kálmán , Nico Dostal , Fred Raymond and Igo Hofstetter in the 20th century . Germany In the same way that Vienna was the center of Austrian operetta , Berlin was the center of German operetta . Berlin operetta often had its own style , including , especially after World War I , elements of jazz and other syncopated dance rhythms , a transatlantic style , and the presence of ragged marching tunes . Berlin operettas also sometimes included aspects of burlesque , revue , farce , or cabaret . Paul Lincke pioneered the Berlin operetta in 1899 with Frau Luna , which includes `` Berliner Luft '' ( `` Berlin Air '' ) , which became the unofficial anthem of Berlin . His Lysistrata ( 1902 ) includes the song and tune `` The Glow-Worm '' , which remains quite popular internationally . Much later , in the 1920s and 1930s , Kurt Weill took a more extreme form of the Berlin operetta style and used it in his operas , operettas , and musicals . The Berlin-style operetta coexisted with more bourgeois , charming , home-loving , and nationalistic German operettas—some of which were called Volksoperetten ( folk operettas ) . A prime example is Leon Jessel 's extremely popular 1917 Schwarzwaldmädel ( Black Forest Girl ) . These bucolic , nostalgic , home-loving operettas were officially preferred over Berlin-style operettas after 1933 , when the Nazis came to power and instituted the Reichsmusikkammer ( State Music Institute ) , which deprecated and banned `` decadent '' music like jazz and similar `` foreign '' musical forms . Notable German operetta composers include Paul Lincke , Eduard Künneke , Walter Kollo , Jean Gilbert , Leon Jessel , Rudolf Dellinger , Walter Goetze and Ludwig Schmidseder . Operetta in English English-language operettas were first composed in England by the 1860s , for example , Arthur Sullivan 's Cox and Box ( 1866 ) . Gilbert and Sullivan solidified the format in England with their long-running collaboration during the Victorian era . With W. S. Gilbert writing the libretti and Sullivan composing the music , the pair produced 14 comic operas , which were later called Savoy Operas . Most were enormously popular in Britain , the U.S. , and elsewhere . Sullivan and Gilbert and their producer Richard D'Oyly Carte themselves call their joint works comic operas to distinguish this family-friendly fare from the risqué French operettas of the 1850s and 1860s . Their works , such as H.M.S . Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado , continue to enjoy regular performances throughout the English-speaking world . English operetta continued into the 1890s , with works by composers such as Edward German , Ivan Caryll and Sydney Jones . These quickly evolved into the lighter song-and-dance pieces known as Edwardian musical comedy . Beginning in 1907 , with The Merry Widow , many of the Viennese operettas were adapted very successfully for the English stage . Old-fashioned musicals in Britain retained an `` operetta-ish '' flavour , at least musically , into the 1950s . American operetta composers included Victor Herbert , whose works at the beginning of the 20th century were influenced by both Viennese operetta and Gilbert and Sullivan . He was followed by Sigmund Romberg and Rudolph Friml . More modern American operettas include Leonard Bernstein 's Candide . Nevertheless , American operetta largely gave way , by the end of World War I , to musicals , such as the Princess Theatre musicals , and revues , followed by the musicals of Rodgers and Hart , Cole Porter , Irving Berlin and others . Definitions Operettas have similarities to both operas and musicals , and the boundaries between the genres are sometimes blurred . For instance , American composer Scott Joplin insisted that his serious but ragtime-influenced work Treemonisha ( 1911 ) was an opera , but some reference works characterize it as an operetta . Likewise , some of Leonard Bernstein 's works he designated as operas ( e.g. , Trouble in Tahiti ) are categorized as operettas , and his operetta Candide is sometimes considered a musical . Operettas and operas Operettas are usually shorter than operas , and are usually of a light and amusing character . Operettas are often considered less `` serious '' than operas . While an opera 's story is usually believable and more relatable to its audience , an operetta aims to simply amuse . Topical satire is a feature common to many operettas . However , satire is used in some `` serious '' operas as well : Formerly , in countries such as France , operas expressed politics in code—for example , the circumstances of the title character in the opera Robert le diable referred , at its first performance , to the French king 's parental conflict and its resolution . Normally some of the libretto of an operetta is spoken rather than sung . Instead of moving from one musical number to another , the musical segments—e.g . aria , recitative , chorus—are interspersed with periods of dialogue . There is usually no musical accompaniment to the dialogue , although sometimes some musical themes are played quietly under it . Short passages of recitative are , however , sometimes used in operetta , especially as an introduction to a song . Operettas and musicals The operetta is a precursor of the modern musical theatre or the `` musical '' . In the early decades of the 20th century , the operetta continued to exist alongside the newer musical , with each influencing the other . The main difference between the two genres is that most operettas can be described as light operas with acting , whereas most musicals are plays with singing and dancing . This can be seen in the performers chosen in the two forms . An operetta 's cast will normally consist of classically trained opera singers . A musical may use actors who are not operatically trained , and usually the principals are called upon to dance . These distinctions can be blurred : Ezio Pinza and other opera singers have appeared on Broadway . There are features of operetta in Kern and Hammerstein 's Show Boat ( 1927 ) , among others . The characters in a musical may be more complex than those in an operetta , given the generally larger amount of dialogue . For example , the characters in Lerner and Loewe 's musical My Fair Lady , which is based on George Bernard Shaw 's 1914 play Pygmalion , are essentially unchanged from those in Shaw 's stage work , because the musical version is quite faithful to the original ( except for the changed ending , which is pessimistic in the play ) , even to the point of retaining most of Shaw 's dialogue . Man of la Mancha , adapted by Dale Wasserman from his own ninety-minute television play I , Don Quixote , retains much of the dialogue in that play , cutting only enough to make room for the musical numbers which were added when the play was converted into a stage musical .

sfq_24327--Operetta.txt

Hanna Glawari is the title character in which operetta by Franz Lehár?

The Seven Years ' War was a world war fought between 1754 and 1763 , the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763 . It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire , spanning five continents , and affected Europe , the Americas , West Africa , India , and the Philippines . The conflict split Europe into two coalitions , led by Great Britain on one side and France on the other . For the first time , aiming to curtail Britain and Prussia 's ever-growing might , France formed a grand coalition of its own , which ended with failure as Britain rose as the world 's predominant power , altering the European balance of power . In the historiography of some countries , the war is named after combatants in its respective theatres , e.g . the French and Indian War in the United States . In French-speaking Canada , it is known as the War of the Conquest , while it is called the Seven Years ' War in English-speaking Canada ( North America , 1754–1763 ) , Pomeranian War ( with Sweden and Prussia , 1757–1762 ) , Third Carnatic War ( on the Indian subcontinent , 1757–1763 ) , and Third Silesian War ( with Prussia and Austria , 1756–1763 ) . Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America and seized hundreds of French merchant ships . Meanwhile , rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe . In 1756 , the major powers `` switched partners '' . Realizing that war was imminent , Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it . The result caused uproar across Europe . Because of Prussia 's alliance with Britain , Austria formed an alliance with France , seeing an opportunity to recapture Silesia , which had been lost in a previous war . Reluctantly , by following the imperial diet , most of the states of the empire joined Austria 's cause . The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states ( especially Hanover ) . Sweden , fearing Prussia 's expansionist tendencies , went to war in 1757 to protect its Baltic dominions , seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia . Spain , bound by the Pacte de Famille , intervened on behalf of France and together they launched an utterly unsuccessful invasion of Portugal in 1762 . The Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria , fearing Prussia 's ambition on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762 . Many middle and small powers in Europe , unlike in the previous wars , tried to steer clear away from the escalating conflict , even though they had interests in the conflict or with the belligerents , like Denmark-Norway . The Dutch Republic , a long-time British ally , kept its neutrality intact , fearing the odds against Britain and Prussia fighting the great powers of Europe , and even tried to prevent Britain 's domination in India . Naples , Sicily , and Savoy , although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance , declined to join the coalition under fear of British power . The taxation needed for war caused the Russian people considerable hardship , being added to the taxation of salt and alcohol begun by Empress Elizabeth in 1759 to complete her addition to the Winter Palace . Like Sweden , Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia . The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France , Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony , Austria and Prussia , in 1763 . The war was successful for Great Britain , which gained the bulk of New France in North America , Spanish Florida , some individual Caribbean islands in the West Indies , the colony of Senegal on the West African coast , and superiority over the French trading outposts on the Indian subcontinent . The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement ; a subsequent conflict , known as Pontiac 's War , was also unsuccessful in returning them to their pre-war status . In Europe , the war began disastrously for Prussia , but a combination of good luck and successful strategy saw King Frederick the Great manage to retrieve the Prussian position and retain the status quo ante bellum . Prussia emerged as a new European great power . Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia ( its original goal ) its military prowess was also noted by the other powers . The involvement of Portugal , Spain and Sweden did not return them to their former status as great powers . France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle . Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies , e.g. , Cuba and the Philippines , which had been captured by the British during the war . France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out , with hopes of destroying Britain 's dominance once and for all . The Seven Years ' War was perhaps the first true world war , having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and influenced many major events later around the globe . The war restructured not only the European political order , but also affected events all around the world , paving the way for the beginning of later British world supremacy in the 19th century , the rise of Prussia in Germany , the beginning of tensions in British North America , as well as a clear sign of France 's eventual turmoil . It was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses . Nomenclature The conflict in India is termed the Third Carnatic War , while the fighting between Prussia and Austria is called the Third Silesian War.Füssel ( 2010 ) , p. 7 . The English-speaking British colonies in North America ( present-day United States and Canada , where fighting actually began almost two years before that in Europe ) fought what is known as the French and Indian War . Swedish historiography uses the name Pommerska kriget ( Pomeranian War ) , as Swedish involvement was limited to Pomerania in northern central Germany . The war has been described as the first `` world war '' , although this label was also given to various earlier conflicts like the Eighty Years ' War , the Thirty Years ' War , the War of the Spanish Succession and the War of the Austrian Succession , and to later conflicts like the Napoleonic Wars . The term `` Second Hundred Years ' War '' has been used in order to describe the almost continuous level of world-wide conflict during the entire 18th century , reminiscent of the more famous and compact struggle of the 14th century . Background Europe In the War of the Austrian Succession , which lasted from 1740 to 1748 , King Frederick II of Prussia , known as Frederick the Great , seized the prosperous province of Silesia from Austria . Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 in order to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances . The War of the Austrian Succession had seen the belligerents aligned on a time-honoured basis . France ’ s traditional enemies , Great Britain and Austria , had coalesced just as they had done against Louis XIV . Prussia , the leading anti-Austrian state in Germany , had been supported by France . Neither group , however , found much reason to be satisfied with its partnership : British subsidies to Austria produced nothing of much help to the British , while the British military effort had not saved Silesia for Austria . Prussia , having secured Silesia , came to terms with Austria in disregard of French interests . Even so , France concluded a defensive alliance with Prussia in 1747 , and the maintenance of the Anglo-Austrian alignment after 1748 was deemed essential by the Duke of Newcastle , British secretary of state in the ministry of his brother Henry Pelham . The collapse of that system and the aligning of France with Austria and of Great Britain with Prussia constituted what is known as the “ diplomatic revolution ” or the “ reversal of alliances . ” In 1756 Austria was making military preparations for war with Prussia and pursuing an alliance with Russia for this purpose . On June 2 , 1746 , Austria and Russia concluded a defensive alliance that covered their own territory and Poland against attack by Prussia or the Ottoman Empire . They also agreed to a secret clause that promised the restoration of Silesia and the countship of Glatz ( now Kłodzko , Poland ) to Austria in the event of hostilities with Prussia . Their real desire , however , was to destroy Frederick ’ s power altogether , reducing his sway to his electorate of Brandenburg and giving East Prussia to Poland , an exchange that would be accompanied by the cession of the Polish Duchy of Courland to Russia . Aleksey Petrovich , Graf ( count ) Bestuzhev-Ryumin , grand chancellor of Russia under Empress Elizabeth , was hostile to both France and Prussia , but he could not persuade Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia so long as Prussia was able to rely on French support . The Hanoverian king George II of Great Britain was passionately devoted to his family ’ s continental holdings , but his commitments in Germany were counterbalanced by the demands of the British colonies overseas . If war against France for colonial expansion was to be resumed , then Hanover had to be secured against Franco-Prussian attack . France was very much interested in colonial expansion and was willing to exploit the vulnerability of Hanover in war against Great Britain , but it had no desire to divert forces to central Europe for Prussia 's interest . French policy was , moreover , complicated by the existence of the le Secret du roi—a system of private diplomacy conducted by King Louis XV . Unbeknownst to his foreign minister , Louis had established a network of agents throughout Europe with the goal of pursuing personal political objectives that were often at odds with France ’ s publicly stated policies . Louis ’ s goals for le Secret du roi included the Polish crown for his kinsman Louis François de Bourbon , prince de Conti , and the maintenance of Poland , Sweden , and Turkey as French client states in opposition to Russian and Austrian interests . Frederick saw Saxony and Polish west Prussia as potential fields for expansion but could not expect French support if he started an aggressive war for them . If he joined the French against the British in the hope of annexing Hanover , he might fall victim to an Austro-Russian attack . The hereditary elector of Saxony , Augustus III , was also elective King of Poland as Augustus III , but the two territories were physically separated by Brandenburg and Silesia . Neither state could pose as a great power . Saxony was merely a buffer between Prussia and Austrian Bohemia , whereas Poland , despite its union with the ancient lands of Lithuania , was prey to pro-French and pro-Russian factions . A Prussian scheme for compensating Frederick Augustus with Bohemia in exchange for Saxony obviously presupposed further spoliation of Austria . In the attempt to satisfy Austria at the time , Britain gave their electoral vote in Hanover for the candidacy of Maria Theresa 's son , Joseph II , as the Holy Roman Emperor , much to the dismay of Frederick and Prussia . Not only that , Britain would soon join the Austro-Russian alliance , but complications arose . Britain 's basic framework for the alliance itself was to protect Hanover 's interests against France . At the same time , Kaunitz kept approaching the French in the hope of establishing just such an alliance with Austria . Not only that , France had no intention to ally with Russia , who , years earlier , had meddled in France 's affairs during Austria 's succession war . France also saw the dismemberment of Prussia as threatening to the stability of Central Europe . Years later , Kaunitz kept trying to establish France 's alliance with Austria . He tried as hard as he could to avoid Austrian entanglement in Hanover 's political affairs , and was even willing to trade Austrian Netherlands for France 's aid in recapturing Silesia . Frustrated by this decision and by the Dutch Republic 's insistence on neutrality , Britain soon turned to Russia . On September 30 , 1755 , Britain pledged financial aid to Russia in order to station 50,000 troops on the Livonian-Lithunian border , so they could defend Britain 's interests in Hanover immediately . Besthuzev , assuming the preparation was directed against Prussia , was more than happy to obey the request of the British . Unbeknownst to the other powers , King George II also made overtures to the Prussian king , Frederick , who , fearing the Austro-Russian intentions , was also desirous of a rapprochement with Britain . On January 16 , 1756 , the Convention of Westminster was signed , whereby Britain and Prussia promised to aid one another ; the parties hoped to achieve lasting peace and stability in Europe . The carefully coded word in the agreement proved no less catalytic for the other European powers . The results were absolute chaos . Empress Elizabeth of Russia was outraged at the duplicity of Britain 's position . Not only that , but France was enraged , and terrified , by the sudden betrayal of its only ally . Austria , particularly Kaunitz , used this situation to their utmost advantage . Now-isolated France was forced to accede to the Austro-Russian alliance or face ruin . Thereafter , on May 1 , 1756 , the First Treaty of Versailles was signed , in which both nations pledged 24.000 troops to defend each other in the case of an attack . This diplomatic revolution proved to be an important cause of the war ; although both treaties were self-defensive in nature , the actions of both coalitions made the war virtually inevitable . In North America The boundary between British and French possessions in North America was largely undefined in the 1750s . France had long claimed the entire Mississippi River basin . This was disputed by Britain . In the early 1750s the French began constructing a chain of forts in the Ohio River Valley to assert their claim and shield the Native American population from increasing British influence . The British settlers along the coast were upset that French troops would now be close to the western borders of their colonies . They felt the French would encourage their tribal allies among the North American natives to attack them . Also , the British settlers wanted access to the fertile land of the Ohio River Valley for the new settlers that were flooding into the British colonies seeking farm land . The most important French fort planned was intended to occupy a position at `` the Forks '' where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers meet to form the Ohio River ( present day Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania ) . Peaceful British attempts to halt this fort construction were unsuccessful , and the French proceeded to build the fort they named Fort Duquesne . British colonial militia from Virginia were then sent to drive them out . Led by George Washington , they ambushed a small French force at Jumonville Glen on 28 May 1754 killing ten , including commander Jumonville . The French retaliated by attacking Washington 's army at Fort Necessity on 3 July 1754 and forced Washington to surrender . News of this arrived in Europe , where Britain and France unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate a solution . The two nations eventually dispatched regular troops to North America to enforce their claims . The first British action was the assault on Acadia on 16 June 1755 in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour , which was immediately followed by their expulsion of the Acadians . In July British Major General Edward Braddock led about 2,000 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition to retake Fort Duquesne , but the expedition ended in disastrous defeat . In further action , Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on 8 June 1755 , capturing it and two troop ships . In September 1755 , French and British troops met in the inconclusive Battle of Lake George . The British also harassed French shipping beginning in August 1755 , seizing hundreds of ships and capturing thousands of merchant seamen while the two nations were nominally at peace . Incensed , France prepared to attack Hanover , whose prince-elector was also the King of Great Britain and Minorca . Britain concluded a treaty whereby Prussia agreed to protect Hanover . In response France concluded an alliance with its long-time enemy Austria , an event known as the Diplomatic Revolution . Strategies For much of the eighteenth century , France approached its wars in the same way . It would let colonies defend themselves or would offer only minimal help ( sending them limited numbers of troops or inexperienced soldiers ) , anticipating that fights for the colonies would most likely be lost anyway . This strategy was to a degree forced upon France : geography , coupled with the superiority of the British navy , made it difficult for the French navy to provide significant supplies and support to French colonies . Similarly , several long land borders made an effective domestic army imperative for any French ruler . Given these military necessities , the French government , unsurprisingly , based its strategy overwhelmingly on the army in Europe : it would keep most of its army on the continent , hoping for victories closer to home . The plan was to fight to the end of hostilities and then , in treaty negotiations , to trade territorial acquisitions in Europe to regain lost overseas possessions . This approach did not serve France well in the war , as the colonies were indeed lost , but although much of the European war went well , by its end France had few counterbalancing European successes . The British—by inclination as well as for practical reasons—had tended to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on the continent . They sought to offset the disadvantage of this in Europe by allying themselves with one or more continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies , particularly France . By subsidising the armies of continental allies , Britain could turn London 's enormous financial power to military advantage . In the Seven Years ' War , the British chose as their principal partner the greatest general of the day , Frederick the Great of Prussia , then the rising power in central Europe , and paid Frederick substantial subsidies for his campaigns . This was accomplished in the diplomatic revolution of 1756 , in which Britain ended its long-standing alliance with Austria in favor of Prussia , leaving Austria to side with France . In marked contrast to France , Britain strove to prosecute the war actively in the colonies , taking full advantage of its naval power . E.g. , The British pursued a dual strategy – naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports , and rapid movement of troops by sea . They harassed enemy shipping and attacked enemy colonies , frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort . The Russians and the Austrians were determined to reduce the power of Prussia , the new threat on their doorstep . Along with France , they agreed in 1756 to mutual defense and an attack by Austria and Russia on Prussia , subsidized by France . Europe William Pitt The Elder , who entered the cabinet in 1756 , had a grand vision for the war that made it entirely different from previous wars with France . As prime minister , Pitt committed Britain to a grand strategy of seizing the entire French Empire , especially its possessions in North America and India . Britain 's main weapon was the Royal Navy , which could control the seas and bring as many invasion troops as were needed . He also planned to use colonial forces from the thirteen American colonies , working under the command of British regulars , to invade new France . In order to tie the French army down he subsidized his European allies . Pitt was head of the government from 1756 to 1761 , and even after that the British continued his strategy . It proved completely successful . Pitt had a clear appreciation of the enormous value of imperial possessions , and realized how vulnerable was the French Empire . 1756 The British prime minister , the Duke of Newcastle , was optimistic that the new series of alliances could prevent war from breaking out in Europe . However , a large French force was assembled at Toulon , and the French opened the campaign against the British by an attack on Minorca in the Mediterranean . A British attempt at relief was foiled at the Battle of Minorca , and the island was captured on 28 June ( for which Admiral Byng was court-martialed and executed ) . Britain declared formally war to France with a declaration signed on 17 May , nearly two years after fighting had broken out in the Ohio Country . Frederick II of Prussia had received reports of the clashes in North America and had formed an alliance with Great Britain . On 29 August 1756 , he led Prussian troops across the border of Saxony , one of the small German states in league with Austria . He intended this as a bold pre-emption of an anticipated Austro-French invasion of Silesia . He had three goals in his new war on Austria . First , he would seize Saxony and eliminate it as a threat to Prussia , then using the Saxon army and treasury to aid the Prussian war effort . His second goal was to advance into Bohemia where he might set up winter quarters at Austria 's expense . Thirdly , he wanted to invade Moravia from Silesia , seize the fortress at Olmütz , and advance on Vienna to force an end to the war . Accordingly , leaving Field Marshal Count Kurt von Schwerin in Silesia with 25,000 soldiers to guard against incursions from Moravia and Hungary , and leaving Field Marshal Hans von Lehwaldt in East Prussia to guard against Russian invasion from the east , Frederick set off with his army for Saxony . The Prussian army marched in three columns . On the right was a column of about 15,000 men under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick . On the left was a column of 18,000 men under the command of the Duke of Brunswick-Bevern . In the centre was Frederick II , himself with Field Marshal James Keith commanding a corps of 30,000 troops . Ferdinand of Brunswick was to close in on the town of Chemnitz . The Duke of Brunswick-Bevern was to traverse Lusatia to close in on Bautzen . Meanwhile , Frederick and Keith would make for Dresden . The Saxon and Austrian armies were unprepared , and their forces were scattered . Frederick occupied Dresden with little or no opposition from the Saxons . At the Battle of Lobositz on 1 October 1756 , Frederick prevented the isolated Saxon army from being reinforced by an Austrian army under General Browne . The Prussians then occupied Saxony ; after the Siege of Pirna , the Saxon army surrendered in October 1756 , and was forcibly incorporated into the Prussian army . The attack on neutral Saxony caused outrage across Europe and led to the strengthening of the anti-Prussian coalition . The only significant Austrian success was the partial occupation of Silesia . Far from being easy , Frederick 's early successes proved indecisive and very costly for Prussia 's smaller army . This led him to remark that he did not fight the same Austrians as he had during the previous war . Britain had been surprised by the sudden Prussian offensive but now began shipping supplies and ₤670,000 ( equivalent to ₤ million in ) to its new ally . A combined force of allied German states was organised by the British to protect Hanover from French invasion , under the command of the Duke of Cumberland . The British attempted to persuade the Dutch Republic to join the alliance , but the request was rejected , as the Dutch wished to remain fully neutral . Despite the huge disparity in numbers , the year had been successful for the Prussian-led forces on the continent , in contrast to the British campaigns in North America . 1757 In early 1757 , Frederick II again took the initiative by marching into the Kingdom of Bohemia , hoping to inflict a decisive defeat on Austrian forces . After winning the bloody Battle of Prague on 6 May 1757 , in which both forces suffered major casualties , the Prussians forced the Austrians back into the fortifications of Prague . The Prussian army then laid siege to the city . Following the battle at Prague , Frederick took 5,000 troops from the siege at Prague and sent them to reinforce the 19,000-man army under the Duke of Brunswick-Bevern at Kolin in Bohemia . Austrian marshal , Daun , arrived too late to participate in the battle of Prague , but picked up 16,000 men who had escaped from the battle . With this army he slowly moved to relieve Prague . The Prussian army was too weak to simultaneously besiege Prague and keep Daun away , and Frederick was forced to attack prepared positions . The resulting Battle of Kolin was a sharp defeat for Frederick , his first . His losses further forced him to lift the siege and withdraw from Bohemia altogether . Later that summer , the Russians invaded Memel with 75,000 troops . Memel had one of the strongest fortresses in Prussia . However , after five days of artillery bombardment the Russian army was able to storm it . The Russians then used Memel as a base to invade East Prussia and defeated a smaller Prussian force in the fiercely contested Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf on 30 August 1757 . However , it was not yet able to take Königsberg and retreated soon afterward . Still , it was a new threat to Prussia . Not only was Frederick forced to break off his invasion of Bohemia , he was now forced to withdraw further into Prussian-controlled territory . His defeats on the battlefield brought still more opportunistic nations into the war . Sweden declared war on Prussia and invaded Pomerania with 17,000 men . Sweden felt this small army was all that was needed to occupy Pomerania and felt the Swedish army would not need to engage with the Prussians because the Prussians were occupied on so many other fronts . Things were looking grim for Prussia now , with the Austrians mobilising to attack Prussian-controlled soil and a French army under Prince Soubise approaching from the west . However , in November and December of 1757 , the whole situation in Germany was reversed . First , Frederick devastated Soubise 's French force at the Battle of Rossbach on 5 November 1757 and then routed a vastly superior Austrian force at the Battle of Leuthen on 5 December 1757 With these victories , Frederick once again established himself as Europe 's premier general and his men as Europe 's most accomplished soldiers . In spite of this , the Prussians were now facing the prospect of four major powers attacking on four fronts ( France from the west , Austria from the south , Russia from the east and Sweden from the north ) . Meanwhile , a combined force from a number of smaller German states such as Bavaria had been established under Austrian leadership , thus threatening Prussian control of Saxony . This problem was compounded when the main Hanoverian army under Cumberland was defeated at the Battle of Hastenbeck and forced to surrender entirely at the Convention of Klosterzeven following a French Invasion of Hanover . The convention removed Hanover and Brunswick from the war , leaving the western

tb_1408--Seven_Years'_War.txt

The Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759, a pivotal battle in the Seven Years' War fought between the English and the French, is the only major confrontation ever to have taken place in what country?

Sandie Shaw ( born Sandra Ann Goodrich ; 26 February 1947 ) is an English singer . One of the most successful British female singers of the 1960s , in 1967 she became the first Briton to win the Eurovision Song Contest with the song `` Puppet on a String '' . After a long and successful career , Shaw announced her retirement from the music industry in 2013 . Biography Early life and career Sandra Ann Goodrich was born and brought up in Dagenham , Essex , England . On leaving school , she worked at the nearby Ford Dagenham factory , and did some part-time modelling before coming second as a singer in a local talent contest . As a prize , she appeared at a charity concert in London , where her potential was spotted by singer Adam Faith . He introduced her to his manager , Eve Taylor , who won her a contract with Pye Records in 1964 and gave her the stage name of `` Sandie Shaw '' . Taylor teamed Shaw with songwriter Chris Andrews , who wrote her first single , `` As Long as You 're Happy Baby '' , which failed to make the charts . However , for her second single Taylor gave her the Bacharach and David song `` ( There 's ) Always Something There to Remind Me '' , which had been a No . 49 US pop hit for singer Lou Johnson . Shaw 's version rose quickly to No . 1 in the UK Singles Chart in the autumn of 1964 , and also charted in the United States at No . 52 on the Billboard Hot 100 early the following year . `` I 'd Be Far Better Off Without You '' was issued as the follow-up , but DJs preferred its B-side , `` Girl Do n't Come '' , also written by Andrews , and the sides were switched . `` Girl Do n't Come '' reached No . 3 in the UK and became her biggest US hit , reaching No . 42 . It was followed by further hits in the UK including `` I 'll Stop at Nothing '' , `` Long Live Love '' , her second UK No . 1 in 1965 , and `` Message Understood '' . The singles were produced by Taylor , Andrews and Shaw herself ( though she was never credited ) , with help from Pye Records arranger Ken Woodman . Sandie Shaw was a regular on popular British TV programmes of the time such as Top of the Pops , Ready Steady Go ! and Thank Your Lucky Stars . She was seen as epitomising the `` swinging Sixties '' , and her trademark barefoot performances endeared her to the public at large . She also recorded most of her hit singles in Italian , French , German and Spanish boosting her popularity in Europe . She was popular across South America , performed behind the Iron Curtain , and sang at concerts in pre-revolutionary Iran . Shaw also released several original albums in the 1960s : Sandie ; Me ; Love Me , Please Love Me ; The Sandie Shaw Supplement and Reviewing the Situation . These albums generally consisted of Andrews-penned songs mixed with cover versions of songs made popular by other musicians . By 1967 Shaw 's record sales were declining and her manager decided on more of a cabaret appeal . She was invited by the BBC to represent the UK in that year 's Eurovision Song Contest in Vienna . She had reservations as she felt it would destroy her credibility , but performed five songs on The Rolf Harris Show , with the public voting that the one that should represent the country was the Bill Martin/Phil Coulter composition `` Puppet on a String '' . Although she disliked the song and thought it was unrepresentative of her material , the song won the contest by a near-record margin of votes , and made Shaw the first person to win the contest for the UK . It gave her a third UK No . 1 single , a record for a female at the time . `` Puppet on a String '' also became a worldwide hit ( though not in the US ) and the largest-selling single of the year in Germany , qualifying for a gold disc for one million plus sales in the UK and Europe . Her Eurovision success almost did not happen ; the BBC wanted to drop her because she had been the `` other woman '' in a divorce case . Fashion had become another of Shaw 's trademarks , and in 1968 she began the Sandie Shaw fashion label , selling her own brand of clothing and shoes . In the same year she hosted her own TV show , The Sandie Shaw Supplement , and issued an LP of the same title . Shaw was to have made her film debut in Mrs. Brown , You 've Got a Lovely Daughter , but she walked out of the production before filming began . Her last UK Top 10 hit ( her eighth in total ) came in the form of 1969 's `` Monsieur Dupont , '' originally a German-language song . At the end of 1969 , the single `` Heaven Knows I 'm Missing Him Now '' was released , which would become the inspiration for a hit by The Smiths 15 years later . Shaw also produced her own album , Reviewing the Situation , which contained versions of songs by more alternative artists such as Bob Dylan and The Rolling Stones and made Shaw the first known artist to cover a Led Zeppelin song . Shaw ended 1969 by appearing on the BBC 's highly rated review of the '60s music scene Pop Go The Sixties , performing `` There 's Always Something There To Remind Me '' and the German version of `` Puppet on a String '' , `` Wiedehopf Im Mai '' , live on the show broadcast on BBC1 , 31 December 1969 . 1970 to present Although she began writing songs , her contract with Pye expired in 1972 . She retired from life as a pop singer and began working on other ventures , including co-writing a full-length rock musical , songwriting , acting in stage productions ( she played Ophelia in Hamlet and Joan of Arc in Saint Joan ) and writing children 's books . In 1973 she further demonstrated her versatility as an artist appearing on BBC TV 's long running Old Time Music Hall programme , The Good Old Days . In 1977 she released two singles on the CBS label , and the following year began a lifelong commitment to Sōka Gakkai Buddhism . Her second husband , Nik Powell , introduced her to BEF . She recorded a version of `` Anyone Who Had a Heart '' for their Music of Quality And Distinction album on the Virgin label , which brought her back into the public eye . Chrissie Hynde of the Pretenders invited Shaw to perform a duet rendition of `` Girl Do n't Come '' at a Pretenders performance , and the two women began a long-term friendship . The following year Shaw wrote and recorded an album , Choose Life , to publicise the World Peace Exposition in London in March 1983 . Later in the year , a new phase in her career began after she received a letter from `` two incurable Sandie Shaw fans '' – singer Morrissey and lead guitarist Johnny Marr of the Smiths – telling her that `` The Sandie Shaw legend can not be over yet – there is more to be done . '' Shaw 's husband was a friend of Geoff Travis of Rough Trade Records , the label to which the Smiths were signed , and she agreed to record some of their songs . In April 1984 , her version of `` Hand in Glove '' ( their first single ) was released and peaked just inside the UK Top 30 . She recorded a new version of her first hit `` ( There 's ) Always Something There to Remind Me '' for the film Letter to Brezhnev , and then released two covers of Lloyd Cole songs as singles on the Polydor label . 1986 saw her embark on her first university tour in almost 20 years with a band made up largely of members of the JoBoxers , followed in 1988 by the album Hello Angel , the name inspired by a postcard from Morrissey . Shaw embarked on two more successful university tours , and made appearances at Gay pride and Peace festivals . The 1990s saw the release of many compilation albums of Shaw 's material on various minor labels , as well as reissues of some of her original albums . Shaw 's autobiography , The World at My Feet , was published in 1991 , and the following year she began studying at Oxford and the University of London and qualified as a psychotherapist in 1994 . During that time , she recorded new versions of some of her 1960s songs for the album Nothing Less Than Brilliant , released in 1994 . It was also around this time that Shaw divorced Powell and met her third husband , Tony Bedford . Concentrating on a new career as a psychotherapist , Shaw opened the Arts Clinic in 1997 with her husband , to provide psychological healthcare and creative development to those in the creative industries . The clinic is now styled Barefoot Therapy : The Arts Clinic and continues to provide psychological support for those in the fields of entertainment , media and sports . In 1998 she was invited to join the Royal Society of Musicians as an Honorary Professor of Music . Shaw also embarked on a successful legal battle to establish ownership of her entire recording catalogue , and began working with contemporary acts and producers , reworking much of her 1960s and 1980s material . In 2003 , Shaw licensed her recording catalogue worldwide to EMI , continued to develop her Arts Clinic , and began executive coaching and mentoring . Meanwhile , EMI released compilations of her French and Italian recordings , and the following year released similar compilations in Spanish and German . Newly remastered versions of Reviewing the Situation and Hello Angel also were issued with bonus tracks , and toward the end of the year a 4-CD box set entitled Nothing Comes Easy was released . Also in 2003 , actress Ashley Williams portrayed Shaw on an episode of the American television series American Dreams , performing `` ( There 's ) Always Something There to Remind Me '' on American Bandstand . During this decade , she reneged on previous declarations of hatred for the Eurovision Song Contest and announced that she was proud of her Eurovision past on the BBC show Making Your Mind Up . She also briefly sat in for Brian Matthew on his long-running BBC Radio 2 Saturday morning show Sounds of the 60s in December 2006 . On 26 February 2007 , in honour of her 60th birthday , Shaw released a new version of `` Puppet on a String '' on her website . The re-tooled version , called `` Puppet 's Got a Brand New String , '' had a complete overhaul in sound and vocals under the supervision of her friend Howard Jones and mixer Andy Gray . The schlager style of the song was replaced with a calmer melody . In April 2010 , Shaw appeared on the UK ITV television programme Loose Women , and revealed that she was returning to recording and would be singing the theme song to the British film , Made in Dagenham . She also took the opportunity to criticise the Eurovision Song Contest , saying that it was bad when she did it , but has now got even worse . In August 2010 , she appeared at Vintage , an upmarket festival on the Goodwood estate in West Sussex , as a special guest of Wayne Hemingway ( Red or Dead ) who organised the event . As well as hosting her own main stage set with numerous female guest singers , she also performed cameos on other stages , including singing `` Downtown '' with composer Tony Hatch and an orchestra in the cabaret tent . On Boxing Day 2010 , she appeared on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs . She was Jools Holland 's special guest on his 2011 Tour . On New Year 's Eve in 2011 Shaw performed on BBC Two 's Hootenanny backed by Jools Holland 's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra . Personal life On 6 March 1968 , Shaw married fashion designer Jeff Banks at the Greenwich Register Office in London . Their daughter Gracie was born in February 1971 . Her marriage to Banks ended in 1978 . In 1982 , she married Nik Powell , co-founder of the Virgin Group and chairman of the European Film Academy . They had two children together . She is currently married to her third husband , Tony Bedford . In August 2007 , Shaw revealed that she had had `` corrective '' surgery on her iconic feet , which she described as `` ugly '' : the surgery left her unable to walk until October 2007 . In April 2012 Shaw joined an Amnesty International campaign to end human rights abuses in Azerbaijan , host country of the 2012 Eurovision Song Contest , after the journalist Khadija Ismayilova was blackmailed and sex taped . Shaw stated : `` That anyone would stoop so low in an attempt to silence an independent journalist is sickening . The people behind this appalling blackmail and smear campaign must be brought to justice . And the persecution of independent journalists in Azerbaijan must stop . '' In August 2014 , Shaw was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September 's referendum on that issue . Discography * Sandie ( 1965 ) * Me ( 1965 ) * Love Me , Please Love Me ( 1967 ) * The Sandie Shaw Supplement ( 1968 ) * Reviewing the Situation ( 1969 ) * Choose Life ( 1983 ) * Hello Angel ( 1988 )

qw_14659--Sandie_Shaw.txt

"Which British singer, born Sandra Ann Goodrich, was known as ""the barefoot pop princess of the 1960s""?"

Hyposmia is a reduced ability to smell and to detect odors . A related condition is anosmia , in which no odors can be detected . Some of the causes of olfaction problems are allergies , nasal polyps , viral infections and head trauma . It is estimated that up to 4 million people in the United States have hyposmia or the related anosmia . Hyposmia might be a very early sign of Parkinson 's disease.Factor , Stewart A. , & Weiner , William J. , eds . ( 2008 ) . Parkinson 's Disease : Diagnosis and Clinical Management , 2nd ed. , pp . 72-73 . New York : Demos Medical Publishing . Hyposmia is also an early and almost universal finding in Alzheimer 's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies . Lifelong hyposmia could be caused by Kallmann syndrome .

qb_8182--Hyposmia.txt

In humans, the medical condition Hyposmia affects which of the senses?

Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries . The Proto-Norse language developed into Old Norse by the 8th century , and Old Norse began to develop into the modern North Germanic languages in the mid- to late 14th century , ending the language phase known as Old Norse . These dates , however , are not absolute , since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century . Old Norse was divided into three dialects : Old West Norse , Old East Norse and Old Gutnish . Old West and East Norse formed a dialect continuum , with no clear geographical boundary between them . For example , Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway , although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse , and Old West Norse traits were found in western Sweden . Most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden . Old Gutnish , the more obscure dialectal branch , is sometimes included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations . It developed its own unique features and shared in changes to both other branches . The 12th-century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes , Norwegians , Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language , dǫnsk tunga ( `` Danish tongue '' ; speakers of Old East Norse would have said dansk tunga ) . Another term used , used especially commonly with reference to West Norse , was norrœnt mál ( `` Nordic speech '' ) . Today Old Norse has developed into the modern North Germanic languages Icelandic , Faroese , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish , of which Norwegian , Danish and Swedish retain considerable mutual intelligibility . In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse . Geographical distribution Old Icelandic was basically identical to Old Norwegian , and together they formed the Old West Norse dialect of Old Norse , which was also spoken in settlements in Ireland , Scotland , the Isle of Man and north-west England , and Norwegian settlements in Normandy . The Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark , Sweden , settlements in Kievan Rus ' , eastern England , and Danish settlements in Normandy . The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in various settlements in the East . In the 11th century , Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language , ranging from Vinland in the West to the Volga in the East . In Kievan Rus ' , it survived the longest in Novgorod , probably lasting into the 13th century there . The age of the Swedish language 's presence in Finland is strongly contested ( see Swedish-speaking Finns ) , but at latest by the time of the Second Swedish Crusade in the 13th century , Swedish settlement spread the language into the region . Modern descendants The modern descendants of the Old West Norse dialect are the West Scandinavian languages of Icelandic , Faroese , Norwegian and the extinct Norn language of Orkney and Shetland ; the descendants of the Old East Norse dialect are the East Scandinavian languages of Danish and Swedish . Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse , but over the centuries it has been heavily influenced by East Norse , particularly during the Denmark–Norway union . Among these , Icelandic and the closely related Faroese have changed the least from Old Norse in the last thousand years , although with Danish rule of the Faroe Islands , Faroese has also been influenced by Danish . Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots , which contain many Old Norse loanwords . It also influenced the development of the Norman language , and through it and to a smaller extent , that of modern French . Various other languages , which are not closely related , have been heavily influenced by Norse , particularly the Norman dialects , Scottish Gaelic and Irish . Russian , Belarusian , Lithuanian , Finnish , Latvian and Estonian also have a number of Norse loanwords ; the words Rus and Russia , according to one theory , may be named after the Rus ' people , a Norse tribe ; see Rus ( name ) , probably from present-day east-central Sweden . The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi , respectively . Of the modern languages , Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse . Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system . Contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse , which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order . However , pronunciation , particularly of the vowel phonemes , has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages . Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish , Norwegian , and Gaelic ( Scottish and/or Irish ) . Although Swedish , Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most , they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility . Speakers of modern Swedish , Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages , particularly if speaking slowly . The languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders . This could be because these languages have been mutually affected by each other , as well as having a similar development influenced by Middle Low German . Phonology Vowels The vowel phonemes mostly come in pairs of long and short . The standardized orthography marks the long vowels with an acute accent . In medieval manuscripts , it is often unmarked but sometimes marked with an accent or through gemination . All phonemes have , more or less , the expected phonetic realization . Old Norse had nasalized versions of all nine vowel places . [ http : //lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oi_cleasbyvigfusson/b0001.html Introduction to Letter A ] These occurred as allophones of the vowels before nasal consonants and in places where a nasal had followed it in an older form of the word , before it was absorbed into a neighboring sound . If the nasal was absorbed by a stressed vowel , it would also lengthen the vowel . These nasalizations also occurred in the other Germanic languages , but were not retained long . They were noted in the First Grammatical Treatise , and otherwise might have remained unknown . The First Grammarian marked these with a dot above the letter . This notation did not catch on , and would soon be obsolete . Nasal and oral vowels probably merged around the 11th century in most of Old East Norse.The Nordic Languages ; 202 . The typological development of the Nordic languages I : Phonology . 1 . Proto-Nordic : [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 6b7WwBC5tRAC & pgPA1853 1853 ] . 2 . Common Nordic : [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 6b7WwBC5tRAC & pgPA1855 1855 ] . 3 . Old East Nordic : [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 6b7WwBC5tRAC & pgPA1856 1856 ] , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 6b7WwBC5tRAC & pgPA1859 1859 ] . 4 . Old West Nordic : [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id 6b7WwBC5tRAC & pgPA1859 1859 ] :3 However , the distinction still holds in Dalecarlian dialects . :4 The dots in the following vowel table separate the oral from nasal phonemes . Note : The low/low-mid vowels may be indicated differently : * * * = Sometime around the 13th century , Ǫ merged with Ø or O in all dialects except Old Danish . In Icelandic , all Ǫ merged with Ø . This can be determined by their distinction within the 12th-century First Grammatical Treatise but not within the early 13th-century Prose Edda . The nasal vowels , also noted in the First Grammatical Treatise , are assumed to have been lost by this time . See Old Icelandic for the Œ > Æ and Ę > E mergers . Consonants Old Norse has six plosive phonemes . Of these is rare word-initially and and are realized as voiced fricative allophones between vowels , except in compound words ( e.g . veðrabati ) , already in the Proto-Germanic language ( e.g . * b > [ v ] between vowels ) . The phoneme is realized as after an n or another g and as before and . It is realized as a voiced velar fricative , by some accounts inside words , and by others between vowels ( and otherwise as ) . The Old East Norse /ʀ/ was an apical consonant whose position is n't precisely known , being reconstructed as a palatal sibilant:2 . It descended from Proto-Germanic and eventually developed into , as it already had done in Old West Norse . The consonant digraphs hl , hr , hn occurred word-initially . It is unclear whether they were sequences of two consonants ( with the first element realised as or perhaps ) , or as single voiceless sonorants , and respectively . In Old Norwegian , Old Danish and later Old Swedish the groups hl , hr , hn were reduced to plain l , r , n , suggesting that they were most likely realised as voiceless sonorants by Old Norse times . The pronunciation of hv is unclear , and may have been ( the Proto-Germanic pronunciation ) , or . Unlike the other three groups above , it was retained much longer in all dialects , and never developed into a voiceless sonorant in Icelandic , but instead `` hardened '' to a plosive . This suggests that it was not a voiceless sonorant , but retained stronger frication . Orthography Unlike Proto-Norse , which was written with the Elder Futhark , runic Old Norse was originally written with the Younger Futhark , which only had 16 letters . Because of the limited number of runes , the rune for the vowel u was also used for the vowels o , ø and y , and the rune for i was used for e. Medieval runes came into use some time later . As for the Latin alphabet , there was no standardized orthography in use in the Middle Ages . A modified version of the letter wynn called vend was used briefly for the sounds , , and . Long vowels were sometimes marked with acutes , but also sometimes left unmarked or geminated . The standardized Old Norse spelling was created in the 19th century , and is for the most part phonemic . The most notable deviation is that the non-phonemic difference between the voiced and the voiceless dental fricative is marked — the oldest texts as well as runic inscriptions use þ exclusively . Long vowels are denoted with acutes . Most other letters are written with the same glyph as the IPA phoneme , except as shown in the table below . Accent Primary stress in Old Norse falls on the word stem , so that hyrjar would be pronounced . In compound words , secondary stress falls on the second stem ( e.g . lærisveinn , ) . :1 Modern Swedish , Danish , and Norwegian have two registers reflected in differing pronunciation of the stressed syllable of words . In Swedish and Norwegian , the registers are reflected in different tones ( i.e . through tonal word accent ) , while in Danish the difference is the presence or absence of stød , a glottal gesture considered a kind of creaky voice that seems to have been documented by Swedish sources as early as the 16th century . What is here called class 1 is reflected as tone 1 in Norwegian , acute accent in Swedish , and presence of stød in Danish , whereas class 2 words have tone 2 in Norwegian , grave accent in Swedish , and no stød in Danish . No sign of any tonal system is found in Icelandic or Faroese . Not all cognates occur in the same register classes in all three languages , partly due to language-specific restrictions on the contexts in which the two classes can occur . For example , stød can only occur in stressed words that have long vowels and end in a voiced consonant , whereas in Swedish and Norwegian , monosyllables can only take tone 1/acute accent . In general , however , class 1 words are those that are monosyllabic in Old Norse , while class 2 words are those that are polysyllabic . Exceptions , including minimal pairs , have arisen for various reasons : # Suffixing a definite article onto class 1 words does not change their class , suggesting that the register distinctions developed before the definite article fused with the noun . Hence Old Norse and-inn `` the duck '' > Swedish class 1 anden , but andi-nn `` the spirit '' > class 2 anden . # The Old Norse non-syllabic morpheme -r after a consonant later became syllabic through the epenthesis of a vowel , without changing the class . Hence Old Norse bœndr `` farmers '' > Norwegian class 1 bønder , but baunir `` beans '' and bœnir `` prayers '' both > Norwegian class 2 bønner ( homophonous with bønder except for the pitch difference ) . # Many later polysyllabic loanwords in the various languages have acquired class 1 . Phonological processes Ablaut Ablaut patterns are groups of vowels which are swapped , or ablauted , in the nucleus of a word . Strong verbs ablaut the lemma 's nucleus to derive the past forms of the verb . This parallels English conjugation , where , e.g. , the nucleus of sing becomes sang in the past tense and sung in the past participle . Some verbs are derived by ablaut , as the present-in-past verbs do by consequence of being derived from the past tense forms of strong verbs . Umlaut Umlaut or mutation is an assimilatory process acting on vowels preceding a vowel or semivowel of a different vowel backness . In the case of i-umlaut and ʀ-umlaut , this entails a fronting of back vowels , with retention of lip rounding . In the case of u-umlaut , this entails labialization of unrounded vowels . Umlaut is phonemic and in many situations grammatically significant as a side effect of losing the Proto-Germanic morphological suffixes whose vowels created the umlaut allophones . Some , , , , , , , and were obtained by i-umlaut from , , , , , , , and respectively . Others were formed via ʀ-umlaut from , , , , and . Some , , , , and all , were obtained by u-umlaut from , , , , and , respectively . See Old Icelandic for information on . was obtained through a simultaneous u- and i-umlaut of . It appears in words like gøra ( gjǫra , geyra ) , from Proto-Germanic * garwijaną , and commonly in verbs with a velar consonant before the suffix like søkkva Introduction to Letter Ö ( Ø ) : [ http : //lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oi_cleasbyvigfusson/b0761.html 1 ] , [ http : //lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oi_cleasbyvigfusson/b0762.html 2 ] OEN often preserves the original value of the vowel directly preceding runic ʀ while OWN receives ʀ-umlaut . Compare runic OEN glaʀ , haʀi , hrauʀ with OWN gler , heri ( later héri ) , hrøyrr/hreyrr ( `` glass '' , `` hare '' , `` pile of rocks '' ) . U-umlaut U-umlaut is more common in Old West Norse in both phonemic and allophonic positions , while it only occurs sparsely in post-runic Old East Norse and even in runic Old East Norse . Compare West Old Norse fǫður ( accusative of faðir , father ) , vǫrðr ( guardian/caretaker ) , ǫrn ( eagle ) , jǫrð ( in Modern Icelandic : jörð , earth ) , mjǫlk ( in Modern Icelandic : mjólk ) with Old Swedish faður , varðer , örn , jorð and Modern Swedish örn , jord , mjölk with the latter two demonstrating the u-umlaut found in Swedish . Ragnvald Iversen , Norrøn Grammatikk , 1961 , p 24 and onwards . This is still a major difference between Swedish and Faroese and Icelandic today . Plurals of neuters do not have u-umlaut at all in Swedish , but in Faroese and Icelandic they do , for example the Faroese and Icelandic plurals of the word land , lond and lönd respectively , in contrast to the Swedish plural land and numerous other examples . That also applies to almost all feminine nouns , for example the largest feminine noun group , the o-stem nouns ( except the Swedish noun jord mentioned above ) , and even i-stem nouns and root nouns , such as Old West Norse mǫrk ( [ http : //digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/IcelOnline/IcelOnline.TEId-idx ? typeentry & eid MO3RK-1 & q1mörk mörk ] in Icelandic ) in comparison with Modern and Old Swedish mark . Breaking Vowel breaking , or fracture , caused a front vowel to be split into a semivowel-vowel sequence before a back vowel in the following syllable . While West Norse only broke e , East Norse also broke i . The change was blocked by a v , l , or r preceding the potentially-broken vowel . :1 Some or and or result from breaking of and respectively.Formation of Words – Vowel Changes ; [ http : //www.northvegr.org/vigfusson/xxix.php Page 1 ] : Umlaut , Breaking ( Resolution ) ; [ http : //www.northvegr.org/vigfusson/xxx.php Page 2 ] : Breaking , Absorption and Contraction , Ablaut Assimilation or elision of inflectional ʀ When a noun , pronoun , adjective , or verb has a long vowel or diphthong in the accented syllable and its stem ends in a single -l , -n , or -s , the -r ( or the elder r- or z-variant ʀ ) in an ending is assimilated . [ http : //www.northvegr.org/vigfusson/xvi.php Noun Tables ] , Remarks on the 1st Strong Masculine Declension ( Assim . : Note 3.α ) When the accented vowel is short , the ending is dropped . The nominative of the strong masculine declension and some i-stem feminine nouns uses one such -r ( ʀ ) . Óðin-r ( Óðin-ʀ ) becomes Óðinn instead of * Óðinr ( * Óðinʀ ) , but karl-r ( karl-ʀ ) remains karl . Blása , to blow , has blæss for `` you blow '' instead of * blæsr ( * blæsʀ ) . The rule is not hard and fast , with counter-examples such as vinr , which has the synonym vin , yet retains the unabsorbed version , and jǫtunn , where assimilation takes place even though the root vowel , ǫ , is short . Words with a final r in the word stem , such as vetr , do not add another -r , as the sounds are already the same . The effect of the dropping usually results in the lack of distinction between some forms of the noun . In the case of vetr the dropping renders the nominative and accusative singular and plural identical ; the nominative singular and nominative and accusative plural would otherwise have been * vetrr ( * vintrʀ ) , while the accusative singular would still have been vetr . This is because the 3rd strong masculine declension , to which it belongs , marks the nominative singular and nominative and accusative plural , but not the accusative singular , with inflectional ʀs . Phonotactics Blocking of ii , uu I/j adjacent to i , e , their u-umlauts , and æ was not possible , nor u/v adjacent to u , o , their i-umlauts , and ǫ . At the beginning of words , this manifested as a dropping of the initial j or v. Compare ON orð , úlfr , ár with English word , wolf , year . In inflections , this manifested as the dropping of the inflectional vowels . Thus , klæði + dat -i remains klæði , and sjáum in Icelandic progressed to sjǫ́um > sjǫ́m > sjám . The jj and ww of Proto-Germanic became ggj and ggv respectively in Old Norse , a change known as Holtzmann 's law . Epenthesis An epenthetic vowel became popular by 1200 in Old Danish , 1250 in Old Swedish and Norwegian , and 1300 in Old Icelandic . An unstressed vowel was used which varied by dialect . Old Norwegian exhibited all three : /u/ was used in West Norwegian south of Bergen , as in aftur , aftor ( older aptr ) ; North of Bergen , /i/ appeared in aftir , after ; and East Norwegian used /a/ , after , aftær . Grammar Old Norse was a moderately inflected language with high levels of nominal and verbal inflection . Most of the fused morphemes are retained in modern Icelandic , especially in regard to noun case declensions , whereas modern Norwegian in comparison has moved towards more analytical word structures . Gender Old Norse had three grammatical genders – masculine , feminine and neuter . Adjectives or pronouns referring to a noun must mirror the gender of that noun , so that one says , `` heill maðr ! '' but , `` heilt barn ! '' Like in other languages , the grammatical gender of an impersonal noun is generally unrelated to an expected natural gender of that noun . While indeed karl , `` man '' is masculine , kona , `` woman '' , is feminine , and hús , house , is neuter , so also are hrafn and kráka , for `` raven '' and `` crow '' , masculine and feminine respectively , even in reference to a female raven or a male crow . All neuter words have identical nominative and accusative forms , and all feminine words have identical nominative and accusative plurals . The gender of some words ' plurals does not agree with that of their singulars , such as lim and mund.References to words labelled heterogeneous in gender : [ http : //lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oi_cleasbyvigfusson/b0389.html Lilja-Linditre ] ; [ http : //www.northvegr.org/vigfusson/437.php Muna-Mundr ] Some words , such as hungr , have multiple genders , evidenced by their determiners being declined in different genders within a given sentence . Hierarchy Old Norse inherited the Proto-Germanic feature of having neuter as the default gender . This means that when the gender of a noun is unknown , adjectives and pronouns referencing it use the neuter gender forms , rather than the masculine or feminine . Thus , if speaking or writing to a general audience , one would say velkomit , `` well is it come , '' rather than velkominn or velkomin , `` well is [ he or she ] come , '' as one does not know whether the person hearing it is going to be male or female . One generally sees adjectives in their neuter form when used pronominally for this reason . For words more commonly used in this way ( rather than to describe a noun ) one sees their neuter forms more often than their masculine or feminine . Normally the masculine form would be the most beneficial form of an adjective to learn first , given that the majority of nouns are masculine . In these cases , however , the most practical form to learn first would be the neuter . Morphology Nouns , adjectives and pronouns were declined in four grammatical cases — nominative , accusative , genitive and dative , in singular and plural numbers . Adjectives and pronouns were additionally declined in three grammatical genders . Some pronouns ( first and second person ) could have dual number in addition to singular and plural . The genitive is used partitively , and quite often in compounds and kennings ( e.g . : Urðarbrunnr , the well of Urðr ; Lokasenna , the gibing of Loki ) . There were several classes of nouns within each gender , the following is an example of the `` strong '' inflectional paradigms : In addition to these examples there were the numerous `` weak '' noun paradigms , which had a much higher degree of syncretism between the different cases in its paradigms , i.e . they had fewer forms than the `` strong '' nouns . A definite article was realised as a suffix , that retained an independent declension e.g . troll ( a troll ) – trollit ( the troll ) , hǫll ( a hall ) – hǫllin ( the hall ) , armr ( an arm ) – armrinn ( the arm ) . This definite article , however , was a separate word , and did not become attached to the noun before later stages of the Old Norse period . Texts The earliest inscriptions in Old Norse are runic , from the 8th century . Runes continued to be commonly used until the 15th century and have been recorded to be in use in some form as late as the 19th century in some parts of Sweden . With the conversion to Christianity in the 11th century came the Latin alphabet . The oldest preserved texts in Old Norse in the Latin alphabet date from the middle of the 12th century . Subsequently , Old Norse became the vehicle of a large and varied body of vernacular literature , unique in medieval Europe . Most of the surviving literature was written in Iceland . Best known are the Norse sagas , the Icelanders ' sagas and the mythological literature , but there also survives a large body of religious literature , translations into Old Norse of courtly romances , classical mythology , and the Old Testament , as well as instructional material , grammatical treatises and a large body of letters and official documents . Dialects Most of the innovations that appeared in Old Norse spread evenly through the Old Norse area . As a result , the dialects were very similar and considered to be the same language , a language that they sometimes called the Danish tongue ( Dǫnsk tunga ) , sometimes Norse language ( Norrœnt mál ) , as evidenced in the following two quotes from Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson : However , some changes were geographically limited and so created a dialectal difference between Old West Norse and Old East Norse . As Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse , in the 8th century , the effects of the umlauts seem to have been very much the same over the whole Old Norse area . But in later dialects of the language a split occurred mainly between west and east as the use of umlauts began to vary . The typical umlauts ( for example fylla from * fullijan ) were better preserved in the West due to later generalizations in the east where many instances of umlaut were removed ( many archaic Eastern texts as well as eastern runic inscriptions however portray the same extent of umlauts as in later Western Old Norse ) . All the while , the changes resulting in breaking ( for example hiarta from * hertō ) were more influential in the East probably once again due to generalizations within the inflectional system . This difference was one of the greatest reasons behind the dialectalization that took place in the 9th and 10th centuries , shaping an Old West Norse dialect in Norway and the Atlantic settlements and an Old East Norse dialect in Denmark and Sweden . Old West Norse and Old Gutnish did not take part in the monophthongization which changed æi ( ei ) into ē , øy ( ey ) and au into ø̄ , nor did certain peripheral dialects of Swedish , as seen in modern Ostrobothnian . Another difference was that Old West Norse lost certain combinations of consonants . The combinations -mp- , -nt- , and -nk- were assimilated into -pp- , -tt- and -kk- in Old West Norse , but this phenomenon was limited in Old East Norse . Here is a comparison between the two dialects as well as Old Gutnish . It is a transcription from one of the Funbo Runestones ( U 990 ) meaning : Veðr and Thane and Gunnar raised this stone after Haursi , their father . God help his spirit : The OEN original text above is transliterated according to traditional scholarly methods , wherein u-umlaut is not regarded in runic Old East

bb_2522--Old_Norse.txt

The word husband is derived from the ancient Old Norse meanings of 'house' and what activity?

The Magic Roundabout ( released in France as Pollux - Le manège enchanté ) is a 2005 French-British computer-animated adventure fantasy film based on the television series of the same name . The film features the voices of Tom Baker , Jim Broadbent , Joanna Lumley , Ian McKellen , Bill Nighy , Robbie Williams , Kylie Minogue , Ray Winstone , and Lee Evans . Plot The film begins as the wizard Zebedee , a red jack-in-the-box-like creature , is having a nightmare about being chased by a rampaging blue jack-in-the-box creature . The film then starts with Dougal sneaking around the carousel . He goes so far as to place a tack in the road to pop a sweet cart 's tyre , thinking to be rewarded for watching the cart . After convincing the driver , Mr. Grimsdale to leave , Dougal accidentally starts the cart up again and causes it to crash into the titular magic roundabout at the centre of the village . A blue jack-in-the-box creature named Zeebad ( the same one from Zebedee 's nightmare ) emerges from the top and flies away , followed shortly after by a Foot Guard figurine that is thrown off the roundabout . The roundabout freezes over , trapping repairman Mr. Rusty , Dougal 's young owner Florence , and two other children named Basil and Coral within an icy cell . The villagers , who are all animals , are horrified by this development , and call upon Zebedee for help . He explains that the roundabout acted as a mystical prison for the evil ice wizard Zeebad . With it broken , Zeebad is free to work his magic on the world again ( it is implied he started the first ice age ) . The only way to stop Zeebad 's freedom from freezing the world again is by collecting three magic diamonds ( one of which is supposed to be hidden on the roundabout , while the other two are hidden at separate locations far beyond the village ) ; placing all three diamonds in their respective slots on the roundabout will re-imprison Zeebad and undo his magic , but if Zeebad retrieves them first then their power will allow him to freeze the Sun itself . Zebedee sends Dougal the well-meaning cheeky chappy but slacker dog , Brian the cynical snail , Ermintrude the opera-singing cow and Dylan the hippie rabbit , to accomplish this mission along with a magic train who can be summoned by a magic remote . Meanwhile , when Zeebad crash lands after escaping the roundabout , he animates the Foot Guard figurine , Sam the Soldier , to be his henchman and enlists him to find the enchanted diamonds first . Meanwhile , Zebedee 's fellowship makes camp in the icy mountains near Zeebad 's old lair . Dougal wanders off during the night and is captured by Zeebad . Ermintrude breaks him out of his prison ; after a short chase , Zebedee shows up to battle his evil counterpart . Zeebad eventually gains the upper hand , freezing Zebedee and collapsing the cliff on which he stands , presumably killing him . Mourning for their friend , Dougal and his friends embark to recover the diamonds . This task takes them to a lava-bordered volcano and an ancient temple filled with booby-traps and evil skeleton guards ( at which point Dylan reveals an exceptional knowledge of several types of martial arts ) , but Zeebad captures both the diamonds from these respective locations ; leaving the gang 's only hope of stopping Zeebad freezing the world in ice to be getting back to the roundabout and to the final diamond before Zeebad does . The gang are forced along the way to leave Train behind when his wheel is broken , leaving them to return to the village on their own through the snowy barren wasteland the world is now freezing into . Zeebad , after having abandoned Sam the Soldier to die wounded in the snow , beats the gang to the now-frozen village , but is unable to find the third diamond anywhere . Sam then arrives on a moose , having realised he 's been following the wrong commander in Zeebad and that his true duty is to protect the roundabout against Zeebad , and tries to make a stand and charge against Zeebad but is easily defeated . Having learned Sam was in fact on the roundabout , Zeebad discovers that the third diamond is and always was hidden inside Sam , and removes it from him ( ending Sam 's life as a result ) . Just as Dougal and the gang finally make it back to the village , Zeebad , with all three diamonds now in his possession , uses the diamonds to complete his powers ' freezing effect on the world by freezing the Sun . However , Ermintrude , Brian , Dylan , and finally Dougal refuse to give up , and intervene to stop Zeebad ; getting past Zeebad 's attacks to the diamonds , and getting each of them one-by-one into their places on the roundabout until only the third diamond is left . Though Zeebad beats the gang to the diamond and seemingly secures his victory , the timely arrival of a healed Train knocks the diamond out of Zeebad 's reach and gives Dougal the chance to place it in the roundabout 's final slot . With all three diamonds placed on the roundabout , Zeebad is reimprisoned , and the world is thawed and turned back to normal ; restoring Zebedee to his friends , and freeing the people . Of those trapped in the roundabout , Florence is comatose , but is revived by an anxious Dougal . The moose ( whose colour had been changed from brown to blue by Zeebad and helped Dougal 's friends find Dougal in the earlier scenes of the film ) , is restored to his true colour by Zebedee . As everyone goes for a ride on the roundabout , they discover it still does n't work , because Sam is still lifeless . At this point , Sam is restored and then reverted to his inanimate form , and placed back on the roundabout which functions once again . Dougal , who vowed to give up sugar when it seemed all was lost , forgets his former pledge completely , but now realises the true value of his friends and the good qualities of selflessness , courage , and humility . Two post-credits scenes follow : one reveals Zeebad back in his prison , which , to his chagrin , is a molten lava cave . In another , Zebedee delivers his famous catchphrase to the audience , `` Time for bed '' , before disappearing . Cast Reception On Rotten Tomatoes , the film received an aggregate score of 60 % based on five reviews ( three positive and two negative ) . Doogal ( United States ) On 24 February 2006 , the film was released in the United States as Doogal , and was produced by The Weinstein Company . In the United States version , where audiences are unfamiliar with the series , the majority of original United Kingdom voices have been dubbed over by celebrities more familiar to the United States , such as Chevy Chase ( Train ) , Jimmy Fallon ( Dylan ) , Whoopi Goldberg ( Ermintrude ) , William H. Macy ( Brian ) , Kevin Smith ( Moose ) and Jon Stewart ( Zeebad ) . Only two original voices remained – those of Kylie Minogue and Ian McKellen ( Although Kylie Minogue 's original recordings were not present in the United States version for she had re-dubbed her own voice in an American accent , with some of her lines changed ) . The United States version also features Daniel Tay ( Doogal ) , Bill Hader ( Sam ) and Judi Dench ( Narrator ) . Writer Butch Hartman ( The Fairly OddParents ) rewrote the storyline to accommodate multiple pop culture references ( mostly from The Lord of the Rings ) and flatulence jokes ( neither of which were present in the original release ) . A few scenes and bits , which were present in the original , were cut and moved around in this release for continuity , for example a post-credit scene that reveals Zeebad in his prison was heavily cut from the United States version , and was replaced with live footage of the United States actors in the process of making the film , a sequence that featured the song Mr. Blue Sky by Electric Light Orchestra was moved to the very end of the film , thus serving it as the ending to the movie ( in the original release the scene was a dream sequence ) , every shot that involved Zeebad 's ice fortress was also cut from the United States release , glimps of the fortress can be seen in the background in a few shots , but is not shown in full view . Also , the flashback depicting Florence trapped in the icy carousel was shown in the United States release of the film . The United States release also included an additional song entitled Simply Wonderful by Andrea Remanda and Goldust . The United States version is often cited as one of the worst films ever made . On Rotten Tomatoes , it received an aggregate score of 8 % based on 49 reviews ( 4 `` fresh '' and 45 `` rotten '' ) , with the consensus : `` Overloaded with pop culture references , but lacking in compelling characters and plot , Doogal is too simple-minded even for the kiddies '' ; the website ranked it the 82nd worst reviewed movie of the 2000s . It has got a score of 23 out of 100 ( `` generally unfavorable '' ) on Metacritic , and a F rating from Entertainment Weekly writing that `` very young children should be angry ... where is it written that 4-year-olds do n't deserve a good story , decent characters , and a modicum of coherence ? `` . Flickchart named Doogal the worst animated film ever made , topping its list of the top 50 worst animated films of all time . It was placed # 5 on Ebert & Roeper 's Worst of 2006 . Michael Phillip of the Chicago Tribune described the film as `` Eighty-five minutes you 'll never get back . '' Randy Miller of DVD Talk says that : `` Doogal is , after all , one of the worst excuses for a children 's film during this or any year -- -and if you 're really looking for an in-depth analysis of why it 's so awful , you do n't have to look hard . Filled to the brim with pop culture references and other such gags that 'll be even less funny a few years from now , it 's like Shrek without the occasional bit of charm and surprise '' . Frank Scheck of Hollywood Reporter wrote `` The key frame animation , based on three-dimensional models , is rudimentary , with none of the characters proving visually arresting . '' Ned Martel of The New York Times wrote `` In Doogal setting the world right again involves a badly paced quest for three diamonds , assorted jokes that do n't land , and a daringly incoherent climactic confrontation '' . On May 2006 , it became the lowest ranked film on Internet Movie Database Bottom 100 list .

qf_40--The_Magic_Roundabout_(film).txt

In the magic roundabout what kind of creature was Brian ?

Parmigiano-Reggiano ( ; ) , or Parmesan cheese , is a hard , granular cheese . The name `` Parmesan '' is often used generically for various simulations of this cheese , although this is prohibited in trading in the European Economic Area under European law . It is named after the producing areas , which comprise the provinces of Parma , Reggio Emilia , Bologna ( only the area to the west of the river Reno ) , Modena ( all in Emilia-Romagna ) , and Mantua ( in Lombardy , but only the area to the south of river Po ) , Italy . Under Italian law , only cheese produced in these provinces may be labelled `` Parmigiano-Reggiano '' , and European law classifies the name , as well as the translation `` Parmesan '' , as a protected designation of origin . Parmigiano is the Italian adjective for Parma and Reggiano that for Reggio Emilia . Outside the EU , the name `` Parmesan '' can legally be used for cheeses similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano , with only the full Italian name unambiguously referring to Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese . It has been called the `` King of Cheeses '' . Production Parmigiano-Reggiano is made from unpasteurized cow 's milk . The whole milk of the morning milking is mixed with the naturally skimmed milk ( which is made by keeping milk in large shallow tanks to allow the cream to separate ) of the previous evening 's milking , resulting in a part skim mixture . This mixture is pumped into copper-lined vats ( copper heats and cools quickly ) . Starter whey ( containing a mixture of certain thermophilic lactic acid bacteria ) is added , and the temperature is raised to 33–35 °C ( 91–95 °F ) . Calf rennet is added , and the mixture is left to curdle for 10–12 minutes . The curd is then broken up mechanically into small pieces ( around the size of rice grains ) . The temperature is then raised to 55 °C ( 131 °F ) with careful control by the cheese-maker . The curd is left to settle for 45–60 minutes . The compacted curd is collected in a piece of muslin before being divided in two and placed in molds . There is 1100 l ( 291 US gallons or 250 imperial gallons ) of milk per vat , producing two cheeses each . The curd making up each wheel at this point weighs around 45 kg ( 100 lb ) . The remaining whey in the vat was traditionally used to feed the pigs from which `` Prosciutto di Parma '' ( cured Parma ham ) was produced . The barns for these animals were usually just a few yards away from the cheese production rooms . The cheese is put into a stainless steel , round form that is pulled tight with a spring-powered buckle so the cheese retains its wheel shape . After a day or two , the buckle is released and a plastic belt imprinted numerous times with the Parmigiano-Reggiano name , the plant 's number , and month and year of production is put around the cheese and the metal form is buckled tight again . The imprints take hold on the rind of the cheese in about a day and the wheel is then put into a brine bath to absorb salt for 20–25 days . After brining , the wheels are then transferred to the aging rooms in the plant for 12 months . Each cheese is placed on wooden shelves that can be 24 cheeses high by 90 cheeses long or 2160 total wheels per aisle . Each cheese and the shelf underneath it is then cleaned manually or robotically every seven days . The cheese is also turned at this time . At 12 months , the Consorzio Parmigiano-Reggiano inspects every wheel . The cheese is tested by a master grader who taps each wheel to identify undesirable cracks and voids within the wheel . Wheels that pass the test are then heat branded on the rind with the Consorzio 's logo . Those that do not pass the test used to have their rinds marked with lines or crosses all the way around to inform consumers that they are not getting top-quality Parmigiano-Reggiano ; more recent practices simply have these lesser rinds stripped of all markings . Traditionally , cows have to be fed only on grass or hay , producing grass fed milk . Only natural whey culture is allowed as a starter , together with calf rennet . The only additive allowed is salt , which the cheese absorbs while being submerged for 20 days in brine tanks saturated to near total salinity with Mediterranean sea salt . The product is aged an average of two years . The cheese is produced daily , and it can show a natural variability . True Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese has a sharp , complex fruity/nutty taste with a strong savory flavor and a slightly gritty texture . Inferior versions can impart a bitter taste . The average Parmigiano-Reggiano wheel is about 18 - high , 40 - in diameter , and weighs 38 kg . Uses Parmigiano-Reggiano is commonly grated over pasta dishes , stirred into soups and risottos , and eaten on its own . It is often shaved or grated over other dishes like salads . Slivers and chunks of the hardest parts of the crust are sometimes simmered in soup . They can also be roasted and eaten as a snack . History According to legend , Parmigiano-Reggiano was created in the course of the Middle Ages in Bibbiano , in the province of Reggio Emilia . Its production soon spread to the Parma and Modena areas . Historical documents show that in the 13th and 14th centuries , Parmigiano was already very similar to that produced today , which suggests its origins can be traced to far earlier . It was praised as early as 1348 in the writings of Boccaccio ; in the Decameron , he invents a 'mountain , all of grated Parmesan cheese ' , on which 'dwell folk that do nought else but make macaroni and ravioli , and boil them in capon 's broth , and then throw them down to be scrambled for ; and hard by flows a rivulet of Vernaccia , the best that ever was drunk , and never a drop of water therein . ' During the Great Fire of London of 1666 , Samuel Pepys buried his `` Parmazan cheese , as well as his wine and some other things '' to preserve them . In the memoirs of Giacomo Casanova , he remarked that the name `` Parmesan '' was a misnomer common throughout an `` ungrateful '' Europe in his time ( mid-18th century ) , as the cheese was produced in the town of Lodi , Lombardy , not Parma . Though Casanova knew his table and claimed in his memoir to have been compiling a ( never completed ) dictionary of cheeses , his comment has been taken to refer mistakenly to a grana cheese similar to `` Parmigiano '' , Grana Padano , which is produced in the Lodi area . Parmigiano-Reggiano has been the target of organized crime in Italy , particularly the Mafia or Camorra , which ambush delivery trucks on the Autostrada A1 in northern Italy between Milan and Bologna , hijacking the shipment . The cheese is ultimately sold in southern Italy . Between November 2013 and January 2015 , an organized crime gang stole 2039 wheels of Parmigiano-Reggiano from warehouses in northern and central Italy . Aroma and chemical components Parmigiano has many aroma-active compounds , including various aldehydes and butyrates . Butyric acid and isovaleric acid together are sometimes used to imitate the dominant aromas . Parmigiano is also particularly high in glutamate , containing as much as 1.2 g of glutamate per 100 g of cheese , making it the naturally produced food with the second highest level of glutamate , after Roquefort cheese . The high concentration of glutamate explains the strong umami taste of Parmigiano . Parmigiano cheese typically contains cheese crystals , semi-solid to gritty crystalline spots that at least partially consist of the amino acid tyrosine . Name use and generic parmesan The name is legally protected and , in Italy , exclusive control is exercised over the cheese 's production and sale by the Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese Consorzio , which was created by a governmental decree . Each wheel must meet strict criteria early in the aging process , when the cheese is still soft and creamy , to merit the official seal and be placed in storage for aging . Because it is widely imitated , Parmigiano-Reggiano has become an increasingly regulated product , and in 1955 it became what is known as a certified name ( which is not the same as a brand name ) . In 2008 an EU court determined that the name `` Parmesan '' in Europe only refers to Parmigiano-Reggiano and can not be used for imitation Parmesan . Thus in the European Union , `` Parmigiano-Reggiano '' is a protected designation of origin ( PDO - DOP in Italian ) ; legally , the name refers exclusively to the Parmigiano-Reggiano PDO cheese manufactured in a limited area in northern Italy . Special seals identify the product as authentic , with the identification number of the dairy , the production month and year , a code identifying the individual wheel and stamps regarding the length of aging . American generic parmesan cheese Generic parmesan cheese is a family of hard grating cheeses made from cow 's milk and inspired by the original Italian cheese . They are generally pale yellow in color , and usually used grated on dishes like spaghetti , Caesar salad , and pizza . Within the European Union , the term Parmesan may only be used , by law , to refer to Parmigiano-Reggiano itself , which must be made in a restricted geographic area , using stringently defined methods . In many areas outside Europe , the name `` Parmesan '' has become genericized , and may denote any of a number of hard Italian-style grating cheeses , often commercialized under names intended to evoke the original : Parmesan , Parmigiana , Parmesana , Parmabon , Real Parma , Parmezan , Parmezano , Reggianito . After the European ruling that `` parmesan '' could not be used as a generic name , Kraft renamed its grated cheese `` Pamesello '' in Europe . Production Generic parmesans may be legally defined in various jurisdictions . In the United States , the Code of Federal Regulations includes a Standard of Identity for `` Parmesan and reggiano cheese '' . This defines both aspects of the production process and of the final result . In particular , parmesan must be made of cow 's milk , cured for 10 months or more , contain no more than 32 % water , and have no less than 32 % milkfat in its solids . Grated parmesans have been found to have high levels of non-cheese ingredients such as cellulose and FDA findings show `` no parmesan cheese was used to manufacture '' certain brands of grated cheese labeled `` Parmesan '' . Flavor and uses Parmesan cheeses are rich in umami flavors . They are generally used as a condiment for prepared foods , rather than being eaten by itself on a cheese plate . Kraft Foods is a major North American producer of generic parmesan and has been selling it since 1945 . As parmesan is a common seasoning for pizzas and pastas , many major pizza chains offer it for free . Alternatives Soy-based alternatives to Parmesan cheese exist . Outside Europe , commercially produced cheeses in the style of Parmigiano-Reggiano may be legally sold under the generic name Parmesan cheese . When sold in Europe , such cheeses are obliged to be sold under other names , such as Kraft 's `` pamesello italiano '' . Similar cheeses Grana Padano Grana Padano is an Italian cheese similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano . Differences are : * It is produced mainly in Lombardy ; `` Padano '' refers to the Po Valley ( Pianura Padana ) . * Cows can also be fed silage , not grass and hay only . * The milk contains slightly less fat . * Milk of several days can be used . * No organic certifications . * No controlled proceedings over cow breeds . * No cow feed control . * Minimum aging of 9 months . Gran Moravia Gran Moravia , is a cheese from the Czech Republic similar to Grana Padano and Parmigiano . Reggianito Reggianito is an Argentine cheese similar to Parmigiano .

qw_15141--Parmigiano-Reggiano.txt

What dish has romaine lettuce and croutons dressed with parmesan cheese, lemon juice, olive oil, egg, Worcestershire sauce, and black pepper?

Theodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ; October 27 , 1858 – January 6 , 1919 ) was an American statesman , author , explorer , soldier , naturalist , and reformer who served as the 26th President of the United States from 1901 to 1909 . As a leader of the Republican Party during this time , he became a driving force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century . Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma , Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle . He integrated his exuberant personality , vast range of interests , and world-famous achievements into a `` cowboy '' persona defined by robust masculinity . Home-schooled , he became a lifelong naturalist before attending Harvard College . His first of many books , The Naval War of 1812 ( 1882 ) , established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer . Upon entering politics , he became the leader of the reform faction of Republicans in New York 's state legislature . Following the deaths of his wife and mother , he took time to grieve by escaping to the wilderness of the American West and operating a cattle ranch in the Dakotas for a time , before returning East to run unsuccessfully for Mayor of New York City in 1886 . He served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under William McKinley , resigning after one year to serve with the Rough Riders , where he gained national fame for courage during the Spanish–American War . Returning a war hero , he was elected governor of New York in 1898 . The state party leadership distrusted him , so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice president as McKinley 's running mate in the election of 1900 . Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country , helping McKinley 's re-election in a landslide victory based on a platform of peace , prosperity , and conservatism . Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901 , Roosevelt , at age 42 , succeeded to the office , becoming the youngest United States President in history . Leading his party and country into the Progressive Era , he championed his `` Square Deal '' domestic policies , promising the average citizen fairness , breaking of trusts , regulation of railroads , and pure food and drugs . Making conservation a top priority , he established a myriad of new national parks , forests , and monuments intended to preserve the nation 's natural resources . In foreign policy , he focused on Central America , where he began construction of the Panama Canal . He greatly expanded the United States Navy , and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States ' naval power around the globe . His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize . Elected in 1904 to a full term , Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies , but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress . Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend , William Howard Taft , to succeed him in the presidency . After leaving office , Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe . Returning to the USA , he became frustrated with Taft 's approach as his successor . He tried but failed to win the presidential nomination in 1912 . Roosevelt founded his own party , the Progressive , so-called `` Bull Moose '' Party , and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms . The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912 . The Democrats in the South had also gained power by having disenfranchised most blacks ( and Republicans ) from the political system from 1890 to 1908 , fatally weakening the Republican Party across the region , and creating a Solid South dominated by their party alone . Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades . Frustrated at home , Roosevelt led a two-year expedition in the Amazon Basin , nearly dying of tropical disease . During World War I , he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the U.S. out of the war against Germany , and offered his military services , which were never summoned . Although planning to run again for president in 1920 , Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919 . Roosevelt has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. presidents . His face was carved into Mount Rushmore alongside those of George Washington , Thomas Jefferson , and Abraham Lincoln . Early life and family Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27 , 1858 , at East 20th Street in New York City , New York . He was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart `` Mittie '' Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr . He had an older sister , Anna ( nicknamed `` Bamie '' ) , a younger brother , Elliott , and a younger sister , Corinne . Elliott was later the father of First Lady Anna Eleanor Roosevelt , the wife of Theodore 's distant cousin , President Franklin Delano Roosevelt . His paternal grandfather was of Dutch descent ; his other ancestry included primarily Scottish and Scots-Irish , English and smaller amounts of German , Welsh , and French . Theodore Sr. was the fifth son of businessman Cornelius Van Schaack `` C.V.S . '' Roosevelt and Margaret Barnhill . Thee 's fourth cousin , James Roosevelt I , who was also a businessman , was the father of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt . Mittie was the younger daughter of Major James Stephens Bulloch and Martha P. `` Patsy '' Stewart . Through the Van Schaacks Roosevelt is a descendant of the Schuyler family . Roosevelt 's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma . He repeatedly experienced sudden nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death , which terrified both Theodore and his parents . Doctors had no cure . Nevertheless , he was energetic and mischievously inquisitive . His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market ; after obtaining the seal 's head , Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the `` Roosevelt Museum of Natural History '' . Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy , he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught ; he then studied the animals and prepared them for display . At age nine , he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled `` The Natural History of Insects '' .. Roosevelt 's father significantly influenced him . His father had been a prominent leader in New York 's cultural affairs ; he helped to found the Metropolitan Museum of Art , and had been especially active in mobilizing support for the Union war effort . Roosevelt wrote : `` My father , Theodore Roosevelt , was the best man I ever knew . He combined strength and courage with gentleness , tenderness , and great unselfishness . He would not tolerate in us children selfishness or cruelty , idleness , cowardice , or untruthfulness . '' Family trips abroad , including tours of Europe in 1869 and 1870 , and Egypt in 1872 , also had a lasting impact . Hiking with his family in the Alps in 1869 , Roosevelt found that he could keep pace with his father . He had discovered the significant benefits of physical exertion to minimize his asthma and bolster his spirits . With encouragement from his father , Roosevelt began a heavy regime of exercise . After being manhandled by two older boys on a camping trip , he found a boxing coach to teach him to fight and strengthen his weakened body . Roosevelt later articulated the abiding influence of the courageous men he read about , including those in his family : `` I was nervous and timid . Yet from reading of the people I admired—ranging from the soldiers of Valley Forge and Morgan 's riflemen , to the heroes of my favorite stories—and from hearing of the feats of my southern forefathers and kinsfolk and from knowing my father , I felt a great admiration for men who were fearless and who could hold their own in the world , and I had a great desire to be like them . '' Education Roosevelt was mostly home schooled by tutors and his parents . Biographer H. W. Brands argues that `` The most obvious drawback to the home schooling Roosevelt received was uneven coverage of the various areas of human knowledge '' . He was solid in geography ( as a result of self study during travels ) , and bright in history , biology , French , and German ; however , he struggled in mathematics and the classical languages . He entered Harvard College on September 27 , 1876 ; his father told him `` Take care of your morals first , your health next , and finally your studies '' . After recovering from devastation over his father 's death on February 9 , 1878 , Roosevelt doubled his activities . He did well in science , philosophy , and rhetoric courses but continued to struggle in Latin and Greek . He studied biology intently and was already an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist ; he read prodigiously with an almost photographic memory . While at Harvard , Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing ; he was once runner-up in a Harvard boxing tournament . Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society , the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity , and the Porcellian Club ; he was also an editor of The Harvard Advocate . On June 30 , 1880 , Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa ( 22nd of 177 ) from Harvard with an A.B . magna cum laude . He entered Columbia Law School , and was an able student , but he often found law to be irrational ; he spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812 . Roosevelt eventually became entirely disenchanted with law and diverted his attention to politics at Morton Hall on 59th Street , the headquarters for New York 's 21st District Republican Association . When the members of the association encouraged him to run for public office , he dropped out of law school to do so , later saying , `` I intended to be one of the governing class . '' Naval history and strategy While at Harvard , Roosevelt began a systematic study of the role played by the young US Navy in the War of 1812 . Assisted by two uncles , he scrutinized original source materials and official US Navy records . Roosevelt 's carefully researched book , published in 1882 , remains one of the most important scholarly studies of the war , complete with drawings of individual and combined ship maneuvers , charts depicting the differences in iron throw weights of cannon shot between rival forces , and analyses of the differences between British and American leadership down to the ship-to-ship level . Published after Roosevelt 's graduation from Harvard , The Naval War of 1812 was praised for its scholarship and style , and it showed Roosevelt to be a scholar of history . It remains a standard study of the war . Roosevelt waved the Stars and Stripes : It must be but a poor spirited American whose veins do not tingle with pride when he reads of the cruises and fights of the sea-captains , and their grim prowess , which kept the old Yankee flag floating over the waters of the Atlantic for three years , in the teeth of the mightiest naval power the world has ever seen . With the publication of The Influence of Sea Power upon History , 1660–1783 in 1890 , Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was immediately hailed as the outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe . Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan 's emphasis that only a nation with the world 's most powerful fleet could dominate the world 's oceans , exert its diplomacy to the fullest , and defend its own borders . He incorporated Mahan 's ideas into American naval strategy when he served as assistant secretary of the Navy in 1897-98 . As president , 1901-1909 , Roosevelt made building up a world-class fighting fleet of high priority , sending his `` white fleet '' around the globe in 1908-1909 to make sure all the naval powers understood the United States was now a major player . Roosevelt 's fleet still did not challenge the superior British fleet , but it did become dominant in the Western Hemisphere . Building the Panama Canal was designed not just to open Pacific trade to East Coast cities , but also to enable the new Navy to move back and forth across the globe . First marriage and widowerhood On his 22nd birthday , Roosevelt married socialite Alice Hathaway Lee , daughter of banker George Cabot Lee and Caroline Watts Haskell . Their daughter , Alice Lee Roosevelt , was born on February 12 , 1884 . Roosevelt 's wife died two days after giving birth due to an undiagnosed case of kidney failure ( called Bright 's disease at the time ) , which had been masked by the pregnancy . In his diary , Roosevelt wrote a large ' X ' on the page and then , `` The light has gone out of my life . '' His mother , Mittie , had died of typhoid fever eleven hours earlier at 3:00 a.m. , in the same house . Distraught , Roosevelt left baby Alice in the care of his sister Bamie in New York City while he grieved . He assumed custody of his daughter when she was three . Roosevelt also reacted by focusing on work , specifically by re-energizing a legislative investigation into corruption of the New York City government , which arose from a concurrent bill proposing that power be centralized in the mayor 's office . For the rest of his life , he rarely spoke about his wife Alice and did not write about her in his autobiography . While working with Joseph Bucklin Bishop on a biography that included a collection of his letters , Roosevelt did not mention his marriage to Alice nor his second marriage to Edith Kermit Carow . Early political career State Assemblyman Roosevelt was soon put forth as the Republican party 's candidate for the District 's House seat in Albany . He was a member of the New York State Assembly ( New York Co. , 21st D. ) in 1882 , 1883 and 1884 . He immediately began making his mark , specifically in corporate corruption issues . He blocked a corrupt effort by financier Jay Gould to lower his taxes . Roosevelt exposed suspected collusion in the matter by Judge Theodore Westbrook , and argued for and received approval for an investigation to proceed , aiming for the impeachment of the judge . The investigation committee rejected impeachment , but Roosevelt had exposed the potential corruption in Albany , and thus assumed a high and positive political profile in multiple New York publications . In 1883 , Roosevelt became the Assembly Minority Leader . In 1884 , he lost the nomination for Speaker to Titus Sheard by a vote of 41 to 29 in the GOP caucus . Roosevelt was also Chairman of the Committee on Affairs of Cities ; he wrote more bills than any other legislator . Presidential election of 1884 With numerous presidential hopefuls to choose from , Roosevelt supported Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont , a colorless reformer . The state GOP preferred the incumbent president , New York City 's Chester Arthur , who was known as a spoilsman . Roosevelt fought hard and succeeded in influencing the Manhattan delegates at the state convention in Utica . He then took control of the state convention , bargaining through the night and outmaneuvering the supporters of Arthur and James G. Blaine ; he gained a national reputation as a key person in New York State . Roosevelt attended the 1884 GOP National Convention in Chicago and fought alongside the Mugwump reformers ; they lost to the Stalwart faction , who nominated James G. Blaine . In a crucial moment of his budding political career , Roosevelt resisted the demand of the Mugwumps that he bolt from Blaine . He bragged about his one small success : `` We achieved a victory in getting up a combination to beat the Blaine nominee for temporary chairman ... To do this needed a mixture of skill , boldness and energy ... to get the different factions to come in ... to defeat the common foe . '' He was also impressed by an invitation to speak before an audience of ten thousand , the largest crowd he had addressed up to that date . Having gotten a taste of national politics , Roosevelt felt less aspiration for advocacy on the state level ; he then retired to his new `` Chimney Butte Ranch '' on the Little Missouri . Roosevelt refused to join other Mugwumps in supporting Grover Cleveland , the governor of New York and the Democratic nominee in the general election . He debated the pros and cons of staying loyal with his political friend , Henry Cabot Lodge . After Blaine won the nomination , Roosevelt had carelessly said that he would give `` hearty support to any decent Democrat '' . He distanced himself from the promise , saying that it had not been meant `` for publication '' . When a reporter asked if he would support Blaine , Roosevelt replied , `` That question I decline to answer . It is a subject I do not care to talk about . '' In the end , he realized that he had to support Blaine to maintain his role in the GOP , and he did so in a press release on July 19 . In 1886 , Roosevelt was the Republican candidate for mayor of New York City , portraying himself as `` The Cowboy of the Dakotas '' . GOP precinct workers warned voters that the independent radical candidate Henry George was leading and that Roosevelt would lose , thus causing a last-minute defection of GOP voters to the Democratic candidate Abram Hewitt . Roosevelt took third place with 27 % ( 60,435 votes ) . Hewitt won with 41 % ( 90,552 votes ) , and George was held to 31 % ( 68,110 votes ) . Cowboy in Dakota Roosevelt built a second ranch named Elk Horn , thirty-five miles ( 56 km ) north of the boomtown of Medora , North Dakota . On the banks of the Little Missouri , Roosevelt learned to ride western style , rope and hunt ; though he earned the respect of the authentic cowboys , they were not overly impressed . However , he identified with the herdsman of history , a man he said possesses , `` few of the emasculated , milk-and-water moralities admired by the pseudo-philanthropists ; but he does possess , to a very high degree , the stern , manly qualities that are invaluable to a nation '' . He reoriented , and began writing about frontier life for national magazines ; he also published three books – Hunting Trips of a Ranchman , Ranch Life and the Hunting-Trail , and The Wilderness Hunter . As a deputy sheriff , Roosevelt pursued three outlaws who had stolen his riverboat and escaped north up the Little Missouri . He captured them , but decided against a vigilante hanging ; instead , he sent his foreman back by boat , and conveyed the thieves to Dickinson for trial . He assumed guard over them for forty hours without sleep , while reading Leo Tolstoy to keep himself awake . When he ran out of his own books , he read a dime store western that one of the thieves was carrying . On another occasion , while searching for a group of relentless horse thieves , Roosevelt met Seth Bullock , the famous sheriff of Deadwood , South Dakota . The two would remain friends for life . Roosevelt brought his desire to address the common interests of citizens to the west . He successfully led efforts to organize ranchers to address the problems of overgrazing and other shared concerns ; his work resulted in the formation of the Little Missouri Stockmen 's Association . He was also compelled to coordinate conservation efforts and was able to form the Boone and Crockett Club , whose primary goal was the conservation of large game animals and their habitats . After the uniquely severe US winter of 1886–87 wiped out his herd of cattle and those of his competitors , and with it over half of his $ 80,000 investment , Roosevelt returned to the East . Second marriage On December 2 , 1886 , Roosevelt married his childhood and family friend , Edith Kermit Carow ( August 6 , 1861 – September 30 , 1948 ) , a daughter of Charles Carow and Gertrude Elizabeth Tyler . The couple married at St George 's , Hanover Square in London , England . English diplomat Cecil Arthur Spring Rice , Roosevelt 's close friend , served as best man . The couple honeymooned in Europe , and while there , Roosevelt led a group to the summit of Mont Blanc , an achievement that resulted in his induction into the Royal Society of London . They had five children : Theodore `` Ted '' III ( 1887–1944 ) , Kermit ( 1889–1943 ) , Ethel ( 1891–1977 ) , Archibald ( 1894–1979 ) , and Quentin ( 1897–1918 ) . At the time of Ted 's birth , Roosevelt was both eager and worried for Edith after losing his first wife , Alice , shortly after childbirth . Reentering public life Civil Service Commission In the 1888 presidential election , Roosevelt successfully campaigned , primarily in the Midwest , for Benjamin Harrison . President Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the United States Civil Service Commission , where he served until 1895 . While in office , Roosevelt vigorously fought the spoilsmen and demanded enforcement of civil service laws . The New York Sun then described Roosevelt as `` irrepressible , belligerent , and enthusiastic '' . Despite Roosevelt 's support for Harrison 's reelection bid in the presidential election of 1892 , the eventual winner , Grover Cleveland ( a Bourbon Democrat ) , reappointed him to the same post . Roosevelt 's close friend and biographer , Joseph Bucklin Bishop , described his assault on the spoils system : New York City Police Commissioner In 1894 , a group of reform Republicans approached Roosevelt about running for Mayor of New York again ; he declined , mostly due to his wife 's resistance to being removed from the Washington social set . Soon after he declined , he realized that he had missed an opportunity to reinvigorate a dormant political career . He retreated to the Dakotas for a time ; his wife Edith regretted her role in the decision and vowed that there would be no repeat of it . Roosevelt became president of the board of the New York City Police Commissioners for two years in 1895 and radically reformed the police force . The New York Police Department ( NYPD ) was reputed as one of the most corrupt in America ; the NYPD 's history division records that Roosevelt was `` an iron-willed leader of unimpeachable honesty , ( who ) brought a reforming zeal to the New York City Police Commission in 1895 '' . Roosevelt implemented regular inspections of firearms and annual physical exams ; he appointed 1,600 recruits based on their physical and mental qualifications , regardless of political affiliation , established Meritorious Service Medals and closed corrupt police hostelries . During his tenure , a Municipal Lodging House was established by the Board of Charities , and Roosevelt required officers to register with the Board ; he also had telephones installed in station houses . In 1894 , Roosevelt met Jacob Riis , the muckraking Evening Sun newspaper journalist who was opening the eyes of New Yorkers to the terrible conditions of the city 's millions of poor immigrants with such books as How the Other Half Lives . Riis described how his book affected Roosevelt : Roosevelt made a habit of walking officers ' beats late at night and early in the morning to make sure that they were on duty . He made a concerted effort to uniformly enforce New York 's Sunday closing law ; in this , he ran up against boss Tom Platt as well as Tammany Hall—he was notified that the Police Commission was being legislated out of existence . Roosevelt chose to defer rather than split with his party . As Governor of New York State before becoming Vice President in March 1901 , Roosevelt signed an act replacing the Police Commissioners with a single Police Commissioner . Emergence as a national figure Assistant Secretary of the Navy Roosevelt had demonstrated , through his research and writing , a fascination with naval history ; President William McKinley , urged by Roosevelt 's close friend Congressman Henry Cabot Lodge , appointed Roosevelt as the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897 . Secretary of the Navy John D. Long was more concerned about formalities than functions , was in poor health , and left major decisions to Roosevelt . Roosevelt seized the opportunity and began pressing his national security views regarding the Pacific and the Caribbean on McKinley . Roosevelt was particularly adamant that Spain be ejected from Cuba , to foster the latter 's independence and to demonstrate the U.S. resolve to reinforce the Monroe Doctrine . Ten days after the battleship Maine exploded in the harbor of Havana , Cuba , the Secretary left the office and Roosevelt became Acting Secretary for four hours . Roosevelt cabled the Navy worldwide to prepare for war , ordered ammunition and supplies , brought in experts and went to Congress asking for the authority to recruit as many sailors as he wanted . Roosevelt was instrumental in preparing the Navy for the Spanish–American War . Roosevelt had an analytical mind , even as he was itching for war . He explained his priorities to one of the Navy 's planners in late 1897 : War in Cuba Prior to his service in the Spanish–American War , Roosevelt had already seen reserve military service from 1882 to 1886 with the New York National Guard . Commissioned on August 1 , 1882 as a 2nd Lieutenant with B Company , 8th Regiment , he was promoted to Captain and company commander a year later , and he remained in command until he resigned his commission . When the United States and Spain declared war against each other in late April 1898 , Roosevelt resigned from his civilian leadership job with the Navy on May 6 and formed the First US Volunteer Cavalry Regiment along with Army Colonel Leonard Wood . Referred to by the press as the `` Rough Riders '' , the regiment was one of many temporary units active only for the duration of the war . After securing modern multiple-round Krag smokeless carbines , Lieutenant Colonel Roosevelt arrived on May 15 . The regiment trained for several weeks in San Antonio , Texas , and in his autobiography Roosevelt wrote that his prior National Guard experience had been invaluable , in that it enabled him to immediately begin teaching his men basic soldiering skills . The Rough Riders used some standard issue gear and some of their own design , purchased with gift money . Diversity characterized the regiment , which included Ivy Leaguers , professional and amateur athletes , upscale gentlemen as well as cowboys , frontiersmen , Native Americans , hunters , miners , prospectors , former soldiers , tradesmen , and sheriffs . The Rough Riders were part of the cavalry division commanded by former Confederate general Joseph Wheeler . It was one of three divisions in the V Corps under Lieutenant General William Rufus Shafter . Roosevelt and his men departed Tampa on June 13 , landed in Daiquiri , Cuba , on June 23 , 1898 , and marched to Siboney . Wheeler sent parts of the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry on the lower road northwest and sent the `` Rough Riders '' on

qg_2616--Theodore_Roosevelt.txt

August 6, 1912 saw formation of The Bull Moose Party, with what total bad assed at the lead?

Li ' l Abner is a satirical American comic strip that appeared in many newspapers in the United States , Canada and Europe , featuring a fictional clan of hillbillies in the impoverished mountain village of Dogpatch , USA . Written and drawn by Al Capp ( 1909–1979 ) , the strip ran for 43 years , from August 13 , 1934 through November 13 , 1977 . It was distributed by United Feature Syndicate . Comic strips typically dealt with northern urban experiences before Capp introduced Li ' l Abner , the first strip based in the South . Although Capp was from Connecticut , he spent 43 years writing about a fictional southern town . The comic strip had 60 million readers in over 900 American newspapers and 100 foreign papers in 28 countries . Author M. Thomas Inge says Capp `` had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South . '' Cast Main characters Li ' l Abner Yokum : Abner was 6 ' 3 '' and perpetually 19 `` y'ars '' old . A naïve , simpleminded , gullible and sweet-natured hillbilly , he lived in a ramshackle log cabin with his pint-sized parents . Capp derived the family name `` Yokum '' as a combination of yokel and hokum . In Capp 's satirical and often complex plots , Abner was a country bumpkin Candide—a paragon of innocence in a sardonically dark and cynical world . Abner typically had no visible means of support , but sometimes earned his livelihood as a `` crescent cutter '' for the Little Wonder privy company , later changed to `` mattress tester '' for the Stunned Ox mattress company . During World War II , Abner was `` drafted '' into becoming the mascot emblem of the Patrol Boat Squadron 29 . In one Post World War II storyline Abner became a US Air Force bodyguard of Steve Cantor ( a parody of Steve Canyon ) against the evil bald female spy Jewell Brynner ( a parody of actor Yul Brynner ) Abner 's primary goal in life was evading the marital designs of Daisy Mae Scragg , the virtuous , voluptuous , barefoot Dogpatch damsel and scion of the Yokums ' blood feud enemies—the Scraggs , her bloodthirsty , semi-evolved kinfolk . For 18 years , Abner slipped out of Daisy Mae 's marital crosshairs time and time again . When Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to tie the knot , it was a major media event . It even made the cover of Life magazine on March 31 , 1952—illustrating an article by Capp entitled `` It 's Hideously True ! ! The Creator of Li ' l Abner Tells Why His Hero Is ( SOB ! ) Wed ! ! '' Daisy Mae Yokum ( née Scragg ) : Beautiful Daisy Mae was hopelessly in love with Dogpatch 's most prominent resident throughout the entire 43-year run of Al Capp 's comic strip . During most of the epic , the impossibly dense Abner exhibited little romantic interest in her voluptuous charms ( much of it visible daily thanks to her famous polka-dot peasant blouse and cropped skirt ) . In 1952 , Abner reluctantly proposed to Daisy to emulate the engagement of his comic strip `` ideel , '' Fearless Fosdick . Fosdick 's own wedding to longtime fiancée Prudence Pimpleton turned out to be a dream—but Abner and Daisy 's ceremony , performed by Marryin ' Sam , was permanent . Abner and Daisy Mae 's nuptials were a major source of media attention , landing them on the aforementioned cover of Life magazine 's March 31 , 1952 , issue . Once married , Abner became relatively domesticated . Like Mammy Yokum and the other `` wimmenfolk '' in Dogpatch , Daisy Mae did all the work , domestic and otherwise—while the useless menfolk generally did nothing whatsoever . Mammy Yokum : Born Pansy Hunks , Mammy was the scrawny , highly principled `` sassiety '' leader and bare knuckle `` champeen '' of the town of Dogpatch . She married the inconsequential Pappy Yokum in 1902 ; they produced two strapping sons twice their own size . Mammy dominated the Yokum clan through the force of her personality , and dominated everyone else with her fearsome right uppercut ( sometimes known as her `` Goodnight , Irene '' punch ) , which helped her uphold law , order and decency . She is consistently the toughest character throughout Li ' l Abner . A superhuman dynamo , Mammy did all the household chores—and provided her charges with no fewer than eight meals a day of `` po ' k chops '' and `` tarnips , '' ( as well as local Dogpatch delicacies like `` candied catfish eyeballs '' and `` trashbean soup '' ) . Her authority was unquestioned , and her characteristic phrase , `` Ah has spoken ! , '' signaled the end of all further discussion . Her most familiar phrase , however , is `` Good is better than evil becuz it 's nicer ! '' ( Upon his retirement in 1977 , Capp declared Mammy to be his personal favorite of all his characters . ) Pappy Yokum : Born Lucifer Ornamental Yokum , pint-sized Pappy had the misfortune of being the patriarch in a family that did n't have one . Pappy was so lazy and ineffectual , he did n't even bathe himself . Mammy was regularly seen scrubbing Pappy in an outdoor oak tub ( `` Once a month , rain or shine '' ) . Ironing Pappy 's trousers fell under her wifely duties as well , although she did n't bother with preliminaries—like waiting for Pappy to remove them first . While Mammy was the unofficial mayor of Dogpatch and could read , Pappy remained illiterate . Pappy is dull-witted and gullible ( in one storyline after he is conned by Marry'n Sam into buying Vanishing cream because he thinks it makes him invisible he picks a fight with his nemesis Earthquake McGoon ) , but not completely without guile . He had an unfortunate predilection for snitching `` presarved tarnips '' and smoking corn silk behind the woodshed—much to his chagrin when Mammy caught him . Honest Abe Yokum : Li ' l Abner and Daisy Mae 's little boy was born in 1953 `` after a pregnancy that ambled on so long that readers began sending me medical books , '' wrote Capp . Initially known as `` Mysterious Yokum '' ( there was even an Ideal doll marketed under this name ) due to a debate regarding his gender ( he was stuck in a pants-shaped stovepipe for the first six weeks ) , he was renamed `` Honest Abe '' ( after President Abraham Lincoln ) to thwart his early tendency to steal . His first words were `` po ' k chop , '' and that remained his favorite food . Though his uncle Tiny was perpetually frozen at 15½ `` y'ars '' old , Honest Abe gradually grew from infant to grade school age , and became a dead ringer for Washable Jones—the star of Capp 's early `` topper '' strip . He would eventually acquire a couple of supporting character friends for his own semi-regularly featured adventures in the strip . In one storyline he lives up to his nickname when during a nationwide search for George Washington missing socks { the finder gets to shake the President of the United States hand } after dishonestly producing a fraudulent pair he confess to the truth at the last second . Tiny Yokum : `` Tiny '' was a misnomer ; Li ' l Abner 's kid brother remained perpetually innocent and 15½ `` y'ars '' old—despite the fact that he was an imposing , 7 ft tall behemoth . Tiny was unknown to the strip until September 1954 , when a relative who had been raising him reminded Mammy that she 'd given birth to a second `` chile '' while visiting her 15 years earlier . ( The relative explained that she would have dropped him off sooner , but waited until she happened to be in the neighborhood . ) Capp introduced Tiny to fill the bachelor role played reliably for nearly two decades by Li ' l Abner himself , until his fateful 1952 marriage threw the carefully orchestrated dynamic of the strip out of whack for a period . Pursued by local lovelies Hopeful Mudd and Boyless Bailey , Tiny was even dumber and more awkward than Abner , if that can be imagined . Tiny initially sported a bulbous nose like both of his parents , but eventually , ( through a plot contrivance ) he was given a nose job , and his shaggy blond hair was buzz cut to make him more appealing . Salomey : The Yokums ' beloved pet . Cute , lovable and intelligent ( arguably smarter than Abner , Tiny or Pappy ) , she was accepted as part of the family , ( `` the youngest , '' as Mammy invariably introduces her . ) She is 100 % `` Hammus Alabammus '' —an adorable species of pig , and the last female known in existence . A plump , juicy Hammus Alabammus is the rarest and most vital ingredient of `` ecstasy sauce , '' an indescribably delicious gourmet delicacy . Consequently , Salomey is frequently targeted by unscrupulous sportsmen , hog breeders and gourmands ( like J.R. Fangsley and Bounder J. Roundheels ) , as well as unsavory boars with improper intentions ( such as Boar Scarloff and Porknoy ) . Her moniker was a pun on both salami and Salome . Supporting characters and villains * Marryin ' Sam : A traveling ( by mule ) preacher who specializes in $ 2 weddings . He also offered the $ 8 `` ultra-deluxe speshul , '' a spectacular ceremony in which Sam officiates while being drawn and quartered by four rampaging jackasses . He cleans up once a year—during Sadie Hawkins Day season , when slow-footed bachelors are dragged kicking and screaming to the altar by their prospective brides-to-be . Sam , whose face and figure were reportedly modeled after New York City mayor Fiorello LaGuardia , started out as a stock villain but gradually softened into a genial , opportunistic comic foil . He was n't above chicanery to achieve his ends , and was warily viewed by Dogpatch menfolk as a traitor to his gender . Sam was prominently featured on the cover of Life in 1952 when he presided over the celebrated wedding of Li ' l Abner and Daisy Mae . In the 1956 Broadway musical and 1959 film adaptation , Sam was perfectly played by rotund actor Stubby Kaye . * Moonbeam McSwine : The unwashed but shapely form of languid , delectable Moonbeam was one of the iconic hallmarks of Li ' l Abner—an unkempt , impossibly lazy , corncob pipe-smoking , flagrant ( and fragrant ) , raven-haired , earthly ( and earthy ) goddess . Beautiful Moonbeam preferred the company of pigs to suitors—much to the frustration of her equally lazy pappy , Moonshine McSwine . She was usually showcased luxuriating among the hogs , somewhat removed from the main action of the story , in a deliberate travesty of glamour magazines and pinup calendars of the day . Capp designed her in caricature of his wife Catherine ( minus the dirt ) , who had also suggested Daisy Mae 's name . In one comic it is revealed that she bears a striking resemblance to a wealthy , well-dressed and well-washed woman named Gloria Van Welbuilt ; a famous socialite . Despite her lazy nature and dirty appearance she was generally good-natured and kind as shown when she ran off to the Dogpatch , carrying two shmoos under her arms to save them from going extinct wondering if humanity will ever be good enough for them . She also consoled Abner to stop worrying about being a father . Moonbeam also seemed to have interests in romance as in some comic strips she was seen flirting with and even kissing various male characters including Abner . She once expressed the desire of having a family of her own and she actually discussed the matter of trapping a husband if she got cleaned up to Abner . In one strip it was revealed that Moonbeam was in fact in love with Abner when they were children . In the same strip it was shown that Moonbeam ’ s disposition for filth was born out of a failure to understand the turn-ons of Abner when he was a child . Strangely she actually disliked hogs as a child but after seeing Abner ignoring the openly romantic advances of a clean Daisy Mae , she dived right into a mud-hole headfirst where some hogs were wallowing to earn his love believing that if Abner did n't like clean girls he must have liked them dirty . Much to her disappointment however this too failed to capture his attention . Moonbeam was also unknowingly the star of a horror movie directed by Rock Pincus head film director of a race known as the Pincushions from Pincus 7 . Unfortunately this venture ended in tragedy for Rock when he was unknowingly grilled , put into a hot dog bun and devoured while he was still alive . * Hairless Joe and Lonesome Polecat : The proud purveyors of `` Kickapoo Joy Juice '' —a moonshine elixir of such stupefying potency that the fumes alone have been known to melt the rivets off battleships . Concocted in a large wooden vat by the inseparable cave-dwelling buddies Lonesome Polecat ( he of the Fried Dog Indian tribe , later known as the Polecats , `` the one tribe who have never been conquered , '' ) and Hairless Joe ( a hirsute , club-wielding , modern Cro-Magnon—who frequently made good on his oft-repeated threat , `` Ah 'll bash yore haid in ! '' ) The ingredients of the brew are both mysterious and all-encompassing , ( much like the contents of their cave , which has been known to harbor prehistoric monsters . ) When a batch `` needs more body , '' the formidable pair simply goes out and clubs one ( often a moose ) , and tosses it in . Over the years , the `` recipe '' has called for live grizzly bears , panthers , kerosene , horseshoes and anvils , among other ingredients . An officially licensed soft drink called Kickapoo Joy Juice is still produced by the Monarch Beverage Company of Atlanta , Georgia . Lonesome Polecat was also the official team mascot of the Sioux City Soos ( 1940–1960 ) , a former Minor League baseball franchise of Sioux City , Iowa . * Joe Btfsplk : The world 's worst jinx , Joe Btfsplk had a perpetually dark rain cloud over his head . Instantaneous bad luck befell anyone unfortunate enough to be in his vicinity . Though well-meaning and friendly , his reputation inevitably precedes him—so Joe is a very lonely little man . He has an apparently unpronounceable name , but creator Al Capp `` pronounced '' Btfsplk by simply blowing a `` raspberry , '' or Bronx cheer . Joe 's personal storm cloud became one of the most iconic images in the strip . * Senator Jack S. Phogbound : His name was a thinly disguised variant on `` jackass , '' as made plain in his deathless campaign slogan ( see Dialogue and catchphrases ) . The senator was satirist Al Capp 's parody of a blustering self-serving Southern politician . Before 1947 Phogbound had been known as Fogbound , but in that year Phogbound `` blackmails his fellow Washington senators to appropriate two million dollars to establish Phogbound university , '' and its attendant brass statue of Phogbound , both reminiscent of self-aggrandizements by Huey Long ; the name change allowed Capp to sharpen the joke by calling the university P.U . Phogbound is a corrupt , conspiratorial blowhard ; he often wears a coonskin cap and carries an old fashioned flintlock rifle to impress his gullible constituents . In one sequence , Phogbound is unable to campaign in Dogpatch—so he sends his aides with an old , hot air-filled gas bag that resembles him . Nobody noticed the difference ! * Available Jones : Dogpatch entrepreneur Available Jones was always available—for a price . He had many sidelines , including minding babies , ( Dry—5¢ , Other kinds—10¢ ) . He provided anything from a safety pin to a battleship , but his most famous `` provision '' was his memorable cousin—Stupefyin ' Jones . * Stupefyin ' Jones : A walking aphrodisiac , Stupefyin ' was stunning—literally . So drop-dead gorgeous that any male who glimpsed her froze petrified in his tracks and rooted to the spot—in a word , stupefied ! While she was generally favored by the males of Dogpatch , she could be deadly for a confirmed bachelor to encounter on Sadie Hawkins Day . Statuesque actress Julie Newmar became famous overnight for playing the small role in the 1956 Li ' l Abner Broadway musical ( and the 1959 film adaptation ) without uttering a single line . * General Bullmoose : Created by Al Capp in June 1953 , Bashington T. Bullmoose was the epitome of a mercenary , cold-blooded capitalist tyrant tycoon . Bullmoose 's bombastic motto ( see Dialogue and catchphrases ) was adapted by Capp from a statement made by Charles E. Wilson , the former head of General Motors when it was America 's largest corporation . In 1952 Wilson told a Senate subcommittee , `` What is good for the country is good for General Motors , and vice-versa . '' Wilson later served as United States Secretary of Defense under President Dwight D. Eisenhower . Bullmoose had a simple boyhood dream : to possess all the money in the world . He very nearly did . Bullmoose Industries seemed to own or control everything . He had a milksop of a son named Weakfish , and was sometimes accompanied by his delectable `` secretary , '' Bim Bovak , ( whose name was a pun on both `` bimbo '' and bombshell actress Kim Novak ) . Li ' l Abner became embroiled in many globetrotting adventures with the ruthless , reactionary billionaire over the years . * Wolf Gal : A feral , irredeemable , Amazonian beauty who was raised by wolves and preferred to live among them ; she lured unwary Dogpatchers to their doom to feed her ravenous pack . Wolf Gal was possibly , and even probably a cannibal—although the point was never stressed since she considered herself an animal , as did the rest of Dogpatch . One of Capp 's more popular villains , Wolf Gal was briefly merchandised in the fifties with her own comic book , doll , handpuppet , and even a latex Halloween mask . * Earthquake McGoon : Billing himself as `` the world 's dirtiest wrassler , '' the bearded , bloated McGoon first appeared in Li ' l Abner as a traveling exhibition wrestler in the late 1930s , and was reportedly partially based on real-life grappler Man Mountain Dean . He also has a look-alike cousin named Typhoon McGoon . McGoon became increasingly prominent in the Li ' l Abner Cream of Wheat print ads of the 1940s , and later , with the early television exposure of gimmicky wrestlers such as Gorgeous George . Earthquake is the nastiest resident of neighboring Skonk Hollow—a nightmarish , notoriously lawless community where no sane Dogpatcher dares set foot . The randy McGoon often attempted to walk Daisy Mae home `` Skonk Hollow style '' —the lascivious implications of which are never made specific . * The ( shudder ! ) Scraggs : Hulking , leering , gap-toothed twin miscreants Lem and Luke and their needlessly proud pappy , Romeo . Apelike and gleefully homicidal , the impossibly evil Scraggs were officially declared inhuman by an act of Congress . The Scraggs were so awful , they burned down orphanages just to have light to read by , ( although the joke was on them when they remembered they could n't read ! ) Distant kinfolk of Daisy Mae , they carried on a blood feud with the Yokums throughout the run of the strip-in their first introduction after being run out of a Kentucky county at gunpoint , they tried to kill Li ' l Abner but were beaten up by both Abner and his mother Mammy Yokam . A long-lost kid sister named `` * @ ! ! * ! `` -Belle Scragg briefly joined the clan in 1947 . Fetchingly-attired in a prison-striped reform school miniskirt , `` * @ ! ! * ! `` -Belle was outwardly attractive but just as rotten as her siblings on the inside . Her censored first name was an expletive , compelling everyone who addressed her to apologize profusely afterwards . * Nightmare Alice : Dogpatch 's own `` conjurin ' woman , '' a hideous , cackling crone who practiced Louisiana Voodoo and black magic . Capp named her after the carnival-themed horror film , Nightmare Alley ( 1947 ) . Alice employs witchcraft to `` whomp up '' ghosts and monsters to do her bidding . She was occasionally assisted by Doctor Babaloo , a witch doctor of the Belgian Congo , as well as her demon-child niece Scary Lou , who specializes in vexing voodoo dolls that resemble Li ' l Abner . * Ole Man Mose : The mysterious Mose was reportedly hundreds of `` y'ars '' old , and lived like a hermit in a cave atop a mountain . ( He obstinately refused to `` kick the bucket , '' which was conveniently positioned just outside his cave door . ) His wisdom is absolute ( `` Ole Man Mose— he knows ! `` ) , and his sought-after annual Sadie Hawkins Day predictions— though frustratingly cryptic and infuriatingly misleading— are nonetheless 100 % accurate . * Evil-Eye Fleegle : Fleegle has a unique and terrifying skill— the evil eye . An ordinary `` whammy , '' as he called it , could stop a charging bull in its tracks . A `` double whammy '' could fell a skyscraper , leaving Fleegle exhausted . His dreaded `` triple whammy '' could melt a battleship— but would practically kill Fleegle in the process . The zoot suit-clad Fleegle was a native of Brooklyn , and his burlesque New York accent was unmistakable— especially when addressing his `` goil , '' the zaftig Shoiley . Fleegle was so popular , licensed plastic replicas of Fleegle 's face were produced in the 1950s , to be worn like lapel pins . Battery-operated , the wearer could pull a string and produce a flashing light bulb `` whammy . '' Fleegle was reportedly based on a real-life character , a Runyonesque local boxing trainer and hanger-on named Benjamin `` Evil Eye '' Finkle . Finkle and his famous `` hex '' were a ringside fixture in New York boxing circles during the 1930s and '40s . Fleegle was vividly portrayed by character actor Al Nesor in the aforementioned stage play and film . * J. Roaringham Fatback : The self-styled `` Pork King '' was a greedy , gluttonous , unscrupulous business tycoon . Incensed to find that Dogpatch cast a shadow on his breakfast egg , he had Dogpatch moved— instead of the egg . The bloated , porcine Fatback is , quite literally , a corporate swine . * Gat Garson : Li ' l Abner 's doppelgänger— a murderous racketeer , with a predilection for Daisy Mae . * Aunt Bessie : Mammy 's socialite kid sister , the Duchess of Bopshire , was the `` white sheep '' of the family . Bessie 's string of marriages into Boston and Park Avenue aristocracy left her a class-conscious , condescending snob . Her status-seeking crusade to makeover Abner and marry him off into high society was doomed to failure , however . Aunt Bessie virtually disappeared from the strip after Abner and Daisy Mae 's marriage in 1952 . * Big Barnsmell : The lonely `` inside man '' at the `` Skonk Works '' — a dilapidated factory located on the remote outskirts of Dogpatch . Scores of locals are done in yearly by the toxic fumes of concentrated `` skonk oil , '' which is brewed and barreled daily by Barnsmell and his cousin ( `` outside man '' Barney Barnsmell ) by grinding dead skunks and worn shoes into a smoldering still , for some unspecified purpose . His job played havoc with his social life ( `` He has an air about him , '' as Dogpatchers tactfully put it ) , and the name of his famous facility entered the modern lexicon via the Lockheed Skunk Works project . * Soft-Hearted John : Dogpatch 's impossibly mercenary , thoroughly blackhearted grocer , the ironically named Soft-Hearted John gleefully swindled and starved his clientele— and looked disturbingly satanic to boot . He had an idiot of a nephew who sometimes ran the store in his stead , aptly named Soft-Headed John . * Smilin ' Zack : Cadaverous , outwardly peaceable mountaineer with a menacing grin and an even more menacing shotgun . He preferred things `` quiet . '' ( Real quiet , that is— not breathing or anything . ) Zack 's moniker was a take-off on another comic strip , The Adventures of Smilin ' Jack by Zack Mosley . * Dr. Killmare : The local Dogpatch physician , who just happened to be a horse doctor . His name was a pun on movie , radio and TV 's Dr. Kildare series . * Cap'n Eddie Ricketyback : Decrepit World War I aviator and proprietor/sole operator of the even more decrepit Dogpatch Airlines . Cap'n Eddie 's name was a spoof of decorated World War I flying ace , Eddie Rickenbacker . In 1970 , Cap'n Eddie and his firm Trans-Dogpatch Airlines were awarded the West Berlin Route by his old rival Count Felix Von Holenhedt . * Count Felix Von Holenhedt : German flying ace who in 1970 ( age 89 ) was appointed as West German Civil Aviation Chief . He was never photographed without his World War I spiked helmet on his head . He wore it to cover the hole in his head that had been caused by being shot `` clean through th ' haid , in a dogfight over Flanders Field in 1918 '' by Cap'n Eddie Ricketyback . * Weakeyes Yokum : Before Mister Magoo there was Dogpatch 's own Cousin Weakeyes , who would tragically mistake grizzly bears for romantically-inclined `` rich gals '' in fur coats , and end a sequence by characteristically walking off a cliff . * Young Eddie McSkonk and U.S. Mule : Ancient , creaky , white-bearded Dogpatch postmaster and his hoary jackass mount . They were usually too feeble to handle the sacks of timeworn , cobweb-covered letters marked `` Rush '' at the Dogpatch Express post office . * J. Colossal McGenius : The brilliant marketing consultant and `` idea man '' who charged $ 10,000 per word for his sought-after business advice . McGenius was given to telling long-winded jokes with forgotten punch lines , however— as well as spells of hiccups and belches which , at ten grand a pop , usually bankrupted his unfortunate clients . ( He had a regrettable fondness for gassy soft drinks like `` Burpsi-Booma '' and `` Eleven Urp . '' ) He was aided by his lovely and meticulously efficient secretary , Miss Pennypacker . * Silent Yokum : Prudent Cousin Silent never utters a word unless it 's absolutely , vitally important . Consequently , he has n't spoken in 40 years . The arrival of Silent 's grim visage in Dogpatch signaled earthshaking news on the horizon . Capp would milk reader suspense by having Silent `` warm up '' his rusty , creaking jaw muscles for a few days , before the momentous pronouncement . * Happy Vermin : The `` world 's smartest cartoonist '' — a caricature of Ham Fisher— who hired Li ' l Abner to draw his comic strip for him in a dimly-lit closet . Instead of using Vermin 's tired characters , Abner had inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies . A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant : `` I 'm proud of having created these characters ! ! They 'll make millions for me ! ! And if they do— I 'll get you a new light bulb ! ! '' * Big Stanislouse ; aka Big Julius : Stanislouse was a brutal gangster with a childish fondness for kiddie TV superheroes ( like `` Chickensouperman '' and `` Milton the Masked Martian '' ) . Part of a virtual goon squad of comic mobsters that inhabited Li ' l Abner and Fearless Fosdick , the

sfq_3248--Li'l_Abner.txt

Which cartoon character created by Al Capp lives in Dog Patch?

Rock music is a genre of popular music that originated as `` rock and roll '' in the United States in the 1950s , and developed into a range of different styles in the 1960s and later , particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States.W . E. Studwell and D. F. Lonergan , The Classic Rock and Roll Reader : Rock Music from its Beginnings to the mid-1970s ( Abingdon : Routledge , 1999 ) , ISBN 0-7890-0151-9 It has its roots in 1940s ' and 1950s ' rock and roll , itself heavily influenced by blues , rhythm and blues and country music . Rock music also drew strongly on a number of other genres such as electric blues and folk , and incorporated influences from jazz , classical and other musical sources . Musically , rock has centered on the electric guitar , usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar and drums . Typically , rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form , but the genre has become extremely diverse . Like pop music , lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political in emphasis . The dominance of rock by white , male musicians has been seen as one of the key factors shaping the themes explored in rock music . Rock places a higher degree of emphasis on musicianship , live performance , and an ideology of authenticity than pop music . By the late 1960s , referred to as the `` golden age '' or `` classic rock '' period , a number of distinct rock music subgenres had emerged , including hybrids like blues rock , folk rock , country rock , raga rock , and jazz-rock , many of which contributed to the development of psychedelic rock , which was influenced by the countercultural psychedelic scene . New genres that emerged from this scene included progressive rock , which extended the artistic elements ; glam rock , which highlighted showmanship and visual style ; and the diverse and enduring subgenre of heavy metal , which emphasized volume , power , and speed . In the second half of the 1970s , punk rock reacted against the perceived overblown , inauthentic and overly mainstream aspects of these genres to produce a stripped-down , energetic form of music valuing raw expression and often lyrically characterised by social and political critiques . Punk was an influence into the 1980s on the subsequent development of other subgenres , including new wave , post-punk and eventually the alternative rock movement . From the 1990s alternative rock began to dominate rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form of grunge , Britpop , and indie rock . Further fusion subgenres have since emerged , including pop punk , rap rock , and rap metal , as well as conscious attempts to revisit rock 's history , including the garage rock/post-punk and synthpop revivals at the beginning of the new millennium . Rock music has also embodied and served as the vehicle for cultural and social movements , leading to major sub-cultures including mods and rockers in the UK and the hippie counterculture that spread out from San Francisco in the US in the 1960s . Similarly , 1970s punk culture spawned the visually distinctive goth and emo subcultures . Inheriting the folk tradition of the protest song , rock music has been associated with political activism as well as changes in social attitudes to race , sex and drug use , and is often seen as an expression of youth revolt against adult consumerism and conformity . Characteristics The sound of rock is traditionally centered on the amplified electric guitar , which emerged in its modern form in the 1950s with the popularization of rock and roll , and was influenced by the sounds of electric blues guitarists.Michael Campbell & James Brody , [ https : //books.google.co.uk/books ? id RK-JmVbv4OIC & pgPA80 Rock and Roll : An Introduction ] , pages 80-81 The sound of an electric guitar in rock music is typically supported by an electric bass guitar , which pioneered in jazz music in the same era , and percussion produced from a drum kit that combines drums and cymbals . This trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments , particularly keyboards such as the piano , Hammond organ and synthesizers . The basic rock instrumentation was adapted from the basic blues band instrumentation ( prominent lead guitar , second chordal instrument , bass , and drums ) . A group of musicians performing rock music is termed a rock band or rock group and typically consists of between three–the power trio used in rock , metal and punk rock–and five members . Classically , a rock band takes the form of a quartet whose members cover one or more roles , including vocalist , lead guitarist , rhythm guitarist , bass guitarist , drummer and often that of keyboard player or other instrumentalist . Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter , with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four.C . Ammer , The Facts on File Dictionary of Music ( New York , NY : Infobase , 4th edn. , 2004 ) , ISBN 0-8160-5266-2 , pp . 251–2 . Melodies are often derived from older musical modes , including the Dorian and Mixolydian , as well as major and minor modes . Harmonies range from the common triad to parallel fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions . Rock songs , since the late 1950s and particularly from the mid-1960s onwards , often used the verse-chorus structure derived from blues and folk music , but there has been considerable variation from this model . Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock . Because of its complex history and tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms , it has been argued that `` it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition . '' Unlike many earlier styles of popular music , rock lyrics have dealt with a wide range of themes in addition to romantic love : including sex , rebellion against `` The Establishment '' , social concerns and life styles . These themes were inherited from a variety of sources , including the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition , folk music and rhythm and blues . Music journalist Robert Christgau characterizes rock lyrics as a `` cool medium '' with simple diction and repeated refrains , and asserts that rock 's primary `` function '' `` pertains to music , or , more generally , noise . '' The predominance of white , male and often middle class musicians in rock music has often been noted and rock has been seen as an appropriation of black musical forms for a young , white and largely male audience . As a result , it has been seen as articulating the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics . Since the term rock began to be used in preference to rock and roll from the late-1960s , it has often been contrasted with pop music , with which it has shared many characteristics , but from which it is often distanced by an emphasis on musicianship , live performance and a focus on serious and progressive themes as part of an ideology of authenticity that is frequently combined with an awareness of the genre 's history and development.T . Warner , Pop Music : Technology and Creativity : Trevor Horn and the Digital Revolution ( Aldershot : Ashgate , 2003 ) , ISBN 0-7546-3132-X , pp . 3–4 . According to Simon Frith `` rock was something more than pop , something more than rock and roll . Rock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the romantic concept of art as artistic expression , original and sincere '' . In the new millennium the term rock has sometimes been used as a blanket term including forms such as pop music , reggae music , soul music , and even hip hop , with which it has been influenced but often contrasted through much of its history . Origins Rock and roll The foundations of rock music are in rock and roll , which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s , and quickly spread to much of the rest of the world . Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various black musical genres of the time , including rhythm and blues and gospel music , with country and western . In 1951 , Cleveland , Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music ( then termed `` race music '' ) for a multi-racial audience , and is credited with first using the phrase `` rock and roll '' to describe the music . Debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record . Contenders include Goree Carter 's `` Rock Awhile '' ( 1949 ) ; Jimmy Preston 's `` Rock the Joint '' ( 1949 ) , which was later covered by Bill Haley & His Comets in 1952 ; and `` Rocket 88 '' by Jackie Brenston and his Delta Cats ( in fact , Ike Turner and his band the Kings of Rhythm ) , recorded by Sam Phillips for Sun Records in 1951.M . Campbell , ed. , Popular Music in America : and the Beat Goes on ( Boston , MA : Cengage Learning , 3rd edn. , 2008 ) , ISBN 0-495-50530-7 , pp . 157–8 . Four years later , Bill Haley 's `` Rock Around the Clock '' ( 1955 ) became the first rock and roll song to top Billboard magazine 's main sales and airplay charts , and opened the door worldwide for this new wave of popular culture . It has also been argued that `` That 's All Right ( Mama ) '' ( 1954 ) , Elvis Presley 's first single for Sun Records in Memphis , could be the first rock and roll record , but , at the same time , Big Joe Turner 's `` Shake , Rattle & Roll '' , later covered by Haley , was already at the top of the Billboard R & B charts . Other artists with early rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry , Bo Diddley , Fats Domino , Little Richard , Jerry Lee Lewis , and Gene Vincent . Soon rock and roll was the major force in American record sales and crooners , such as Eddie Fisher , Perry Como , and Patti Page , who had dominated the previous decade of popular music , found their access to the pop charts significantly curtailed . Rock and roll has been seen as leading to a number of distinct subgenres , including rockabilly , combining rock and roll with `` hillbilly '' country music , which was usually played and recorded in the mid-1950s by white singers such as Carl Perkins , Jerry Lee Lewis , Buddy Holly and with the greatest commercial success , Elvis Presley .. In contrast doo wop placed an emphasis on multi-part vocal harmonies and meaningless backing lyrics ( from which the genre later gained its name ) , which were usually supported with light instrumentation and had its origins in 1930s and 1940s African American vocal groups . Acts like the Crows , the Penguins , the El Dorados and the Turbans all scored major hits , and groups like the Platters , with songs including `` The Great Pretender '' ( 1955 ) , and the Coasters with humorous songs like `` Yakety Yak '' ( 1958 ) , ranked among the most successful rock and roll acts of the period . The era also saw the growth in popularity of the electric guitar , and the development of a specifically rock and roll style of playing through such exponents as Chuck Berry , Link Wray , and Scotty Moore . The use of distortion , pioneered by electric blues guitarists such as Guitar Slim , Willie Johnson and Pat Hare in the early 1950s , was popularized by Chuck Berry in the mid-1950s . The use of power chords , pioneered by Willie Johnson and Pat Hare in the early 1950s , was popularized by Link Wray in the late 1950s . In the United Kingdom , the trad jazz and folk movements brought visiting blues music artists to Britain.R . F. Schwartz , How Britain Got the Blues : the Transmission and Reception of American Blues Style in the United Kingdom ( Aldershot : Ashgate , 2007 ) , ISBN 0-7546-5580-6 , p. 22 . Lonnie Donegan 's 1955 hit `` Rock Island Line '' was a major influence and helped to develop the trend of skiffle music groups throughout the country , many of which , including John Lennon 's Quarrymen , moved on to play rock and roll . Commentators have traditionally perceived a decline of rock and roll in the late 1950s and early 1960s . By 1959 , the death of Buddy Holly , The Big Bopper and Richie Valens in a plane crash , the departure of Elvis for the army , the retirement of Little Richard to become a preacher , prosecutions of Jerry Lee Lewis and Chuck Berry and the breaking of the payola scandal ( which implicated major figures , including Alan Freed , in bribery and corruption in promoting individual acts or songs ) , gave a sense that the rock and roll era established at that point had come to an end.M . Campbell , ed. , Popular Music in America : and the Beat Goes On ( Boston , MA : Cengage Learning , 3rd edn. , 2008 ) , ISBN 0-495-50530-7 , p. 99 . `` In-between years '' The period of the later 1950s and early 1960s , between the end of the initial period of innovation and what became known in the US as the `` British Invasion '' , has traditionally been seen as an era of hiatus for rock and roll . More recently some authors have emphasised important innovations and trends in this period without which future developments would not have been possible . While early rock and roll , particularly through the advent of rockabilly , saw the greatest commercial success for male and white performers , in this era the genre was dominated by black and female artists . Rock and roll had not disappeared at the end of the 1950s and some of its energy can be seen in the Twist dance craze of the early 1960s , mainly benefiting the career of Chubby Checker . Having died down in the late 1950s , doo wop enjoyed a revival in the same period , with hits for acts like the Marcels , the Capris , Maurice Williams and the Zodiacs , and Shep and the Limelights.R . Unterberger , `` Doo Wop '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1306–7 . The rise of girl groups like the Chantels , the Shirelles and the Crystals placed an emphasis on harmonies and polished production that was in contrast to earlier rock and roll . Some of the most significant girl group hits were products of the Brill Building Sound , named after the block in New York where many songwriters were based , which included the number 1 hit for the Shirelles `` Will You Love Me Tomorrow '' in 1960 , penned by the partnership of Gerry Goffin and Carole King.R . Unterberger , `` Brill Building Sound '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1311–2 . Cliff Richard had the first British rock and roll hit with `` Move It '' , effectively ushering in the sound of British rock . At the start of the 1960s , his backing group the Shadows was the most successful group recording instrumentals . While rock 'n ' roll was fading into lightweight pop and ballads , British rock groups at clubs and local dances , heavily influenced by blues-rock pioneers like Alexis Korner , were starting to play with an intensity and drive seldom found in white American acts.B . Eder , `` British Blues '' , in V. Bogdanov , C. Woodstra , S. T. Erlewine , eds , All Music Guide to the Blues : The Definitive Guide to the Blues ( Milwaukee , WI : Backbeat Books , 3rd edn. , 2003 ) , ISBN 0-87930-736-6 , p. 700 . Also significant was the advent of soul music as a major commercial force . Developing out of rhythm and blues with a re-injection of gospel music and pop , led by pioneers like Ray Charles and Sam Cooke from the mid-1950s , by the early 1960s figures like Marvin Gaye , James Brown , Aretha Franklin , Curtis Mayfield and Stevie Wonder were dominating the R & B charts and breaking through into the main pop charts , helping to accelerate their desegregation , while Motown and Stax/Volt Records were becoming major forces in the record industry.R . Unterberger , `` Soul '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1323–5 . All of these elements , including the close harmonies of doo wop and girl groups , the carefully crafted song-writing of the Brill Building Sound and the polished production values of soul , have been seen as influencing the Merseybeat sound , particularly the early work of The Beatles , and through them the form of later rock music.R . Unterberger , `` Merseybeat '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1319–20 . Some historians of music have also pointed to important and innovative technical developments that built on rock and roll in this period , including the electronic treatment of sound by such innovators as Joe Meek , and the elaborate production methods of the Wall of Sound pursued by Phil Spector.K . Keightley , `` Reconsidering rock '' in S. Frith , W. Straw and J . Street , eds , The Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock ( Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 2001 ) , ISBN 0-521-55660-0 , p. 116 . Surf music The instrumental rock and roll of performers such as Duane Eddy , Link Wray and the Ventures was developed by Dick Dale , who added distinctive `` wet '' reverb , rapid alternate picking , and Middle Eastern and Mexican influences . He produced the regional hit `` Let 's Go Trippin ' '' in 1961 and launched the surf music craze , following up with songs like `` Misirlou '' ( 1962 ) . Like Dale and his Del-Tones , most early surf bands were formed in Southern California , including the Bel-Airs , the Challengers , and Eddie & the Showmen . The Chantays scored a top ten national hit with `` Pipeline '' in 1963 and probably the best known surf tune was 1963 's `` Wipe Out '' , by the Surfaris , which hit number 2 and number 10 on the Billboard charts in 1965 . Groups which crossed over to this genre included the Astronauts , from Boulder , Colorado ; the Trashmen , from Minneapolis , Minnesota , who had a number 4 hit with `` Surfin Bird '' in 1964 ; and the Rivieras from South Bend , Indiana , who reached number 5 in 1964 with `` California Sun '' .R . Unterberger , `` Surf Music '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1313–14 . The Atlantics , from Sydney , made a significant contribution to the genre , with their hit `` Bombora '' ( 1963 ) . European instrumental bands around this time generally focused more on the more rock and roll style played by The Shadows , but the Dakotas , who were the British backing band for Merseybeat singer Billy J. Kramer , gained some attention as surf musicians with `` Cruel Sea '' ( 1963 ) , which was later covered by American instrumental surf bands , including the Ventures . Surf music achieved its greatest commercial success as vocal music , particularly the work of the Beach Boys , formed in 1961 in Southern California . Their early albums included both instrumental surf rock ( among them covers of music by Dick Dale ) and vocal songs , drawing on rock and roll and doo wop and the close harmonies of vocal pop acts like the Four Freshmen . Their first chart hit , `` Surfin ' '' in 1962 reached the Billboard top 100 and helped make the surf music craze a national phenomenon.W . Ruhlman , et al. , `` Beach Boys '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 71–5 . From 1963 the group began to leave surfing behind as subject matter as Brian Wilson became their major composer and producer , moving on to the more general themes of male adolescence including cars and girls in songs like `` Fun , Fun , Fun '' ( 1964 ) and `` California Girls '' ( 1965 ) . Other vocal surf acts followed , including one-hit wonders like Ronny & the Daytonas with `` G. T . O . '' ( 1964 ) and Rip Chords with `` Hey Little Cobra '' , which both reached the top ten , but the only other act to achieve sustained success with the formula were Jan & Dean , who had a number 1 hit with `` Surf City '' ( co-written with Brian Wilson ) in 1963 . The surf music craze and the careers of almost all surf acts was effectively ended by the arrival of the British Invasion from 1964 . Only the Beach Boys were able to sustain a creative career into the mid-1960s , producing a string of hit singles and albums , including the highly regarded Pet Sounds in 1966 , which made them , arguably , the only American rock or pop act that could rival The Beatles . Golden age British Invasion By the end of 1962 , what would become the British rock scene had started with beat groups like the Beatles , Gerry & the Pacemakers and the Searchers from Liverpool and Freddie and the Dreamers , Herman 's Hermits and the Hollies from Manchester . They drew on a wide range of American influences including soul , rhythm and blues and surf music , R . Stakes , `` Those boys : the rise of Mersey beat '' , in S. Wade , ed. , Gladsongs and Gatherings : Poetry and its Social Context in Liverpool Since the 1960s ( Liverpool : Liverpool University Press , 2001 ) , ISBN 0-85323-727-1 , pp . 157–66 . initially reinterpreting standard American tunes and playing for dancers . Bands like the Animals from Newcastle and Them from Belfast , and particularly those from London like the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds , were much more directly influenced by rhythm and blues and later blues music . Soon these groups were composing their own material , combining US forms of music and infusing it with a high energy beat . Beat bands tended towards `` bouncy , irresistible melodies '' , while early British rhythm and blues acts tended towards less sexually innocent , more aggressive songs , often adopting an anti-establishment stance . There was , however , particularly in the early stages , considerable musical crossover between the two tendencies . By 1963 , led by the Beatles , beat groups had begun to achieve national success in Britain , soon to be followed into the charts by the more rhythm and blues focused acts.R . Unterberger , `` British R & B '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1315–6 . `` I Want to Hold Your Hand '' was the Beatles ' first number 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , spending 7 weeks at the top and a total of 15 weeks on the chart . Their first appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show on 9 February 1964 , drawing an estimated 73 million viewers ( at the time a record for an American television program ) is often considered a milestone in American pop culture . The Beatles went on to become the biggest selling rock band of all time and they were followed into the US charts by numerous British bands.R . Unterberger , `` British Invasion '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1316–17 . During the next two years British acts dominated their own and the US charts with Peter and Gordon , the Animals , Manfred Mann , Petula Clark , Freddie and the Dreamers , Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders , Herman 's Hermits , the Rolling Stones , the Troggs , and Donovan all having one or more number one singles . Other major acts that were part of the invasion included the Kinks and the Dave Clark Five .. The British Invasion helped internationalize the production of rock and roll , opening the door for subsequent British ( and Irish ) performers to achieve international success . In America it arguably spelled the end of instrumental surf music , vocal girl groups and ( for a time ) the teen idols , that had dominated the American charts in the late 1950s and 1960s . It dented the careers of established R & B acts like Fats Domino and Chubby Checker and even temporarily derailed the chart success of surviving rock and roll acts , including Elvis . The British Invasion also played a major part in the rise of a distinct genre of rock music , and cemented the primacy of the rock group , based on guitars and drums and producing their own material as singer-songwriters . Garage rock Garage rock was a raw form of rock music , particularly prevalent in North America in the mid-1960s and so called because of the perception that it was rehearsed in the suburban family garage.R . Shuker , Popular Music : the Key Concepts ( Abingdon : Routledge , 2nd edn. , 2005 ) , ISBN 0-415-34770-X , p. 140 . Garage rock songs often revolved around the traumas of high school life , with songs about `` lying girls '' being particularly common . The lyrics and delivery tended to be more aggressive than was common at the time , often with growled or shouted vocals that dissolved into incoherent screaming . They ranged from crude one-chord music ( like the Seeds ) to near-studio musician quality ( including the Knickerbockers , the Remains , and the Fifth Estate ) . There were also regional variations in many parts of the country with flourishing scenes particularly in California and Texas . The Pacific Northwest states of Washington and Oregon had perhaps the most defined regional sound . The style had been evolving from regional scenes as early as 1958 . `` Tall Cool One '' ( 1959 ) by The Wailers and `` Louie Louie '' by the Kingsmen ( 1963 ) are mainstream examples of the genre in its formative stages . By 1963 , garage band singles were creeping into the national charts in greater numbers , including Paul Revere and the Raiders ( Boise ) , the Trashmen ( Minneapolis ) and the Rivieras ( South Bend , Indiana ) . Other influential garage bands , such as the Sonics ( Tacoma , Washington ) , never reached the Billboard Hot 100 . In this early period many bands were heavily influenced by surf rock and there was a cross-pollination between garage rock and frat rock , sometimes viewed as merely a subgenre of garage rock . The British Invasion of 1964–66 greatly influenced garage bands , providing them with a national audience , leading many ( often surf or hot rod groups ) to adopt a British influence , and encouraging many more groups to form . Thousands of garage bands were extant in the US and Canada during the era and hundreds produced regional hits.R . Unterberger , `` Garage Rock '' , in Bogdanov et.al. , 2002 , pp . 1320–1 . Examples include : `` The Witch '' by Tacoma 's the Sonics ( 1965 ) , `` Where You Gon na Go '' by Detroit 's Unrelated Segments ( 1967 ) , `` Girl I Got News for You '' by Miami 's Birdwatchers ( 1966 ) and `` 1–2–5 '' by Montreal 's the Haunted . Despite scores of bands being signed to major or large regional labels , most were commercial failures . It is generally agreed that garage rock peaked both commercially and artistically around 1966 . By 1968 the style largely disappeared from the national charts and at the local level as amateur musicians faced college , work or the draft . New styles had evolved to

odql_10879--Rock_music.txt

"Which veteran rock singer released the album ""The Healing Game"" in 1997?"

The Blitz , from the German word for 'lightning ' , was the name applied by the British press to the heavy and frequent bombing raids carried out over Britain in 1940 and 1941 , during the Second World War . This concentrated , direct bombing of industrial targets and civilian centres began with heavy raids on London on 7 September 1940 , during what became known as the Battle of Britain . Adolf Hitler 's and Hermann Goering 's plans to destroy the Royal Air Force to allow an invasion of Britain were failing , and in response to an RAF raid on Berlin , which itself was prompted by a mistaken German bombing of London , they changed their tactics to the sustained bombing of civilian targets . Between 7 September 1940 and 21 May 1941 , 16 British cities suffered aerial raids with at least 100 long tons of high explosives . Over a period of 267 days , London was attacked 71 times , Birmingham , Liverpool and Plymouth eight times , Bristol six , Glasgow five , Southampton four , Portsmouth and Hull three and a minimum of one large raid on eight other cities . This was a result of a rapid escalation starting on 24 August 1940 , when night bombers aiming for RAF airfields drifted off course and accidentally destroyed several London homes , killing civilians , combined with the UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill 's retaliatory bombing of Berlin on the following night . From 7 September 1940 , one year into the war , London was bombed by the Luftwaffe for 57 consecutive nights . More than one million London houses were destroyed or damaged and more than 40,000 civilians were killed , almost half of them in London . Ports and industrial centres outside London were also attacked . The main Atlantic sea port of Liverpool was bombed , causing nearly 4,000 deaths within the Merseyside area during the war . The North Sea port of Hull , a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets , was subjected to 86 raids in the Hull Blitz during the war , with a conservative estimate of 1,200 civilians killed and 95 percent of its housing stock destroyed or damaged . Other ports including Bristol , Cardiff , Portsmouth , Plymouth , Southampton and Swansea were also bombed , as were the industrial cities of Birmingham , Belfast , Coventry , Glasgow , Manchester and Sheffield . Birmingham and Coventry were chosen because of the Spitfire and tank factories in Birmingham and the many munitions factories in Coventry . The city centre of Coventry was almost destroyed , as was Coventry Cathedral . The bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or significantly damage the war economy . The eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British production and the war industries continued to operate and expand . The Blitz was only authorised when the Luftwaffe had failed to meet preconditions for a 1940 launch of Operation Sea Lion , the provisionally planned German invasion of Britain . By May 1941 the threat of an invasion of Britain had passed , and Hitler 's attention had turned to Operation Barbarossa in the East . In comparison to the later Allied bombing campaign against Germany , the Blitz resulted in relatively few casualties ; the British bombing of Hamburg in July 1943 inflicted some 42,000 civilian deaths , about the same as the entire Blitz . Several reasons have been suggested for the failure of the German air offensive . The Luftwaffe High Command ( Oberkommando der Luftwaffe , OKL ) did not develop a strategy for destroying British war industry ; instead of maintaining pressure on any of them , it frequently switched from one type of industry to another . Neither was the Luftwaffe equipped to carry out strategic bombing ; the lack of a heavy bomber and poor intelligence on British industry denied it the ability to prevail . Background The Luftwaffe and strategic bombing In the 1920s and 1930s , air power theorists Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell espoused the idea that air forces could win wars by themselves , without a need for land and sea fighting . It was thought there was no defence against air attack , particularly at night . Enemy industry , their seats of government , factories and communications could be destroyed , effectively taking away their means to resist . It was also thought the bombing of residential centres would cause a collapse of civilian will , which might have led to the collapse of production and civil life . Democracies , where the populace was allowed to show overt disapproval of the ruling government , were thought particularly vulnerable . This thinking was prevalent in both the RAF and what was then known as the United States Army Air Corps ( USAAC ) between the two world wars . RAF Bomber Command 's policy in particular would attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will , communications and industry . Within the Luftwaffe , there was a more muted view of strategic bombing . The OKL did not oppose the strategic bombardment of enemy industries and or cities , and believed it could greatly affect the balance of power on the battlefield in Germany 's favour by disrupting production and damaging civilian morale , but they did not believe that air power alone could be decisive . Contrary to popular belief , the Luftwaffe did not have a systematic policy of what became known as `` terror bombing '' . Evidence suggests that the Luftwaffe did not adopt an official bombing policy in which civilians became the primary target until 1942 . The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets . It could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly , but the breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight . German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law . While direct attacks against civilians were ruled out as `` terror bombing '' , the concept of attacking vital war industries—and probable heavy civilian casualties and breakdown of civilian morale—was ruled as acceptable . Throughout the National Socialist era , until 1939 , debate and discussion raged within German military journals over the role of strategic bombardment . Some argued along the lines of the British and Americans . Walter Wever—the first Chief of the General Staff—championed strategic bombing and the building of appropriate aircraft for that purpose , although he emphasised the importance of aviation in operational and tactical terms . Wever outlined five key points to air strategy : # To destroy the enemy air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories , and defeating enemy air forces attacking German targets . # To prevent the movement of large enemy ground forces to the decisive areas by destroying railways and roads , particularly bridges and tunnels , which are indispensable for the movement and supply of forces # To support the operations of the army formations , independent of railways , i.e. , armoured forces and motorised forces , by impeding the enemy advance and participating directly in ground operations . # To support naval operations by attacking naval bases , protecting Germany 's naval bases and participating directly in naval battles # To paralyse the enemy armed forces by stopping production in the armaments factories . Wever argued that the Luftwaffe General Staff should not be solely educated in tactical and operational matters . He argued they should be educated in grand strategy , war economics , armament production , and the mentality of potential opponents ( also known as mirror imaging ) . Wever 's vision was not realised ; the General Staff studies in those subjects fell by the wayside , and the Air Academies focused on tactics , technology , and operational planning , rather than on independent strategic air offensives . In 1936 , Wever was killed in an air crash . The failure to implement his vision for the new Luftwaffe was largely attributable to his immediate successors . Ex-Army personnel Albert Kesselring and Hans-Jürgen Stumpff are usually blamed for the turning away from strategic planning and focusing on close air support . However , it would seem the two most prominent enthusiasts for the focus on ground-support operations ( direct or indirect ) were actually Hugo Sperrle and Hans Jeschonnek . These men were long-time professional airmen involved in German air services since early in their careers . The Luftwaffe was not pressured into ground support operations because of pressure from the army , or because it was led by ex-army personnel . It was instead a mission that suited the Luftwaffes existing approach to warfare ; a culture of joint inter-service operations , rather than independent strategic air campaigns . Hitler , Göring and air power Adolf Hitler failed to pay as much attention to bombing the enemy as he did to protection from enemy bombing , although he had promoted the development of a bomber force in the 1930s and understood that it was possible to use bombers for major strategic purposes . He told the OKL in 1939 that ruthless employment of the Luftwaffe against the heart of the British will to resist could and would follow when the moment was right ; however , he quickly developed a lively scepticism toward strategic bombing , confirmed by the results of the Blitz . He frequently complained of the Luftwaffes inability to damage industries sufficiently , saying , `` The munitions industry can not be interfered with effectively by air raids ... usually the prescribed targets are not hit '' . While the war was being planned Hitler never insisted upon the Luftwaffe planning a strategic bombing campaign , and did not even give ample warning to the air staff that war with Britain or even Russia was an imminent possibility . The amount of firm operational and tactical preparation for a bombing campaign was minimal , largely because of the failure by Hitler as supreme commander to insist upon such a commitment . Ultimately , Hitler was trapped within his own vision of bombing as a terror weapon , formed in the 1930s when he threatened smaller nations into accepting German rule rather than submit to air bombardment . This fact had important implications . It showed the extent to which Hitler personally mistook Allied strategy for one of morale breaking instead of one of economic warfare , with the collapse of morale as an additional bonus . Hitler was much more attracted to the political aspects of bombing . As the mere threat of it had produced diplomatic results in the 1930s , he expected that the threat of German retaliation would persuade the Allies to adopt a policy of moderation and not to begin a policy of unrestricted bombing . His hope was — for reasons of political prestige within Germany itself — that the German population would be protected from the Allied bombings . When this proved impossible , he began to fear that popular feeling would turn against his regime , and he redoubled efforts to mount a similar `` terror offensive '' against Britain in order to produce a stalemate in which both sides would hesitate to use bombing at all . A major problem in the managing of the Luftwaffe was Hermann Göring . Hitler believed the Luftwaffe was `` the most effective strategic weapon '' , and in reply to repeated requests from the Kriegsmarine for control over aircraft insisted , `` We should never have been able to hold our own in this war if we had not had an undivided Luftwaffe '' . Such principles made it much harder to integrate the air force into the overall strategy and produced in Göring a jealous and damaging defence of his `` empire '' while removing Hitler voluntarily from the systematic direction of the Luftwaffe at either the strategic or operational level . When Hitler tried to intervene more in the running of the air force later in the war , he was faced with a political conflict of his own making between himself and Göring , which was not fully resolved until the war was almost over . In 1940 and 1941 , Göring 's refusal to cooperate with the Kriegsmarine denied the entire Wehrmacht military forces of the Reich the chance to strangle British sea communications , which might have had strategic or decisive effect in the war against the British Empire . The deliberate separation of the Luftwaffe from the rest of the military structure encouraged the emergence of a major `` communications gap '' between Hitler and the Luftwaffe , which other factors helped to exacerbate . For one thing , Göring 's fear of Hitler led him to falsify or misrepresent what information was available in the direction of an uncritical and over-optimistic interpretation of air strength . When Göring decided against continuing Wever 's original heavy bomber programme in 1937 , the Reichsmarschall 's own explanation was that Hitler wanted to know only how many bombers there were , not how many engines each had . In July 1939 , Göring arranged a display of the Luftwaffes most advanced equipment at Rechlin , to give the impression the air force was more prepared for a strategic air war than was actually the case . Battle of Britain Within hours of the UK and France declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939 , the RAF bombed German warships along the German coast at Wilhelmshaven . Thereafter bombing operations were against ports and shipping and propaganda leaflet drops . Operations were planned to minimize civilian casualties . From 15 May 1940 – the day after the Luftwaffe destroyed the centre of Rotterdam – the RAF also carried out operations east of the Rhine , attacking industrial and transportation targets . Operations were carried out every night thereafter . Although not specifically prepared to conduct independent strategic air operations against an opponent , the Luftwaffe was expected to do so over Britain . From July until September 1940 the Luftwaffe attacked RAF Fighter Command to gain air superiority as a prelude to invasion . This involved the bombing of English Channel convoys , ports , and RAF airfields and supporting industries . Destroying RAF Fighter Command would allow the Germans to gain control of the skies over the invasion area . It was supposed that Bomber Command , RAF Coastal Command and the Royal Navy could not operate under conditions of German air superiority . The Luftwaffe 's poor intelligence meant that their aircraft were not always able to locate their targets , and thus attacks on factories and airfields failed to achieve the desired results . British fighter aircraft production continued at a rate surpassing Germany 's by 2 to 1 . The British produced 10,000 aircraft in 1940 , in comparison to Germany 's 8,000 . The replacement of pilots and aircrew was more difficult . Both the RAF and Luftwaffe struggled to replace manpower losses , though the Germans had larger reserves of trained aircrew . The circumstances affected the Germans more than the British . Operating over home territory , British flyers could fly again if they survived being shot down . German crews , even if they survived , faced capture . Moreover , bombers had four to five crewmen on board , representing a greater loss of manpower . On 7 September , the Germans shifted away from the destruction of the RAF 's supporting structures . German intelligence suggested Fighter Command was weakening , and an attack on London would force it into a final battle of annihilation while compelling the British Government to surrender . The decision to change strategy is sometimes claimed as a major mistake by the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( OKL ) . It is argued that persisting with attacks on RAF airfields might have won air superiority for the Luftwaffe . Others argue that the Luftwaffe made little impression on Fighter Command in the last week of August and first week of September and that the shift in strategy was not decisive . It has also been argued that it was doubtful the Luftwaffe could have won air superiority before the `` weather window '' began to deteriorate in October . It was also possible , if RAF losses became severe , that they could pull out to the north , wait for the German invasion , then redeploy southward again . Other historians argue that the outcome of the air battle was irrelevant ; the massive numerical superiority of British naval forces and the inherent weakness of the Kriegsmarine would have made the projected German invasion , Unternehmen Seelöwe ( Operation Sea Lion ) , a disaster with or without German air superiority . Change in strategy Regardless of the ability of the Luftwaffe to win air superiority , Adolf Hitler was frustrated that it was not happening quickly enough . With no sign of the RAF weakening , and Luftwaffe air fleets ( Luftflotten ) taking punishing losses , the OKL was keen for a change in strategy . To reduce losses further , a change in strategy was also favoured to take place at night , to give the bombers greater protection under cover of darkness . On 4 September 1940 , in a long address at the Sportpalast , Hitler declared : `` And should the Royal Air Force drop two thousand , or three thousand [ kilograms ... ] then we will now drop [ ... ] 300,000 , 400,000 , yes one million kilograms in a single night . And should they declare they will greatly increase their attacks on our cities , then we will erase their cities . '' It was decided to focus on bombing Britain 's industrial cities in daylight to begin with . The main focus of the bombing operations was against the city of London . The first major raid in this regard took place on 7 September . On 15 September , on a date known as the Battle of Britain Day , a large-scale raid was launched in daylight , but suffered significant loss for no lasting gain . Although there were a few large air battles fought in daylight later in the month and into October , the Luftwaffe switched its main effort to night attacks in order to reduce losses . This became official policy on 7 October . The air campaign soon got underway against London and other British cities . However , the Luftwaffe faced limitations . Its aircraft—Dornier Do 17 , Junkers Ju 88 , and Heinkel He 111s—were capable of carrying out strategic missions , but were incapable of doing greater damage because of bomb-load limitations . The Luftwaffes decision in the interwar period to concentrate on medium bombers can be attributed to several reasons : Hitler did not intend or foresee a war with Britain in 1939 ; the OKL believed a medium bomber could carry out strategic missions just as well as a heavy bomber force ; and Germany did not possess the resources or technical ability to produce four-engined bombers before the war . Although it had equipment capable of doing serious damage , the problem for the Luftwaffe was its unclear strategy and poor intelligence . OKL had not been informed that Britain was to be considered a potential opponent until early 1938 . It had no time to gather reliable intelligence on Britain 's industries . Moreover , OKL could not settle on an appropriate strategy . German planners had to decide whether the Luftwaffe should deliver the weight of its attacks against a specific segment of British industry such as aircraft factories , or against a system of interrelated industries such as Britain 's import and distribution network , or even in a blow aimed at breaking the morale of the British population . The Luftwaffes strategy became increasingly aimless over the winter of 1940–1941 . Disputes among the OKL staff revolved more around tactics than strategy . This method condemned the offensive over Britain to failure before it began . In an operational capacity , limitations in weapons technology and quick British reactions were making it more difficult to achieve strategic effect . Attacking ports , shipping and imports as well as disrupting rail traffic in the surrounding areas , especially the distribution of coal , an important fuel in all industrial economies of the Second World War , would net a positive result . However , the use of delayed-action bombs , while initially very effective , gradually had less impact , partly because they failed to detonate . Moreover , the British had anticipated the change in strategy and dispersed its production facilities making them less vulnerable to a concentrated attack . Regional commissioners were given plenipotentiary powers to restore communications and organise the distribution of supplies to keep the war economy moving . Civilian defensive measures Physical protection Prewar preparations and fears Experts saw London , with nine million people— one-fifth of Britain 's population— living in 750 sqmi , as both a top target for air attack and difficult to defend because of its size . As aircraft technology improved in the 1930s , most believed that `` the bomber will always get through '' , and estimates of casualties from an air war grew . Based on experience with German strategic bombing during World War I against the United Kingdom , the British government estimated after the war that 50 casualties— with about one third killed— would result for every tonne of bombs dropped on London . The estimate of tonnes of bombs an enemy could drop per day grew as aircraft technology advanced , from 75 in 1922 , to 150 in 1934 , to 644 in 1937 . That year the Committee on Imperial Defence estimated that an attack of 60 days would result in 600,000 dead and 1,200,000 wounded . News reports of the Spanish Civil War , such as the bombing of Barcelona , supported the 50-casualties-per-tonne estimate . By 1938 experts generally expected that Germany would attempt to drop as much as 3,500 tonnes in the first 24 hours of war and average 700 tonnes a day for several weeks . In addition to high explosive and incendiary bombs the enemy would possibly use poison gas and even bacteriological warfare , all with a high degree of accuracy . In 1939 military theorist Basil Liddell-Hart predicted that 250,000 deaths and injuries in Britain could occur in the first week of war . Civilians were aware of the deadly power of aerial attacks through newsreels of Barcelona , Guernica and Shanghai . Many popular works of fiction during the 1920s and 1930s portrayed aerial bombing , such as H. G. Wells ' novel The Shape of Things to Come and its 1936 film adaptation , and others such as The Air War of 1936 and The Poison War . Harold Macmillan wrote in 1956 that he and others around him `` thought of air warfare in 1938 rather as people think of nuclear war today '' . In addition to the dead and wounded , government leaders feared mass psychological trauma from aerial attack and a resulting collapse of civil society . A committee of psychiatrists reported to the government in 1938 that there would be three times as many mental as physical casualties from aerial bombing , implying three to four million psychiatric patients . Winston Churchill told Parliament in 1934 , `` We must expect that , under the pressure of continuous attack upon London , at least three or four million people would be driven out into the open country around the metropolis . '' Panicked reactions during the Munich crisis , such as the migration by 150,000 to Wales , contributed to fear of societal chaos . The government planned to voluntarily evacuate four million people—mostly women and children—from urban areas , including 1.4 million from London . It expected about 90 % of evacuees to stay in private homes , and conducted an extensive survey to determine available space . Detailed preparations for transporting them were developed . A trial blackout was held on 10 August 1939 , and when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September a blackout began at sunset . Lights would not be allowed after dark for almost six years , and the blackout became by far the most unpopular aspect of the war for civilians , more than rationing . The relocation of the government and the civil service was also planned , but would only have occurred if necessary so as not to damage civilian morale . Much civil-defence preparation in the form of shelters was left in the hands of local authorities , and many areas such as Birmingham , Coventry , Belfast and the East End of London did not have enough shelters . The Phoney War , however , and the unexpected delay of civilian bombing permitted the shelter programme to finish in June 1940 . The programme favoured backyard Anderson shelters and small brick surface shelters ; many of the latter were soon abandoned in 1940 as unsafe . In addition , authorities expected that the raids would be brief and during the day . Few predicted that attacks by night would force Londoners to sleep in shelters . Communal shelters Very deeply buried shelters provided the most protection against a direct hit . The government did not build them for large populations before the war because of cost , time to build , and fears that their very safety would cause occupants to refuse to leave to return to work , or that anti-war sentiment would develop in large groups . The government saw the Communist Party 's leading role in advocating for building deep shelters as an attempt to damage civilian morale , especially after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 . The most important existing communal shelters were the London Underground stations . Although many civilians had used them as such during the First World War , the government in 1939 refused to allow the stations to be used as shelters so as not to interfere with commuter and troop travel , and the fears that occupants might refuse to leave . Underground officials were ordered to lock station entrances during raids ; but by the second week of heavy bombing the government relented and ordered the stations to be opened . Each day orderly lines of people queued until 4 pm , when they were allowed to enter the stations . In mid-September 1940 about 150,000 a night slept in the Underground , although by the winter and spring months the numbers had declined to 100,000 or less . Noises of battle were muffled and sleep was easier in the deepest stations , but many were killed from direct hits on several stations . Communal shelters never housed more than one seventh of Greater London residents , however . Peak use of the Underground as shelter was 177,000 on 27 September 1940 , and a November 1940 census of London found that about 4 % of residents used the Tube and other large shelters ; 9 % in public surface shelters ; and 27 % in private home shelters , implying that the remaining 60 % of the city likely stayed at home . The government distributed Anderson shelters until 1941 and that year began distributing the Morrison shelter , which could be used inside homes . Public demand caused the government in October 1940 to build new deep shelters within the Underground to hold 80,000 people but were not completed until the period of heaviest bombing had passed . By the end of 1940 significant improvements had been made in the Underground and in many other large shelters . Authorities provided stoves and bathrooms and canteen trains provided food . Tickets were issued for bunks in large shelters to reduce the amount of time spent queuing . Committees quickly formed within shelters as informal governments , and organisations such as the British Red Cross and the Salvation Army worked to improve conditions . Entertainment included concerts , films , plays and books from local libraries . Although only a small number of Londoners used the mass shelters , as journalists , celebrities and foreigners visited they became part of the national debate on societal and class divisions . Most residents found that such divisions continued within the shelters , and many fights and arguments occurred regarding noise , space or other issues . Contrary to prewar fears of anti-Semitic violence in the East End , one observer found that the `` Cockney and the Jew [ worked ] together , against the Indian . '' No collapse of morale Although the intensity of the bombing was not as great as prewar expectations so an equal comparison

wh_3040--The_Blitz.txt

Introduced in 1940, the 'Local Defence Volunteers' later became known by what two word name?

Naxos ( ; Greek : , ) is a Greek island—at 429 km2 the largest of the Cyclades island group in the Aegean . It was the centre of archaic Cycladic culture . The island is famous as a source of emery , a rock rich in corundum , which until modern time was one of the best abrasives available . The largest town and capital of the island is Chora or Naxos City , with 6,533 inhabitants ( 2001 census ) . The main villages are Filoti , Apiranthos , Vivlos , Agios Arsenios , Koronos and Glinado . Geography Climate Climate is Mediterranean , with relatively mild winters and very warm summers . The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is `` Csa '' . ( Mediterranean Climate ) . Mythic Naxos According to Greek mythology , the young Zeus was raised in a cave on Mt . Zas ( `` Zas '' meaning `` Zeus '' ) . Homer mentions `` Dia '' ; literally the sacred island `` of the Goddess '' . Karl Kerenyi explains ( speaking as if he were an ancient Greek ) : One legend has it that in the Heroic Age before the Trojan War , Theseus abandoned the princess Ariadne of Crete on this island after she helped him kill the Minotaur and escape from the Labyrinth . Dionysus ( god of wine , festivities , and the primal energy of life ) who was the protector of the island , met Ariadne and fell in love with her . But eventually Ariadne , unable to bear her separation from Theseus , either killed herself ( according to the Athenians ) , or ascended to heaven ( as the older versions had it ) . The Naxos portion of the Ariadne myth is also told in the Richard Strauss opera Ariadne auf Naxos . The giant brothers Otus and Ephialtes figure in at least two Naxos myths : in one , Artemis bought the abandonment of a siege they laid against the gods , by offering to live on Naxos as Otus 's lover ; in another , the brothers had actually settled Naxos . History Cycladic civilization Zas Cave , inhabited during the Neolithic era , contained objects of stone from Melos and copper objects including a dagger and gold sheet . The presence of gold and other objects within the cave indicated to researchers the status of the inhabitant . Emery was sourced during the time to other islands . Classical era and Greco-Persian Wars During the 8th and 7th centuries BC , Naxos dominated commerce in the Cyclades . Naxos was the first Greek city-state to attempt to leave the Delian League circa 476 BC ; Athens quickly squashed the notion and forcibly removed all military naval vessels from the island 's control . Athens then demanded all future payments from Naxos in the form of gold rather than military aid . Herodotus describes Naxos circa 500 BC as the most prosperous Greek island . In 502 BC , an unsuccessful attack on Naxos by Persian forces led several prominent men in the Greek cities of Ionia to rebel against the Persian Empire in the Ionian Revolt , and then to the Persian War between Greece and Persia . Byzantine era Under the Byzantine Empire , Naxos was part of the thema of the Aegean Sea , which was established in the mid-9th century . Duchy of Naxos In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade , with a Latin Emperor under the influence of the Venetians established at Constantinople , the Venetian Marco Sanudo conquered the island and soon captured the rest of the islands of the Cyclades . Of all the islands , only on Naxos was there any opposition to Sanudo : a group of Genoese pirates had occupied the castle between the end of Byzantine rule and Sanudo 's arrival . In order to steel his band 's resolve , Sanudo burnt his galleys `` and bade his companions to conquer or die . '' The pirates surrendered the castle after a five weeks ' siege . Naxos became the seat of Sanudo 's realm , which he ruled with the title of Duke of Naxia , or Duke of the Archipelago . Twenty-one dukes in two dynasties ruled the Archipelago , until 1566 ; Venetian rule continued in scattered islands of the Aegean until 1714 . Under Venetian rule , the island was called by its Italian name , Nasso . Ottoman control ( 1564–1821 ) The Ottoman administration remained essentially in the hands of the Venetians ; the Porte 's concern was satisfied by the returns of taxes . Very few Turks ever settled on Naxos , and Turkish influence on the island is slight . Under Ottoman rule the island was known as Turkish : Nakşa . Ottoman sovereignty lasted until 1821 , when the islands revolted ; Naxos finally became a member of the Greek state in 1832 . Historical population Economy Tourism Naxos is a popular tourist destination , with several ruins . It has a number of beaches , such as those at Agia Anna , Agios Prokopios , Alikos , Kastraki , Mikri Vigla , Plaka , and Agios Georgios , most of them near Chora . As other cycladic islands , Naxos is considered a windy place perfect for windsurfing , as well as kitesurfing . There are seven sports clubs in the island that offer both of these sports and other water activities . Agriculture Naxos is the most fertile island of the Cyclades . It has a good supply of water in a region where water is usually inadequate . Mount Zeus ( 1003 metres ) is the highest peak in the Cyclades , and tends to trap the clouds , permitting greater rainfall . This has made agriculture an important economic sector with various vegetable and fruit crops as well as cattle breeding , making Naxos the most self-sufficient island in the Cyclades . Naxos is well known within Greece for its cheese , potatoes and Kitron , a local lemon-citrus spirit . Sports * Pannaxiakos A.O . ( sports club ) Notable people * Ecumenical Patriarch Callinicus III of Constantinople ( died 1726 ) * Nicodemus the Hagiorite ( 1749–1809 ) , saint * Petros Protopapadakis ( 1854–1922 ) , Prime Minister of Greece * Manolis Glezos ( born 1922 ) , politician , writer * Iakovos Kambanelis ( 1922–2011 ) , poet , playwright , lyricist and novelist * Iakovos Nafpliotis ( 1864–1942 ) , cantor * Keti Chomata ( 1946–2010 ) , singer * Giorgos Ninios ( born 1959 ) , actor * Stelios Manolas ( born 1961 ) , soccer player * Giannoulis Fakinos ( born 1989 ) , soccer player * Kostas Manolas ( born 1991 ) , soccer player * Georgios Korres , founder of Korres company * Nikolaos Mykonios , fighter of the Greek War of Independence and officer of the Greek Army . * Michalis Polytarchou , basketball player , Former Captain of AEK Athens BC . Gallery File:028MAD Sphinx.jpg|Sphinx of the Naxians , now at Delphi Archaeological Museum File : Crispi Tower.JPG|Crispi tower File : Naos Drosianis Naxos 03.jpg|Panagia Drosiani church , Moni village File : Naxos Moni Faneromenis.JPG|The monastery of Faneromeni File : Naxos Halkio1 tango7174.jpg|Street of Chalkio village File : Naxos Koronos1.JPG|Koronos village File : TO FILOTI APO TOYS PROPODES TOY ZA.jpeg|Filoti village File : Απόλλωνας Νάξου.jpeg|Apollonas village File : Naxos Keramoti.JPG|Keramoti village File : GR-naxos-apeiranthos-gasse-1.jpg|Street of Apeiranthos

odql_11384--Naxos.txt

Mykonos, Naxos and Santorini are in which group of Greek islands?

Religion is a cultural system of behaviors and practices , world views , sacred texts , holy places , ethics , and societal organisation that relate humanity to what an anthropologist has called `` an order of existence '' . Different religions may or may not contain various elements , ranging from the `` divine '' , `` sacred things '' , `` faith '' , a `` supernatural being or supernatural beings '' or `` ... some sort of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life . '' Religious practices may include rituals , sermons , commemoration or veneration ( of God or deities ) , sacrifices , festivals , feasts , trances , initiations , funerary services , matrimonial services , meditation , prayer , music , art , dance , public service , or other aspects of human culture . Religions have sacred histories and narratives , which may be preserved in sacred scriptures , and symbols and holy places , that aim mostly to give a meaning to life . Religions may contain symbolic stories , which are sometimes said by followers to be true , that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life , the Universe , and other things . Traditionally , faith , in addition to reason , has been considered a source of religious beliefs . There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide . About 84 % of the world 's population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions , namely Christianity , Islam , Hinduism , Buddhism or forms of folk religion . With the onset of the modernisation of and the scientific revolution in the western world , some aspects of religion have cumulatively been criticized . Though the religiously unaffliated , including atheism ( the rejection of belief in the existence of deities ) and agnosticism ( the belief that the truth of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God , the divine or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable ) , have grown globally , many of the unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs . About 16 % of the world 's population is religiously unaffiliated . The study of religion encompasses a wide variety of academic disciplines , including theology , comparative religion and social scientific studies . Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion . Religion is one of the ten function systems of modern societies . Etymology and history of the concept of Religion Religion Religion ( from O.Fr . religion `` religious community '' , from L. religionem ( nom . religio ) `` respect for what is sacred , reverence for the gods '' , `` obligation , the bond between man and the gods '' ) is derived from the Latin religiō , the ultimate origins of which are obscure . One possible interpretation traced to Cicero , connects ' `` read '' , i.e . re ( again ) with lego in the sense of `` choose '' , `` go over again '' or `` consider carefully '' . Modern scholars such as Tom Harpur and Joseph Campbell favor the derivation from ' `` bind , connect '' , probably from a prefixed ' , i.e . re ( again ) + ligare or `` to reconnect '' , which was made prominent by St. Augustine , following the interpretation of Lactantius . The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders : `` we hear of the 'religion ' of the Golden Fleece , of a knight 'of the religion of Avys ' '' . In the ancient and medieval world , the etymological Latin root religio was understood as an individual virtue of worship , never as doctrine , practice , or actual source of knowledge . The modern concept of `` religion '' as an abstraction which entails distinct sets of beliefs or doctrines is a recent invention in the English language since such usage began with texts from the 17th century due to the splitting of Christendom during the Protestant Reformation and more prevalent colonization or globalization in the age of exploration which involved contact with numerous foreign and indigenous cultures with non-European languages . It was in the 17th century that the concept of `` religion '' received its modern shape despite the fact that ancient texts like the Bible , the Quran , and other ancient sacred texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written . For example , the Greek word threskeia , which was used by Greek writers such as Herodotus and Josephus and is found in texts like the New Testament , is sometimes translated as `` religion '' today , however , the term was understood as `` worship '' well into the medieval period . In the Quran , the Arabic word din is often translated as `` religion '' in modern translations , but up to the mid-1600s translators expressed din as `` law '' . Even in the 1st century AD , Josephus had used the Greek term ioudaismos , which some translate as `` Judaism '' today , even though he used it as an ethnic term , not one linked to modern abstract concepts of religion as a set of beliefs . It was in the 19th century that the terms `` Buddhism '' , `` Hinduism '' , `` Taoism '' , and `` Confucianism '' first emerged . Throughout its long history , Japan had no concept of `` religion '' since there was no corresponding Japanese word , nor anything close to its meaning , but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding , among other things , freedom of religion , the country had to contend with this Western idea . According to the philologist Max Müller in the 19th century , the root of the English word `` religion '' , the Latin religio , was originally used to mean only `` reverence for God or the gods , careful pondering of divine things , piety '' ( which Cicero further derived to mean `` diligence '' ) . Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world , including Egypt , Persia , and India , as having a similar power structure at this point in history . What is called ancient religion today , they would have only called `` law '' . Some languages have words that can be translated as `` religion '' , but they may use them in a very different way , and some have no word for religion at all . For example , the Sanskrit word dharma , sometimes translated as `` religion '' , also means law . Throughout classical South Asia , the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions . Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between `` imperial law '' and universal or `` Buddha law '' , but these later became independent sources of power . There is no precise equivalent of `` religion '' in Hebrew , and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious , national , racial , or ethnic identities . One of its central concepts is `` halakha '' , meaning the `` walk '' or `` path '' sometimes translated as `` law '' , which guides religious practice and belief and many aspects of daily life . Faith The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with faith or set of duties ; however , in the words of Émile Durkheim , religion differs from private belief in that it is `` something eminently social '' . Other terms The use of other terms , such as obedience to God or Islam are likewise grounded in particular histories and vocabularies . Definitions Religion as modern western construct An increasing number of scholars have expressed reservations about ever defining the `` essence '' of religion . They observe that the way we use the concept today is a particularly modern construct that would not have been understood through much of history and in many cultures outside the West ( or even in the West until after the Peace of Westphalia ) . The MacMIllan Encyclopedia of Religions states : Classical definitions Friedrich Schleiermacher in the late 18th century defined religion as das schlechthinnige Abhängigkeitsgefühl , commonly translated as `` a feeling of absolute dependence '' . His contemporary Hegel disagreed thoroughly , defining religion as `` the Divine Spirit becoming conscious of Himself through the finite spirit . '' Edward Burnett Tylor defined religion in 1871 as `` the belief in spiritual beings '' . He argued that narrowing the definition to mean the belief in a supreme deity or judgment after death or idolatry and so on , would exclude many peoples from the category of religious , and thus `` has the fault of identifying religion rather with particular developments than with the deeper motive which underlies them '' . He also argued that the belief in spiritual beings exists in all known societies . In his book The Varieties of Religious Experience , the psychologist William James defined religion as `` the feelings , acts , and experiences of individual men in their solitude , so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine '' . By the term `` divine '' James meant `` any object that is godlike , whether it be a concrete deity or not '' to which the individual feels impelled to respond with solemnity and gravity . The sociologist Durkheim , in his seminal book The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life , defined religion as a `` unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things '' . By sacred things he meant things `` set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church , all those who adhere to them '' . Sacred things are not , however , limited to gods or spirits.That is how , according to Durkheim , Buddhism is a religion . `` In default of gods , Buddhism admits the existence of sacred things , namely , the four noble truths and the practices derived from them '' ( ibid , p. 45 ) . On the contrary , a sacred thing can be `` a rock , a tree , a spring , a pebble , a piece of wood , a house , in a word , anything can be sacred '' . Religious beliefs , myths , dogmas and legends are the representations that express the nature of these sacred things , and the virtues and powers which are attributed to them . Echoes of James ' and Durkheim 's definitions are to be found in the writings of , for example , Frederick Ferré who defined religion as `` one 's way of valuing most comprehensively and intensively '' . Similarly , for the theologian Paul Tillich , faith is `` the state of being ultimately concerned '' , which `` is itself religion . Religion is the substance , the ground , and the depth of man 's spiritual life . '' When religion is seen in terms of `` sacred '' , `` divine '' , intensive `` valuing '' , or `` ultimate concern '' , then it is possible to understand why scientific findings and philosophical criticisms ( e.g . Richard Dawkins ) do not necessarily disturb its adherents . Modern definitions The anthropologist Clifford Geertz defined religion as a Alluding perhaps to Tylor 's `` deeper motive '' , Geertz remarked that The theologian Antoine Vergote took the term `` supernatural '' simply to mean whatever transcends the powers of nature or human agency . He also emphasized the `` cultural reality '' of religion , which he defined as Peter Mandaville and Paul James intended to get away from the modernist dualisms or dichotomous understandings of immanence/transcendence , spirituality/materialism , and sacredness/secularity . They define religion as According to the MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religions , there is an experiential aspect to religion which can be found in almost every culture : Aspects A religion is a cultural system of behaviors and practices , world views , sacred texts , holy places , ethics , and societal organisation that relate humanity to an order of existence . Practices The practices of a religion may include rituals , sermons , commemoration or veneration ( of a deity , gods , or goddesses ) , sacrifices , festivals , feasts , trances , initiations , funerary services , matrimonial services , meditation , prayer , music , art , dance , public service , or other aspects of human culture . Worldview Religions have sacred histories , narratives , and mythologies which may be preserved in sacred scriptures , and symbols and holy places , that aim to explain the meaning of life , the origin of life , or the Universe . Religious beliefs Traditionally , faith , in addition to reason , has been considered a source of religious beliefs . The interplay between faith and reason , and their use as actual or perceived support for religious beliefs , have been a subject of interest to philosophers and theologians . Mythology The word myth has several meanings . # A traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice , belief , or natural phenomenon ; # A person or thing having only an imaginary or unverifiable existence ; or # A metaphor for the spiritual potentiality in the human being . Ancient polytheistic religions , such as those of Greece , Rome , and Scandinavia , are usually categorized under the heading of mythology . Religions of pre-industrial peoples , or cultures in development , are similarly called `` myths '' in the anthropology of religion . The term `` myth '' can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people . By defining another person 's religious stories and beliefs as mythology , one implies that they are less real or true than one 's own religious stories and beliefs . Joseph Campbell remarked , `` Mythology is often thought of as other people 's religions , and religion can be defined as mis-interpreted mythology . '' In sociology , however , the term myth has a non-pejorative meaning . There , myth is defined as a story that is important for the group whether or not it is objectively or provably true . Examples include the resurrection of their real-life founder Jesus , which , to Christians , explains the means by which they are freed from sin , is symbolic of the power of life over death , and is also said to be a historical event . But from a mythological outlook , whether or not the event actually occurred is unimportant . Instead , the symbolism of the death of an old `` life '' and the start of a new `` life '' is what is most significant . Religious believers may or may not accept such symbolic interpretations . Social organisation Religions have a societal basis , either as a living tradition which is carried by lay participants , or with an organized clergy , and a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership . Types and demographics The list of still-active religious movements given here is an attempt to summarize the most important regional and philosophical influences on local communities , but it is by no means a complete description of every religious community , nor does it explain the most important elements of individual religiousness . Types of religion In the 19th and 20th centuries , the academic practice of comparative religion divided religious belief into philosophically defined categories called `` world religions . '' Some academics studying the subject have divided religions into three broad categories : # world religions , a term which refers to transcultural , international faiths ; # indigenous religions , which refers to smaller , culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups ; and # new religious movements , which refers to recently developed faiths . Some recent scholarship has argued that not all types of religion are necessarily separated by mutually exclusive philosophies , and furthermore that the utility of ascribing a practice to a certain philosophy , or even calling a given practice religious , rather than cultural , political , or social in nature , is limited . The current state of psychological study about the nature of religiousness suggests that it is better to refer to religion as a largely invariant phenomenon that should be distinguished from cultural norms ( i.e . `` religions '' ) . Some scholars classify religions as either universal religions that seek worldwide acceptance and actively look for new converts , or ethnic religions that are identified with a particular ethnic group and do not seek converts . Others reject the distinction , pointing out that all religious practices , whatever their philosophical origin , are ethnic because they come from a particular culture . Demographics The five largest religious groups by world population , estimated to account for 5.8 billion people and 84 % of the population , are Christianity , Islam , Buddhism , Hinduism ( with the relative numbers for Buddhism and Hinduism dependent on the extent of syncretism ) and traditional folk religion . A global poll in 2012 surveyed 57 countries and reported that 59 % of the world 's population identified as religious , 23 % as not religious , 13 % as `` convinced atheists '' , and also a 9 % decrease in identification as `` religious '' when compared to the 2005 average from 39 countries . A follow up poll in 2015 found that 63 % of the globe identified as religious , 22 % as not religious , and 11 % as `` convinced atheists '' . On average , women are `` more religious '' than men . Some people follow multiple religions or multiple religious principles at the same time , regardless of whether or not the religious principles they follow traditionally allow for syncretism . Abrahamic Abrahamic religions are monotheistic religions which believe they descend from Abraham . Judaism Judaism is the oldest Abrahamic religion , originating in the people of ancient Israel and Judea . The Torah is its foundational text , and is part of the larger text known as the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible . It is supplemented by oral tradition , set down in written form in later texts such as the Midrash and the Talmud . Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts , practices , theological positions , and forms of organization . Within Judaism there are a variety of movements , most of which emerged from Rabbinic Judaism , which holds that God revealed his laws and commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai in the form of both the Written and Oral Torah ; historically , this assertion was challenged by various groups . The Jewish people were scattered after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE . Today there are about 13 million Jews , about 40 per cent living in Israel and 40 per cent in the United States . The largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism ( Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism ) , Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism . Christianity Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth ( 1st century ) as presented in the New Testament . The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the Christ , the Son of God , and as Savior and Lord . Almost all Christians believe in the Trinity , which teaches the unity of Father , Son ( Jesus Christ ) , and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead . Most Christians can describe their faith with the Nicene Creed . As the religion of Byzantine Empire in the first millennium and of Western Europe during the time of colonization , Christianity has been propagated throughout the world . The main divisions of Christianity are , according to the number of adherents : * Catholic Church , headed by the Pope in Rome , is a communion of the Western church and 22 Eastern Catholic churches . * Eastern Christianity , which include Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodoxy , and the Church of the East . * Protestantism , separated from the Catholic Church in the 16th-century Reformation and is split into many denominations . There are also smaller groups , including : * Restorationism , the belief that Christianity should be restored ( as opposed to reformed ) along the lines of what is known about the apostolic early church . * Latter Day Saint movement , founded by Joseph Smith in the late 1820s . * Jehovah 's Witnesses , founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell . Islam Islam is based on the Quran , one of the holy books considered by Muslims to be revealed by God , and on the teachings ( hadith ) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , a major political and religious figure of the 7th century CE . Islam is the most widely practiced religion of Southeast Asia , North Africa , Western Asia , and Central Asia , while Muslim-majority countries also exist in parts of South Asia , Sub-Saharan Africa , and Southeast Europe . There are also several Islamic republics , including Iran , Pakistan , Mauritania , and Afghanistan . * Sunni Islam is the largest denomination within Islam and follows the Quran , the hadiths which record the sunnah , whilst placing emphasis on the sahabah . * Shia Islam is the second largest denomination of Islam and its adherents believe that Ali succeeded Muhammad and further places emphasis on Muhammad 's family . * Ahmadiyya adherents believe that the awaited Imam Mahdi and the Promised Messiah has arrived , believed to be Mirza Ghulam Ahmad by Ahmadis . * There are also Muslim revivalist movements such as Muwahhidism and Salafism . Other denominations of Islam include Nation of Islam , Ibadi , Sufism , Quranism , Mahdavia , and non-denominational Muslims . Wahhabism is the dominant Muslim schools of thought in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia . Other The Bahá ' í Faith is an Abrahamic religion founded in 19th century Iran and since then has spread worldwide . It teaches unity of all religious philosophies and accepts all of the prophets of Judaism , Christianity , and Islam as well as additional prophets including its founder Bahá ' u'lláh . One of its divisions is the Orthodox Bahá ' í Faith . Smaller regional Abrahamic groups also exist , including Samaritanism ( primarily in Israel and the West Bank ) , the Rastafari movement ( primarily in Jamaica ) , and Druze ( primarily in Syria and Lebanon ) . East Asian religions East Asian religions ( also known as Far Eastern religions or Taoic religions ) consist of several religions of East Asia which make use of the concept of Tao ( in Chinese ) or Dō ( in Japanese or Korean ) . They include : * Taoism and Confucianism , as well as Korean , Vietnamese , and Japanese religion influenced by Chinese thought . * Chinese folk religion : the indigenous religions of the Han Chinese , or , by metonymy , of all the populations of the Chinese cultural sphere . It includes the syncretism of Confucianism , Taoism and Buddhism , Wuism , as well as many new religious movements such as Chen Tao , Falun Gong and Yiguandao . * Other folk and new religions of East Asia and Southeast Asia such as Korean shamanism , Chondogyo , and Jeung San Do in Korea ; Shinto , Shugendo , Ryukyuan religion , and Japanese new religions in Japan ; Satsana Phi in Laos ; Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo , and Vietnamese folk religion in Vietnam . Indian religions Indian religions are practiced or were founded in the Indian subcontinent . They are sometimes classified as the dharmic religions , as they all feature dharma , the specific law of reality and duties expected according to the religion . Hinduism is a synecdoche describing the similar philosophies of Vaishnavism , Shaivism , and related groups practiced or founded in the Indian subcontinent . Concepts most of them share in common include karma , caste , reincarnation , mantras , yantras , and darśana.Hinduism is variously defined as a `` religion '' , `` set of religious beliefs and practices '' , `` religious tradition '' etc . For a discussion on the topic , see : `` Establishing the boundaries '' in Gavin Flood ( 2003 ) , pp . 1-17 . René Guénon in his Introduction to the Study of the Hindu doctrines ( 1921 ed . ) , Sophia Perennis , ISBN 0-900588-74-8 , proposes a definition of the term `` religion '' and a discussion of its relevance ( or lack of ) to Hindu doctrines ( part II , chapter 4 , p. 58 ) . Hinduism is the most ancient of still-active religions , with origins perhaps as far back as prehistoric times . Hinduism is not a monolithic religion but a religious category containing dozens of separate philosophies amalgamated as Sanātana Dharma , which is the name by which Hinduism has been known throughout history by its followers . Jainism , taught primarily by Parsva ( 9th century BCE ) and Mahavira ( 6th century BCE ) , is an ancient Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world . Jains are found mostly in India . Buddhism was founded by Siddhattha Gotama in the 6th century BCE . Buddhists generally agree that Gotama aimed to help sentient beings end their suffering ( dukkha ) by understanding the true nature of phenomena , thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ( saṃsāra ) , that is , achieving nirvana . * Theravada Buddhism , which is practiced mainly in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia alongside folk religion , shares some characteristics of Indian religions . It is based in a large collection of texts called the Pali Canon . * Mahayana Buddhism ( or the `` Great Vehicle '' ) under which are a multitude of doctrines that became prominent in China and are still relevant in Vietnam , Korea , Japan and to a lesser extent in Europe and the United States . Mahayana Buddhism includes such disparate teachings as Zen , Pure Land , and Soka Gakkai . * Vajrayana Buddhism first appeared in India in the 3rd century CE . It is currently most prominent in the Himalaya regions and extends across all of Asia ( cf . Mikkyō ) . * Two notable new Buddhist sects are Hòa Hảo and the Dalit Buddhist movement , which were developed separately in the 20th century . Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak and ten successive Sikh gurus in 15th century Punjab . It is the fifth-largest organized religion in the world , with approximately 30 million Sikhs . Sikhs are expected to embody the qualities of a Sant-Sipāhī—a saint-soldier , have control over one 's internal vices and be able to be constantly immersed in virtues clarified in the Guru Granth Sahib . The principal beliefs of Sikhi are faith in Waheguru—represented by the phrase ik ōaṅkār , meaning one God , who prevails in everything , along with a praxis in which the Sikh is enjoined to engage in social reform through the pursuit of justice for all human beings . Local religions Indigenous and folk Indigenous religions or folk religions refers to a broad category of traditional religions that can be characterised by shamanism , animism and ancestor worship , where traditional means `` indigenous , that which is aboriginal or foundational , handed down from generation to generation… '' . These are religions that are closely associated with a particular group of people , ethnicity or

bb_1220--Religion.txt

The Qur'an (or Quran, Kuran, Koran, Coran or al-Qur'an - literally 'the recitation') is the religious text of which religion?

Napoléon Bonaparte ( ; , born Napoleone di Buonaparte ; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 ) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars . As Napoleon I , he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814 , and again in 1815 . Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars . He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles , building a large empire that ruled over continental Europe before its final collapse in 1815 . One of the greatest commanders in history , his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide . He also remains one of the most celebrated and controversial political figures in human history . Napoleon had an extensive and powerful influence on the modern world , bringing liberal reforms to the numerous territories that he conquered and controlled , especially the Low Countries , Switzerland , and large parts of modern Italy and Germany . He implemented fundamental liberal policies in France and throughout Western Europe . His lasting legal achievement , the Napoleonic Code , has influenced the legal systems of more than 70 nations around the world . British historian Andrew Roberts claimed , `` The ideas that underpin our modern world—meritocracy , equality before the law , property rights , religious toleration , modern secular education , sound finances , and so on—were championed , consolidated , codified and geographically extended by Napoleon . To them he added a rational and efficient local administration , an end to rural banditry , the encouragement of science and the arts , the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire . '' Napoleon was born in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility . He supported the French Revolution from the outset while serving in the French army , and tried to spread its ideals to his native Corsica . He rose rapidly through the ranks during the Revolution , ending up as commander of the Army of Italy after saving the governing Directory by suppressing a revolt from royalist insurgents . At age 26 , he began his first military campaign against the Austrians and their Italian allies , scoring a series of decisive victories , conquering the Italian Peninsula in a year , and becoming a national hero . In 1798 , he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power . He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic . His rising ambition and popularity inspired him to go further , and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French . Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805 . Napoleon shattered this coalition with decisive victories in the Ulm Campaign and a historic triumph at the Battle of Austerlitz , which led to the elimination of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1806 , the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent . Napoleon quickly knocked out Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt , then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe , annihilating the Russians in June 1807 at Friedland and forcing the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to accept the Treaties of Tilsit . Although Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire , it did not bring a lasting peace to the continent . Two years later , the Austrians challenged the French again during the War of the Fifth Coalition , but Napoleon solidified his grip over Europe after triumphing at the Battle of Wagram in July 1809 . Hoping to extend the Continental System meant to choke off British goods from the European mainland , Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808 . The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support . The Peninsular War lasted six years , featured brutal guerrilla warfare , and culminated in victory by the allied powers of Portugal , Spain , and Britain . The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its allies , especially Russia . Unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade , the Russians violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into war . The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812 . The resulting campaign witnessed the catastrophic collapse of the Grand Army , the widespread destruction of Russian lands and cities , and inspired a renewed push against Napoleon by his enemies . In 1813 , Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France . A chaotic military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 . The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the Spring of 1814 , forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April . He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power . However , Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again . The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition , which ultimately defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June . The British later exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic , where he spent the remainder of his years . His death in 1821 at the age of 51 was received with shock and grief throughout Europe . Origins and education Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769 , to Carlo Maria di Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino , in his family 's ancestral home Casa Buonaparte in Ajaccio , the capital of the island of Corsica . He was their fourth child and third son . This was a year after the island was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa . He was christened Napoleone di Buonaparte , probably named after an uncle ( an older brother who did not survive infancy was the first of the sons to be called Napoleone ) . In his 20s , he adopted the more French-sounding Napoléon Bonaparte . The Corsican Buonapartes were descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin , who had come to Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century . His father Nobile Carlo Buonaparte was an attorney , and was named Corsica 's representative to the court of Louis XVI in 1777 . The dominant influence of Napoleon 's childhood was his mother , Letizia Ramolino , whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child . Napoleon 's maternal grandmother had married into the Swiss Fesch family in her second marriage , and Napoleon 's uncle , the later cardinal Joseph Fesch , would fulfill the role as protector of the Bonaparte family for some years . He had an elder brother , Joseph , and younger siblings : Lucien , Elisa , Louis , Pauline , Caroline , and Jérôme . A boy and girl were born before Joseph but died in infancy . Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic . Napoleon 's noble , moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time . In January 1779 , he was enrolled at a religious school in Autun . In May , he was admitted to a military academy at Brienne-le-Château . His first language was Corsican , and he always spoke French with a marked Corsican accent and never learned to spell French properly . He was teased by other students for his accent and applied himself to reading . An examiner observed that Napoleon `` has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics . He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor . '' On completion of his studies at Brienne in 1784 , Napoleon was admitted to the elite École Militaire in Paris . He trained to become an artillery officer and , when his father 's death reduced his income , was forced to complete the two-year course in one year . He was the first Corsican to graduate from the École Militaire . He was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace . Early career Upon graduating in September 1785 , Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment . He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 , and took nearly two years ' leave in Corsica and Paris during this period . At this time , he was a fervent Corsican nationalist , and wrote to Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May 1789 , `` As the nation was perishing I was born . Thirty thousand Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores , drowning the throne of liberty in waves of blood . Such was the odious sight which was the first to strike me . '' He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica , fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists , revolutionaries , and Corsican nationalists . He was a supporter of the republican Jacobin movement , organising clubs in Corsica , and was given command over a battalion of volunteers . He was promoted to captain in the regular army in July 1792 , despite exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against a French army in Corsica . He returned to Corsica and came into conflict with Paoli , who had decided to split with France and sabotage the French assault on the Sardinian island of La Maddalena . Bonaparte and his family fled to the French mainland in June 1793 because of the split with Paoli . Siege of Toulon In July 1793 , Bonaparte published a pro-republican pamphlet entitled Le souper de Beaucaire ( Supper at Beaucaire ) which gained him the support of Augustin Robespierre , younger brother of the Revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre . With the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti , Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces at the Siege of Toulon . He adopted a plan to capture a hill where republican guns could dominate the city 's harbour and force the British to evacuate . The assault on the position led to the capture of the city , but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the thigh . He was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24 . Catching the attention of the Committee of Public Safety , he was put in charge of the artillery of France 's Army of Italy . Napoleon spent time as inspector of coastal fortifications on the Mediterranean coast near Marseille while he was waiting for confirmation of the Army of Italy post . He devised plans for attacking the Kingdom of Sardinia as part of France 's campaign against the First Coalition Augustin Robespierre and Saliceti were ready to listen to the freshly promoted artillery general . The French army carried out Bonaparte 's plan in the Battle of Saorgio in April 1794 , and then advanced to seize Ormea in the mountains . From Ormea , they headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge . After this campaign , Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine that country 's intentions towards France . 13 Vendémiaire Some contemporaries alleged that Bonaparte was put under house arrest at Nice for his association with the Robespierres following their fall in the Thermidorian Reaction in July 1794 , but Napoleon 's secretary Bourrienne disputed the allegation in his memoirs . According to Bourrienne , jealousy was responsible , between the Army of the Alps and the Army of Italy ( with whom Napoleon was seconded at the time ) . Bonaparte dispatched an impassioned defense in a letter to the commissar Salicetti , and he was subsequently acquitted of any wrongdoing . He was released within two weeks and , due to his technical skills , was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions in the context of France 's war with Austria . He also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British , but the French were repulsed by the British Royal Navy . By 1795 , Bonaparte had become engaged to Désirée Clary , daughter of François Clary . Désirée 's sister Julie Clary had married Bonaparte 's elder brother Joseph . In April 1795 , he was assigned to the Army of the West , which was engaged in the War in the Vendée—a civil war and royalist counter-revolution in Vendée , a region in west central France on the Atlantic Ocean . As an infantry command , it was a demotion from artillery general—for which the army already had a full quota—and he pleaded poor health to avoid the posting . He was moved to the Bureau of Topography of the Committee of Public Safety and sought unsuccessfully to be transferred to Constantinople in order to offer his services to the Sultan . During this period , he wrote the romantic novella Clisson et Eugénie , about a soldier and his lover , in a clear parallel to Bonaparte 's own relationship with Désirée . On 15 September , Bonaparte was removed from the list of generals in regular service for his refusal to serve in the Vendée campaign . He faced a difficult financial situation and reduced career prospects . On 3 October , royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention . Paul Barras , a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction , knew of Bonaparte 's military exploits at Toulon and gave him command of the improvised forces in defence of the Convention in the Tuileries Palace . Napoleon had seen the massacre of the King 's Swiss Guard there three years earlier and realised that artillery would be the key to its defence . He ordered a young cavalry officer named Joachim Murat to seize large cannons and used them to repel the attackers on 5 October 1795—13 Vendémiaire An IV in the French Republican Calendar . 1,400 royalists died and the rest fled . He had cleared the streets with `` a whiff of grapeshot '' , according to 19th-century historian Thomas Carlyle in The French Revolution : A History . The defeat of the royalist insurrection extinguished the threat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden fame , wealth , and the patronage of the new government , the Directory . Murat married one of Napoleon 's sisters and became his brother-in-law ; he also served under Napoleon as one of his generals . Bonaparte was promoted to Commander of the Interior and given command of the Army of Italy . Within weeks , he was romantically attached to Joséphine de Beauharnais , the former mistress of Barras . The couple married on 9 March 1796 in a civil ceremony . First Italian campaign Two days after the marriage , Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy . He immediately went on the offensive , hoping to defeat the forces of Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene . In a series of rapid victories during the Montenotte Campaign , he knocked Piedmont out of the war in two weeks . The French then focused on the Austrians for the remainder of the war , the highlight of which became the protracted struggle for Mantua . The Austrians launched a series of offensives against the French to break the siege , but Napoleon defeated every relief effort , scoring notable victories at the battles of Castiglione , Bassano , Arcole , and Rivoli . The decisive French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy . At Rivoli , the Austrians lost up to 14,000 men while the French lost about 5,000 . The next phase of the campaign featured the French invasion of the Habsburg heartlands . French forces in Southern Germany had been defeated by the Archduke Charles in 1796 , but the Archduke withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning about Napoleon 's assault . In the first notable encounter between the two commanders , Napoleon pushed back his opponent and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning at the Battle of Tarvis in March 1797 . The Austrians were alarmed by the French thrust that reached all the way to Leoben , about 100 km from Vienna , and finally decided to sue for peace . The Treaty of Leoben , followed by the more comprehensive Treaty of Campo Formio , gave France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries , and a secret clause promised the Republic of Venice to Austria . Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender , ending 1,100 years of independence . He also authorized the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark . His application of conventional military ideas to real-world situations enabled his military triumphs , such as creative use of artillery as a mobile force to support his infantry . He remarked later in life : `` I have fought sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning . Look at Caesar ; he fought the first like the last . '' Bonaparte could win battles by concealment of troop deployments and concentration of his forces on the 'hinge ' of an enemy 's weakened front . If he could not use his favourite envelopment strategy , he would take up the central position and attack two co-operating forces at their hinge , swing round to fight one until it fled , then turn to face the other . In this Italian campaign , Bonaparte 's army captured 150,000 prisoners , 540 cannons , and 170 standards . The French army fought 67 actions and won 18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology and Bonaparte 's tactics . During the campaign , Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics . He founded two newspapers : one for the troops in his army and another for circulation in France . The royalists attacked Bonaparte for looting Italy and warned that he might become a dictator . All told , Napoleon 's forces extracted an estimated $ 45 million in funds from Italy during their campaign there , another $ 12 million in precious metals and jewels ; atop that , his forces confiscated more than three-hundred priceless paintings and sculptures . Bonaparte sent General Pierre Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'état and purge the royalists on 4 September—Coup of 18 Fructidor . This left Barras and his Republican allies in control again but dependent on Bonaparte , who proceeded to peace negotiations with Austria . These negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Campo Formio , and Bonaparte returned to Paris in December as a hero . He met Talleyrand , France 's new Foreign Minister—who later served in the same capacity for Emperor Napoleon—and they began to prepare for an invasion of Britain . Egyptian expedition After two months of planning , Bonaparte decided that France 's naval power was not yet strong enough to confront the British Royal Navy . He decided on a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britain 's access to its trade interests in India . Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East , with the ultimate dream of linking with Tipu Sultan , a Muslim enemy of the British in India . Napoleon assured the Directory that `` as soon as he had conquered Egypt , he will establish relations with the Indian princes and , together with them , attack the English in their possessions . `` Amini 2000 , p.12 The Directory agreed in order to secure a trade route to India . In May 1798 , Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences . His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists , with mathematicians , naturalists , chemists , and geodesists among them . Their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone , and their work was published in the Description de l'Égypte in 1809 . En route to Egypt , Bonaparte reached Malta on 9 June 1798 , then controlled by the Knights Hospitaller . Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim surrendered after token resistance , and Bonaparte captured an important naval base with the loss of only three men . General Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy and landed at Alexandria on 1 July . He fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks , Egypt 's ruling military caste . This helped the French practice their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyramids , fought on 21 July , about 24 km from the pyramids . General Bonaparte 's forces of 25,000 roughly equalled those of the Mamluks ' Egyptian cavalry . Twenty-nine French and approximately 2,000 Egyptians were killed . The victory boosted the morale of the French army . On 1 August , the British fleet under Horatio Nelson captured or destroyed all but two French vessels in the Battle of the Nile , defeating Bonaparte 's goal to strengthen the French position in the Mediterranean . His army had succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in Egypt , though it faced repeated uprisings . In early 1799 , he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus ( Syria and Galilee ) . Bonaparte led these 13,000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal towns of Arish , Gaza , Jaffa , and Haifa . The attack on Jaffa was particularly brutal . Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were former prisoners of war , ostensibly on parole , so he ordered the garrison and 1,400 prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning to save bullets . Men , women , and children were robbed and murdered for three days . Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men ; 1,500 were reported missing , 1,200 died in combat , and thousands perished from disease—mostly bubonic plague . He failed to reduce the fortress of Acre , so he marched his army back to Egypt in May . To speed up the retreat , Bonaparte ordered plague-stricken men to be poisoned with opium ; the number who died remains disputed , ranging from a low of 30 to a high of 580 . He also brought out 1,000 wounded men . Back in Egypt on 25 July , Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir . Ruler of France While in Egypt , Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs . He learned that France had suffered a series of defeats in the War of the Second Coalition . On 24 August 1799 , he took advantage of the temporary departure of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for France , despite the fact that he had received no explicit orders from Paris . The army was left in the charge of Jean Baptiste Kléber . Unknown to Bonaparte , the Directory had sent him orders to return to ward off possible invasions of French soil , but poor lines of communication prevented the delivery of these messages.Connelly 2006 , p.57 By the time that he reached Paris in October , France 's situation had been improved by a series of victories . The Republic , however , was bankrupt and the ineffective Directory was unpopular with the French population . The Directory discussed Bonaparte 's `` desertion '' but was too weak to punish him . Despite the failures in Egypt , Napoleon returned to a hero 's welcome . He drew together an alliance with director Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès , his brother Lucien , speaker of the Council of Five Hundred Roger Ducos , director Joseph Fouché , and Talleyrand , and they overthrew the Directory by a coup d'état on 9 November 1799 ( `` the 18th Brumaire '' according to the revolutionary calendar ) , closing down the council of five hundred . Napoleon became `` first consul '' for ten years , with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only . His power was confirmed by the new `` Constitution of the Year VIII '' , originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role , but rewritten by Napoleon , and accepted by direct popular vote ( 3,000,000 in favor , 1,567 opposed ) . The constitution preserved the appearance of a republic but in reality established a dictatorship . French Consulate Napoleon established a political system that historian Martyn Lyons called `` dictatorship by plebiscite . '' Worried by the democratic forces unleashed by the Revolution , but unwilling to ignore them entirely , Napoleon resorted to regular electoral consultations with the French people on his road to imperial power . He drafted the Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own election as First Consul , taking up residence at the Tuileries . The constitution was approved in a rigged plebiscite held the following January , with 99.94 percent officially listed as voting `` yes . '' Napoleon 's brother , Lucien , had falsified the returns to show that 3 million people had participated in the plebiscite ; the real number was 1.5 million . Political observers at the time assumed the eligible French voting public numbered about 5 million people , so the regime artificially doubled the participation rate to indicate popular enthusiasm for the Consulate . In the first few months of the Consulate , with war in Europe still raging and internal instability still plaguing the country , Napoleon 's grip on power remained very tenuous . In the spring of 1800 , Napoleon and his troops crossed the Swiss Alps into Italy , aiming to surprise the Austrian armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Napoleon was still in Egypt . After a difficult crossing over the Alps , the French army entered the plains of Northern Italy virtually unopposed . While one French army approached from the north , the Austrians were busy with another stationed in Genoa , which was besieged by a substantial force . The fierce resistance of this French army , under André Masséna , gave the northern striking force precious time to carry out their operations with little interference . After spending several days looking for each other , the two armies finally collided at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June . General Melas had a numerical advantage , fielding about Austrian soldiers while Napoleon commanded French troops . The battle began favorably for the Austrians as their initial attack surprised the French and gradually drove them back . Melas concluded that he 'd won the battle and retired to his headquarters around 3 pm , leaving his subordinates in charge of pursuing the French . However , the French lines never broke during their tactical retreat ; Napoleon constantly rode out among the troops urging them to stand and fight . Late in the afternoon , a full division under Desaix arrived on the field and dramatically reversed the tide of the battle . A series of artillery barrages and fortunate cavalry charges managed to decimate the Austrian army , which fled chaotically over the Bormida River back to Alessandria , leaving behind casualties . The following day , the Austrian army agreed to abandon Northern Italy once more with the Convention of Alessandria , which granted them safe passage to friendly soil in exchange for their fortresses throughout the region . Although critics have blamed Napoleon for several tactical mistakes preceding the battle , they have also praised his audacity for selecting a risky campaign strategy , choosing to invade the Italian peninsula from the north when the vast majority of French invasions came from the west , near or along the coastline . As Chandler points out , Napoleon spent almost a year getting the Austrians out of Italy in his first campaign ; in 1800 , it took him only a month to achieve the same goal . German strategist and field marshal Alfred von Schlieffen concluded that `` Bonaparte did not annihilate his enemy but eliminated him and rendered him harmless '' while `` [ attaining ] the object of the campaign : the conquest of North Italy . '' Napoleon 's triumph at Marengo secured his political authority and boosted his popularity back home , but it did not lead to an immediate peace . Bonaparte 's brother , Joseph , led the complex negotiations in Lunéville and reported that Austria , emboldened by British support , would

odql_7876--Napoleon.txt

Which 1800 battle saw Napoleon's forces victorious over the Austrians near Alessandria in Piedmont?

The United States of America ( USA ) , commonly referred to as the United States ( U.S. ) or America , is a federal republic composed of 50 states , the federal district of Washington , D.C. , five major self-governing territories , and various possessions . The 48 contiguous states and federal district are in central North America between Canada and Mexico , with the state of Alaska in the northwestern part of North America and the state of Hawaii comprising an archipelago in the mid-Pacific . The territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea . At 3.8 million square miles ( 9.8 million km2 ) and with over 320 million people , the United States is the world 's third largest country by total area ( and fourth largest by land area ) and the third most populous . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries . The geography and climate are also extremely diverse , and the country is home to a wide variety of wildlife . Paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago , with European colonization beginning in the 16th century . The United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast . Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies led to the American Revolution , which began in 1775 . On July 4 , 1776 , as the colonies were fighting Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War , delegates from the 13 colonies unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence . The war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain , and was the first successful war of independence against a European colonial empire.Greene , Jack P. ; Pole , J.R. , eds . ( 2008 ) . A Companion to the American Revolution . pp . 352–361 . The current constitution was adopted in 1788 , after the Articles of Confederation , adopted in 1781 , were felt to have provided inadequate federal powers . The first ten amendments , collectively named the Bill of Rights , were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties . The United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century , displacing American Indian tribes , acquiring new territories , and gradually admitting new states until it spanned the continent by 1848 . During the second half of the 19th century , the American Civil War led to the end of legal slavery in the country . By the end of that century , the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean , and its economy , driven in large part by the Industrial Revolution , began to soar . The Spanish–American War and confirmed the country 's status as a global military power . The United States emerged from as a global superpower , the first country to develop nuclear weapons , the only country to use them in warfare , and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council . The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the U.S. as the world 's sole superpower . The United States is a highly developed country , with the world 's largest economy by nominal and real GDP . It ranks highly in several measures of socioeconomic performance , including average wage , human development , per capita GDP , and productivity per person . While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial , characterized by the dominance of services , the manufacturing sector remains the second largest in the world . Though its population is only 4.4 % of the world total , the United States accounts for nearly a quarter of world GDP and almost a third of global military spending , making it the world 's foremost military and economic power . The United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally , and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations.Cohen , 2004 : History and the HyperpowerBBC , April 2008 : Country Profile : United States of America Etymology In 1507 the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a world map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere `` America '' after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci ( Latin : Americus Vespucius ) . The first evidence of the phrase `` United States of America '' is in a letter of January 2 , 1776 , from the office of General George Washington which expressed his wish to carry the `` full and ample powers of the United States of America '' to Spain to assist in the revolutionary war effort . The first known publication of the phrase `` United States of America '' was in an anonymous essay in The Virginia Gazette newspaper in Williamsburg , Virginia , on April 6 , 1776 . The second draft of the Articles of Confederation , prepared by John Dickinson and completed by June 17 , 1776 , at the latest , declared `` The name of this Confederation shall be the 'United States of America . ' '' The final version of the Articles sent to the states for ratification in late 1777 contains the sentence `` The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America . In June 1776 , Thomas Jefferson wrote the phrase `` UNITED STATES OF AMERICA '' in all capitalized letters in the headline of his `` original Rough draught '' of the Declaration of Independence . This draft of the document did not surface until June 21 , 1776 , and it is unclear whether it was written before or after Dickinson used the term in his June 17 draft of the Articles of Confederation . In the final Fourth of July version of the Declaration , the title was changed to read , `` The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America '' . The preamble of the Constitution states `` ... establish this Constitution for the United States of America . '' The short form `` United States '' is also standard . Other common forms are the `` U.S. '' , the `` USA '' , and `` America '' . Colloquial names are the `` U.S. of A . '' and , internationally , the `` States '' . `` Columbia '' , a name popular in poetry and songs of the late 1700s , derives its origin from Christopher Columbus ; it appears in the name `` District of Columbia '' . In non-English languages , the name is frequently the translation of either the `` United States '' or `` United States of America '' , and colloquially as `` America '' . In addition , an abbreviation ( e.g . USA ) is sometimes used . The phrase `` United States '' was originally plural , a description of a collection of independent states—e.g. , `` the United States are '' —including in the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , ratified in 1865 . The singular form—e.g. , `` the United States is '' — became popular after the end of the American Civil War . The singular form is now standard ; the plural form is retained in the idiom `` these United States '' . The difference is more significant than usage ; it is a difference between a collection of states and a unit . A citizen of the United States is an `` American '' . `` United States '' , `` American '' and `` U.S. '' refer to the country adjectivally ( `` American values '' , `` U.S. forces '' ) . `` American '' rarely refers to subjects not connected with the United States . History Indigenous and European contact The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 15,000 years ago , though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival . Some , such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture , developed advanced agriculture , grand architecture , and state-level societies . After the Spanish conquistadors made the first contacts , the native population declined for various reasons , primarily from diseases such as smallpox and measles . Violence was not a significant factor in the overall decline among Native Americans , though conflict among themselves and with Europeans affected specific tribes and various colonial settlements . In the Hawaiian Islands , the earliest indigenous inhabitants arrived around 1 AD from Polynesia . Europeans under the British explorer Captain James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778 . In the early days of colonization , many European settlers were subject to food shortages , disease , and attacks from Native Americans . Native Americans were also often at war with neighboring tribes and allied with Europeans in their colonial wars . At the same time , however , many natives and settlers came to depend on each other . Settlers traded for food and animal pelts , natives for guns , ammunition and other European wares . Natives taught many settlers where , when and how to cultivate corn , beans and squash . European missionaries and others felt it was important to `` civilize '' the Native Americans and urged them to adopt European agricultural techniques and lifestyles . Settlements After Spain sent Columbus ' on his first voyage to the New World in 1492 , other explorers followed . The Spanish set up small settlements in New Mexico and Florida . France had several small settlements along the Mississippi River . Successful English settlement on the eastern coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607 at Jamestown and the Pilgrims ' Plymouth Colony in 1620 . Early experiments in communal living failed until the introduction of private farm holdings . Many settlers were dissenting Christian groups who came seeking religious freedom . The continent 's first elected legislative assembly , Virginia 's House of Burgesses created in 1619 , and the Mayflower Compact , signed by the Pilgrims before disembarking , established precedents for the pattern of representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies . Most settlers in every colony were small farmers , but other industries developed within a few decades as varied as the settlements . Cash crops included tobacco , rice and wheat . Extraction industries grew up in furs , fishing and lumber . Manufacturers produced rum and ships , and by the late colonial period Americans were producing one-seventh of the world 's iron supply . Cities eventually dotted the coast to support local economies and serve as trade hubs . English colonists were supplemented by waves of Scotch-Irish and other groups . As coastal land grew more expensive freed indentured servants pushed further west . Slave cultivation of cash crops began with the Spanish in the 1500s , and was adopted by the English , but life expectancy was much higher in North America because of less disease and better food and treatment , leading to a rapid increase in the numbers of slaves . Colonial society was largely divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery and colonies passed acts for and against the practice.Lien , 1913 , p. 522Davis , 1996 , p. 7 But by the turn of the 18th century , African slaves were replacing indentured servants for cash crop labor , especially in southern regions . With the British colonization of Georgia in 1732 , the 13 colonies that would become the United States of America were established . All had local governments with elections open to most free men , with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating support for republicanism . With extremely high birth rates , low death rates , and steady settlement , the colonial population grew rapidly . Relatively small Native American populations were eclipsed . The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty . In the French and Indian War , British forces seized Canada from the French , but the francophone population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies . Excluding the Native Americans , who were being conquered and displaced , those 13 colonies had a population of over 2.1 million in 1770 , about one-third that of Britain . Despite continuing new arrivals , the rate of natural increase was such that by the 1770s only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas . The colonies ' distance from Britain had allowed the development of self-government , but their success motivated monarchs to periodically seek to reassert royal authority . Independence and expansion ( 1776–1865 ) The American Revolutionary War was the first successful colonial war of independence against a European power . Americans had developed an ideology of `` republicanism '' asserting that government rested on the will of the people as expressed in their local legislatures . They demanded their rights as Englishmen , `` no taxation without representation '' . The British insisted on administering the empire through Parliament , and the conflict escalated into war . Following the passage of the Lee Resolution , on July 2 , 1776 , which was the actual vote for independence , the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , on July 4 , which proclaimed , in a long preamble , that humanity is created equal in their unalienable rights and that those rights were not being protected by Great Britain , and declared , in the words of the resolution , that the Thirteen Colonies were independent states and had no allegiance to the British crown in the United States . The fourth day of July is celebrated annually as Independence Day . In 1777 , the Articles of Confederation established a weak government that operated until 1789 . Britain recognized the independence of the United States following their defeat at Yorktown . In the peace treaty of 1783 , American sovereignty was recognized from the Atlantic coast west to the Mississippi River . Nationalists led the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in writing the United States Constitution , ratified in state conventions in 1788 . The federal government was reorganized into three branches , on the principle of creating salutary checks and balances , in 1789 . George Washington , who had led the revolutionary army to victory , was the first president elected under the new constitution . The Bill of Rights , forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections , was adopted in 1791 . Although the federal government criminalized the international slave trade in 1808 , after 1820 , cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the Deep South , and along with it , the slave population . The Second Great Awakening , beginning about 1800 , converted millions to evangelical Protestantism . In the North , it energized multiple social reform movements , including abolitionism ; in the South , Methodists and Baptists proselytized among slave populations . Americans ' eagerness to expand westward prompted a long series of American Indian Wars . The Louisiana Purchase of French-claimed territory in 1803 almost doubled the nation 's size . The War of 1812 , declared against Britain over various grievances and fought to a draw , strengthened U.S. nationalism . A series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led Spain to cede it and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819 . Expansion was aided by steam power , when steamboats began traveling along America 's large water systems , which were connected by new canals , such as the Erie and the I & M ; then , even faster railroads began their stretch across the nation 's land . From 1820 to 1850 , Jacksonian democracy began a set of reforms which included wider male suffrage ; it led to the rise of the Second Party System of Democrats and Whigs as the dominant parties from 1828 to 1854 . The Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal policy that moved Indians into the west to their own reservations . The U.S. annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845 during a period of expansionist Manifest destiny . The 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest . Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest . The California Gold Rush of 1848–49 spurred western migration and the creation of additional western states . After the American Civil War , new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers , expanded internal trade and increased conflicts with Native Americans . Over a half-century , the loss of the American bison ( sometimes called `` buffalo '' ) was an existential blow to many Plains Indians cultures . In 1869 , a new Peace Policy sought to protect Native-Americans from abuses , avoid further war , and secure their eventual U.S. citizenship , although conflicts , including several of the largest Indian Wars , continued throughout the West into the 1900s.Smith ( 2001 ) , Grant , pp . 523–526 Civil War and Reconstruction Era Differences of opinion and social order between northern and southern states in early United States society , particularly regarding Black slavery , ultimately led the U.S. into the American Civil War . Initially , states entering the Union alternated between slave and free states , keeping a sectional balance in the Senate , while free states outstripped slave states in population and in the House of Representatives . But with additional western territory and more free-soil states , tensions between slave and free states mounted with arguments over federalism and disposition of the territories , whether and how to expand or restrict slavery . With the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln , the first president from the largely anti-slavery Republican Party , conventions in thirteen slave states ultimately declared secession and formed the Confederate States of America , while the U.S. government maintained that secession was illegal . The ensuing war was at first for Union , then after 1863 as casualties mounted and Lincoln delivered his Emancipation Proclamation , a second war aim became abolition of slavery . The war remains the deadliest military conflict in American history , resulting in the deaths of approximately 618,000 soldiers as well as many civilians . Following the Union victory in 1865 , three amendments to the U.S. Constitution brought about the prohibition of slavery , gave U.S. citizenship to the nearly four million African Americans who had been slaves , and promised them voting rights . The war and its resolution led to a substantial increase in federal power aimed at reintegrating and rebuilding the Southern states while ensuring the rights of the newly freed slaves . Following the Reconstruction Era , throughout the South Jim Crow laws soon effectively disenfranchised most blacks and some poor whites . Over the subsequent decades , in both the North and the South blacks and some whites faced systemic discrimination , including racial segregation and occasional vigilante violence , sparking national movements against these abuses . Industrialization In the North , urbanization and an unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe supplied a surplus of labor for the country 's industrialization and transformed its culture . National infrastructure including telegraph and transcontinental railroads spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the American Old West . The later invention of electric light and the telephone would also affect communication and urban life . The end of the Indian Wars further expanded acreage under mechanical cultivation , increasing surpluses for international markets . Mainland expansion was completed by the purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867 . In 1893 , pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the monarchy and formed the Republic of Hawaii , which the U.S. annexed in 1898 . Puerto Rico , Guam , and the Philippines were ceded by Spain in the same year , following the Spanish–American War . Rapid economic development at the end of the 19th century produced many prominent industrialists , and the U.S. economy became the world 's largest . Dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist , socialist , and anarchist movements . This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era , which saw significant reforms in many societal areas , including women 's suffrage , alcohol prohibition , regulation of consumer goods , greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions . World War I , Great Depression , and World War II The United States remained neutral from the outbreak of World War I , in 1914 , until 1917 when it joined the war as an `` associated power '' , alongside the formal Allies of World War I , helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers . In 1919 , President Woodrow Wilson took a leading diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the League of Nations . However , the Senate refused to approve this , and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles that established the League of Nations . In 1920 , the women 's rights movement won passage of a constitutional amendment granting women 's suffrage . The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of radio for mass communication and the invention of early television . The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression . After his election as president in 1932 , Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal , which included the establishment of the Social Security system . The Great Migration of millions of African Americans out of the American South began before World War I and extended through the 1960s ; whereas the Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration . At first effectively neutral during World War II while Germany conquered much of continental Europe , the United States began supplying material to the Allies in March 1941 through the Lend-Lease program . On December 7 , 1941 , the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor , prompting the United States to join the Allies against the Axis powers . During the war , the United States was referred as one of the `` Four Policemen '' of Allies power who met to plan the postwar world , along with Britain , the Soviet Union and China . Though the nation lost more than 400,000 soldiers , it emerged relatively undamaged from the war with even greater economic and military influence . The United States played a leading role in the Bretton Woods and Yalta conferences with the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union and other Allies , which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe 's postwar reorganization . As an Allied victory was won in Europe , a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter , which became active after the war . The United States developed the first nuclear weapons and used them on Japan ; the Japanese surrendered on September 2 , ending World War II . Cold War and civil rights era After World War II the United States and the Soviet Union jockeyed for power during what is known as the Cold War , driven by an ideological divide between capitalism and communism and , according to the school of geopolitics , a divide between the maritime Atlantic and the continental Eurasian camps . They dominated the military affairs of Europe , with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies on the other . The U.S. developed a policy of containment towards the expansion of communist influence . While the U.S. and Soviet Union engaged in proxy wars and developed powerful nuclear arsenals , the two countries avoided direct military conflict . The U.S. often opposed Third World movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored . American troops fought communist Chinese and North Korean forces in the Korean War of 1950–53 . The Soviet Union 's 1957 launch of the first artificial satellite and its 1961 launch of the first manned spaceflight initiated a `` Space Race '' in which the United States became the first nation to land a man on the moon in 1969 . A proxy war in Southeast Asia eventually evolved into full American participation , as the Vietnam War . At home , the U.S. experienced sustained economic expansion and a rapid growth of its population and middle class . Construction of an Interstate Highway System transformed the nation 's infrastructure over the following decades . Millions moved from farms and inner cities to large suburban housing developments . In 1959 Hawaii became the 50th and last U.S. state added to the country . A growing civil rights movement used nonviolence to confront segregation and discrimination , with Martin Luther King , Jr. becoming a prominent leader and figurehead . A combination of court decisions and legislation , culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , sought to end racial discrimination . Meanwhile , a counterculture movement grew which was fueled by opposition to the Vietnam war , black nationalism , and the sexual revolution . The launch of a `` War on Poverty '' expanded entitlements and welfare spending . The 1970s and early 1980s saw the onset of stagflation . After his election in 1980 , President Ronald Reagan responded to economic stagnation with free-market oriented reforms . Following the collapse of détente , he abandoned `` containment '' and initiated the more aggressive `` rollback '' strategy towards the USSR . After a surge in female labor participation over the previous decade , by 1985 the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed . The late 1980s brought a `` thaw '' in relations with the USSR , and its collapse in 1991 finally ended the Cold War . This brought about unipolarity with the U.S. unchallenged as the world 's dominant superpower . The concept of Pax Americana , which had appeared in the post-World War II period , gained wide popularity as a term for the post-Cold War new world order . Contemporary history After the Cold War , the 1990s saw the longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history , ending in 2001 . Originating in U.S. defense networks , the Internet spread to international academic networks , and then to the public in the 1990s , greatly affecting the global economy , society , and culture . On September 11 , 2001 , Al-Qaeda terrorists struck the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington , D.C. , killing nearly 3,000 people . In response , the United States launched the War on Terror , which included war in Afghanistan and the 2003–11 Iraq War . Beginning in 1994 , the U.S. entered into the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) , linking 450 million people producing $ 17 trillion worth of goods and services . The goal of the agreement was to eliminate trade and investment barriers among the U.S. , Canada , and Mexico by January 1 , 2008 ; trade among the partners has soared since the agreement went into force . [ http : //www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta `` North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) '' ] Office of the United States Trade Representative . Retrieved January 11 , 2015 . Barack Obama , the first African American , and multiracial president , was elected in 2008 amid the Great Recession , which began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009 . Geography , climate , and environment The land area of the contiguous United States is 2959064 sqmi . Alaska , separated from the contiguous United States by Canada , is the largest state at 663268 sqmi . Hawaii , occupying an archipelago in the central Pacific , southwest of North America , is 10931 sqmi in area . The populated territories of Puerto Rico , American Samoa , Guam , Northern Mariana Islands , and U.S. Virgin Islands together cover 9185 sqmi . The United States is the world 's third or fourth largest nation by total area ( land and water ) , ranking behind Russia and Canada and just above or below China . The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted and how the total size of the United States is measured : calculations range from 3676486 sqmi to 3717813 sqmi

qg_2119--United_States.txt

The Statue of Liberty, officially presented to the United States on July 4, 1884, holds a torch and a tablet. In what hand is the torch held?

The Minoan civilization was an Aegean Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands and flourished from approximately 3650 to 1400 BCE . It belongs to a period of Greek history preceding both the Mycenaean civilization and Ancient Greece . It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of British archaeologist Arthur Evans . Historian Will Durant dubbed the Minoans `` the first link in the European chain , '' and their civilization has been referred to as the earliest of its kind in Europe . The term `` Minoan '' refers to the mythic King Minos , and was originally given as a description to the pottery of this period . Minos was associated in Greek myth with the labyrinth and the Minotaur , which Evans identified with the site at Knossos , the largest Minoan site . The poet Homer recorded a tradition that Crete once had 90 cities . The Minoan period saw significant contacts between Crete , the Aegean and the Mediterranean , particularly the Near East . As traders and artists , their cultural influence reached far beyond the island of Crete—throughout the Cyclades , to Egypt 's Old Kingdom , to copper-bearing Cyprus , Canaan and the Levantine coasts beyond , and to Anatolia . Some of its best art is preserved in the city of Akrotiri , on the island of Santorini , destroyed during the Thera eruption . The Minoan language and writing system ( Linear A ) remain undeciphered and a matter of academic dispute , but seemingly convey a language entirely different from the Greek dialects in later periods . The causes of the changes to bring about the end of the Minoan period ( around 1,400 BCE ) are unclear , though theories include an invasion from the mainland , or the volcanic eruption of Thera . Etymology The term `` Minoan '' refers to the mythic `` king '' Minos of Knossos . Who first coined the term is debated . It is commonly attributed to the archeologist Arthur Evans ( 1851–1941 ) . Minos was associated in Greek myth with the labyrinth , which Evans identified with the site at Knossos . However , Karl Hoeck used the name Das Minoische Kreta already in 1825 for Volume II of his major work , Kreta , which would appear to be the first known use of the term Minoan to mean ancient Cretan . Likely , Arthur Evans read the book , continuing the use of the term in his own writings and findings . Evans said : `` To this early civilization of Crete as a whole I have proposed—and the suggestion has been generally adopted by the archaeologists of this and other countries—to apply the name 'Minoan ' . '' Evans claims to have applied it , but not to have invented it . Hoeck had in mind the Crete of mythology . He had no idea that the archaeological Crete had existed . Evans ' 1931 claim that the term was `` unminted '' before his use of it has been tagged a `` brazen suggestion '' by Karadimas and Momigliano . However , Evans ' statement applies to an archaeological context . Since he was the one who discovered the civilization , and the term could not have been in use to refer to it previously , he did coin that specific meaning . Chronology and history Rather than associate absolute calendar dates for the Minoan period , archaeologists use two systems of relative chronology . The first , created by Evans and modified by later archaeologists , is based on pottery styles and the presence of imported Egyptian artifacts , which can be correlated with the chronology of Ancient Egypt . Evans 's scheme divides the Minoan period into three main eras : Early Minoan ( EM ) , Middle Minoan ( MM ) , and Late Minoan ( LM ) . These eras are further subdivided , for instance into Early Minoan I , II , III ( EMI , EMII , EMIII ) . Another dating system , proposed by the Greek archaeologist Nicolas Platon , is based on the development of the architectural complexes known as `` palaces '' at Knossos , Phaistos , Malia and Kato Zakros . He divides the Minoan period into Pre-palatial , Proto-palatial , Neo-palatial and Post-palatial subperiods . The relationship between these two systems is given in the accompanying table , with approximate calendar dates drawn from Warren and Hankey ( 1989 ) . The Thera eruption occurred during a mature phase of the LM IA period . Efforts to establish the calendar date of the volcanic eruption have been extremely controversial . Radiocarbon dating has indicated a date in the late 17th century BCE ; those radiocarbon dates , however , conflict with the estimates of archaeologists , who synchronize the eruption with the conventional Egyptian chronology and obtain a date of around 1525–1500 BCE . See the article on dating the Thera eruption for more discussion . The eruption often is identified as a natural event catastrophic for the culture , leading to its rapid collapse . History There is recent stone tool evidence that humans — either prehuman hominins or early modern humans — reached the island of Crete as early as 530,000 years ago ; however , the evidence for the first anatomically modern human presence dates to 10,000–12,000 years ago . The oldest evidence of modern human inhabitants on Crete are preceramic Neolithic farming community remains that date to approximately 7000 BC . A comparative study of DNA haplogroups of modern Cretan men showed that a male founder group , from Anatolia or the Levant , is shared with the Greeks . The neolithic population dwelt in open villages . Fishermen 's huts were built on the shores , while the fertile Mesara Plain was used for agriculture . The Bronze Age began in Crete around 2700 BCE . In the late 3rd millennium BCE , several localities on the island developed into centers of commerce and handwork . This enabled the upper classes to continuously practice leadership activities and to expand their influence . It is likely that the original hierarchies of the local elites were replaced by monarchist power structures—a precondition for the creation of the great palaces.Karl-Wilhelm Welwei : Die Griechische Frühzeit , C.H . Beck , München , 2002 . ISBN 3406479855. pp.12–18 The Early Bronze Age ( 3500 BCE to 2600 BCE ) has been described as showing 'promise of greatness ' , in the light of the later developments on the island . At the end of the MMII period ( 1700 BCE ) , there was a large disturbance in Crete , probably an earthquake , or possibly an invasion from Anatolia . The palaces at Knossos , Phaistos , Malia , and Kato Zakros were destroyed . At the start of the Neopalatial period , population increased again , the palaces were rebuilt on a larger scale and new settlements were built all over the island . This period ( the 17th and 16th centuries BC , MM III / Neopalatial ) represents the apex of the Minoan civilization . There was another natural catastrophe around 1600 BCE , possibly an eruption of the Thera volcano . The Minoans rebuilt the palaces , however they drastically changed . The influence of the Minoan civilization outside Crete has been seen in the evidence of valuable Minoan handicraft items on the Greek mainland . The shaft graves of Mycenae show several Cretan imports , such as a bull 's head rhyton , which suggests a prominent role for the symbolism of Minoan Crete in the ideology of rule there . After around 1700 BCE , the material culture on the Greek mainland achieved a new level due to Minoan influence . Connections between Egypt and Crete are prominent . Minoan ceramics are found in Egyptian cities and the Minoans imported several items from Egypt , especially papyrus , as well as architectural and artistic ideas . The Egyptian hieroglyphs served as a model for the Minoan pictographic writing , from which the famous Linear A and Linear B writing systems later developed . Bengtson has also demonstrated Minoan influence among Canaanite artifacts . Around 1450 BCE , Minoan culture experienced a turning point due to a natural catastrophe , possibly an earthquake . Another eruption of the Thera volcano has been linked to this downfall , but its dating and implications remain controversial . Several important palaces in locations such as Mallia , Tylissos , Phaistos , Hagia Triada as well as the living quarters of Knossos were destroyed . The palace in Knossos seems to have remained largely intact . This resulted in the Dynasty in Knossos being able to spread its influence over large parts of Crete , until it was overrun by Mycenaean Greeks . The Minoan palace sites were occupied by the Mycenaeans around 1420 BCE ( 1375 BCE according to other sources ) , who adapted the Linear A Minoan script to the needs of their own Mycenaean language . It was a form of Greek , which was written in Linear B . The first such archive anywhere is in the LMII-era `` Room of the Chariot Tablets '' . The Mycenaeans generally tended to adapt , rather than destroy , Minoan culture , religion and art . They continued to operate the economic system and bureaucracy of the Minoans . During LMIIIA:1 , Amenhotep III at Kom el-Hatan took note of k-f-t-w ( Kaftor ) as one of the `` Secret Lands of the North of Asia '' . Also mentioned are Cretan cities , such as Amnisos , Phaistos , Kydonia , and Knossos and some toponyms reconstructed as belonging to the Cyclades or the Greek mainland . If the values of these Egyptian names are accurate , then this Pharaoh did not privilege LMIII Knossos above the other states in the region . After about a century of partial recovery , most Cretan cities and palaces went into decline in the 13th century BCE ( LHIIIB/LMIIIB ) . The last Linear A archives date to LMIIIA ( contemporary with LHIIIA ) . Knossos remained an administrative center until 1200 BCE . The last of the Minoan sites was the defensive mountain site of Karfi , a refuge site which displays vestiges of Minoan civilization almost into the Iron Age . Geography Crete is a mountainous island with natural harbours . There are signs of earthquake damage at many Minoan sites and clear signs of both uplifting of land and submersion of coastal sites due to tectonic processes all along the coasts . Homer recorded a tradition that Crete had 90 cities . To judge from the palace sites , the island was probably divided into at least eight political units during the height of the Minoan period . The north is thought to have been governed from Knossos , the south from Phaistos , the central eastern part from Malia , the eastern tip from Kato Zakros , and the west from Chania . Smaller palaces have been found in other places . Some of the major Minoan archaeological sites are : * Palaces * * Knossos – the largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete ; was purchased for excavations by Evans on March 16 , 1900 . * * Phaistos – the second largest palatial building on the island , excavated by the Italian school shortly after Knossos * * Malia – the subject of French excavations , a palatial centre which affords a look into the development of the palaces in the protopalatial period * * Kato Zakros – a palatial site excavated by Greek archaeologists in the far east of the island . This is also referred to as `` Zakro '' in archaeological literature . * * Galatas – the most recently ( in the early 1990s ) confirmed palatial site * Agia Triada – an administrative centre close to Phaistos * Gournia – a town site excavated in the first quarter of the 20th century by the American School * Pyrgos – an early Minoan site on the south of the island * Vasiliki – an early Minoan site towards the east of the island which gives its name to a distinctive ceramic ware * Fournu Korfi – a site on the south of the island * Pseira – island town with ritual sites * Mount Juktas – the greatest of the Minoan peak sanctuaries because of its association with the palace of Knossos * Arkalochori – the find site of the famous Arkalochori Axe * Karfi – a refuge site from the late Minoan period , one of the last of the Minoan sites * Akrotiri – settlement on the island of Santorini ( Thera ) , near the site of the Thera Eruption * Zominthos – a mountainous city in the northern foothills of Mount Ida Settlements of the Minoan civilization These are the estimated populations of hamlets , villages , and towns of the Minoan civilization over time . Note that there are several problems with estimating the sizes of individual settlements , and the highest estimates for a given settlements , in a given period , may be several times the lowest . Minoans beyond Crete Minoans were traders , and their cultural contacts reached far beyond the island of Crete—to Egypt 's Old Kingdom , to copper-bearing Cyprus , Canaan , and the Levantine coasts beyond , and to Anatolia . In late 2009 , Minoan-style frescoes and other Minoan-style artifacts were discovered during excavations of the Canaanite palace at Tel Kabri , Israel , leading archaeologists to conclude that the Minoan influence was the strongest foreign influence on that Canaanite city state . These are the only Minoan remains ever found in Israel . Minoan techniques and styles in ceramics also provided models , of fluctuating influence , for Helladic Greece . Along with the familiar example of Thera , Minoan `` colonies '' can be found first at Kastri on Cythera , an island close to the Greek mainland that came under Minoan influence in the mid-third millennium ( EMII ) and remained Minoan in culture for a thousand years , until Mycenaean occupation in the 13th century . The use of the term `` colony '' , however , like `` thalassocracy '' , has been criticized in recent years . The Minoan strata there replace a mainland-derived culture in the Early Bronze Age , the earliest Minoan settlement outside Crete . The Cyclades were in the Minoan cultural orbit , and , closer to Crete , the islands of Karpathos , Saria and Kasos , also contained Minoan colonies , or settlements of Minoan traders , from the Middle Bronze Age ( MMI-II ) . Most of them were abandoned in LMI , but Minoan Karpathos recovered and continued with a Minoan culture until the end of the Bronze Age . Other supposed Minoan colonies , such as that hypothesised by Adolf Furtwängler for Aegina , were later dismissed by scholars . There was a Minoan colony at Ialysos on Rhodes . Minoan cultural influence indicates an orbit that extended not only throughout the Cyclades ( so-called Minoanisation ) , but in locations such as Egypt and Cyprus . Paintings from the 15th century BCE in Thebes , Egypt depict a number of individuals , who are Minoan in appearance , bearing gifts . Inscriptions record these people as coming from Keftiu , or the `` islands in the midst of the sea '' , and may refer to gift-bringing merchants or officials from Crete . Certain locations within Crete emphasize it as an `` outward looking '' society . The Neopalatial site of Kato Zakros , for instance , is located within 100 metres of the modern shore-line , situated within a bay . Its large number of workshops and the richness of its site materials indicate a potential 'entrepôt ' for import and export . Such activities are elaborated in artistic representations of the sea , including the 'Flotilla ' fresco from room 5 , in the west house at Akrotiri . Agriculture and subsistence The Minoans raised cattle , sheep , pigs , and goats , and grew wheat , barley , vetch , and chickpeas ; they also cultivated grapes , figs , and olives , and grew poppies , for poppyseed and , perhaps , opium . The Minoans also domesticated bees . Crops including lettuce , celery , asparagus and carrots grow wild in Crete . Pear , quince , and olive trees were also native . The people imported date palm trees , and cats ( used for hunting purposes ) from Egypt . They adopted pomegranates from the Near East , although not lemons and oranges , as is often thought . They developed Mediterranean polyculture , the practice of growing more than one crop at a time . Their more varied and healthy diet resulted in the growth of population . Theoretically this method of farming would maintain the fertility of the soil , as well as offer protection against low yields in any single crop . Linear B tablets indicate the importance of orchard farming ( i.e. , figs , olives and grapes ) in processing crops for `` secondary products '' . Olive oil in the Cretan diet ( or more widely , the Mediterranean diet ) is comparable to butter in the Northern diet . The process of fermenting wine from grapes is likely to have been a concern of the `` Palace '' economies , whereby such prestige goods would have been both important trade commodities as well as culturally meaningful items of consumption . Equally , it is likely that the consumption of exotic or expensive products would have played a role in the presentation and articulation of political and economic power . Farmers used wooden plows , bound by leather to wooden handles , and pulled by pairs of donkeys or oxen . Marine resources were also important in the Cretan diet . The prevalence of edible molluscs in site material , and artistic representations of marine fish and animals , including the distinctive `` Octopus '' stirrup jar ( LM IIIC ) , indicate an appreciation and occasional use of fish within the economy . But scholars believe these resources were not as significant in relation to grain , olives and animal produce . The intensification of agricultural activity is indicated by the construction of terraces and dams at Pseira in the Late Minoan period . The Cretan diet included wild game . Cretans hunted and ate wild deer and boar along with the meats made available to them by their livestock . Wild game can no longer be found on Crete . Not all plants and flora would have a purely functional or economic utility . Artistic depictions often show scenes of lily gathering and performances within 'green ' spaces . The fresco known as the Sacred Grove at Knossos , for instance , depicts a number of female figures facing towards the left-hand-side of the scene , flanked by a copse of trees . Some scholars have suggested that these depictions represent the performance of 'harvest festivals ' or ceremonies , as a means to honour the continued fertility of the soil . Artistic depictions of farming scenes also appear on the Second Palace Period `` Harvester Vase '' ( an egg-shaped rhyton , or pouring vessel ) , where 27 male figures , led by another , each carry hoes . This suggests the importance of farming as an artistic motif . The discovery of storage magazines within the palace compounds has prompted much debate . At the second 'palace ' at Phaistos , for instance , a range of rooms in the western side of the structure have been identified as a magazine block . Within these storage areas , numerous jars , jugs and vessels have been recovered , indicating the role of the complex as a potential re-distribution centre of agricultural produce . Several possibilities may be suggested , including a model where all economic and agricultural produce was controlled by the Palace and re-distributed by it . At sites such as Knossos , where the town had developed to a considerable size , there is evidence of craft specialisation , indicating workshops . The Palace of Kato Zakro , for instance , indicates workshops that were integrated into the structure of the palace . Such evidence contributes to the theory that the Minoan palatial system developed through economic intensification , where greater agricultural surplus could support a population of administrators , craftsmen and religious practitioners . The number of domestic , or sleeping , chambers at the Palaces indicate that they could have supported a large population of individuals who were removed from manual labour . Evolution of agricultural tools in Minoan Crete Originally the tools were made of wood or bone , and bound to the handle with leather straps . During the Bronze Age , the tools were upgraded to bronze , with wooden handles . Due to its circular hole , the tool head would spin around on the handle . The Minoans developed oval- shaped holes in their tools to fit oval-shaped handles . This stopped the spinning . Tools List : * Double Adze * Double Axe * Single-Bladed Axe * Axe-Adze * Sickle * Chisel Society and culture The Minoans were primarily a mercantile people engaged in overseas trade . Their culture , from 1700 BCE onward , shows a high degree of organization . The Minoan trade in saffron , the stigma of a mutated crocus which originated in the Aegean basin as a natural chromosome mutation , has left fewer material remains : a fresco of saffron-gatherers at Santorini is well known . This inherited trade pre-dated Minoan civilization : a sense of its rewards may be gained by comparing its value to frankincense , or later , to pepper . Archaeologists tend to emphasize the more durable items of trade : ceramics , copper , and tin , and dramatic luxury finds of gold and silver . Objects of Minoan manufacture suggest there was a network of trade with mainland Greece ( notably Mycenae ) , Cyprus , Syria , Anatolia , Egypt , Mesopotamia , and westward as far as the coast of Spain . Minoan men wore loincloths and kilts . Women wore robes that had short sleeves and layered flounced skirts . The robes were open to the navel , allowing their breasts to be left exposed . Women also had the option of wearing a strapless fitted bodice . The patterns on clothes emphasized symmetrical geometric designs . Given the fragility of organic materials , other forms of dress may have been worn of which no archeological evidence exists . The Minoan religion focused on female deities , with females officiating . The frescos include many depictions of people , with the genders distinguished by colour : the men 's skin is reddish-brown , the women 's white . Language and writing Knowledge of the spoken and written language of the Minoans is scant , due to the small number of records found . Clay tablets dating to around 3000 BCE were found with the various Cretan scripts . Clay tablets seem to have been in use from around 3000 BCE or earlier . Two clay cups from Knossos have been found to have remnants of ink , and inkwells similar to the animal-shaped inkstands from Mesopotamia have also been found . Sometimes the Minoan language is referred to as Eteocretan , but this confuses the language written in Linear A scripts and the language written in a Euboean-derived alphabet after the Greek Dark Ages . While the Eteocretan language is believed to be a descendant of Minoan , there is not enough source material in either language to allow conclusions to be made . The earliest dated writing found on Crete is the Cretan hieroglyphs . It is not known whether this language is Minoan or not and its origin is still a topic of debate . These hieroglyphs are often associated with the Egyptians , but they also show relation to several other writings from the region of Mesopotamia . The hieroglyphs came into use from MMI ; they were used at the same time as the emerging Linear A from the 18th century BCE ( MM II ) . The hieroglyphs disappeared at some point during the 17th century BCE ( MM III ) . In the Mycenean period , Linear A was replaced by Linear B , recording a very archaic version of the Greek language . Linear B was successfully deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952 , but the earlier scripts remain a mystery . The overwhelming majority of tablets are written in the Linear B script , apparently being inventories of goods or resources . Others are inscriptions on religious objects associated with a cult . Because most of these inscriptions are concise economic records rather than dedicatory inscriptions , the translation of Minoan remains a challenge . Unless Eteocretan truly is its descendant , the Minoan language may have become extinct during the Greek Dark Ages , a time of economic and socio-political collapse . Religion The Minoans seem to have worshipped primarily goddesses , and their culture has been described as being based on a `` matriarchal religion . '' Professor Nanno Marinatos stated : `` The hierarchy and relationship of gods within the pantheon is difficult to decode from the images alone . '' She denies earlier descriptions of Minoan religion as primitive , saying that it `` was the religion of a sophisticated and urbanized palatial culture with a complex social hierarchy . It was not dominated by fertility any more than any religion of the past or present has been , and it addressed gender identity , rites of passage , and death . It is reasonable to assume that both the organization and the rituals , even the mythology , resembled the religions of Near Eastern palatial civilizations . '' Although there is some evidence of male gods , depictions of Minoan goddesses vastly outnumber depictions of anything that could be considered a Minoan god . While some of these depictions of women may be images of worshippers and priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies , as opposed to deities , several goddesses appear to be portrayed . These include a Mother Goddess of fertility , a Mistress of the Animals , a protectress of cities , the household , the harvest , and the underworld , and more . They are often represented by serpents , birds , poppies , and a somewhat vague shape of an animal upon the head . A major festive celebration was exemplified in the famous athletic Minoan bull dance , represented at large in the frescoes of Knossos and inscribed in miniature seals . The Minoan horn-topped altars , conventionally called `` Horns of Consecration '' ever since Evans coined the term , are represented in seal impressions , and survive in examples as far afield as Cyprus . Minoan sacred symbols include the bull and its horns of consecration , the labrys ( double-headed axe ) , the pillar , the serpent , the sun-disk , and the tree . Haralampos V. Harissis and Anastasios V. Harissis have suggested a completely different interpretation of these symbols . They argue that they were based on apiculture rather than religion . Possible evidence of human sacrifice by the Minoans has been found at three sites : ( 1 ) Anemospilia , in a MMII building near Mt . Juktas , interpreted as a temple , ( 2 ) an EMII sanctuary complex at Fournou Korifi in south central Crete , and ( 3 ) Knossos , in an LMIB building known as the `` North House . '' ( explanation of abbreviations ) Similar to archaeological finds of the Bronze Age , burial remains constitute much of the material and archaeological evidence for the period . By the end of the Second Palace Period , Minoan burial practice was dominated by two broad forms : 'Circular Tombs ' , or Tholoi , ( located in South Crete ) and 'House Tombs ' , ( located in the north and the east ) . Many trends and patterns within Minoan mortuary practice do not conform to this simple breakdown . Overall , inhumation was the most popular form of burial ; cremation does not seem to have been as popular . Throughout this period the trend was towards individual burials , with some distinguished exceptions . These

sfq_19--Minoan_civilization.txt

On which island is the city of Knossos, once the capital of the ancient Minoan civilisation?

A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature , the other chamber being the upper house . Despite its official position `` below '' the upper house , in many legislatures worldwide , the lower house has come to wield more power . A legislature composed of only one house is described as unicameral . Common attributes In comparison with the upper house , lower houses frequently display certain characteristics : ; Powers : * In a parliamentary system : * * Much more power , usually based on restrictions against the upper house . * * Able to override the upper house in some ways . * * Can vote a motion of no confidence against the government . * * Exceptions are Australia , where the Senate has considerable power approximate to that of the House of Representatives , and Italy , where the Senate has exactly the same powers as the Chamber of Deputies . * In a presidential system : * * Somewhat less power , as the upper house alone gives advice and consent to some executives decisions ( e.g . appointments ) . * * Given the sole power to impeach the executive ( the upper house then tries the impeachment ) ; Status : * Always elected directly , while the upper house may be elected directly , indirectly , or not elected at all . * Its members may be elected with a different voting system to the upper house . * Most populated administrative divisions are better represented than in the upper house ; representation is usually proportional to population . * Elected more frequently . * Elected all at once , not by staggered terms . * In a parliamentary system , can be dissolved by the executive . * More members . * Has total or original control over budget and monetary laws . * Lower age of candidacy than the upper house . Titles of lower houses Common names Many lower houses are named in the following manner : House/Chamber of Representatives/the People/Commons/Deputies . * Chamber of Deputies * Chamber of Representatives * House of Assembly * House of Representatives * House of Commons * House of Delegates * Legislative Assembly * National Assembly Unique Names * Lok Sabha ( India ) * Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat ( Indonesia ) * Dáil Éireann ( Ireland ) * Dewan Rakyat ( Malaysia ) * Congress of Deputies ( Spain ) * Mazhilis ( Kazakhstan ) * House of Keys ( Isle of Man ) * Sejm ( Republic of Poland ) ( not to be confused with the Great Sejm ) * State Duma ( Russia ) * Tweede Kamer ( Second Chamber ) ( Netherlands ) * Bundestag ( Germany ) * Pyithu Hluttaw ( Myanmar )

wh_1000--Lower_house.txt

The upper house of the Canadian parliament is known as the Senate; what is the lower house called?

Horse racing is an equestrian performance sport , involving two or more jockeys riding horses over a set distance for competition . It is one of the most ancient of all sports and its basic premise – to identify which of two or more horses is the fastest over a set course or distance – has remained unchanged since the earliest times . Horse races vary widely in format . Often , countries have developed their own particular horse racing traditions . Variations include restricting races to particular breeds , running over obstacles , running over different distances , running on different track surfaces and running in different gaits . While horses are sometimes raced purely for sport , a major part of horse racing 's interest and economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it , an activity that in 2008 generated a world-wide market worth around US $ 115 billion . History Horse racing has a long and distinguished history and has been practised in civilisations across the world since ancient times . Archaeological records indicate that horse racing occurred in Ancient Greece , Babylon , Syria , and Egypt . It also plays an important part of myth and legend , such as the contest between the steeds of the god Odin and the giant Hrungnir in Norse mythology . Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek , Roman and Byzantine sports . Both chariot and mounted horse racing were events in the ancient Greek Olympics by 648 BC and were important in the other Panhellenic Games . This was despite the fact that chariot racing was often dangerous to both driver and horse as they frequently suffered serious injury and even death . In the Roman Empire , chariot and mounted horse racing were major industries . and from the mid-15th century until 1882 , spring carnival in Rome closed with a horse race . Fifteen to 20 riderless horses , originally imported from the Barbary Coast of North Africa , ran the length of the Via del Corso , a long , straight city street , in about 2½ minutes . In later times , Thoroughbred racing was , and is , popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society , earning it the title `` Sport of Kings '' . Historically , equestrians honed their skills through games and races . Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle . Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers . All forms of competition , requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider , resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport . The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat . Types of horse racing There are many different types of horse racing , including : * Flat racing , where horses gallop directly between two points around a straight or oval track . * Jump racing , or Jumps racing , also known as Steeplechasing or , in the UK and Ireland , National Hunt racing , where horses race over obstacles . * Harness racing , where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a sulky . * Endurance racing , where horses travel across country over extreme distances , generally ranging from 25 to Different breeds of horses have developed that excel in each of the specific disciplines . Breeds that are used for flat racing include the Thoroughbred , Quarter Horse , Arabian , Paint , and Appaloosa . Jump racing breeds include the Thoroughbred and AQPS . Harness racing is dominated by Standardbred horses in Australia , New Zealand and North America , but several other breeds , such as the Russian Trotter and Finnhorse , are seen in Europe . Flat racing Flat racing is the most common form of racing , seen worldwide . Flat racing tracks are typically oval in shape and are generally level , although in Great Britain and Ireland there is much greater variation , including figure of eight tracks like Windsor , and tracks with often severe gradients and changes of camber , such as Epsom Racecourse . Track surfaces vary with turf most common worldwide , dirt more common in North America , and newly designed synthetic surfaces , such as Polytrack of Tapeta seen at some tracks worldwide . Individual flat races are run over distances ranging from 440 yards up to two and a half miles , with distances between five and twelve furlongs being most common . Short races are generally referred to as `` sprints '' , while longer races are known as `` routes '' in the US or `` staying races '' in Europe . Although fast acceleration ( `` a turn of foot '' ) is usually required to win either type of race , in general sprints are seen as a test of speed , while long distance races are seen as a test of stamina . The most prestigious flat races in the world , such as the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe , Japan Cup , Epsom Derby , Kentucky Derby and Dubai World Cup are run over distances in the middle of this range and are seen as tests of both speed and stamina to some extent . In the most prestigious races , horses are generally allocated the same weight to carry for fairness , with allowances given to younger horses and female horses running against males . These races are called conditions races and offer the biggest purses . There is another category of races called handicap races where each horse is assigned a different weight to carry based on its ability . Beside the weight they carry , a horse 's performance can also be influenced by its position relative to the inside barrier ( post position ) , its gender , its jockey , and its trainer . Jump racing Jump ( or jumps ) racing in Great Britain and Ireland is known as National Hunt racing ( although , confusingly , National Hunt racing also includes flat races taking place at jumps meetings ; these are known as National Hunt flat races ) . Jump racing can be subdivided into steeplechasing and hurdling , according to the type and size of obstacles being jumped . The word `` Steeplechasing '' can also refer collectively to any type of jump race in certain racing jurisdictions , particularly in the United States . Typically , horses progress to bigger obstacles and longer distances as they get older , so that a European jumps horse will tend to start in National Hunt flat races as a juvenile , move on to hurdling after a year or so , and then , if thought capable , move on to steeplechasing . Endurance racing The length of an endurance race varies greatly . Some are very short , only ten miles , while others can be up to one hundred miles . There are a few races that are even longer than one hundred miles and last multiple days . These different lengths of races are divided into five categories : pleasure rides ( 10–20 miles ) , non-competitive trail rides ( 21–27 miles ) , competitive trail rides ( 20–45 miles ) , progressive trail rides ( 25–60 miles ) , and endurance rides ( 40–100 miles in one day , up to 250 mi in multiple days ) . Because each race is very long , trails of natural terrain are generally used . Contemporary organized Endurance racing began in California around 1955 , and the first race marked the beginning of the Tevis Cup This race was a one-hundred-mile , one-day-long ride starting in Squaw Valley , Placer County , and ending in Auburn . Founded in 1972 , the American Endurance Ride Conference was the United States ' first national endurance riding association . [ http : //www.equiworld.net/uk/sports/endurance/index.htm `` Endurance Riding '' . ] Equiworld.net . 8 April 2009 . The longest endurance race in the world is the Mongol Derby , which is 1000 km long . Breeds In most horse races , entry is restricted to certain breeds ; that is , the horse must have a sire ( father ) and a dam ( mother ) who are purebred individuals of whatever breed is racing . For example , in a normal harness race , the horse 's sire and dam must both be pure Standardbreds . The only exception to this is in Quarter Horse racing where an Appendix Quarter Horse may be considered eligible to race against ( standard ) Quarter Horses . An Appendix Quarter Horse is a horse who has either one Quarter Horse parent and one parent of any other eligible breed ( such as Thoroughbred , the most common Appendix cross ) , or both parents are registered Appendix Quarter Horses , or one parent is a Quarter Horse and one parent is an Appendixed Quarter Horse . The designation of `` Appendix '' refers to the addendum section , or Appendix , of the Official Quarter Horse registry . AQHA also issues a `` Racing Register of Merit '' which allows a horse to race on Quarter Horse tracks , but not be considered a Quarter Horse for breeding purposes ( unless other requirements are met ) . A stallion who has won many races may be put up to stud when he is retired . Artificial insemination and Embryo transfer technology ( only allowed in some breeds ) has brought changes to the traditions and ease of breeding . Pedigrees of stallions are recorded in various books and websites , such as Weatherbys Stallion Book , the Australian Stud Book and Thoroughbred Heritage . Thoroughbred There are three founding sires that almost all Thoroughbreds can trace back to : the Darley Arabian , the Godolphin , and the Byerly Turk , named after their respective owners , Thomas Darley , Lord Godolphin , and Captain Robert Byerly . All were taken to England where they were mated with mares . Thoroughbreds range in height , and are measured in hands ( a hand being four inches ) . Some are as small as 15 hands while others are over 17 hands . Thoroughbreds can travel medium distances at fast paces , requiring a balance between speed and endurance . Arabian horse The Arabian horse was developed by the Bedouin people of the Middle East specifically for stamina over long distances , so they could outrun their enemies . It was not until 1725 that the Arabian was introduced into the United States . Arabians appeared in the United States in colonial times , though were not bred as purebreds until about the time of the Civil War . Until the formation of the Arabian Horse Registry of America in 1908 , Arabians were recorded with the Jockey Club in a separate subsection from Thoroughbreds . They must be able to withstand traveling long distances at a moderate pace . Arabians have an abundance of Type I fibers . Their muscles are able to work for extended periods of time . Also , the muscles of the Arabian are not nearly as massive as those of the Quarter Horse , which allow it to travel longer distances at quicker speeds . The Arabian is primarily used today in endurance racing , but is also raced over traditional race tracks in many countries . Arabian Horse Racing is governed by [ http : //www.ifahr.net IFAHR ( The International Federation of Arabian Horse Racing Authorities ) ] . Quarter Horse The ancestors of the Quarter Horse were prevalent in America in the early 17th century . These horses were a blend of Colonial Spanish horses crossed English horses that were brought over in the 1700s . The native horse and the English horse were bred together , resulting in a compact muscular horse . At this time , they were mainly used for chores such as plowing and cattle work . The American Quarter Horse was not recognized as an official breed until the formation of the American Quarter Horse Association in 1940 . In order to be successful in racing , Quarter Horses need to be able to propel themselves forward at extremely fast sprinter speed . The Quarter Horse has much larger hind limb muscles than the Arabian , which make it much less suitable for endurance racing . They also have more Type II-b fibers , which allow the Quarter Horse to accelerate rapidly . When Quarter Horse racing began , it was very expensive to lay a full mile of track so it was agreed that a straight track of four hundred meters , or one quarter of a mile would be laid instead . It became the standard racing distance for Quarter Horses and inspired their name . With the exception of the longer , 870 yd distance contests , Quarter Horse races are run flat out , with the horses running at top speed for the duration . There is less jockeying for position , as turns are rare , and many races end with several contestants grouped together at the wire . The track surface is similar to that of Thoroughbred racing and usually consists of dirt . Horse breeds and muscle structure Muscles are simply bundles of stringy fibers that are attached to bones by tendons . These bundles have different types of fibers within them and horses have adapted over the years to produce different amounts of these fibers . Type II-b fibers are fast twitch fibers . These fibers allow muscles to contract quickly resulting in a great deal of power and speed . Type I fibers are slow-twitch fibers . They allow muscles to work for longer periods of time resulting in greater endurance . Type II-a fibers are in the middle . They are a balance between the fast twitch fibers and the slow-twitch fibers . They allow the muscles to generate both speed and endurance . Type I muscles are absolutely necessary for aerobic exercise because they rely on the presence of oxygen in order to work . Type II muscles are needed for anaerobic exercise because they can function without the presence of oxygen . Thoroughbreds possess more Type II-a muscle fibers than the Quarter Horse or Arabian . This type of fiber allows them to propel themselves forward at great speeds and maintain it for an extended distance . Training The conditioning program for the different horses varies depending on the race length . Genetics , training , age , and skeletal soundness are all factors that contribute to a horse 's performance . [ http : //animalscience.tamu.edu/academics/equine/publications/index.htm Gibbs , P.G. , G.D. Potter , B.D . Nielsen , D.D . Householder , and W. Moyer . Scientific Principles for Conditioning Race and Performance Horses . ] Publication . Texas A & M University Department of Animal Science Equine Sciences Program . 29 April 2009 The muscle structure and fiber type of horses depends on the breed , therefore genetics must be considered when constructing a conditioning plan . A horse 's fitness plan must be coordinated properly in order to prevent injury or unnecessary lameness . If these were to occur , they may negatively affect a horse 's willingness to learn . Sprinting exercises are appropriate for training two-year-old racehorses , but they are mentally incapable of handling too many of them . A horse 's skeletal system adapts to the exercise they are receiving . Because the skeletal system does not reach full maturity until the horse is at least four years of age , young racehorses often suffer multiple injuries . Horse racing by continent North America United States Horse racing in the United States and on the North American continent dates back to 1665 , which saw the establishment of the Newmarket course in Salisbury , New York , a section of what is now known as the Hempstead Plains of Long Island , New York . This first racing meet in North America was supervised by New York 's colonial governor , Richard Nicolls . The area is now occupied by the present Nassau County , New York , region of Greater Westbury and East Garden City . The South Westbury section is ( appropriately ) known as Salisbury . Advanced Deposit Wagering is a form of gambling on the outcome of horse races in which the bettor must fund his or her account before being allowed to place bets . ADW is often conducted online or by phone . In contrast to ADW , credit shops allow wagers without advance funding ; accounts are settled at month-end . Racetrack owners , horse trainers and state governments sometimes receive a cut of ADW revenues . In the United States , Thoroughbred flat races are run on surfaces of either dirt , synthetic or turf . Other tracks offer Quarter Horse racing and Standardbred horse racing , or combinations of these three types of racing surfaces . Racing of other breeds , such as Arabian horse racing , is found on a limited basis . American Thoroughbred races are run at a wide variety of distances , most commonly from 5 to ; with this in mind , breeders of Thoroughbred race horses attempt to breed horses that excel at a particular distance ( see Dosage Index ) . The Pleasanton Fairgrounds Racetrack at the Alameda County Fairgrounds is the oldest horse racing track in America , dating back to 1858 , when it was founded by the sons of the Spaniard Don Agustin Bernal . In 1665 , the first racetrack was constructed on Long Island . It is the oldest Thoroughbred race in North America . The American Stud Book was started in 1868 , prompting the beginning of organized horse racing in the United States . There were 314 tracks operating in the United States by 1890 ; and in 1894 , the American Jockey Club was formed . [ http : //www.winningponies.com/horse-racing-history.html `` History of Horse Racing . '' ] WinningPonies.com . 7 April 2009 . The first record of quarter mile length races dated back to 1674 in Henrico County , Virginia . Each race consisted of only two horses and they raced down the village streets and lanes . The Quarter Horse received its name due to the length of the race . The races were indeed `` a quarter '' of a mile , or 400 meters . The breed of horse was developed so they could get off to a quick start , and win the race . Belmont Park is part of the western edge of the Hempstead Plains . Its mile-and-a-half main track is the largest dirt Thoroughbred race course in the world , and it has the sport 's largest grandstand . One of the latest major horse track opened in the United States was the Meadowlands Racetrack opened in 1977 for Thoroughbred racing . It is the home of the Meadowlands Cup . Other more recently opened tracks include Remington Park , Oklahoma City , opened in 1988 , and Lone Star Park in the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex , opened in 1997 ; the latter track hosted the prestigious Breeders ' Cup series of races in 2004 . Thoroughbred horse racing in the United States has its own Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs , New York . The Hall of Fame honors remarkable horses , jockeys , owners , and trainers . The traditional high point of US horse racing is the Kentucky Derby , held on the first Saturday of May at Churchill Downs in Louisville , Kentucky . Together , the Derby ; the Preakness Stakes , held two weeks later at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore , Maryland ; and the Belmont Stakes , held three weeks after the Preakness at Belmont Park on Long Island , form the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing for three-year-olds . They are all held early in the year , throughout May and the beginning of June . In recent years the Breeders ' Cup races , run at the end of the year , have challenged the Triple Crown events as determiners of the three-year-old Champion . The Breeders ' Cup is normally held at a different track every year ; however the 2010 and 2011 editions were held at Churchill Downs , and the 2012 and 2013 races were held at Santa Anita Park , as was the 2014 edition . Keeneland , in Lexington , KY , hosted the 2015 breeders cup . The corresponding Standardbred event is the Breeders ' Crown . There are also a Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers and a Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Trotters , as well as an Arabian Triple Crown consisting of Drinkers of the Wind Derby in California , the Texas Six Shooter Stakes , and the Bob Magness Derby in Delaware . American betting on horse racing is sanctioned and regulated by the state where the race is located . Simulcast betting exists across state lines with minimal oversight except the companies involved through legalized parimutuel gambling . A takeout , or `` take '' , is removed from each betting pool and distributed according to state law , among the state , race track and horsemen . A variety of factors affect takeout , namely location and the type of wager that is placed . One form of parimutuel gaming is Instant Racing , in which players bet on video replays of races . Canada The most famous horse from Canada is generally considered to be Northern Dancer , who after winning the Kentucky Derby , Preakness and Queen 's Plate in 1964 went on to become the most successful Thoroughbred sire of the 20th century ; his two-minute-flat Derby was the fastest on record until Secretariat in 1973 . The only challenger to his title of greatest Canadian horse would be his son Nijinsky II , who is the last horse to win the English Triple Crown . Woodbine Racetrack ( 1956 ) in Toronto , home of the Queen 's Plate ( 1860 ) , Canada 's premier Thoroughbred stakes race , and the North America Cup ( 1984 ) , Canada 's premier Standardbred stakes race , is the only race track in North America which stages Thoroughbred and Standardbred ( harness ) meetings on the same day . The Pattison Canadian International has the largest purse of any Canadian horse race . Other key races include Woodbine Oaks ( 1956 ) , Prince of Wales Stakes ( 1929 ) , Breeders ' Stakes ( 1889 ) and Canadian Derby ( 1930 ) . Europe Belgium Horse racing in Belgium takes place at three venues - Hippodrome Wellington in Ostend ( opened in 1883 in honour of Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington ) , Hippodroom Waregem in Waregem in Flanders and Hippodrome de Wallonie in Mons , Wallonia . Czech Republic There are 15 racecourses in the Czech Republic , most notably Pardubice Racecourse , where the country 's most famous race , the Velka Pardubicka steeplechase has been run since 1874 . Since 1907 races have also held on a central racecourse in Prague - Velka Chuchle . However , the first official race was organized back in 1816 by Emperor Francis II near Kladruby nad Labem . The Czech horse racing season usually starts at the beginning of April and ends some time in November . Racing takes place mostly at weekends and there is usually one meeting on a Saturday and one on Sunday . Horse races , as well as thoroughbred horse breeding , is organized by Jockey Club Czech Republic , founded in 1919 . France France has one of the major horse racing industries in Europe . It is home to the famous Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe held at Longchamp Racecourse , the richest race in Europe and the second richest turf race in the world after the Japan Cup , with a prize of 4 million Euro ( approx US $ 5.2 million ) . Other major races include the Grand Prix de Paris , the Prix du Jockey Club ( the French Derby ) and the Prix de Diane . Besides Longchamp , France 's other premier flat racecourses include Chantilly and Deauville . There is also a smaller , but nevertheless important jumps racing sector , with Auteil Racecourse being the most well known . The sport 's governing body is France Galop . Great Britain Horse racing in Great Britain is predominantly thoroughbred flat and jumps racing . It was in Great Britain in the 17th to 19th centuries that many of the sport 's rules and regulations were established . Many of the sport 's greatest jockeys , most notably Sir Gordon Richards have been British . The sport is regulated by the British Horseracing Authority . Note that the BHA 's authority does not extend to Northern Ireland — racing in Ireland is governed on an All-Ireland basis . Hungary Hungary has a long-standing horse racing tradition . The first horse racing in Pest was noted June 6 , 1827 . Although racing in Hungary is neither as popular , nor as prestigious as it is in Western Europe , the country is notable for producing some fine international racehorses . Foremost of these is Kincsem , foaled in 1874 , and the most successful Thoroughbred race horse ever , having won 54 races for 54 starts . More recently , the country produced Overdose , a horse who won his first 12 races , including Group races in Germany and Italy , and finished fourth in the King 's Stand Stakes at Royal Ascot . Ireland Ireland has a rich history of horse racing ; point to pointing originated there and even today , jump racing is more popular than racing on the flat . As a result , every year Irish horse racing fans travel in huge numbers to the highlight event of the National Hunt calendar , the Cheltenham Festival , and in recent years Irish owned or bred horses have dominated the event . Ireland has a thriving Thoroughbred breeding industry , stimulated by favourable tax treatment . The world 's largest Thoroughbred stud , Coolmore Stud , has its main farm there ( in addition to major operations in the U.S. and Australia ) . In recent years , Irish bred and trained horses have enjoyed considerable success in major races worldwide . Various horses achieved victory in one or more of the British 2000 Guineas , the Epsom Derby and the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe , considered the three most prestigious races in Europe . In the 6 runnings of the Epsom Derby between 2008 and 2013 , Irish horses filled 20 of the first 30 placings , winning the race 5 times . Italy Historically , Italy has been one of the leading European horse racing nations , albeit some way behind Great Britain , Ireland and France in size and prestige . The late Italian horse breeder Federico Tesio is one of the towering figures of the Thoroughbred breeding industry . In recent years , however , the sport in the country has suffered a major funding crisis , culminating in its expulsion from the European Pattern . Although of little consequence in the wider horse racing world , a popular Italian race is the Palio di Siena ( known locally as Il Palio ) , the most famous palio in Italy , a horse race held twice each year on July 2 and August 16 in Siena , in which the horse and rider represent one of the seventeen Contrade , or city wards . A magnificent pageant precedes the race , which attracts visitors and spectators from around the world . Netherlands In Wassenaar in the Hague there is a grass course at Duindigt . Poland Horse racing in Poland can be dated to 1777 when a horse owned by Polish noble Kazimierz Rzewuski beat the horse of the English chargé d'affaires , Sir Charles Whitworth on the road from Wola to Ujazdów Castle . The first regular horse racing was organized in 1841 on Mokotów Fields in Warsaw by Towarzystwo Wyścigów Konnych i Wystawy Zwierząt Gospodarskich w Królestwie Polskim ( in English , the Society of Horse Racing in Congress Poland ) . The major racetrack in Poland is Warsaw 's Służewiec Racecourse . The industry

qb_1030--Horse_racing.txt

Which famous racehorse won Australia’s Melbourne Cup in 1930?

Alberto Aleandro Uderzo ( ; ; born 25 April 1927 ) , known as Albert Uderzo , is a French comic book artist and scriptwriter . He is best known for his work on the Astérix series and also drew other comics such as Oumpah-pah , also in collaboration with René Goscinny . Uderzo retired from drawing in September 2011 . Early life Uderzo was born in Fismes ( Marne , France ) , to parents , Silvio ( of Venetian descent ) and Iria Crestini ( of Tuscan descent ) , who had recently immigrated from La Spezia , Italy . His childhood ambitions were to become an aircraft mechanic , despite his talents in art becoming apparent at an early age . Uderzo obtained French citizenship in 1934 , and during World War II , the teenaged Uderzo left Paris and spent a year in Brittany , where he worked on a farm and helped with his father 's furniture business . He loved Brittany , both for its scenery and its people . In fact , many years later , when the time came to choose a location for Asterix 's village , Goscinny left the decision entirely to Uderzo , only stipulating that it should be near the sea in case the characters needed to travel by boat . Uderzo had no hesitation in choosing Brittany . Uderzo began a successful career as an artist in Paris after the war in 1945 , with creations such as Flamberge and also Clopinard , a small one-legged old man who triumphs against the odds . From 1947 to 1948 he created some other comics , such as Belloy and Arys Buck . Working with Goscinny Throughout some more creations and travelling for the next few years , he eventually met René Goscinny in 1951 . The two men quickly became good friends , and decided to work together in 1952 at the newly opened Paris office of the Belgian company , World Press . Their first creations were the characters Oumpah-pah , Jehan Pistolet and Luc Junior . In 1958 they adapted Oumpah-pah for serial publication in the Franco-Belgian comics magazine Tintin , though it ran only until 1962 . In 1959 Goscinny and Uderzo became editor and artistic director ( respectively ) of Pilote magazine , a new venture aimed at older children . The magazine 's first issue introduced Astérix to the French world , and it was an instant hit . During this period Uderzo also collaborated with Jean-Michel Charlier on the realistic series Michel Tanguy , later named Les Aventures de Tanguy et Laverdure . Astérix was serialised in Pilote , but in 1961 the first album Astérix le gaulois ( Asterix the Gaul ) was published as an individual album . By 1967 , the comic had become so popular that both decided to completely dedicate their time to the series . After Goscinny 's death in 1977 , Uderzo continued to write and illustrate the books on his own , though at a significantly slower pace ( averaging one album every three to five years compared to two albums a year when working with Goscinny ) . The cover credits still read `` Goscinny and Uderzo '' . Family Uderzo married Ada Milani in 1953 and has one daughter Sylvie Uderzo ( b . 1956 ) . According to The Book of Asterix the Gaul , it was speculated that Uderzo had based the characters Panacea and Zaza on Ada and Sylvie respectively , though this has been denied by Uderzo . When Uderzo sold his share of Editions Albert René to Hachette Livre , Sylvie accused him in a column in Le Monde , that with this action it was `` as if the gates of the Gaulish village had been thrown open to the Roman Empire '' . Sylvie owns 40 % of Editions Albert René , while the remaining 60 % , previously owned by Uderzo and by Goscinny 's daughter , is currently owned by Hachette Livre . Uderzo has a brother , Marcel , also a cartoonist . Asterix and the Falling Sky was dedicated to his late brother Bruno ( 1920–2004 ) . Awards * 1985 : Awarded the Knight of the Legion of Honour . * 2005 : Inducted into the Eisner Award Hall of Fame , U.S . * 2007 : Awarded the Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion According to the UNESCO 's Index Translationum , Uderzo is the 10th most often translated French language author ( Goscinny being 4th ) and the third most often translated French language comics author behind René Goscinny and Hergé .

qw_12269--Albert_Uderzo.txt

What is the generic title of a series of French comic strips that were written originally by Ren Goscinny and illustrated by Albert Uderzo?

Beatrice Muriel Hill Tinsley ( 27 January 1941 – 23 March 1981 ) was a British-born New Zealand astronomer and cosmologist whose research made fundamental contributions to the astronomical understanding of how galaxies evolve , grow and die . Life Tinsley was born in Chester , England in 1941 , the middle of three sisters , and emigrated to New Zealand with her family following World War II . The family lived first in Christchurch , and then for a longer time in New Plymouth . Her father Edward Hill was a clergyman and Moral Re-Armer , was Mayor of New Plymouth ( 1953-56 ) . While studying in Christchurch , she married physicist and university classmate Brian Tinsley , not knowing that this would prevent her from working at the University while he was employed there . They moved in 1963 to the United States , to Dallas , Texas , but she was similarly restricted there . In 1974 , after years of attempting to balance home , family and two commuting careers , she left her husband and two adopted children to take a position as assistant professor at Yale . She worked there until her death from cancer in the Yale Infirmary in 1981 . Her ashes are buried in the campus cemetery . Education Tinsley attended New Plymouth Girls ' High School , then studied at the University of Canterbury where she completed a B.Sc . and then a Master of Science degree in 1961 , with First Class Honours in Physics . Her Doctor of Philosophy PhD was awarded by the University of Texas in Austin in 1966 , with the thesis Evolution of Galaxies and its Significance for Cosmology . Professional activity Tinsley completed pioneering theoretical studies of how populations of stars age and affect the observable qualities of galaxies . She also collaborated on basic research into models investigating whether the universe is closed or open . Her galaxy models led to the first approximation of what protogalaxies should look like . In 1974 she received the American Astronomical Society 's Annie J. Cannon Award in Astronomy , awarded for `` outstanding research and promise for future research by a postdoctoral woman researcher '' , in recognition of her work on galaxy evolution . In 1977 , Tinsley , with Richard Larson of Yale , organised a conference on 'The Evolution of Galaxies and Stellar Populations ' . Shortly after , in 1978 , she became the first female professor of astronomy at Yale University . Her last scientific paper , submitted to the Astrophysical Journal ten days before her death , was published posthumously that November , without revision . The editor 's note : `` Deceased on 1981 March 23 , thus ending prematurely a distinguished career . The text of this last paper was not revised , although Michele Kaufman kindly added some clarifying definitions and comments . '' Tributes In 1986 the American Astronomical Society established the Beatrice M. Tinsley Prize , which recognises `` an outstanding research contribution to astronomy or astrophysics , of an exceptionally creative or innovative character . '' It is the only major award created by an American scientific society which honours a woman scientist . The award is not made with restriction on a candidate 's citizenship or country of residence . The main-belt asteroid 3087 Beatrice Tinsley , discovered in 1981 at Mt John University Observatory near Tekapo , is also named after her . The University of Texas at Austin established from endowment in 1989 the Beatrice M. Tinsley Centennial Visiting Professorship , where a distinguished mid career or senior professor is invited to visit for up to a semester . In 2007 they added the Tinsley Scholars , awards for younger researchers to briefly visit Austin . In 2005 , the Circa Theatre in Wellington produced a play called Bright Star , about the life of Beatrice Tinsley . The Wellington Astronomical Society held telescope viewing sessions outside the theatre , on the wharf next to the Te Papa Museum . In September 2009 the Physics and Astronomy Department of the University of Canterbury established the [ http : //www.phys.canterbury.ac.nz/BTI/Home.shtml Beatrice Tinsley Institute ] , which encompasses their research programs , scientific facilities , education and degree programs for astronomy and astrophysics . In December 2010 the New Zealand Geographic Board officially named a mountain in Fiordland 's Kepler Mountains ( which are named for the astronomer Johannes Kepler ) as Mt Tinsley . The Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand established the Beatrice Hill Tinsley Lectures in 2012 . Beatrice Tinsley Crescent in Rosedale , on Auckland 's North Shore , is named for her . It runs off William Pickering Drive and is joined by Ride Way . On 27 January 2016 , the 75th anniversary of her birth , Google published a Doodle to honour her work . Selected publications * [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975Natur.257 .. 454G `` An accelerating universe '' ] 1975 , Nature 257 , 454 – 457 ( 9 October 1975 ) ; doi:10.1038/257454a0 * [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981MNRAS.194 ... 63T Correlation of the Dark Mass in Galaxies with Hubble type ] , 1981 , Royal Astronomical Society , Monthly Notices , vol . 194 , p. 63–75 * [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980A % 26A .... 89 .. 246T Relations between Nucleosynthesis Rates and the Metal Abundance ] , 1980 , Astronomy and Astrophysics , vol . 89 , no . 1–2 , p. 246–248 * [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979ApJ ... 229.1046T Stellar Lifetimes and Abundance Ratios in Chemical Evolution ] , 1979 , Astrophysical Journal , Part 1 , vol . 229 , p. 1046–1056 * [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977PASP ... 89 .. 245T Colors as Indicators of the Presence of Spiral and Elliptical Components in N Galaxies ] , 1977 , Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific , vol . 89 , p. 245–250 * [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976ApJ ... 209L ... 7T Surface Brightness Parameters as Tests of Galactic Evolution ] , 1976 , Astrophysical Journal , vol . 209 , p. L7–L9 * [ http : //adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971Ap % 26SS .. 12 .. 394T The Color-Redshift Relation for Giant Elliptical Galaxies ] , 1971 , Astrophysics and Space Science , Vol . 12 , p. 394 Notes

qw_7430--Beatrice_Tinsley.txt

Beatrice Tinsley was well known in what field?

Jazz is a music genre that originated from African American communities of New Orleans in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries . It emerged in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles , all linked by the common bonds of African American and European American musical parentage with a performance orientation . Jazz spans a period of over a hundred years , encompassing a very wide range of music , making it difficult to define . Jazz makes heavy use of improvisation , polyrhythms , syncopation and the swing note , as well as aspects of European harmony , American popular music , the brass band tradition , and African musical elements such as blue notes and African-American styles such as ragtime . Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the black experience of the United States , different cultures have contributed their own experience and styles to the art form as well . Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as `` one of America 's original art forms '' . As jazz spread around the world , it drew on different national , regional , and local musical cultures , which gave rise to many distinctive styles . New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s , combining earlier brass-band marches , French quadrilles , biguine , ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation . In the 1930s , heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands , Kansas City jazz , a hard-swinging , bluesy , improvisational style and Gypsy jazz ( a style that emphasized musette waltzes ) were the prominent styles . Bebop emerged in the 1940s , shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging `` musician 's music '' which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation . Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s , introducing calmer , smoother sounds and long , linear melodic lines . The 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz , which explored playing without regular meter , beat and formal structures , and in the mid-1950s , hard bop emerged , which introduced influences from rhythm and blues , gospel , and blues , especially in the saxophone and piano playing . Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s , using the mode , or musical scale , as the basis of musical structure and improvisation . Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s , combining jazz improvisation with rock music 's rhythms , electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound . In the early 1980s , a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful , garnering significant radio airplay . Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s , such as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz . Etymology and definition The question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research , and its history is well documented . It is believed to be related to jasm , a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning `` pep , energy . '' The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the Los Angeles Times in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a jazz ball `` because it wobbles and you simply can ’ t do anything with it . '' The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune . Archived at Observatoire Musical Français , Paris-Sorbonne University . Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14 , 1916 Times-Picayune article about `` jas bands . '' In an interview with NPR , musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the original slang connotations of the term , saying : `` When Broadway picked it up , they called it ' J-A-Z-Z .. It was n't called that . It was spelled ' J-A-S-S. ' That was dirty , and if you knew what it was , you would n't say it in front of ladies . '' The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century . Jazz has proved to be very difficult to define , since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years , from ragtime to the 2010-era rock-infused fusion . Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions , such as European music history or African music . But critic Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader , defining jazz as a `` form of art music which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music '' and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a `` special relationship to time defined as 'swing ' '' , involves `` a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role '' and contains a `` sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician '' . In the opinion of Robert Christgau , `` most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz . '' A broader definition that encompasses all of the radically different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson : `` it is music that includes qualities such as swing , improvising , group interaction , developing an 'individual voice ' , and being open to different musical possibilities '' . Krin Gibbard has provided an overview of the discussion on definitions , arguing that `` jazz is a construct '' that , while artificial , still is useful to designate `` a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition '' . In contrast to the efforts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain types of jazz , who have argued for narrower definitions that exclude other types , the musicians themselves are often reluctant to define the music they play . As Duke Ellington , one of jazz 's most famous figures , said : `` It 's all music '' . Elements and issues Improvisation Although jazz is considered highly difficult to define , at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres , improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements . The centrality of improvisation in jazz is attributed to influential earlier forms of music : the early blues , a form of folk music which arose in part from the work songs and field hollers of the African-American slaves on plantations . These were commonly structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern , but early blues was also highly improvisational . European classical music performance is evaluated by its fidelity to the musical score , with much less discretion over interpretation , ornamentation and accompaniment : the classical performer 's primary goal is to play a composition as it was written . In contrast , jazz is often characterized as the product of group creativity , interaction , and collaboration , which places varying degrees of value on the contributions of composer ( if there is one ) and performers . In jazz , the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very individual ways , never playing the same composition the same way twice ; depending on the performer 's mood and personal experience , interactions with other musicians , or even members of the audience , a jazz musician may alter melodies , harmonies or time signature at will . The approach to improvisation has developed enormously over the history of the music . In early New Orleans and Dixieland jazz , performers took turns playing the melody , while others improvised countermelodies . By the swing era , big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music : arrangements were either written or learned by ear and memorized , while individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements . Later , in bebop the focus shifted back toward small groups and minimal arrangements ; the melody would be stated briefly at the start and end of a piece , but the core of the performance would be the series of improvisations . Later styles such as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression , allowing the individual musicians to improvise even more freely within the context of a given scale or mode . In many forms of jazz , a soloist is often supported by a rhythm section consisting of one or more chordal instruments ( piano , guitar , etc . ) , double bass playing the basslines and drum kit . These performers provide accompaniment by playing chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist . In avant-garde and free jazz idioms , the separation of soloist and band is reduced , and there is license , or even a requirement , for the abandoning of chords , scales and rhythmic meters . Tradition and race Since at least the emergence of bebop , forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized by purists . According to Bruce Johnson , there has always been a `` tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form '' . Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop , free jazz , the 1970s jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement of the music and betrayals of the tradition . An alternative viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform influences from diverse musical styles , and that , by avoiding the creation of 'norms ' , other newer , avant-garde forms of jazz will be free to emerge . To some African Americans , jazz has highlighted their contribution to American society and helped bring attention to black history and culture , but for others , the music and term `` jazz '' are reminders of `` an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions '' . Amiri Baraka argues that there is a distinct `` white jazz '' music genre expressive of whiteness . White jazz musicians appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern United States , as well as other areas . Bix Beiderbecke was one of the most prominent white jazz musicians . An influential style referred to as the Chicago School ( or Chicago Style ) was developed by white musicians including Bud Freeman , Jimmy McPartland . Frank Teschemacher , Dave Tough , and Eddie Condon . Others from Chicago such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of big-band swing during the 1930s . Role of women Women jazz performers and composers have contributed throughout jazz history . While women such as Billie Holiday , Ella Fitzgerald , Dinah Washington , Ethel Waters , Betty Carter , Adelaide Hall , Abbey Lincoln , and Anita O'Day are famous for their jazz singing , women have achieved much less recognition for their contributions as composers , bandleaders , and instrumental performers . Other notable jazz women include piano player Lil Hardin Armstrong and jazz songwriters Irene Higginbotham ( 1918-1988 ) and Dorothy Fields ( 1905-1974 ) . Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s , with the piano being one of the earliest instruments used which allowed female artists a degree of social acceptance . Some well known artists of the time include Sweet Emma Barrett , Mary Lou Williams , Billie Pierce , Jeanette Kimball and Lovie Austin . When the men were drafted for WWII , many all-women big band jazz bands took over . The International Sweethearts of Rhythm ( founded 1937 ) was a well-known jazz group of this era , becoming the first all-women integrated band in the U.S. , touring Europe in 1945 and becoming the first black women to travel with the USO . The dress codes of the era required women to wear strapless dresses and high heeled shoes , which was somewhat of a hindrance to the integration of women into the big bands of suit-wearing men . Nevertheless , women were hired into many of the big-league big bands such as Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson . History Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture . Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer 's personal interpretation and improvisation , which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre . Origins Blended African and European music sensibilities By 1866 , the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America . The slaves came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo River basin , and brought strong musical traditions with them . The African traditions primarily make use of a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern , and the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reflect African speech patterns . Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at Place Congo , or Congo Square , in New Orleans until 1843 . There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States . Robert Palmer said of percussive slave music : Usually such music was associated with annual festivals , when the year 's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration . As late as 1861 , a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered `` gumbo box '' , apparently a frame drum ; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion . There are quite a few [ accounts ] from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850 . Some of the earliest [ Mississippi ] Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans , where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War . Another influence came from the harmonic style of hymns of the church , which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as spirituals . The origins of the blues are undocumented , though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals . However , as Gerhard Kubik points out , whereas the spirituals are homophonic , rural blues and early jazz `` was largely based on concepts of heterophony . '' During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments , particularly the violin , which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances . In turn , European-American minstrel show performers in blackface popularized the music internationally , combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment . In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music . New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures . African rhythmic retention The `` Black Codes '' outlawed drumming by slaves , which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America , unlike in Cuba , Haiti , and elsewhere in the Caribbean . African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through `` body rhythms '' such as stomping , clapping , and patting juba . In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman , what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was `` Afro-Latin music '' , similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time . A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean , as well as the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalk 's compositions ( for example `` Souvenirs From Havana '' ( 1859 ) ) . Tresillo is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the music of the African Diaspora . Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present . `` By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions , '' the Jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed . `` Some survived , others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed . '' In the post-Civil War period ( after 1865 ) , African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums , snare drums and fifes , and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged , featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures . This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts , expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility . `` The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms , '' observed the writer Robert Palmer ( writer ) , speculating that `` this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century , and it could have not have developed in the first place if there had n't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured . '' `` Spanish tinge '' —the Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence African-American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century , when the habanera ( Cuban contradanza ) gained international popularity . Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform , and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City . John Storm Roberts states that the musical genre habanera `` reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published . '' For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk , ragtime , and proto-jazz were forming and developing , the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music . Habaneras were widely available as sheet music , and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif ( 1803 ) , From the perspective of African-American music , the habanera rhythm ( also known as congo , tango-congo , or tango . ) can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the backbeat . The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States , and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music . New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk 's piano piece `` Ojos Criollos ( Danse Cubaine ) '' ( 1860 ) was influenced by the composer 's studies in Cuba : the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand . In Gottschalk 's symphonic work `` A Night in the Tropics '' ( 1859 ) , the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively . The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers . Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba , Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Orleans `` clave '' , a Spanish word meaning 'code ' or 'key ' , as in the key to a puzzle , or mystery . Although technically the pattern is only half a clave , Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the guide-pattern of New Orleans music . Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythmic figure the Spanish tinge , and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz . 1890s–1910s Ragtime The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans . Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks , many were able to find work in entertainment . Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances , minstrel shows , and in vaudeville , during which time many marching bands were formed . Black pianists played in bars , clubs and brothels , as ragtime developed . Ragtime appeared as sheet music , popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer Ernest Hogan , whose hit songs appeared in 1895 . Two years later , Vess Ossman recorded a medley of these songs as a banjo solo known as `` Rag Time Medley '' . Also in 1897 , the white composer William H. Krell published his `` Mississippi Rag '' as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece , and Tom Turpin published his `` Harlem Rag '' , the first rag published by an African-American . The classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his `` Original Rags '' in 1898 , and in 1899 had an international hit with `` Maple Leaf Rag '' , a multi-strain ragtime march with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious seventh chords . Its structure was the basis for many other rags , and the syncopations in the right hand , especially in the transition between the first and second strain , were novel at the time . African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its variants , the habanera rhythm and cinquillo , are heard in the ragtime compositions of Joplin , Turpin , and others . Joplin 's `` Solace '' ( 1909 ) is generally considered to be within the habanera genre : both of the pianist 's hands play in a syncopated fashion , completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm . Ned Sublette postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm `` found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk , '' whilst Roberts suggests that `` the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime 's European bass . '' Blues African genesis Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre , which originated in African-American communities of primarily the `` Deep South '' of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their spirituals , work songs , field hollers , shouts and chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads . The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of blue notes in blues and jazz . As Kubik explains : Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are stylistically an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt : * A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style , as found for example among the Hausa . It is characterized by melisma , wavy intonation , pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework , and a declamatory voice . * An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition , often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter , but with notable off-beat accents ( 1999 : 94 ) . W. C. Handy : early published blues W. C. Handy became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta . In this folk blues form , the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range , sounding like a field holler , and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed , like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents , functioning as another `` voice '' . Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues , yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format , and arrange them in a popular music form . Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues : The primitive southern Negro , as he sang , was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale , slurring between major and minor . Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way , it was always the same . Till then , however , I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro , or by any white man . I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths ( now called blue notes ) into my song , although its prevailing key was major ... , and I carried this device into my melody as well . The publication of his `` Memphis Blues '' sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world ( although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues , but `` more like a cakewalk '' ) . This composition , as well as his later `` St. Louis Blues '' and others , included the habanera rhythm , W . C. Handy , Father of the Blues : An Autobiography , edited by Arna Bontemps : foreword by Abbe Niles . Macmillan Company , New York ; ( 1941 ) , pp . 99 , 100 ( no ISBN in this first printing ) . and would become jazz standards . Handy 's music career began in the pre-jazz era , and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music . Within the context of Western harmony The blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specific chord progressions , of which the twelve-bar blues progression is the most common . An important part of the sound are the blue notes which , for expressive purposes , are sung or played flattened , or gradually bent ( minor 3rd to major 3rd ) in relation to the pitch of the major scale . The blues were the key that opened up an entirely new approach to Western harmony , ultimately leading to a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz . New Orleans The music of New Orleans had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz . Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city , such as the brothels and bars of the red-light district around Basin Street , known as `` Storyville '' . In addition to dance bands , there were numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals ( later called jazz funerals ) , which were arranged by the African-American and European American communities . The instruments used in marching bands and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz : brass , reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale , and drums . Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated African-American musicians , many of whom came from the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans , played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz . These bands travelled throughout Black communities in the Deep South and , from around 1914 onwards , Afro-Creole and African-American musicians played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and northern US cities . In New Orleans , a white marching band leader named Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his marching band . Laine was known as `` the father of white jazz '' because of the many top players who passed through his bands ( including George Brunies , Sharkey Bonano and the future members of the Original Dixieland Jass Band ) . Laine was a good talent scout . During the early 1900s jazz was mostly done in the African-American and mulatto communities , due to segregation laws . The red light district of Storyville , New Orleans was crucial in bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who came to the port city . Many jazz musicians from the African-American communities were hired to perform live music in brothels and bars , including many early jazz pioneers such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton , in addition to those from New Orleans other communities such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez . Louis Armstrong also got his start in Storyville and would later find success in Chicago ( along with others from New Orleans ) after the United States government shut down Storyville in 1917 . Syncopation The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators of the style later to be called `` jazz '' . He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906 , before developing a mental illness ; there are no recordings of him playing . Bolden 's band is credited with creating the big four , the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march . As the example below shows , the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm . Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in Storyville . From 1904 , he toured with

sfq_6224--Jazz.txt

With which instrument do you associate British jazz musician Stan Tracey?

Secret Water is the eighth book in Arthur Ransome 's Swallows and Amazons series of children 's books . It was published on 28 November 1939 . This book is set in and around Hamford Water in Essex , close to the resort town of Walton-on-the-Naze . It brings the Swallows and the Amazons together and introduces a new group of characters , the Eels and the Mastodon . Ransome used to sail to Hamford Water , an area of tidal salt marshes and low-lying islands , in his yacht Nancy Blackett . He set the book here to offer his characters new opportunities to explore and make maps in a different landscape . Plot summary The Swallows intend to sail in the Goblin to Hamford Water and camp with their father , but he is called away on naval business . Instead he maroons them with a small dinghy on an island . Before he leaves , Father gives them an outline map of the area they decide to call Secret Water and suggests they survey and chart the area before he returns to pick them up . For the first time , their small sister Bridget accompanies them on this adventure . For a surprise , Father has arranged for the Amazons to come down from the Lake District and join them with another dinghy . They see some mysterious footprints which they think look as though they were made by a Mastodon , but turn out to have been left by a local boy wearing mudshoes . He mistakes them for the Eels , another family who camp in the area regularly . Later the Eels arrive and are initially hostile before they settle down for a friendly war , culminating with feast of the Sacred Eel , complete with `` human sacrifice '' . The `` sacrifice '' is Bridget , who very nearly does not arrive at her party , as a result of being trapped in the middle of a ford by a rising tide with Titty and Roger . The danger is genuine , since high tide level would have been well above their heads . They are rescued by the Mastodon in the nick of time . It seems that due to the distractions of war and being cut off by the tides , the chart will not be completed . However early in the last morning two separate groups of children complete it .

qw_2530--Secret_Water.txt

"Which 19th century English writer wrote ""Swallows and Amazons"", ""Peter Duck"" and ""Secret Water""?"

A serial killer is a person who murders three or more people , usually in service of abnormal psychological gratification , with the murders taking place over more than a month and including a significant break ( a `` cooling off period '' ) between them . Different authorities apply different criteria when designating serial killers ; while most set a threshold of three murders , others extend it to four or lessen it to two . The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , for example , defines serial killing as `` a series of two or more murders , committed as separate events , usually , but not always , by one offender acting alone '' . Although psychological gratification is the usual motive for serial killing , and most serial killings involve sexual contact with the victim , the FBI states that the motives of serial killers can include anger , thrillseeking , financial gain , and attention seeking . The murders may be attempted or completed in a similar fashion , and the victims may have something in common : age group , appearance , gender , or race , for example . Serial killing is not the same as mass murdering ( killing numerous people in a given incident ) ; nor is it spree killing ( in which murders are committed in two or more locations , in a short time ) . However , cases of extended bouts of sequential killings over periods of weeks or months with no apparent `` cooling off period '' or `` return to normalcy '' have caused some experts to suggest a hybrid category of `` spree-serial killer '' . Etymology The English term and concept of `` serial killer '' are commonly attributed to former FBI Special agent Robert Ressler in 1974 . Author Ann Rule postulates in her book Kiss Me , Kill Me ( 2004 ) that the English-language credit for coining the term serial killer goes to LAPD detective Pierce Brooks , who created the ViCAP system in 1985 . However , in his book Serial Killers : The Method and Madness of Monsters ( 2004 ) , criminal justice historian Peter Vronsky argues that while Ressler might have coined the term serial homicide within law , at Bramshill Police Academy in Britain , the terms serial murder and serial murderer appear in John Brophy 's book The Meaning of Murder ( 1966 ) . In his more recent study , Vronsky states that the term `` serial killing '' first entered into American popular usage when published in the New York Times in the spring of 1981 , to describe Atlanta serial killer Wayne Williams . Subsequently , throughout the 1980s , the term was used in the pages of the New York Times on 233 occasions , but by the end of the 1990s , in the publication 's second decade , the use of the term escalated to 2,514 times in the nation 's `` newspaper of record '' . The German term and concept were coined by the influential Ernst Gennat , who described Peter Kürten as a Serienmörder ( literally `` serial murderer '' ) in his article `` Die Düsseldorfer Sexualverbrechen '' ( 1930 ) . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the specific term `` serial killer '' first arose abroad in a 1960s German film article written by Siegfried Kracauer about the film M ( 1931 ) , a German expressionist film about a pedophilic Serienmörder . Characteristics General Some commonly found characteristics of serial killers include the following : * They may exhibit varying degrees of mental illness and/or psychopathy , which may contribute to their homicidal behavior . * * For example , someone who is mentally ill may have psychotic breaks that cause them to believe they are another person or are compelled to murder by other entities . * * Psychopathic behavior that is consistent with traits common to some serial killers include sensation seeking , a lack of remorse or guilt , impulsivity , the need for control , and predatory behavior . Unlike people with major mental disorders such as schizophrenia , psychopaths can seem normal and often quite charming , a state of adaptation that psychiatrist Hervey Cleckley called the `` mask of sanity '' . * They were often abused—emotionally , physically and/or sexually—by a family member . * Serial killers may be more likely to engage in fetishism , partialism or necrophilia , which are paraphilias that involve a strong tendency to experience the object of erotic interest almost as if it were a physical representation of the symbolized body . Individuals engage in paraphilias which are organized along a continuum ; participating in varying levels of fantasy perhaps by focusing on body parts ( partialism ) , symbolic objects which serve as physical extensions of the body ( fetishism ) , or the anatomical physicality of the human body ; specifically regarding its inner parts and sexual organs ( one example being necrophilia ) . * A disproportionate number exhibit one , two , or all three of the Macdonald triad of predictors of future violent behavior : * * Many are fascinated with fire setting . * * They are involved in sadistic activity ; especially in children who have not reached sexual maturity , this activity may take the form of torturing animals . * * More than 60 percent , or simply a large proportion , wet their beds beyond the age of 12 . However , recent authorities ( see citations in the Enuresis section of the Macdonald triad article ) question or deny the statistical significance of this figure ; subsequent research suggests that bed-wetting may not be relevant . * They were frequently bullied or socially isolated as children or adolescents . For example , Henry Lee Lucas was ridiculed as a child and later cited the mass rejection by his peers as a cause for his hatred of everyone . Kenneth Bianchi was teased as a child because he urinated in his pants , suffered twitching , and as a teenager was ignored by his peers . * Some were involved in petty crimes , such as fraud , theft , vandalism , or similar offenses . * Often , they have trouble staying employed and tend to work in menial jobs . The FBI , however , states , `` Serial murderers often seem normal ; have families and/or a steady job . '' Other sources state they often come from unstable families . * Studies have suggested that serial killers generally have an average or low-average IQ , although they are often described , and perceived , as possessing IQs in the above-average range . A sample of 202 IQs of serial killers had a median IQ of 89 . There are exceptions to these criteria , however . For example , Harold Shipman was a successful professional ( a General Practitioner working for the NHS ) . He was considered a pillar of the local community ; he even won a professional award for a children 's asthma clinic and was interviewed by Granada Television 's World in Action . Dennis Nilsen was an ex-soldier turned civil servant and trade unionist who had no previous criminal record when arrested . Neither was known to have exhibited many of the tell-tale signs . Vlado Taneski , a crime reporter , was a career journalist who was caught after a series of articles he wrote gave clues that he had murdered people . Russell Williams was a successful and respected career Royal Canadian Air Force Officer who was convicted of the murder of two women , along with fetish burglaries and rapes . Development Many serial killers have faced similar problems in their childhood development . Hickey 's Trauma Control Model explains how early childhood trauma can set the child up for deviant behavior in adulthood ; the child 's environment ( either their parents or society ) is the dominant factor determining whether or not the child 's behavior escalates into homicidal activity . Family , or lack thereof , is the most prominent part of a child 's development because it is what the child can identify with on a regular basis . `` The serial killer is no different from any other individual who is instigated to seek approval from parents , sexual partners , or others . '' This need for approval is what influences children to attempt to develop social relationships with their family and peers , but if they are rejected or neglected , they are unable to do so . This results in the lowering of their self-esteem and helps develop their fantasy world , in which they are in control . According to the Hickey 's Trauma Control Model the development of a serial killer is based on an early trauma followed by facilitators ( e.g. , alcohol , drugs , pornography , or other factors that constitute a facilitator , depending on individual circumstances ) and disposition ( an inability to attach being one common factor ) . Family interaction also plays an important role in a child 's growth and development . `` The quality of their attachments to parents and other members of the family is critical to how these children relate to and value other members of society . '' Wilson and Seaman ( 1990 ) conducted a study on incarcerated serial killers , and what they felt was the most influential factor that contributed to their homicidal activity . Almost all of the serial killers in the study had experienced some sort of environmental problems during their childhood , such as a broken home caused by divorce , or a lack of discipline in the home . It was common for the serial killers to come from a family that had experienced divorce , separation , or the lack of a parent . Furthermore , nearly half of the serial killers had experienced some type of physical or sexual abuse , and even more had experienced emotional neglect . When a parent has a drug or alcohol problem , the attention in the household is on the parents rather than the child . This neglect of the child leads to the lowering of their self-esteem and helps develop a fantasy world in which they are in control . Hickey 's Trauma Control Model supports how the neglect from parents can facilitate deviant behavior , especially if the child sees substance abuse in action . This then leads to disposition ( the inability to attach ) , which can further lead to homicidal behavior , unless the child finds a way to develop substantial relationships and fight the label they receive . If a child receives no support from those around him or her , then he or she is unlikely to recover from the traumatic event in a positive way . As stated by E. E. Maccoby , `` the family has continued to be seen as a major—perhaps the major—arena for socialization '' . Chromosomal make up There have been recent studies looking into the possibility that an abnormality with one 's chromosomes could be the trigger for serial killers . Two serial killers , Bobby Joe Long and Richard Speck , came to attention for reported chromosomal abnormalities . Long had an extra X chromosome . Speck was erroneously reported to have an extra Y chromosome ; in fact , his karyotype was performed twice and was normal each time . Hellen Morrison , an American forensic psychiatrist , said in an interview that while researchers do not have an exact gene identity , the fact that the majority of serial killers are men leads researchers to believe there is `` a change associated with the male chromosome make up . '' Fantasy Children who do not have the power to control the mistreatment they suffer sometimes create a new reality to which they can escape . This new reality becomes their fantasy that they have total control of and becomes part of their daily existence . In this fantasy world , their emotional development is guided and maintained . According to Garrison ( 1996 ) , `` the child becomes sociopathic because the normal development of the concepts of right and wrong and empathy towards others is retarded because the child 's emotional and social development occurs within his self-centered fantasies . A person can do no wrong in his own world and the pain of others is of no consequence when the purpose of the fantasy world is to satisfy the needs of one person '' ( Garrison , 1996 ) . Boundaries between fantasy and reality are lost and fantasies turn to dominance , control , sexual conquest , and violence , eventually leading to murder . Fantasy can lead to the first step in the process of a dissociative state , which , in the words of Stephen Giannangelo , `` allows the serial killer to leave the stream of consciousness for what is , to him , a better place '' . Criminologist Jose Sanchez reports , `` the young criminal you see today is more detached from his victim , more ready to hurt or kill ... The lack of empathy for their victims among young criminals is just one symptom of a problem that afflicts the whole society . '' Lorenzo Carcaterra , author of Gangster ( 2001 ) , explains how potential criminals are labeled by society , which can then lead to their offspring also developing in the same way through the cycle of violence . The ability for serial killers to appreciate the mental life of others is severely compromised , presumably leading to their dehumanization of others . This process may be considered an expression of the intersubjectivity associated with a cognitive deficit regarding the capability to make sharp distinctions between other people and inanimate objects . For these individuals , objects can appear to possess animistic or humanistic power while people are perceived as objects . Before he was executed , serial killer Ted Bundy stated media violence and pornography had stimulated and increased his need to commit homicide , although this statement was made during last-ditch efforts to appeal his death sentence . However , correlation is not causation ( a disturbed physiological disposition , psychosis , lack of socialization , or aggressiveness may contribute to both fantasy creation and serial killing without fantasy creation generally contributing to serial killing for instance ) . There are exceptions to the typical fantasy patterns of serial killers , as in the case of Dennis Rader , who was a loving family man and the leader of his church . Organized , disorganized , and mixed The FBI 's Crime Classification Manual places serial killers into three categories : organized , disorganized , and mixed ( i.e. , offenders who exhibit organized and disorganized characteristics ) . Some killers descend from being organized into disorganized as their killings continue , as in the case of psychological decompensation or overconfidence due to having evaded capture , or vice versa , as when a previously disorganized killer identifies one or more specific aspects of the act of killing as his/her source of gratification and develops a modus operandi structured around those . Organized serial killers often plan their crimes methodically , usually abducting victims , killing them in one place and disposing of them in another . They often lure the victims with ploys appealing to their sense of sympathy . Others specifically target prostitutes , who are likely to go voluntarily with a stranger . These killers maintain a high degree of control over the crime scene and usually have a solid knowledge of forensic science that enables them to cover their tracks , such as burying the body or weighing it down and sinking it in a river . They follow their crimes in the news media carefully and often take pride in their actions , as if it were all a grand project . Often , organized killers have social and other interpersonal skills sufficient to enable them to develop both personal and romantic relationships , friends and lovers and sometimes even attract and maintain a spouse and sustain a family including children . Among serial killers , those of this type are in the event of their capture most likely to be described by acquaintances as kind and unlikely to hurt anyone . Bundy and John Wayne Gacy are examples of organized serial killers . In general , the IQs of organized serial killers tend to be near normal range , with a mean of 94.7 . Organized nonsocial offenders tend to be on the higher end of the average , with a mean IQ of 99.2 . Disorganized serial killers are usually far more impulsive , often committing their murders with a random weapon available at the time , and usually do not attempt to hide the body . They are likely to be unemployed , a loner , or both , with very few friends . They often turn out to have a history of mental illness , and their modus operandi ( M.O . ) or lack thereof is often marked by excessive violence and sometimes necrophilia and/or sexual violence . Disorganized serial killers have been found to have a slightly lower mean IQ than organized serial killers , at 92.8 . Medical professionals Some people with a pathological interest in the power of life and death tend to be attracted to medical professions or acquiring such a job . These kinds of killers are sometimes referred to as `` angels of death '' or angels of mercy . Medical professionals will kill their patients for money , for a sense of sadistic pleasure , for a belief that they are `` easing '' the patient 's pain , or simply `` because they can '' . One such killer was nurse Jane Toppan , who admitted during her murder trial that she was sexually aroused by death . She would administer a drug mixture to patients she chose as her victims , lie in bed with them and hold them close to her body as they died . Another medical profession serial killer is Genene Jones . It is believed she killed 11 to 46 infants and children while working at Bexar County Medical Center Hospital in San Antonio , Texas . She is currently serving a 99-year sentence for the murder of Chelsea McClellan and the attempted murder of Rolando Santos , and is eligible for parole in 2017 due to a law in Texas at the time of her sentencing to reduce prison overcrowding . Female Female serial killers are rare compared to their male counterparts . Sources suggest that female serial killers represented less than one in every six known serial murderers in the U.S. between 1800 and 2004 ( 64 females from a total of 416 known offenders ) , or that around 15 % of U.S. serial killers have been women , with a collective number of victims between 427 and 612 . Lethal Ladies authors , Amanda L. Farrell , Robert D. Keppel , and Victoria B. Titterington state that `` the Justice Department indicated 36 female serial killers have been active over the course of the last century . '' According to The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology , there is evidence that 16 % of all serial killers are women . Kelleher and Kelleher ( 1998 ) created several categories to describe female serial killers . They used the classifications of black widow , angel of death , sexual predator , revenge , profit or crime , team killer , question of sanity , unexplained , and unsolved . In using these categories , they observed that most women fell into the categories of black widow or team killer . Although motivations for female serial killers can include attention seeking , addiction , or the result of psychopathological behavioral factors , female serial killers are commonly categorized as murdering men for material gain , usually being emotionally close to their victims , and generally needing to have a relationship with the victim , hence the traditional cultural image of the `` black widow . '' In describing murderer Stacey Castor , forensic psychiatrist James Knoll offered a psychological perspective on what defines a `` black widow '' type . In simple terms , he described it as a woman who kills two or more husbands or lovers for material gain . Though Castor was not officially defined as a serial killer , it is likely that she would have killed again . One `` analysis of 86 female serial killers from the U.S. found that the victims tended to be spouses , children or the elderly '' . Other studies indicate that since 1975 , increasingly strangers are marginally the most preferred victim of female serial killers , or that only 26 % of female serial killers kill for material gain only . Sources state that each killer will have her own proclivities , needs and triggers . '' A review of the published literature on female serial murder stated that `` sexual or sadistic motives are believed to be extremely rare in female serial murderers , and psychopathic traits and histories of childhood abuse have been consistently reported in these women . '' A study by Eric W. Hickey ( 2010 ) of 64 female serial killers in the U.S. indicated that sexual activity was one of several motives in 10 % of the cases , enjoyment in 11 % and control in 14 % , and that 51 % of all U.S. female serial killers murdered at least one woman and 31 % murdered at least one child . In other cases , women have been involved as an accomplice with a male serial killer as a part of a serial killing team . A 2015 study published in The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology found that the most common motive for female serial killers was for financial gain and almost 40 percent of them had experienced some sort of mental illness . Peter Vronsky in Female Serial Killers ( 2007 ) maintains that female serial killers today often kill for the same reason males do : as a means of expressing rage and control . He suggests that sometimes the theft of the victims ' property by the female `` black widow '' type serial killer appears to be for material gain , but really is akin to a male serial killer 's collecting of totems ( souvenirs ) from the victim as a way of exerting continued control over the victim and reliving it . By contrast , Hickey states that although popular perception sees `` black widow '' female serial killers as something of the Victorian past , in his statistical study of female serial killer cases reported in the U.S. since 1826 , approximately 75 % occurred since 1950 . The methods that female serial killers use for murder are frequently covert or low-profile , such as murder by poison ( the preferred choice for killing ) . Other methods used by female serial killers include shootings ( used by 20 % ) , suffocation ( 16 % ) , stabbing ( 11 % ) , and drowning ( 5 % ) . They commit killings in specific places , such as their home or a health-care facility , or at different locations within the same city or state . A notable exception to the typical characteristics of female serial killers is Aileen Wuornos , who killed outdoors instead of at home , used a gun instead of poison , killed strangers instead of friends or family , and killed for personal gratification . The most prolific female serial killer in all of history is allegedly Elizabeth Báthory . Countess Elizabeth Báthory de Ecsed ( Báthory Erzsébet in Hungarian , August 7 , 1560 – August 21 , 1614 ) was a countess from the renowned Báthory family . After her husband 's death , she and four collaborators were accused of torturing and killing hundreds of girls and young women , with one witness attributing to them over 600 victims , though the number for which they were convicted was 80 . Elizabeth herself was neither tried nor convicted . In 1610 , however , she was imprisoned in the Csejte Castle , where she remained bricked in a set of rooms until her death four years later . A 2010 article by Perri and Lichtenwald addressed some of the misperceptions concerning female criminality . In the article , Perri and Lichtenwald analyze the current research regarding female psychopathy , including case studies of female psychopathic killers featuring Münchausen syndrome by proxy , cesarean section homicide , fraud detection homicide , female kill teams , and a female serial killer . Ethnicity and demographics in the U.S . The racial demographics regarding serial killers are often subject to debate . In the United States , the majority of reported and investigated serial killers are white males , from a lower-to-middle-class background , usually in their late twenties to early thirties . However , there are African American , Asian , and Hispanic ( of any race ) serial killers as well , and , according to the FBI , based on percentages of the U.S. population , whites are not more likely than other races to be serial killers . Criminal profiler Pat Brown says serial killers are usually reported as white because serial killers usually target victims of their own race , and the media typically focuses on `` All-American '' white and pretty female victims who were the targets of white male offenders ; that crimes among minority offenders in urban communities , where crime rates are higher , are under-investigated ; and that minority serial killers likely exist at the same ratios as white serial killers for the population . She believes that the myth that serial killers are always white might have become `` truth '' in some research fields due to the over-reporting of white serial killers in the media . According to some sources , the percentage of serial killers who are African American is estimated to be between 13 and 22 percent . Another study has shown that 16 percent of serial killers are African American , what author Maurice Godwin describes as a `` sizeable portion '' . A 2014 Radford/FGCU Serial Killer Database annual statistics report showed that for the decades 1900–2010 , the percentage of White serial killers was 52.1 % while the percentage of African American serial killers was 40.3 % . Popular racial stereotypes about the lower intelligence of African-Americans , and the stereotype that serial killers are white males , may explain the media focus on serial killers that are white and the failure to adequately report on those that are black . Similarly , in a 2005 article Anthony Walsh , professor of criminal justice at Boise State University , argued a review of post-WWII serial killings in America finds that the prevalence of African-American serial killers has typically been drastically underestimated in both professional research literature and the mass media . As a paradigmatic case of this media double-standard , Walsh cites news reporting on white killer Gary Heidnik and African-American killer Harrison Graham . Both men were residents of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; both imprisoned , tortured and killed several women ; and both were arrested only months apart in 1987 . `` Heidnik received widespread national attention , became the subject of books and television shows , and served as a model for the fictitious Buffalo Bill in Silence of the Lambs '' , writes Walsh , while `` Graham received virtually no media attention outside of Philadelphia , despite having been convicted of four more murders than Heidnik '' . Motives The motives of serial killers are generally placed into four categories : visionary , mission-oriented , hedonistic and power or control ; however , the motives of any given killer may display considerable overlap among these categories . Visionary Visionary serial killers suffer from psychotic breaks with reality , sometimes believing they are another person or are compelled to murder by entities such as the Devil or God . The two most common subgroups are `` demon mandated '' and `` God mandated '' . Herbert Mullin believed the American casualties in the Vietnam War were preventing California from experiencing the Big One . As the war wound down , Mullin claimed his father instructed him via telepathy to raise the number of `` human sacrifices to nature '' in order to delay a catastrophic earthquake that would plunge California into the ocean . David Berkowitz ( `` Son of Sam '' ) is also an example of a visionary killer . He claimed a demon transmitted orders through his neighbor 's dog and instructed him to commit murder . Mission-oriented Mission-oriented killers

qz_2884--Serial_killer.txt

Which serial killer hanged himself in Wakefield Prison in January 2004, four years after being found guilty of 15 murders?

Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates . They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae , are the most widespread species of the genus Bos , and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos taurus . Cattle are raised as livestock for meat ( beef and veal ) , as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products , and as draft animals ( oxen or bullocks that pull carts , plows and other implements ) . Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel . In some regions , such as parts of India , cattle have significant religious meaning . From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago , according to an estimate from 2011 , there are 1.4 billion cattle in the world . In 2009 , cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome . Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth , and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft . Taxonomy Cattle were originally identified as three separate species : Bos taurus , the European or `` taurine '' cattle ( including similar types from Africa and Asia ) ; Bos indicus , the zebu ; and the extinct Bos primigenius , the aurochs . The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle . Now , these have been reclassified as one species , Bos taurus , with three subspecies : Bos taurus primigenius , Bos taurus indicus , and Bos taurus taurus . Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species . Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist , not only between taurine cattle and zebu ( such as the sanga cattle , Bos taurus africanus ) , but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos - yaks ( the dzo or yattle ) , banteng , and gaur . Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison , leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos , as well . The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example , genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed , the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal , found them to be a mix of taurine cattle , zebu , and yak . However , cattle can not successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo . The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe , North Africa , and much of Asia . In historical times , its range became restricted to Europe , and the last known individual died in Masovia , Poland , in about 1627 . Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle , creating the Heck cattle breed . Etymology Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals . It was borrowed from Anglo-Norman , itself from medieval Latin 'principal sum of money , capital ' , itself derived in turn from Latin 'head ' . Cattle originally meant movable personal property , especially livestock of any kind , as opposed to real property ( the land , which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens — they were sold as part of the land ) . The word is a variant of chattel ( a unit of personal property ) and closely related to capital in the economic sense . The term replaced earlier Old English 'cattle , property ' , which survives today as fee ( cf . , , ) . The word `` cow '' came via Anglo-Saxon ( plural cȳ ) , from Common Indo-European ( genitive ) = `` a bovine animal '' , compare Persian , Sanskrit , Welsh . The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English , and an additional plural ending was often added , giving kine , kien , but also kies , kuin and others . This is the origin of the now archaic English plural , `` kine '' . The Scots language singular is coo or cou , and the plural is `` kye '' . In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible , `` cattle '' refers to livestock , as opposed to `` deer '' which refers to wildlife . `` Wild cattle '' may refer to feral cattle or to undomesticated species of the genus Bos . Today , when used without any other qualifier , the modern meaning of `` cattle '' is usually restricted to domesticated bovines . Terminology In general , the same words are used in different parts of the world , but with minor differences in the definitions . The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the United Kingdom and other British-influenced parts of world such as Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Ireland and the United States . * An `` intact '' ( i.e. , not castrated ) adult male is called a bull . A wild , young , unmarked bull is known as a `` micky '' in Australia . An unbranded bovine of either sex is called a `` maverick '' in the USA and Canada . * An adult female that has had a calf ( or two , depending on regional usage ) is a cow . * A young female before she has had a calf of her own and is under three years of age is called a heifer ( ) . A young female that has had only one calf is occasionally called a first-calf heifer . * Young cattle of both sexes are called calves until they are weaned , then weaners until they are a year old in some areas ; in other areas , particularly with male beef cattle , they may be known as feeder calves or simply feeders . After that , they are referred to as yearlings or stirks if between one and two years of age . * A castrated male is called a steer in the United States ; older steers are often called bullocks in other parts of the world , but in North America this term refers to a young bull . Piker bullocks are micky bulls ( uncastrated young male bulls ) that were caught , castrated and then later lost . In Australia , the term `` Japanese ox '' is used for grain-fed steers in the weight range of 500 to 650 kg that are destined for the Japanese meat trade . In North America , draft cattle under four years old are called working steers . Improper or late castration on a bull results in it becoming a coarse steer known as a stag in Australia , Canada and New Zealand . In some countries , an incompletely castrated male is known also as a rig . * A castrated male ( occasionally a female or in some areas a bull ) kept for draft purposes is called an ox ( plural oxen ) ; `` ox '' may also be used to refer to some carcass products from any adult cattle , such as ox-hide , ox-blood , oxtail , or ox-liver . * A springer is a cow or heifer close to calving . * In all cattle species , a female twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial intersex , and is called a freemartin . * Neat ( horned oxen , from which neatsfoot oil is derived ) , beef ( young ox ) and beefing ( young animal fit for slaughtering ) are obsolete terms , although poll , pollard or polled cattle are still terms in use for naturally hornless animals , or in some areas also for those that have been disbudded or dehorned . * Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle . Within the American beef cattle industry , the older term beef ( plural beeves ) is still used to refer to an animal of either sex . Some Australian , Canadian , New Zealand and British people use the term beast , especially for single animals when the sex is unknown . * Cattle bred specifically for milk production are called milking or dairy cattle ; a cow kept to provide milk for one family may be called a house cow or milker . A `` fresh cow '' is a dairy term for a cow or first-calf heifer who has recently given birth , or `` freshened . '' * The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually bovine . The terms `` bull '' , `` cow '' and `` calf '' are also used by extension to denote the sex or age of other large animals , including whales , hippopotamuses , camels , elk and elephants . Singular terminology issue Cattle can only be used in the plural and not in the singular : it is a plurale tantum . Thus one may refer to `` three cattle '' or `` some cattle '' , but not `` one cattle '' . No universally used singular form in modern English of `` cattle '' exists , other than the sex- and age-specific terms such as cow , bull , steer and heifer . Historically , `` ox '' was not a sex-specific term for adult cattle , but generally this is now used only for draft cattle , especially adult castrated males . The term is also incorporated into the names of other species , such as the musk ox and `` grunting ox '' ( yak ) , and is used in some areas to describe certain cattle products such as ox-hide and oxtail . `` Cow '' is in general use as a singular for the collective `` cattle '' , despite the objections by those who insist it to be a female-specific term . Although the phrase `` that cow is a bull '' is absurd from a lexicographic standpoint , the word `` cow '' is easy to use when a singular is needed and the sex is unknown or irrelevant – when `` there is a cow in the road '' , for example . Further , any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows , so the term is probably accurate even in the restrictive sense . Other than the few bulls needed for breeding , the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and slaughtered for meat before the age of three years . Thus , in a pastured herd , any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences . Merriam-Webster , a US dictionary , recognizes the sex-nonspecific use of `` cow '' as an alternate definition , whereas Collins , a UK dictionary , does not . Colloquially , more general nonspecific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed . Australian , New Zealand and British farmers use the term `` beast '' or `` cattle beast '' . `` Bovine '' is also used in Britain . The term `` critter '' is common in the western United States and Canada , particularly when referring to young cattle . In some areas of the American South ( particularly the Appalachian region ) , where both dairy and beef cattle are present , an individual animal was once called a `` beef critter '' , though that term is becoming archaic . Other terminology Cattle raised for human consumption are called `` beef cattle '' . Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States , the term `` beef '' ( plural `` beeves '' ) is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either sex . Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called `` dairy cows '' or `` milking cows '' ( formerly `` milch cows '' ) . Most young male offspring of dairy cows are sold for veal , and may be referred to as veal calves . The term `` dogies '' is used to describe orphaned calves in the context of ranch work in the American West , as in `` Keep them dogies moving '' . In some places , a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a `` house cow '' . Other obsolete terms for cattle include `` neat '' ( this use survives in `` neatsfoot oil '' , extracted from the feet and legs of cattle ) , and `` beefing '' ( young animal fit for slaughter ) . An onomatopoeic term for one of the most common sounds made by cattle is `` moo '' ( also called lowing ) . There are a number of other sounds made by cattle , including calves bawling , and bulls bellowing . Bawling is most common for cows after weaning of a calf . The bullroarer makes a sound similar to a bull 's territorial call . Characteristics Anatomy Cattle are large quadrupedal ungulate mammals with cloven hooves . Most breeds have horns , which can be as large as the Texas Longhorn or small like a scur . Careful genetic selection has allowed polled ( hornless ) cattle to become widespread . Cattle are ruminants , meaning their digestive system is highly specialized to allow the use of poorly digestible plants as food . Cattle have one stomach with four compartments , the rumen , reticulum , omasum , and abomasum , with the rumen being the largest compartment . Cattle are known for regurgitating and re-chewing their food , known as `` cud '' chewing . The reticulum , the smallest compartment , is known as the `` honeycomb '' . Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum and irritation from the metal objects causes hardware disease . The omasum 's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed . The omasum is known as the `` many plies '' . The abomasum is like the human stomach ; this is why it is known as the `` true stomach '' . The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized microorganisms in the rumen . These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel . The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources , such as urea and ammonia . As these microbes reproduce in the rumen , older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract . These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines , allowing cattle to gain a high-quality protein source . These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other vegetation . Gestation and size The gestation period for a cow is about nine months long . A newborn calf 's size can vary among breeds , but a typical calf weighs between 25 to . Adult size and weight vary significantly among breeds and sex . The world record for the heaviest bull was 1740 kg , a Chianina named Donetto , when he was exhibited at the Arezzo show in 1955 . The heaviest steer was eight-year-old ‘ Old Ben ’ , a Shorthorn/Hereford cross weighing in at 2140 kg in 1910 . Steers are generally killed before reaching 750 kg . Breeding stock may be allowed a longer lifespan , occasionally living as long as 25 years . The oldest recorded cow , Big Bertha , died at the age of 48 in 1993 . Udder A cow 's udder contains two pairs of mammary glands , ( commonly referred to as teats ) creating four `` quarters '' . The front ones are referred to as fore quarters and the rear ones rear quarters . Male genitalia Bulls become fertile at about seven months of age . Their fertility is closely related to the size of their testicles , and one simple test of fertility is to measure the circumference of the scrotum : a young bull is likely to be fertile once this reaches 28 cm ; that of a fully adult bull may be over 40 cm . Bulls have a fibro-elastic penis . Given the small amount of erectile tissue , there is little enlargement after erection . The penis is quite rigid when non-erect , and becomes even more rigid during erection . Protrusion is not affected much by erection , but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure . Weight The weight of adult cattle always depends on the breed . Smaller kinds , such as Dexter and Jersey adults , range between 272 to . Large Continental breeds , such as Charolais , Marchigiana , Belgian Blue and Chianina , adults range from 635 to . British breeds , such as Hereford , Angus , and Shorthorn , mature between 454 to , occasionally higher , particularly with Angus and Hereford . Bulls will be a bit larger than cows of the same breed by a few hundred kilograms . Chianina bulls can weigh up to 1500 kg ; British bulls , such as Angus and Hereford , can weigh as little as 907 kg to as much as 1361 kg . It is difficult to generalize or average out the weight of all cattle because different kinds have different averages of weights . However , according to some sources , the average weight of all cattle is 753 kg . Finishing steers in the feedlot average about 640 kg ; cows about 725 kg , and bulls about 1090 kg . In the United States , the average weight of beef cattle has steadily increased , especially since the 1970s , requiring the building of new slaughterhouses able to handle larger carcasses . New packing plants in the 1980s stimulated a large increase in cattle weights . Before 1790 beef cattle averaged only 350 lb net ; and thereafter weights climbed steadily . Cognition In laboratory studies , young cattle are able to memorize the locations of several food sources and retain this memory for at least 8 hours , although this declined after 12 hours . Fifteen-month-old heifers learn more quickly than adult cows which have had either one or two calvings , but their longer-term memory is less stable . Mature cattle perform well in spatial learning tasks and have a good long-term memory in these tests . Cattle tested in a radial arm maze are able to remember the locations of high-quality food for at least 30 days . Although they initially learn to avoid low-quality food , this memory diminishes over the same duration . Under less artificial testing conditions , young cattle showed they were able to remember the location of feed for at least 48 days . Cattle can make an association between a visual stimulus and food within 1 day – memory of this association can be retained for 1 year , despite a slight decay . Calves are capable of discrimination learning and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the Closed-field Test . They are also able to discriminate between familiar individuals , and among humans . Cattle can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar animals of the same species ( conspecifics ) . Studies show they behave less aggressively toward familiar individuals when they are forming a new group . Calves can also discriminate between humans based on previous experience , as shown by approaching those who handled them positively and avoiding those who handled them aversively . Although cattle can discriminate between humans by their faces alone , they also use other cues such as the color of clothes when these are available . In audio play-back studies , calves prefer their own mother 's vocalizations compared to the vocalizations of an unfamiliar mother . In laboratory studies using images , cattle can discriminate between images of the heads of cattle and other animal species . They are also able to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics . Furthermore , they are able to categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals . When mixed with other individuals , cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups , indicating that kin discrimination occurs and may be a basis of grouping behaviour . It has also been shown using images of cattle that both artificially inseminated and cloned calves have similar cognitive capacities of kin and non-kin discrimination . Cattle can recognize familiar individuals . Visual individual recognition is a more complex mental process than visual discrimination . It requires the recollection of the learned idiosyncratic identity of an individual that has been previously encountered and the formation of a mental representation . By using 2-dimensional images of the heads of one cow ( face , profiles , ¾ views ) , all the tested heifers showed individual recognition of familiar and unfamiliar individuals from their own breed . Furthermore , almost all the heifers recognized unknown individuals from different breeds , although this was achieved with greater difficulty . Individual recognition was most difficult when the visual features of the breed being tested were quite different from the breed in the image , for example , the breed being tested had no spots whereas the image was of a spotted breed . Cattle use visual/brain lateralisation in their visual scanning of novel and familiar stimuli . Domestic cattle prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye , i.e . using the right brain hemisphere ( similar to horses , Australian magpies , chicks , toads and fish ) but use the right eye , i.e . using the left hemisphere , for viewing familiar stimuli . Temperament and emotions In cattle , temperament can affect production traits such as carcass and meat quality or milk yield as well as affecting the animal 's overall health and reproduction . Cattle temperament is defined as `` the consistent behavioral and physiological difference observed between individuals in response to a stressor or environmental challenge and is used to describe the relatively stable difference in the behavioral predisposition of an animal , which can be related to psychobiological mechanisms '' . Generally , cattle temperament is assumed to be multidimensional . Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed : * shyness-boldness * exploration-avoidance * activity * aggressiveness * sociability In a study on Holstein–Friesian heifers learning to press a panel to open a gate for access to a food reward , the researchers also recorded the heart rate and behavior of the heifers when moving along the race towards the food . When the heifers made clear improvements in learning , they had higher heart rates and tended to move more vigorously along the race . The researchers concluded this was an indication that cattle may react emotionally to their own learning improvement . Negative emotional states are associated with a bias toward negative ( pessimistic ) responses towards ambiguous cues in judgement tasks – as encapsulated in the question of `` is the glass half empty or half full ? `` . After separation from their mothers , Holstein calves showed such a cognitive bias indicative of low mood . A similar study showed that after hot-iron disbudding ( dehorning ) , calves had a similar negative bias indicating that post-operative pain following this routine procedure results in a negative change in emotional state . In studies of visual discrimination , the position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state . When cattle are stressed , this can be recognised by other cattle as it is communicated by alarm substances in the urine . Cattle are very gregarious and even short-term isolation is considered to cause severe psychological stress . When Aubrac and Fresian heifers are isolated , they increase their vocalizations and experience increased heart rate and plasma cortisol concentrations . These physiological changes are greater in Aubracs . When visual contact is re-instated , vocalisations rapidly decline , regardless of the familiarity of the returning cattle , however , heart rate decreases are greater if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously-isolated individual . Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle . Senses Cattle use all of the five widely recognized sensory modalities . These can assist in some complex behavioural patterns , for example , in grazing behaviour . Cattle eat mixed diets , but when given the opportunity , show a partial preference of approximately 70 % clover and 30 % grass . This preference has a diurnal pattern , with a stronger preference for clover in the morning , and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening . Vision Vision is the dominant sense in cattle and they obtain almost 50 % of their information visually . Cattle are a prey animal and to assist prey detection , their eyes are located on the sides of their head rather than the front . This gives them a wide field of view of 330o but limits binocular vision ( and therefore stereopsis ) to 30o to 50o compared to 140o in humans . This means they have a blind spot directly behind them . Cattle have good visual acuity ( 1/20 ) but compared to humans , the visual accommodation of cattle is poor . Cattle have two kinds of color receptors in the cone cells of their retinas . This means that cattle are dichromatic , as are most other non-primate land mammals . There are two to three rods per cone in the fovea centralis but five to six near the optic papilla . Cattle can distinguish long wavelength colors ( yellow , orange and red ) much better than the shorter wavelengths ( blue , grey and green ) . Calves are able to discriminate between long ( red ) and short ( blue ) or medium ( green ) wavelengths , but have limited ability to discriminate between the short and medium . They also approach handlers more quickly under red light . Whilst having good color sensitivity , it is not as good as humans or sheep . A common misconception about cattle ( particularly bulls ) is that they are enraged by the color red ( something provocative is often said to be `` like a red flag to a bull '' ) . This is a myth . In bullfighting , it is the movement of the red flag or cape that irritates the bull and incites it to charge . Taste Cattle have a well-developed sense of taste and can distinguish the four primary tastes ( sweet , salty , bitter and sour ) . They possess around 20,000 taste buds . The strength of taste perception depends on the individual 's current food requirements . They avoid bitter-tasting foods ( potentially toxic ) and have a marked preference for sweet ( high calorific value ) and salty foods ( electrolyte balance ) . Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal pH . Plants have low levels of sodium and cattle have developed the capacity of seeking salt by taste and smell . If cattle become depleted of sodium salts , they show increased locomotion directed to searching for these . To assist in their search , the olfactory and gustatory receptors able to detect minute amounts of sodium salts increase their sensitivity as biochemical disruption develops with sodium salt depletion . Audition Cattle hearing ranges from 23 Hz to 35 kHz . Their frequency of best sensitivity is 8 kHz and they have a lowest threshold of −21 db ( re 20 μN/m−2 ) , which means their hearing is more acute than horses ( lowest threshold of 7 db ) . Sound localization acuity thresholds are an average of 30° . This means that cattle are less able to localise sounds compared to goats ( 18° ) , dogs ( 8° ) and humans ( 0.8° ) . Because cattle have a broad foveal fields of view covering almost the entire horizon , they may not need very accurate locus information from their auditory systems to direct their gaze to a sound source . Vocalisations are an important mode of communication amongst cattle and can provide information on the age , sex , dominance status and reproductive status of

sfq_24881--Cattle.txt

To which animal does the adjective caprine refer?

A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid . Steam engines are external combustion engines , where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products . Non-combustion heat sources such as solar power , nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used . The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle . In the cycle , water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure . When expanded through pistons or turbines , mechanical work is done . The reduced-pressure steam is then condensed and pumped back into the boiler . In general usage , the term steam engine can refer to either the integrated steam plants ( including boilers etc . ) such as railway steam locomotives and portable engines , or may refer to the piston or turbine machinery alone , as in the beam engine and stationary steam engine . Specialized devices such as steam hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler . Using boiling water to produce mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years , but early devices were not practical . The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for a steam engine in 1606. , p.207 In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped . Savery 's steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber , and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water . Thomas Newcomen 's atmospheric engine was the first commercial true steam engine using a piston , and was used in 1712 for pumping in a mine . In 1781 James Watt patented a steam engine that produced continuous rotary motion . Watt 's ten-horsepower engines enabled a wide range of manufacturing machinery to be powered . The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained . By 1883 , engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible . The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution , allowing factories to locate where water power was unavailable . The atmospheric engines of Newcomen and Watt were large compared to the amount of power they produced , but high pressure steam engines were light enough to be applied to vehicles such as traction engines and the railway locomotives . Reciprocating piston type steam engines remained the dominant source of power until the early 20th century , when advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines gradually resulted in the replacement of reciprocating ( piston ) steam engines in commercial usage , and the ascendancy of steam turbines in power generation . Considering that the great majority of worldwide electric generation is produced by turbine type steam engines , the `` steam age '' is continuing with energy levels far beyond those of the turn of the 19th century . History Early designs and modifications * The aeolipile ( also known as a Hero engine ) described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine . Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine . * Thomas Savery , in 1698 , patented the first practical , atmospheric pressure , steam engine of . It had no piston or moving parts , only taps . It was a fire engine , a kind of thermic syphon , in which steam was admitted to an empty container and then condensed . The vacuum thus created was used to suck water from the sump at the bottom of the mine . The `` fire engine '' was not very effective and could not work beyond a limited depth of around . * Thomas Newcomen , in 1712 , developed the first commercially successful piston steam engine of . Its principle was to condense steam in a cylinder , thus causing atmospheric pressure to drive a piston and produce mechanical work . * James Watt , in 1781 , patented a steam engine that produced continued rotary motion with a power of about . It was the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above atmospheric to drive the piston helped by a partial vacuum . It was an improvement of Newcomen ’ s engine . Since the early 18th century , steam power has been applied to a variety of practical uses . At first it powered reciprocating pumps , but from the 1780s rotative engines ( those converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion ) began to appear , driving factory machinery such as spinning mules and power looms . At the turn of the 19th century , steam-powered transport on both sea and land began to make its appearance , becoming more dominant as the century progressed . Steam engines can be said to have been the moving force behind the Industrial Revolution and saw widespread commercial use driving machinery in factories , mills and mines ; powering pumping stations ; and propelling transport appliances such as railway locomotives , ships , steamboats and road vehicles . Their use in agriculture led to an increase in the land available for cultivation . There have at one time or another been steam-powered farm tractors , motorcycles ( without much success ) and even automobiles as the Stanley Steamer . The weight of boilers and condensers generally makes the power-to-weight ratio of a steam plant lower than for internal combustion engines . For mobile applications steam has been largely superseded by internal combustion engines or electric motors . However , most electric power is generated using steam turbine plant , so that indirectly the world 's industry is still dependent on steam power . Recent concerns about fuel sources and pollution have incited a renewed interest in steam both as a component of cogeneration processes and as a prime mover . This is becoming known as the Advanced Steam movement . Early experiments The history of the steam engine stretches back as far as the first century AD ; the first recorded rudimentary steam engine being the aeolipile described by Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria . In the following centuries , the few steam-powered `` engines '' known were , like the aeolipile , '' De Architectura '' : Chapter VI ( paragraph 2 ) from `` Ten Books on Architecture '' by Vitruvius ( 1st century BC ) , published 17 , June , 08 [ http : //penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/1 * .html ] accessed 2009-07-07 essentially experimental devices used by inventors to demonstrate the properties of steam . A rudimentary steam turbine device was described by Taqi al-DinAhmad Y Hassan ( 1976 ) . Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering , p. 34–35 . Institute for the History of Arabic Science , University of Aleppo . in 1551 and by Giovanni Branca in 1629 . Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont received patents in 1606 for fifty steam powered inventions , including a water pump for draining inundated mines . Denis Papin , a Huguenot refugee , did some useful work on the steam digester in 1679 , and first used a piston to raise weights in 1690 . Pumping engines The first commercial steam-powered device was a water pump , developed in 1698 by Thomas Savery . It used condensing steam to create a vacuum which was used to raise water from below , then it used steam pressure to raise it higher . Small engines were effective though larger models were problematic . They proved only to have a limited lift height and were prone to boiler explosions . It received some use in mines , pumping stations and for supplying water wheels used to power textile machinery . An attractive feature of the Savery engine was its low cost . Bento de Moura Portugal introduced an ingenious improvement of Savery 's construction `` to render it capable of working itself '' , as described by John Smeaton in the Philosophical Transactions published in 1751 . It continued to be manufactured until the late 18th century . One engine was still known to be operating in 1820 . Piston steam engines The first commercially successful true engine , in that it could generate power and transmit it to a machine , was the atmospheric engine , invented by Thomas Newcomen around 1712 . It was an improvement over Savery 's steam pump , using a piston as proposed by Papin . Newcomen 's engine was relatively inefficient , and in most cases was used for pumping water . It worked by creating a partial vacuum by condensing steam under a piston within a cylinder . It was employed for draining mine workings at depths hitherto impossible , and also for providing a reusable water supply for driving waterwheels at factories sited away from a suitable `` head '' . Water that had passed over the wheel was pumped back up into a storage reservoir above the wheel . In 1720 Jacob Leupold described a two-cylinder high-pressure steam engine . The invention was published in his major work `` Theatri Machinarum Hydraulicarum '' . The engine used two heavy pistons to provide motion to a water pump . Each piston was raised by the steam pressure and returned to its original position by gravity . The two pistons shared a common four way rotary valve connected directly to a steam boiler . The next major step occurred when James Watt developed ( 1763–1775 ) an improved version of Newcomen 's engine , with a separate condenser . Boulton and Watt 's early engines used half as much coal as John Smeaton 's improved version of Newcomen 's . Duty comparison was based on a carefully conducted trial in 1778 . Newcomen 's and Watt 's early engines were `` atmospheric '' . They were powered by air pressure pushing a piston into the partial vacuum generated by condensing steam , instead of the pressure of expanding steam . The engine cylinders had to be large because the only usable force acting on them was due to atmospheric pressure . Watt proceeded to develop his engine further , modifying it to provide a rotary motion suitable for driving factory machinery . This enabled factories to be sited away from rivers , and further accelerated the pace of the Industrial Revolution . High-pressure engines Watt 's patent prevented others from making high pressure and compound engines . Shortly after Watt 's patent expired in 1800 , Richard Trevithick and , separately , Oliver Evans in 1801 introduced engines using high-pressure steam ; Trevithick obtained his high-pressure engine patent in 1802 . These were much more powerful for a given cylinder size than previous engines and could be made small enough for transport applications . Thereafter , technological developments and improvements in manufacturing techniques ( partly brought about by the adoption of the steam engine as a power source ) resulted in the design of more efficient engines that could be smaller , faster , or more powerful , depending on the intended application . The Cornish engine was developed by Trevithick and others in the 1810s . It was a compound cycle engine that used high-pressure steam expansively , then condensed the low-pressure steam , making it relatively efficient . The Cornish engine had irregular motion and torque though the cycle , limiting it mainly to pumping . Cornish engines were used in mines and for water supply until the late 19th century . Horizontal stationary engine Early builders of stationary steam engines considered that horizontal cylinders would be subject to excessive wear . Their engines were therefore arranged with the piston axis vertical . In time the horizontal arrangement became more popular , allowing compact , but powerful engines to be fitted in smaller spaces . The acme of the horizontal engine was the Corliss steam engine , patented in 1849 , which was a four-valve counter flow engine with separate steam admission and exhaust valves and automatic variable steam cutoff . When Corliss was given the Rumford Medal , the committee said that `` no one invention since Watt 's time has so enhanced the efficiency of the steam engine '' . In addition to using 30 % less steam , it provided more uniform speed due to variable steam cut off , making it well suited to manufacturing , especially cotton spinning . Road vehicles The first experimental road going steam powered vehicles were built in the late 18th century , but it was not until after Richard Trevithick had developed the use of high-pressure steam , around 1800 , that mobile steam engines became a practical proposition . The first half of the 19th century saw great progress in steam vehicle design , and by the 1850s it was becoming viable to produce them on a commercial basis . This progress was dampened by legislation which limited or prohibited the use of steam powered vehicles on roads . Improvements in vehicle technology continued from the 1860s to the 1920s . Steam road vehicles were used for many applications . In the 20th century , the rapid development of internal combustion engine technology led to the demise of the steam engine as a source of propulsion of vehicles on a commercial basis , with relatively few remaining in use beyond the Second World War . Many of these vehicles were acquired by enthusiasts for preservation , and numerous examples are still in existence . In the 1960s the air pollution problems in California gave rise to a brief period of interest in developing and studying steam powered vehicles as a possible means of reducing the pollution . Apart from interest by steam enthusiasts , the occasional replica vehicle , and experimental technology no steam vehicles are in production at present . Marine engines Near the end of the 19th century compound engines came into widespread use . Compound engines exhausted steam in to successively larger cylinders to accommodate the higher volumes at reduced pressures , giving improved efficiency . These stages were called expansions , with double and triple expansion engines being common , especially in shipping where efficiency was important to reduce the weight of coal carried . Steam engines remained the dominant source of power until the early 20th century , when advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines gradually resulted in the replacement of reciprocating ( piston ) steam engines , with shipping in the 20th-century relying upon the steam turbine . Steam locomotives As the development of steam engines progressed through the 18th century , various attempts were made to apply them to road and railway use . In 1784 , William Murdoch , a Scottish inventor , built a prototype steam road locomotive . An early working model of a steam rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the United States probably during the 1780s or 1790s . His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks . The first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick in the United Kingdom and , on 21 February 1804 , the world 's first railway journey took place as Trevithick 's unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway from the Pen-y-darren ironworks , near Merthyr Tydfil to Abercynon in south Wales . The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine and increased its efficiency . Trevithick visited the Newcastle area later in 1804 and the colliery railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation and development of steam locomotives . Trevithick continued his own experiments using a trio of locomotives , concluding with the Catch Me Who Can in 1808 . Only four years later , the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray was used by the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway . In 1825 George Stephenson built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway . This was the first public steam railway in the world and then in 1829 , he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials . The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened in 1830 making exclusive use of steam power for both passenger and freight trains . Steam locomotives continued to be manufactured until the late twentieth century in places such as China and the former East Germany ( where the DR Class 52.80 was produced ) . Steam turbines The final major evolution of the steam engine design was the use of steam turbines starting in the late part of the 19th century . Steam turbines are generally more efficient than reciprocating piston type steam engines ( for outputs above several hundred horsepower ) , have fewer moving parts , and provide rotary power directly instead of through a connecting rod system or similar means . Steam turbines virtually replaced reciprocating engines in electricity generating stations early in the 20th century , where their efficiency , higher speed appropriate to generator service , and smooth rotation were advantages . Today most electric power is provided by steam turbines . In the United States 90 % of the electric power is produced in this way using a variety of heat sources . Steam turbines were extensively applied for propulsion of large ships throughout most of the 20th century . Present development Although the reciprocating steam engine is no longer in widespread commercial use , various companies are exploring or exploiting the potential of the engine as an alternative to internal combustion engines . The company Energiprojekt AB in Sweden has made progress in using modern materials for harnessing the power of steam . The efficiency of Energiprojekt 's steam engine reaches some 27-30 % on high-pressure engines . It is a single-step , 5-cylinder engine ( no compound ) with superheated steam and consumes approx . 4 kg of steam per kWh . Components and accessories of steam engines There are two fundamental components of a steam plant : the boiler or steam generator , and the `` motor unit '' , referred to itself as a `` steam engine '' . Stationary steam engines in fixed buildings may have the boiler and engine in separate buildings some distance apart . For portable or mobile use , such as steam locomotives , the two are mounted together . The widely used reciprocating engine typically consisted of a cast iron cylinder , piston , connecting rod and beam or a crank and flywheel , and miscellaneous linkages . Steam was alternately supplied and exhausted by one or more valves . Speed control was either automatic , using a governor , or by a manual valve . The cylinder casting contained steam supply and exhaust ports . Engines equipped with a condenser are a separate type than those that exhaust to the atmosphere . Other components are often present ; pumps ( such as an injector ) to supply water to the boiler during operation , condensers to recirculate the water and recover the latent heat of vaporisation , and superheaters to raise the temperature of the steam above its saturated vapour point , and various mechanisms to increase the draft for fireboxes . When coal is used , a chain or screw stoking mechanism and its drive engine or motor may be included to move the fuel from a supply bin ( bunker ) to the firebox . See : Mechanical stoker Heat source The heat required for boiling the water and supplying the steam can be derived from various sources , most commonly from burning combustible materials with an appropriate supply of air in a closed space ( called variously combustion chamber , firebox ) . In some cases the heat source is a nuclear reactor , geothermal energy , solar energy or waste heat from an internal combustion engine or industrial process . In the case of model or toy steam engines , the heat source can be an electric heating element . Boilers Boilers are pressure vessels that contain water to be boiled , and some kind of mechanism for transferring the heat to the water so as to boil it . The two most common methods of transferring heat to the water are : # water-tube boiler – water is contained in or run through one or several tubes surrounded by hot gases # fire-tube boiler – the water partially fills a vessel below or inside which is a combustion chamber or furnace and fire tubes through which the hot gases flow Fire tube boilers were the main type used for early high-pressure steam ( typical steam locomotive practice ) , but they were to a large extent displaced by more economical water tube boilers in the late 19th century for marine propulsion and large stationary applications . Once turned to steam , many boilers raise the temperature of the steam further , turning 'wet steam ' into 'superheated steam ' . This use of superheating avoids the steam condensing within the engine , and allows significantly greater efficiency . Motor units In a steam engine , a piston or steam turbine or any other similar device for doing mechanical work takes a supply of steam at high pressure and temperature and gives out a supply of steam at lower pressure and temperature , using as much of the difference in steam energy as possible to do mechanical work . These `` motor units '' are often called 'steam engines ' in their own right . They will also operate on compressed air or other gas . Cold sink As with all heat engines , a considerable quantity of waste heat at relatively low temperature is produced and must be disposed of . The simplest cold sink is to vent the steam to the environment . This is often used on steam locomotives , as the released steam is vented up the chimney so as to increase the draw on the fire , which greatly increases engine power , but reduces efficiency . Sometimes the waste heat is useful itself , and in those cases very high overall efficiency can be obtained . For example , combined heat and power ( CHP ) systems use the waste steam for district heating . Where CHP is not used , steam turbines in stationary power plants use surface condensers as a cold sink . The condensers are cooled by water flow from oceans , rivers , lakes , and often by cooling towers which evaporate water to provide cooling energy removal . The resulting condensed hot water , is then pumped back up to pressure and sent back to the boiler . A dry type cooling tower is similar to an automobile radiator and is used in locations where water is costly . Waste heat can also be ejected by evaporative ( wet ) cooling towers use pass the rejected to external water cycle that evaporates some of flow to the air . Cooling towers often have visible plumes due to the evaporated water condensing into droplets carried up by the warm air . Evaporative cooling towers need less water flow than `` once-through '' cooling by river or lake water ; a 700 megawatt coal-fired power plant may use about 3600 cubic metres of make-up water every hour for evaporative cooling , but would need about twenty times as much if cooled by river water . In all cases , the steam plant water , which must be kept pure , is kept separate from the cooling water or air , and once the low pressure steam condenses into water , it is returned to the boiler . Water pump The Rankine cycle and most practical steam engines have a water pump to recycle or top up the boiler water , so that they may be run continuously . Utility and industrial boilers commonly use multi-stage centrifugal pumps ; however , other types are used . Another means of supplying lower-pressure boiler feed water is an injector , which uses a steam jet usually supplied from the boiler . Injectors became popular in the 1850s but are no longer widely used , except in applications such as steam locomotives . It is the pressurization of the water that circulates through the steam boiler that allows the water to be raised to temperatures well above 100 °C boiling point of water at one atmospheric pressure , and by that means to increase the efficiency of the steam cycle . Monitoring and control For safety reasons , nearly all steam engines are equipped with mechanisms to monitor the boiler , such as a pressure gauge and a sight glass to monitor the water level . Many engines , stationary and mobile , are also fitted with a governor to regulate the speed of the engine without the need for human interference . The most useful instrument for analyzing the performance of steam engines is the steam engine indicator . Early versions were in use by 1851 , but the most successful indicator was developed for the high speed engine inventor and manufacturer Charles Porter by Charles Richard and exhibited at London Exhibition in 1862 . The steam engine indicator traces on paper the pressure in the cylinder throughout the cycle , which can be used to spot various problems and calculate developed horsepower . It was routinely used by engineers , mechanics and insurance inspectors . The engine indicator can also be used on internal combustion engines . See image of indicator diagram below ( in Types of motor units section ) . Governor The centrifugal governor was adopted by James Watt for use on a steam engine in 1788 after Watt ’ s partner Boulton saw one on the equipment of a flour mill Boulton & Watt were building . The governor could not actually hold a set speed , because it would assume a new constant speed in response to load changes . The governor was able to handle smaller variations such as those caused by fluctuating heat load to the boiler . Also , there was a tendency for oscillation whenever there was a speed change . As a consequence , engines equipped only with this governor were not suitable for operations requiring constant speed , such as cotton spinning . The governor was improved over time and coupled with variable steam cut off , good speed control in response to changes in load was attainable near the end of the 19th century . Engine configuration Simple engine In a simple engine , the charge of steam passes through only one cylinder . It is then exhausted directly into the atmosphere or into a condenser . As steam expands in passing through a high-pressure engine , its temperature drops because no heat is being added to the system ; this is known as adiabatic expansion and results in steam entering the cylinder at high temperature and leaving at lower temperature . This causes a cycle of heating and cooling of the cylinder with every stroke , which is a source of inefficiency . As the stroke of a single cylinder engine is increased in an effort to extract more work from the steam with each stroke , a greater amount of cylinder wall is exposed and more heat is lost , resulting in decreased efficiency of a long stroke engine . Compound engines A method to lessen the magnitude of energy loss to a very long cylinder was invented in 1804 by British engineer Arthur Woolf , who patented his Woolf high-pressure compound engine in 1805 . In the compound engine , high-pressure steam from the boiler expands in a high-pressure ( HP ) cylinder and then enters one or more subsequent lower-pressure ( LP ) cylinders . The complete expansion of the steam now occurs across multiple cylinders and as less cylinder wall is exposed , per unit volume of steam in each cylinder , less heat is lost by the steam in each . This reduces the magnitude of cylinder heating and cooling , increasing the efficiency of the engine . By staging the expansion in multiple cylinders , variations of torque can be reduced . To derive equal work from lower-pressure cylinder requires a larger cylinder volume as this steam occupies a greater volume . Therefore , the bore , and often the stroke , are increased in low-pressure cylinders resulting in larger cylinders . Double expansion ( usually known as compound ) engines expanded the steam in two stages . The pairs may be duplicated or

tc_2687--Steam_engine.txt

Which builder of steam engines formed a successful partnership with Matthew Boulton?

A tennis court is the venue where the sport of tennis is played . It is a firm rectangular surface with a low net stretched across the center . The same surface can be used to play both doubles and singles matches . A variety of surfaces can be used to create a tennis court , each with its own characteristics which affect the playing style of the game . Dimensions Tennis is played on a rectangular flat surface , usually of grass , clay or hard material . The dimensions of a tennis court are defined and regulated by the International Tennis Federation ( ITF ) governing body and are written down in the annual 'Rules of Tennis ' document . The court is 78 ft long . Its width is 27 ft for singles matches and 36 ft for doubles matches . The service line is 21 ft from the net . Additional clear space around the court is needed in order for players to reach overrun balls for a total of 60 ft wide and 120 ft long . A net is stretched across the full width of the court , parallel with the baselines , dividing it into two equal ends . The net is 3 ft high at the posts , and 3 ft high in the center . The net posts are 3 ft outside the doubles court on each side or , for a singles net , 3 ft outside the singles court on each side . Surfaces Tennis is played on a variety of surfaces and each surface has its own characteristics which affect the playing style of the game . There are four main types of courts depending on the materials used for the court surface : clay courts , hard courts , grass courts and carpet courts . The International Tennis Federation ( ITF ) lists different surfaces and properties and classifies surfaces into one of five pace settings : * Category 1 ( slow ) * Category 2 ( medium-slow ) * Category 3 ( medium ) * Category 4 ( medium-fast ) * Category 5 ( fast ) Of the current Grand Slam tournaments , the US Open and Australian Open use hard courts , the French Open is played on clay , and Wimbledon is played on grass and is the only Grand Slam tournament to have always been played on one surface . The Australian Open switched to hard courts in 1988 and in its early years the French championship alternated between clay and sand/rubble courts . The US Open is the only one of the four majors to have been played on three surfaces ; the tournament was played on grass from its inception until 1974 , on green clay until 1977 , and on hard courts since the tournament moved from the West Side Tennis Club to the National Tennis Center in 1978 . ITF uses the following classification for tennis court surface types : Clay courts Clay courts are made of crushed shale , stone , or brick . The French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament to use clay courts . Clay courts slow down the ball and produce a high bounce in comparison to grass courts or hard courts . For this reason , the clay court takes away many of the advantages of big serves , which makes it hard for serve-based players to dominate on the surface . Clay courts are cheaper to construct than other types of tennis courts , but a clay surface costs more to maintain . Clay courts need to be rolled to preserve flatness . The clay 's water content must be balanced ; green courts generally require the courts to be sloped to allow water run-off . Clay courts are more common in Europe and Latin America than in North America and tend to heavily favour baseline players . Grass courts Grass courts are the fastest type of courts in common use . They consist of grass grown on very hard-packed soil , which adds additional variables : bounces depend on how healthy the grass is , how recently it has been mown , and the wear and tear of recent play . Points are usually very quick where fast , low bounces keep rallies short , and the serve plays a more important role than on other surfaces . Grass courts tend to favour serve-and-volley tennis players . Grass courts were once among the most common tennis surfaces , but are now rare due to high maintenance costs , as they must be watered and mown often , and take a longer time to dry after rain than hard courts . The grass surface , however , is the most compatible with the human body because of its softness . Hard courts Hard courts are made of uniform rigid material , often covered with an acrylic surface layer , offering greater consistency of bounce than other outdoor surfaces . Hard courts can vary in speed , although they are faster than clay but not as fast as grass courts . The quantity of sand added to the paint can greatly affect the rate at which the ball slows down . The US Open is played on DecoTurf , while the Australian Open is played on Plexicushion , both acrylic topped hard court surfaces . Carpet courts `` Carpet '' in tennis means any removable court covering . Indoor arenas store rolls of rubber-backed court surfacing and install it temporarily for tennis events , however they are not in use any more for professional events . A short piled form of artificial turf infilled with sand is used for some outdoor courts , particularly in Asia . Carpet is generally a fast surface , faster than hardcourt , with low bounce . Notable tennis tournaments previously held on carpet courts were the WCT Finals , Paris Masters , U.S . Pro Indoor and Kremlin Cup . Since 2009 their use has been discontinued on the ATP and WTA tours . Indoor courts Any court surface may be used indoors . Hard courts are most common indoors , as they are made with the most versatile materials and surface finishes . Clay courts are installed indoors with underground watering systems , and used mostly for Davis Cup matches . The conclusion of the Wimbledon Championships , in 2012 , was played on the lawn of the Centre Court under the roof and artificial lights , the first time such a retractable roof stadium with a grass court was used . Carpet surfaces have been used both on the ATP World Tour and the World Championship Tennis circuit , though no events currently use them . Historically , other surfaces have been used indoors , such as hardwood at the defunct World Covered Court Championships . Smaller courts The ITF campaign Play and Stay aims to increase tennis participation worldwide , by improving the way children are introduced to the game . The campaign promotes playing on smaller courts with slower red , orange and green balls . This gives children more time and control so that they can serve , rally , and score from the first lesson on courts that are sized to fit their bodies . The ITF has mandated that official competition for children under 10 years of age should be played on so-called Orange courts 18 m long by wide . Competition for children under 8 years is played on Red courts that are 11 m long and wide . The net is 0.8m high in the center . [ http : //www.tennisplayandstay.com ITF Play and Stay ] Terminology Common tennis court terms : * Advantage service box or ad court : The receiver 's left side service box , or the opponent 's right for the server ; significant as the receiving side for an advantage point . * Alley or Tramlines : The lanes on each side of the singles court . These are only used when playing doubles . * Back court : The area between the baseline and the service line . * Baseline : The rearmost line of the court , furthest from and parallel to the net . * Center service line : The line dividing the two service boxes on each side . * Center mark : The 12-inch mark at the halfway point of the baseline used to distinguish the two halves ( and service boxes ) of a tennis court . * Deuce service box or deuce court : The receiver 's right side service box , or the opponent 's left for the server , significant as the receiving side for a deuce point . * Service box : The area on each side bounded by the singles sideline , the service line , and the net . There are left and right service boxes , separated by the center service line . * Service line : The line that is parallel to the net and is located between the baseline and the net . It marks the end of the service boxes . * Side T : The T shape formed by the service line and the singles sideline . There are four such side Ts , two on each side of the net . * T or Middle T : The T shape formed by the service line and the center service line .

qg_1503--Tennis_court.txt

Also known as the Roland Garros, what is the Grand Slam Tennis event that started this week on the clay courts?

Jason Bourne is a fictional character created by novelist Robert Ludlum . Bourne is the protagonist in a series of twelve novels ( to 2014 ) and subsequent film adaptations . He first appeared in the novel The Bourne Identity ( 1980 ) , which was adapted for television in 1988 . The novel was very loosely adapted in 2002 into a feature film under the same name and starred Matt Damon in the lead role . The character originally featured in three novels by Ludlum , released between 1980 and 1990 , followed by nine novels written by Eric Van Lustbader since 2004 . Along with the first feature film , The Bourne Identity ( 2002 ) , Jason Bourne also appears in two sequel movies The Bourne Supremacy ( 2004 ) and The Bourne Ultimatum ( 2007 ) , both with Damon again in the lead role . Jeremy Renner stars in the fourth film of the franchise , The Bourne Legacy , released in August 2012 . Damon stated in interviews that he would not do another Bourne film without Paul Greengrass , who had directed the second and third installments . Greengrass agreed to direct Damon in the fifth installment in the franchise , Jason Bourne . Greengrass jointly wrote the screenplay with editor Christopher Rouse . Profile Backstory Jason Bourne has a tormented past , which continues to influence him throughout his lifetime . Jason Bourne is but one of many aliases used by David Webb . Webb is a career foreign service officer and a specialist in Far Eastern affairs . Before the events in The Bourne Identity , Webb had a Thai wife named Dao and two children named Joshua and Alyssa in Phnom Penh , the capital of Cambodia . Webb 's wife and two children were inadvertently killed during the Vietnam War when a fighter plane strayed into Cambodia , dropped two bombs , and strafed a spot near the Mekong River . However , unknown to Bourne , Joshua survived . Due to Cambodia 's neutrality in the war , every nation disclaimed the plane , and , therefore , no one took responsibility for the incident . Having nothing left to live for , Webb went to Saigon and , under the careful guidance of Alex Conklin , ended up training for an elite Top Secret Special Forces unit called Medusa . Within that select organization Webb was known only by his code name , Delta One . Medusa David Webb 's life was slowly consumed by his membership in Medusa . Webb was recruited into Medusa during the Vietnam War by friend and CIA officer Alexander Conklin after the violent deaths of Webb 's wife and children . Webb was infuriated by both the utter injustice and randomness of his loss , and he sought revenge by joining Medusa . Initially , Medusa was designed to infiltrate parts of Northern Vietnam , and kill suspected members of the Viet Cong and its collaborators . Medusa was considered an assassination team or death squad . Each member of Medusa was paid for their work performing assassinations for the United States Government . The members of Medusa were all criminals who were led by a man called Delta . Delta ran Medusa with an iron fist ; he became well known for his ruthlessness , his disregard for orders , and his disturbing success rate on his missions , resulting in the kidnapping of his brother , U.S. Army Lieutenant Gordon Webb , during his tour of duty in Saigon . During the mission to save David Webb 's brother , an original `` Medusa '' team member named Jason Charles Bourne was discovered to be a double agent who alerted a large number of North Vietnamese soldiers to their whereabouts . When Delta found Bourne after killing his way through the North Vietnamese , he simply executed Bourne in the jungles of Tam Quan . Bourne had compromised the secret rescue of Gordon Webb . Bourne 's murder by Delta was never exposed due to the Top Secret status of Medusa . Operation Treadstone Years later , a black ops arm of the CIA was formed to eliminate the notorious Carlos the Jackal and called Treadstone Seventy-One , named after a building on New York 's Seventy-First Street , and Webb was called up by the creator of Treadstone and Medusa , David Abbott , who was nicknamed The Monk , ( short for The Silent Monk of Covert Operations ) to be its principal agent . At this point , Webb ( Delta ) takes the identity of Jason Bourne due to the actual Bourne 's status as MIA in the war as well as the fact that Bourne was in reality a ruthless killer with a long criminal record . The point of all this was to turn Jason Bourne into something more than he really was , a contract assassin who would be known all over the world for terminating the lives of just about anyone . The assassin 's alias was Cain . The reasoning for creating such a myth was to create competition for the well-known assassin named Carlos , or Carlos the Jackal ( real name Ilich Ramírez Sánchez ) who at that time was considered the world 's best and most famous assassin . The name Cain was chosen because it had some significance for what he was doing . During Vietnam , Cain was used instead of Charlie in the phonetic alphabet ( Alpha , Bravo , Charlie , Delta , Echo , Foxtrot ... ) because Charlie became synonymous with Viet Cong . So Delta dropped back one letter to Cain , which stood for Charlie . In Spanish , Charlie is Carlos ; Carlos was Venezuelan . The myth of Cain was created by having Cain take credit for any well-publicized killings that took place in Asia , and later in Europe , regardless of the circumstances . By creating this myth , Cain was to drive the reclusive Carlos out in the open `` long enough to put a bullet in his head '' . To add insult to Carlos 's name , Cain stole the credit for Carlos 's kills , even when Cain had no part in them . Appearances Novels The series has included twelve novels which have been written by two authors , Robert Ludlum and Eric Van Lustbader . Ludlum 's series include the first three books , better known as the Bourne trilogy . After Ludlum 's death in 2001 , Lustbader took over the character in his own series of novels , which span nine books so far , with a tenth ( The Bourne Enigma ) currently being completed . Written by Robert Ludlum Identity ( 1980 ) A man is found floating unconscious in the Mediterranean sea near Marseille by Italian fishermen , two gunshot wounds in his back . He wakes and discovers he is suffering from extreme memory loss . Film negative embedded in his hip leads him to a bank in Zurich where he learns he is known by the name Jason Bourne . As he tries to reclaim his memory , Bourne attracts the attention of hostile people for reasons unknown to him . At a hotel , while cornered , Bourne takes a young woman , Marie St. Jacques , hostage to escape . Marie is an employee of the Canadian government . Bourne and Marie discover that `` Jason Bourne '' is the cover identity of a contract assassin , and that both the CIA and another contract killer known as Carlos the Jackal have an interest in him . Marie is convinced that this man she has come to know can not be the ruthless killer that all their discoveries seem to imply . She compels Bourne to continue searching for his true identity and , in the end , he finds the truth . Through this time , Bourne has the phrase `` Cain is for Charlie , and Delta is for Cain '' continually flash through his mind , propelling him in the direction of his mission . Supremacy ( 1986 ) Having recovered his memory and retired from the CIA , David Webb now teaches Asian studies at a university in Maine and lives with Marie . She is taken captive seemingly by a powerful Chinese drug lord , but in reality , by the United States government using the fictitious drug lord as cover . The scheme is an attempt to turn Webb back into his former self , the mythical Jason Bourne , to go after a Bourne impostor in China . The phony Bourne has been credited with a Far East political assassination that could , in a worst-case scenario , cause a Chinese civil war over the ownership of Hong Kong . Ultimatum ( 1990 ) As Carlos the Jackal enters old age and his infamy fades , he decides that he will do two things before he dies : kill Jason Bourne and destroy the KGB facility of Novgorod , where the Jackal was trained and later turned away . Webb 's family is forced to hide in the Caribbean while Webb himself works with old friend and CIA officer Alex Conklin to hunt down and kill the Jackal first . Webb poses as an important member of Medusa , now a nearly omnipotent economic force that controls the commander of NATO , leading figures in the Defense Department , and large NYSE firms . The plan is to use Medusa 's resources to contact the Jackal . Webb just misses the Jackal several times before Webb feigns his own death and convinces the Jackal that he has succeeded . Following this , the Jackal turns to his second goal . Webb tracks the Jackal down with the help of Conklin and a KGB agent as the Jackal begins destroying the KGB compound . In a final confrontation , the Jackal is led into a dam lock in which he drowns and Webb returns to his family . Written by Eric Van Lustbader Legacy ( 2004 ) With the climactic events of The Bourne Ultimatum behind him , Jason Bourne is able to once again become David Webb , now professor of linguistics at Georgetown University . However , this serenity does not last for long . When a silenced gunshot narrowly misses Webb 's head , the Bourne persona reawakens in him . His first objective is to reach his long-time friend and handler at the CIA , Alex Conklin . However , unknown to Bourne , a Hungarian by the name of Stepan Spalko has now drawn Jason into a web — one which he can not escape as easily as his professional facade . And the man who nearly killed him in Georgetown continues his deadly , intensely personal pursuit . Betrayal ( 2007 ) Jason Bourne takes a mission to rescue his only friend in the CIA , Martin Lindros , who disappeared in Africa while tracking shipments of uranium . Once safely back in America , Lindros persuades Bourne to help track the money trail of terrorists buying the nuclear material in Odessa . But once there , Bourne is hampered by confusing flashbacks of unfamiliar places and events and he wonders if someone is brainwashing him in order to throw him off the trail , or worse , if the man he saved in Africa is really Martin Lindros . Now , Bourne must gather evidence while trying to stay one step ahead of the terrorists who wo n't let anyone stand in their way . Sanction ( 2008 ) Jason Bourne returns to Georgetown University , and the mild world of his alter ego , David Webb , hoping for normality . But , after so many adrenaline-soaked years of risking his life , Bourne finds himself chafing under the quiet life of a linguistics professor . Aware of his frustrations , his academic mentor , Professor Spector , asks for help investigating the murder of a former student . The young man died carrying information about a group 's terrorist activities , including an immediate plan to attack the United States . The organization , the Black Legion , and its plot have also popped up on the radar of the Central Intelligence Agency , whose new director Veronica Hart is struggling to assert her authority . Sensing an opportunity to take control of the CIA by showing Hart 's incompetence , National Security Agency operatives attempt to accomplish what the CIA never could do , hunt down and kill Jason Bourne . In Europe , Bourne 's investigation into the Black Legion turns into one of the deadliest and most tangled operations of his double life—while an assassin is getting closer by the minute . Deception ( 2009 ) Bourne 's nemesis , Arkadin , is still hot on his trail , and the two continue their struggle , reversing roles of hunter and hunted . When Bourne is ambushed and badly wounded , he fakes his death and goes into hiding . In safety , he takes on a new identity , and begins a mission to find out who tried to assassinate him . Jason begins to question who he really is , how much of him is tied up in the Bourne identity , and what he would become if that was suddenly taken away from him . Meanwhile , an American passenger airliner is shot down over Egypt by what seems to be an Iranian missile . A massive global investigative team is assembled to get at the truth of the situation before it can escalate into an international scandal . Bourne 's search for the man who shot him intersects with the search for the people who brought down the airliner , leading Bourne into one of the most deadly and challenging situations he has ever encountered . With the threat of a new world war brewing , Bourne finds himself in a race against time to uncover the truth and find the person behind his assault , all the while being stalked by his unknown nemesis . Objective ( 2010 ) The Bourne Objective is the eighth novel in the Bourne series , and the fifth written by Eric Van Lustbader . The book was released in 2010 , sequel to The Bourne Deception . The killing of an art dealer dredges up snatches of Jason Bourne 's impaired memory , in particular the murder of a young woman who entrusted him with a strangely engraved ring . Now he 's determined to find its owner and purpose . But Bourne never knew what terrible acts he 'll discover he committed when he digs into the past . The trail will lead him to a vicious Russian mercenary , Leonid Arkadin , also a graduate of the Central Intelligence training program Treadstone . The covert course was shuttered by Congress for corruption , but not before it produced Bourne and Arkadin , giving them equal skills , equal force , and equal cunning . As Bourne 's destiny circles closer to Arkadin 's , it becomes clear that someone else has been watching and manipulating them . Dominion ( 2011 ) Jason Bourne is searching for an elusive cadre of terrorists planning to destroy America 's most strategic natural resources-and needs the help of his longtime friend , General Boris Karpov . Karpov , the newly appointed head of Russia 's most feared spy agency , FSB-2 , is one of the most determined , honorable , and justice-hungry men that Bourne knows . But Karpov has made a deal with the devil . In order to remain the head of FSB-2 , he must hunt down and kill Bourne . Now , these two trusted friends are on a deadly collision course . From the Colombian highlands to Munich , Cadiz , and Damascus , the clock is counting down to a disaster that will cripple America 's economic and military future . Only Bourne and Karpov have a chance to avert the catastrophe-but if they destroy each other first , that chance will be gone forever . Imperative ( 2012 ) The tenth book in the series was published on June 5 , 2012 . The man Jason Bourne fished out of the freezing sea is near death , half-drowned and bleeding profusely from a gunshot wound . He awakens with no memory of who he is or why he was shot , and Bourne is eerily reminded of his own amnesia . Then Bourne discovers that the Mossad agent named Rebeka is so determined to find this injured man that she has gone off the grid , cut her ties to her agency , and is now being stalked by Mossad 's most feared killer . The answers to these mysteries may lie back in southeast Lebanon , in a secret encampment to which Bourne and Rebeka escaped following a firefight weeks ago . The complex trail links to the mission given to Treadstone directors Peter Marks and Soraya Moore : find the semi-mythic terrorist assassin known as Nicodemo . In the course of Bourne 's desperate , deadly search for a secret that will alter the future of the entire world , he will experience both triumph and loss , and his life will never be the same . Now everything turns on the amnesiac . Bourne must learn his identity and purpose before both he and Rebeka are killed . From Stockholm to Washington , D.C. , from Mexico City to Beijing , the web of lies and betrayals extends into a worldwide conspiracy of monumental proportions . Retribution ( 2013 ) The eleventh book in the series was published on December 3 , 2013 . Bourne 's friend Eli Yadin , head of Mossad , learns that Ouyang Jidan , a senior member of China 's Politburo , and a major Mexican drug lord may have been trafficking in more than drugs . Yadin needs Bourne to investigate . Bourne agrees , but only because he has a personal agenda : Ouyang Jidan is the man who ordered Rebeka—one of the only people Bourne has ever truly cared about—murdered . Bourne is determined to avenge her death , but in the process he becomes enmeshed in a monstrous world-wide scheme involving the Chinese , Mexicans , and Russians . Bourne 's desperate search for Ouyang takes him from Tel Aviv to Shanghai , Mexico City , and , ultimately , a village on China 's coast where a clever trap has been laid for him . Bourne finds himself pursued on all sides and unsure whom he can trust . Ascendancy ( 2014 ) The twelfth book in the Bourne series was published on June 10 , 2014 . Bourne has been hired to impersonate a high-level government minister at a political summit meeting in Qatar , shielding the minister from any assassination attempts . Suddenly , armed gunmen storm the room , killing everyone but Bourne . Their target , however , is n't the minister Bourne impersonates .... it is Bourne himself . Kidnapped and transported to an underground bunker , Bourne finds himself face-to-face with an infamous terrorist named El Ghadan ( `` Tomorrow '' ) . El Ghadan holds as his captive Soraya Moore , former co-director of Treadstone , and a close friend to Bourne , along with her two-year-old daughter . Meanwhile , the President of the United States is in the midst of brokering a historic peace treaty between the Israelis and the Palestinians-an event that El Ghadan is desperate to prevent . He demands that Bourne carry out a special mission : kill the President . If Bourne refuses , Soraya and her daughter will die . Bourne must make a monstrous choice : save Soraya and her daughter , or save the President . Television In 1988 a two-part made-for-television movie of The Bourne Identity aired on ABC . It starred Richard Chamberlain in the role of Jason Bourne and Jaclyn Smith as Marie St. Jacques . The TV movie was largely faithful to Robert Ludlum 's novel , both in plot as well as in the portrayal of the character of Jason Bourne . Film The Bourne novels were adapted into a series of films – The Bourne Identity ( 2002 ) , The Bourne Supremacy ( 2004 ) , The Bourne Ultimatum ( 2007 ) , The Bourne Legacy ( 2012 ) , and Jason Bourne ( 2016 ) . The films retain the titles and some base elements but otherwise feature different plots independent of the novels . In these films , Bourne is portrayed by Matt Damon . Bourne does not appear in The Bourne Legacy , with the exception of his picture being featured in the film as well as brief discussions of how he 's ruining the plans of the organization he used to work for . As a result , the film focuses on the fallout in the intelligence community from Bourne 's actions in Ultimatum . Legacy features Jeremy Renner as Aaron Cross , an operative in a different clandestine program evolved from Treadstone . Video games A video game titled Robert Ludlum 's The Bourne Conspiracy was released in 2008 for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . The Ludlum estate obtained the rights to the video game franchise and sold it to Electronic Arts in 2009 . EA planned to make several Bourne games . Their first game was to have been developed by Starbreeze Studios , but has since been shelved . Radical Entertainment were reportedly developing a Bourne game titled Treadstone after a former animator of the now-defunct developer released a rough test reel , but it has since been canceled . Franchise overview The Bourne franchise consists of several novels , movies , and a video game , all featuring one of the several versions of the Jason Bourne character . * Novels : * * The Bourne Identity ( 1980 ) * * The Bourne Supremacy ( 1986 ) * * The Bourne Ultimatum ( 1990 ) * * The Bourne Legacy ( 2004 ) * * The Bourne Betrayal ( 2007 ) * * The Bourne Sanction ( 2008 ) * * The Bourne Deception ( 2009 ) * * The Bourne Objective ( 2010 ) * * The Bourne Dominion ( 2011 ) * * The Bourne Imperative ( 2012 ) * * The Bourne Retribution ( 2013 ) * * The Bourne Ascendancy ( 2014 ) * * The Bourne Enigma ( 2016 ) * Films : * * The Bourne Identity ( 1988 TV film ) * * The Bourne Identity ( 2002 ) * * The Bourne Supremacy ( 2004 ) * * The Bourne Ultimatum ( 2007 ) * * The Bourne Legacy ( 2012 ) * * Jason Bourne ( 2016 ) * Video Games : * * The Bourne Conspiracy ( 2008 )

qw_6753--Jason_Bourne.txt

What character created by Robert Ludlum appeared in a film trilogy released between 2002 to 2007?

The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state on the island of Great Britain from the 10th century—when it emerged from various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms—until 1707 , when it united with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms , united by Æthelstan ( r. 927–939 ) , became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great , a personal union between England , Denmark and Norway . The Norman conquest of England in 1066 led to the transfer of the English capital city and chief royal residence from the Anglo-Saxon one at Winchester to Westminster , and the City of London quickly established itself as England 's largest and principal commercial centre . Histories of the kingdom of England from the Norman conquest of 1066 conventionally distinguish periods named after successive ruling dynasties : Norman 1066–1154 , Plantagenet 1154–1485 , Tudor 1485–1603 and Stuart 1603–1714 ( interrupted by the Interregnum of 1649–1660 ) . Dynastically , all English monarchs after 1066 ultimately claim descent from the Normans ; the distinction of the Plantagenets is merely conventional , beginning with Henry II ( reigned 1154-1189 ) as from that time , the Angevin kings became `` more English in nature '' ; the houses of Lancaster and York are both Plantagenet cadet branches , the Tudor dynasty claimed descent from Edward III via John Beaufort and James VI and I of the House of Stuart claimed descent from Henry VII via Margaret Tudor . The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown . Edward III ( reigned 1327–1377 ) transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe ; his reign also saw vital developments in legislation and government—in particular the evolution of the English parliament . From the 1340s the kings of England also laid claim to the crown of France , but after the Hundred Years ' War and the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses in 1455 , the English were no longer in any position to pursue their French claims and lost all their land on the continent , except for Calais . After the turmoils of the Wars of the Roses , the Tudor dynasty ruled during the English Renaissance and again extended English monarchical power beyond England proper , achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales in 1542 . Henry VIII oversaw the English Reformation , and his daughter Elizabeth I ( reigned 1558–1603 ) the Elizabethan Religious Settlement , meanwhile establishing England as a great power and laying the foundations of the British Empire by claiming possessions in the New World . From the accession of James I in 1603 , the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland . Under the Stuarts , the kingdom plunged into civil war , which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649 . The monarchy returned in 1660 , but the Civil War established the precedent that an English monarch can not govern without the consent of Parliament , although this concept became legally established only as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . From this time the kingdom of England , as well as its successor state the United Kingdom , functioned in effect as a constitutional monarchy.The Constitution of the United Kingdom , with the reservation that it is `` uncodified '' , is taken to be based in the Bill of Rights 1689 . On 1 May 1707 , under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707 , the kingdoms of England and Scotland united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Name The Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn , originally names of the Angles . They called their land Engla land , meaning `` land of the English '' , by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia , from an original Anglia vetus , the purported homeland of the Angles ( called Angulus by Bede ) . The name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period ( Engle-land , Engelond ) . The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra , the Old French and Anglo-Norman one Angleterre . By the 14th century , England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain . The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was ' ( `` King of the English '' ) . Canute the Great , a Dane , was the first king to call himself `` King of England '' . In the Norman period ' remained standard , with occasional use of ' ( `` King of England '' ) . The Empress Matilda styled herself ' ( `` Lady of the English '' ) . From the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of ' or ' . In 1604 James I , who had inherited the English throne the previous year , adopted the title ( now usually rendered in English rather than Latin ) King of Great Britain . The English and Scottish parliaments , however , did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707 . History Anglo-Saxon England The kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy : East Anglia , Mercia , Northumbria , Kent , Essex , Sussex , and Wessex . The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms , and native Anglo-Saxon life in general . The English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 . During the Heptarchy , the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda , a high king over the other kings . The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful . It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825 . The kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century . In 827 , Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore . Thus Egbert briefly became the first king to reign over a united England . In 886 , Alfred the Great retook London , which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign . The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that `` all of the English people ( all Angelcyn ) not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred . `` [ http : //www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ] Freely licensed version at Gutenberg Project . Note : This electronic edition is a collation of material from nine diverse extant versions of the Chronicle . It contains primarily the translation of Rev . James Ingram , as published in the Everyman edition . Asser added that `` Alfred , king of the Anglo-Saxons , restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more . '' Alfred 's `` restoration '' entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city , building quays along the Thames , and laying a new city street plan . It is probably at this point that Alfred assumed the new royal style 'King of the Anglo-Saxons . ' During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders , but was definitively brought under English control by Eadred in 954 , completing the unification of England . At about this time , Lothian , the northern part of Northumbria ( Roman Bernicia ) , was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland . On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered at Eamont in Cumbria to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English . This can be considered England 's 'foundation date ' , although the process of unification had taken almost 100 years . England has remained in political unity ever since . During the reign of Æthelred the Unready ( 978–1016 ) , a new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated by Sweyn I of Denmark , culminating after a quarter-century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in 1013 . But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014 , and Æthelred was restored to the throne . In 1015 , Sweyn 's son Cnut the Great launched a new invasion . The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Æthelred 's successor , Edmund Ironside , to divide England between them , but Edmund 's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule . This continued for 26 years until the death of Harthacnut in June 1042 . He was the son of Canute and Emma of Normandy ( the widow of Æthelred the Unready ) and had no heirs of his own ; he was succeeded by his half-brother , Æthelred 's son , Edward the Confessor . The Kingdom of England was once again independent . Norman conquest The peace lasted until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066 . His brother-in-law was crowned King Harold , but his cousin William the Conqueror , Duke of Normandy , immediately claimed the throne for himself . William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on 28 September 1066 . Harold and his army were in York following their victory against the Norwegians at the Battle of Stamford Bridge ( 25 September 1066 ) when the news reached him . He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once , despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians . The armies of Harold and William faced each other at the Battle of Hastings ( 14 October 1066 ) , in which the English army , or Fyrd , was defeated , Harold and his two brothers were slain , and William emerged as victor . William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition . He was not , however , planning to absorb the Kingdom into the Duchy of Normandy . As a mere duke , William owed allegiance to Philip I of France , whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference . He was crowned on 25 December 1066 in Westminster Abbey , London . High Middle Ages In 1092 , William II led an invasion of Strathclyde , a Celtic kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria . In doing so , he annexed what is now the county of Cumbria to England ; this final annexation established what would become the traditional borders of England , which have remained largely unchanged since then ( except for occasional and temporary changes ) . In 1124 , Henry I ceded what is now southeast Scotland ( called Lothian ) to the Kingdom of Scotland , in return for the King of Scotland 's loyalty . This area of land had been English since its foundation in 927 AD , and before that had been a part of the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria . Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital , Edinburgh . This arrangement was later finalised in 1237 by the Treaty of York . The Duchy of Aquitaine came into personal union with the Kingdom of England upon the accession of Henry II , who had married Eleanor , Duchess of Aquitaine . The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy remained in personal union until John Lackland , Henry II 's son and fifth-generation descendant of William I , lost the continental possessions of the Duchy to Philip II of France in 1204 . A few remnants of Normandy , including the Channel Islands , remained in John 's possession , together with most of the Duchy of Aquitaine . Up until the Norman conquest of England , Wales had remained for the most part independent of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms , although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge the Bretwalda . Soon after the Norman conquest of England , however , some Norman lords began to attack Wales . They conquered and ruled parts of it , acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England but with considerable local independence . Over many years these `` Marcher Lords '' conquered more and more of Wales , against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes , who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England . Edward I defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , and so effectively conquered Wales , in 1282 . He created the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son , the future Edward II , in 1301 . Edward I 's conquest was brutal and the subsequent repression considerable , as the magnificent Welsh castles such as Conwy , Harlech , and Caernarfon attest ; but this event re-united under a single ruler the lands of Roman Britain for the first time since the establishment of the Kingdom of the Jutes in Kent in the 5th century , some 700 years before . Accordingly , this was a highly significant moment in the history of medieval England , as it re-established links with the pre-Saxon past . These links were exploited for political purposes to unite the peoples of the kingdom , including the Anglo-Normans , by popularising Welsh legends . The Welsh language—derived from the British language , with significant Latin influences—continued to be spoken by the majority of the population of Wales for at least another 500 years , and is still a majority language in parts of the country . Late Middle Ages Edward III was the first English king to have a claim to the throne of France . His pursuit of the claim resulted in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337–1453 ) , which pitted five kings of England of the House of Plantagenet against five kings of France of the Capetian House of Valois . Though the English won numerous victories , they were unable to overcome the numerical superiority of the French and their strategic use of gunpowder weapons . England was defeated at the Battle of Formigny in 1450 and finally at the Battle of Castillon in 1453 , retaining only a single town in France , Calais . During the Hundred Years ' War an English identity began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman lords and their Anglo-Saxon subjects . This was a consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French , whose kings and other leaders ( notably the charismatic Joan of Arc ) used a developing sense of French identity to help draw people to their cause . The Anglo-Normans became separate from their cousins who held lands mainly in France , who mocked the former for their archaic and bastardised spoken French . English also became the language of the law courts during this period . The kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses ( 1455–1487 ) , a series of civil wars over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster ( whose heraldic symbol was the red rose ) and the House of York ( whose symbol was the white rose ) , each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III . The end of these wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster , married to the eldest daughter of the House of York : Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . They were the founders of the Tudor dynasty , which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603 . Tudor period Wales had retained a separate legal and administrative system , which had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century . The country was divided between the Marcher Lords owing feudal allegiance to the crown and the Principality of Wales . Under the Tudor monarchy , Henry VIII replaced the laws of Wales with those of England ( under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 ) . Wales now was incorporated into the Kingdom of England , and henceforth was represented in the Parliament of England . During the 1530s , Henry VIII overthrew the power of the Roman Catholic Church within the kingdom , replacing the pope as head of the English church and seizing the church 's lands , thereby facilitating the creation of a new Protestant religion . This had the effect of aligning England with Scotland , which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion , whereas the most important continental powers , France and Spain , remained Roman Catholic . In 1541 , during Henry VIII 's reign , the Parliament of Ireland proclaimed him king of Ireland , thereby bringing the Kingdom of Ireland into personal union with the Kingdom of England . Calais , the last remaining continental possession of the Kingdom , was lost in 1558 , during the reign of Philip and Mary I . Their successor , Elizabeth I , consolidated the new Protestant Church of England . She also began to build up the Kingdom 's naval strength , on the foundations Henry VIII had laid down . In 1588 , her new navy was strong enough to defeat the Spanish Armada , which had sought to invade England in order to put a Catholic monarch on the throne in her place . Early Modern history The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603 . James I ascended the throne of England and brought it into personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland . Despite the Union of the Crowns , the kingdoms remained separate and independent states : a state of affairs which lasted for more than a century . Civil War and Interregnum The Stuart kings overestimated the power of the English monarchy , and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688 . In the first instance , Charles I 's introduction of new forms of taxation in defiance of Parliament led to the English Civil War ( 1641–45 ) , in which the king was defeated , and to the abolition of the monarchy under Oliver Cromwell during the interregnum of 1649–1660 . Henceforth , the monarch could reign only at the will of Parliament . After the trial and execution of Charles I in January 1649 , the Rump Parliament passed an act declaring England to be a Commonwealth on 19 May 1649 . The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished , and so the House of Commons became a unitary legislative chamber with a new body , the Council of State becoming the executive . However the Army remain the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general was Oliver Cromwell . The Commonwealth fought wars in Ireland and Scotland which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation . In April 1653 Cromwell and the other Grandees of the New Model Army , frustrated with the members of the Rump Parliament who would not pass legislation to dissolve the Rump and to allow a new more representative parliament to be elected , stopped the Rumps session by force of arms and declared the Rump dissolved . After an experiment with a Nominated Assembly ( Barebone 's Parliament ) , the Grandees in the Army , through the Council of State imposed a new constitutional arrangement under a written constitution called the Instrument of Government . Under the Instrument of Government executive power lay with a Lord Protector ( an office be held for life of the incumbent ) and there were to be triennial Parliaments , with each sitting for at least five months . Article 23 of the Instrument of Government stated that Oliver Cromwell was to be the first Lord Protector . The Instrument of Government was replaced by a second constitution ( the Humble Petition and Advice ) under which the Lord Protector could nominate his successor . Cromwell nominated his son Richard who became Lord Protector on the death of Oliver on 3 September 1658 . Restoration and Glorious Revolution Richard proved to ineffectual and unable to maintain his rule . He resigned his title and retired into obscurity . The Rump Parliament was recalled and there was a second period where the executive power lay with the Council of state . But this restoration of Commonwealth rule similar to that before the Protectorate , proved to be unstable , and the exiled claimant , Charles II , was restored to the throne in 1660 . Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , an attempt by James II to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , in which he was deposed by Parliament . The Crown was then offered by Parliament to James II 's Protestant daughter and son-in-law/nephew , William III and Mary II . Union with Scotland In the Scottish case , the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through the Alien Act 1705 . The English were more anxious about the royal succession . The death of William III in 1702 had led to the accession of his sister-in-law Anne to the thrones of England and Scotland , but her only surviving child had died in 1700 , and the English Act of Settlement 1701 had given the succession to the English crown to the Protestant House of Hanover . Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland . By 1704 , the Union of the Crowns was in crisis , with the Scottish Act of Security allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch , which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during a major European war . The English establishment did not wish to risk a Stuart on the Scottish throne , nor the possibility of a Scottish military alliance with another power . A Treaty of Union was agreed on 22 July 1706 , and following the Acts of Union of 1707 , which created the Kingdom of Great Britain , the independence of the kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707 . The Acts of Union created a customs union and monetary union and provided that any `` laws and statutes '' that were `` contrary to or inconsistent with the terms '' of the Acts would `` cease and become void . '' The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain , located in Westminster , London . At this point England ceased to exist as a separate political entity , and since then has had no national government . The laws of England were unaffected , with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that of England and Wales , while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts . This continued after the 1801 union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland , forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom , leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Territorial divisions The counties of England were established for administration by the Normans , in most cases based on earlier shires established by the Anglo-Saxons . They ceased to be used for administration only with the creation of the administrative counties in 1889 . Unlike the partly self-governing boroughs that covered urban areas , the counties of medieval England existed primarily as a means of enforcing central government power , enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through their chosen representatives – originally Sheriffs and later the Lord Lieutenants – and their subordinate Justices of the Peace . Counties were used initially for the administration of justice , collection of taxes and organisation of the military , and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation . Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest , some counties were formed considerably later , up to the 16th century . Because of their differing origins the counties varied considerably in size . The county boundaries were fairly static between the 16th century Laws in Wales acts and the Local Government Act 1888 . [ http : //www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp ? t_id Cen_Guide & c_id19 & show ALL Vision of Britain ] — Census Geographies . Retrieved 19 October 2006 . Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government ; for local defence ; and for justice , through assize courts . The power of the feudal barons to control their landholding was considerably weakened in 1290 by the statute of Quia Emptores . Feudal baronies became perhaps obsolete ( but not extinct ) on the abolition of feudal tenure during the Civil War , as confirmed by the Tenures Abolition Act 1660 passed under the Restoration which took away Knights service and other legal rights . Tenure by knight-service was abolished and discharged and the lands covered by such tenures , including once-feudal baronies , were henceforth held by socage ( i.e . in exchange for monetary rents ) . The English Fitzwalter Case in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had been discontinued for many years and any claims to a peerage on such basis , meaning a right to sit in the House of Lords , were not to be revived , nor any right of succession based on them . The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of Wales by Edward I of England . It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title `` Prince of Wales '' as legally part of the lands of England , and established shire counties on the English model over those areas . The Marcher Lords were progressively tied to the English kings by the grants of lands and lordships in England . The Council of Wales and the Marches , administered from Ludlow Castle , was initially established in 1472 by Edward IV of England to govern the lands held under the Principality of Wales.William Searle Holdsworth , `` A History of English Law , '' Little , Brown , and Company , 1912 , pg . 502 Under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 introduced under Henry VIII , the jurisdiction of the marcher lords was abolished in 1536 . The Acts had the effect of annexing Wales to England and creating a single state and legal jurisdiction , commonly referred to as England and Wales .

odql_1393--Kingdom_of_England.txt

In 1337 which English king claimed the throne of France, precipitating the '100 Years War'?

Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte ( or ; 25 November 1915 – 10 December 2006 ) , was dictator of Chile between 1973 and 1990 and Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army from 1973 to 1998 . He was also president of the Government Junta of Chile between 1973 and 1981 . Pinochet assumed power in Chile following a United States-backed coup d'état on 11 September 1973 that overthrew the elected socialist Unidad Popular government of President Salvador Allende and ended civilian rule . Several academics have stated that the support of the United States was crucial to the coup and the consolidation of power afterward . Pinochet had been promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Army by Allende on 23 August 1973 , having been its General Chief of Staff since early 1972 . In December 1974 , the ruling military junta appointed Pinochet President of Chile by joint decree , although without the support of one of the coup 's instigators , Air Force General Gustavo Leigh . From the start of the new military government harsh measures were implemented . During the period of Pinochet 's rule , various investigations have identified the murder of 1,200 to 3,200 people with up to 80,000 people forcibly interned and as many as 30,000 tortured . According to the Chilean government , the official number of deaths and forced disappearances stands at 3,095 . Under the influence of the free market-oriented neoliberal `` Chicago Boys '' , the military government implemented economic liberalization , including currency stabilization , removed tariff protections for local industry , banned trade unions and privatized social security and hundreds of state-owned enterprises . These policies produced what has been referred to as the `` Miracle of Chile , '' but critics state that economic inequality dramatically increased and attribute the devastating effects of the 1982 monetary crisis on the Chilean economy to these policies . Chile was , for most of the 1990s , the best-performing economy in Latin America , though the legacy of Pinochet 's reforms continues to be in dispute . Pinochet 's 17-year rule was given a legal framework through a controversial 1980 plebiscite , which approved a new Constitution drafted by a government-appointed commission . In a 1988 plebiscite 56 % voted against Pinochet 's continuing as president , which led to democratic elections for the Presidency and Congress . After stepping down in 1990 , Pinochet continued to serve as Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army until 10 March 1998 , when he retired and became a senator-for-life in accordance with his 1980 Constitution . However , Pinochet was arrested under an international arrest warrant on a visit to London on 10 October 1998 in connection with numerous human rights violations . Following a legal battle he was released on grounds of ill-health , and returned to Chile on 3 March 2000 . In 2004 , Chilean Judge Juan Guzmán Tapia ruled that Pinochet was medically fit to stand trial and placed him under house arrest . By the time of his death on 10 December 2006 , about 300 criminal charges were still pending against him in Chile for numerous human rights violations during his 17-year rule , and tax evasion and embezzlement during and after his rule ; he was accused of having corruptly amassed at least $ 28 million USD . Early life and military career Pinochet was born in Valparaíso , the son of Augusto Pinochet Vera , a descendant of a French Breton immigrant from Lamballe , and Avelina Ugarte Martínez , a woman of Basque descent . Pinochet went to primary and secondary school at the San Rafael Seminary of Valparaíso , the Rafael Ariztía Institute ( Marist Brothers ) in Quillota , the French Fathers ' School of Valparaíso , and then to the Military School in Santiago , which he entered in 1931 . In 1935 , after four years of study , he graduated with the rank of alférez ( Second Lieutenant ) in the infantry . In September 1937 , Pinochet was assigned to the `` Chacabuco '' Regiment , in Concepción . Two years later , in 1939 , then with the rank of Sub-lieutenant , he moved to the `` Maipo '' Regiment , garrisoned in Valparaíso . He returned to Infantry School in 1940 . On 30 January 1943 , Pinochet married Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez , with whom he had five children : Inés Lucía , María Verónica , Jacqueline Marie , Augusto Osvaldo , and Marco Antonio . By late 1945 Pinochet had been assigned to the `` Carampangue '' Regiment in the northern city of Iquique . Three years later , he entered the War Academy but had to postpone his studies because , being the youngest officer , he had to carry out a service mission in the coal zone of Lota . The following year he returned to his studies in the Academy , and after obtaining the title of Officer Chief of Staff , in 1951 , he returned to teach at the Military School . At the same time , he worked as a teachers ' aide at the War Academy , giving military geography and geopolitics classes . He was also the editor of the institutional magazine Cien Águilas ( `` One Hundred Eagles '' ) . At the beginning of 1953 , with the rank of major , he was sent for two years to the `` Rancagua '' Regiment in Arica . While there , he was appointed professor of the Chilean War Academy , and returned to Santiago to take up his new position . In 1956 Pinochet and a group of young officers were chosen to form a military mission to collaborate in the organization of the War Academy of Ecuador in Quito . He remained with the Quito mission for four-and-a-half years , during which time he studied geopolitics , military geography and military intelligence . It has been alleged that , while in Quito , Pinochet had a romance with Piedad Noe and fathered a boy named Juan . At the end of 1959 he returned to Chile and was sent to General Headquarters of the 1st Army Division , based in Antofagasta . The following year , he was appointed commander of the `` Esmeralda '' Regiment . Due to his success in this position , he was appointed Sub-director of the War Academy in 1963 . In 1968 , he was named Chief of Staff of the 2nd Army Division , based in Santiago , and at the end of that year , he was promoted to brigadier general and Commander in Chief of the 6th Division , garrisoned in Iquique . In his new function , he was also appointed Intendent of the Tarapacá Province . In January 1971 , Pinochet was promoted to division general , and was named General Commander of the Santiago Army Garrison . At the beginning of 1972 he was appointed General Chief of Staff of the Army . With rising domestic strife in Chile , after General Prats resigned his position , Pinochet was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army on 23 August 1973 by President Salvador Allende just the day after the Chamber of Deputies of Chile approved a resolution asserting that the government was not respecting the Constitution . Less than a month later , the Chilean military deposed Allende . Military coup of 1973 On 11 September 1973 the combined Chilean Armed Forces ( the Army , Navy , Air Force , and Carabineros ) overthrew Allende 's government in a coup , during which the presidential palace , La Moneda , was shelled and Allende committed suicide . While the military claimed that he had committed suicide , controversy surrounded Allende 's death , with many claiming that he had been assassinated ( theory discarded by the Chilean Supreme Court in 2014 ) . In his memoirs Pinochet said that he was the leading plotter of the coup and had used his position as commander-in-chief of the Army to coordinate a far-reaching scheme with the other two branches of the military and the national police . In later years , however , high military officials from the time have said that Pinochet reluctantly became involved only a few days before the coup was scheduled to occur , and followed the lead of the other branches ( especially the Navy , under Merino ) as they executed the coup . The new government rounded up thousands of people and held them in the national stadium where many were killed . This was followed by brutal repression during Pinochet 's rule , during which about 3,000 people were killed , and more than 1,000 are still missing . In the months that followed the coup , the junta , with authoring work by historian Gonzalo Vial and admiral Patricio Carvajal , published a book titled El Libro Blanco del cambio de gobierno en Chile ( commonly known as El Libro Blanco , `` The White Book of the Change of Government in Chile '' ) , where they said that they were in fact anticipating a self-coup ( the alleged Plan Zeta , or Plan Z ) that Allende 's government or its associates were purportedly preparing . United States intelligence agencies believed the plan to be untrue propaganda . Although later discredited and officially recognized as the product of political propaganda , Gonzalo Vial insists in the similarities between the alleged Plan Z and other existing paramilitary plans of the Popular Unity parties in support of its legitimacy . Canadian Jean Charpentier of Télévision de Radio-Canada was the first foreign journalist to interview General Pinochet following the coup . U.S. backing of the coup The Church Report investigating the fallout of the Watergate scandal stated that while the U.S. tacitly supported the Pinochet government after the 1973 coup , there was `` no evidence '' that the US was directly involved in the coup . This view has been contradicted by several academics , such as Peter Winn , who writes that the role of the CIA was crucial to the consolidation of power after the coup ; the CIA helped fabricate a conspiracy against the Allende government , which Pinochet was then portrayed as preventing . He stated that the coup itself was possible only through a three-year covert operation mounted by the United States . He also points out that the US imposed an `` invisible blockade '' that was designed to disrupt the economy under Allende , and contributed to the destabilization of the regime . Author Peter Kornbluh argues in his book The Pinochet File that the US was extensively involved and actively `` fomented '' the 1973 coup . Authors Tim Weiner , in his book , Legacy of Ashes , and Christopher Hitchens , in his book , The Trial of Henry Kissinger similarly argue the case that US covert actions actively destabilized Allende ’ s government and set the stage for the 1973 coup . The U.S. provided material support to the military government after the coup , although criticizing it in public . A document released by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) in 2000 , titled `` CIA Activities in Chile '' , revealed that the CIA actively supported the military junta after the overthrow of Allende , and that it made many of Pinochet 's officers into paid contacts of the CIA or U.S. military , even though some were known to be involved in human rights abuses . The CIA also maintained contacts in the Chilean DINA intelligence service . DINA led the multinational campaign known as Operation Condor , which amongst other activities carried out assassinations of prominent politicians in various Latin American countries , in Washington , D.C. , and in Europe , and kidnapped , tortured and executed activists holding left-wing views , which culminated in the deaths of roughly 60,000 people . The United States provided key organizational , financial and technical assistance to the operation . CIA contact with DINA head Manuel Contreras was established in 1974 soon after the coup , during the Junta period prior to official transfer of Presidential powers to Pinochet ; in 1975 , the CIA reviewed a warning that keeping Contreras as an asset might threaten human rights in the region . The CIA chose to keep him as an asset , and at one point even paid him . In addition to the CIA 's maintaining of assets in DINA beginning soon after the coup , several CIA assets , such as CORU Cuban exile militants Orlando Bosch and Guillermo Novo , collaborated in DINA operations under the Condor Plan in the early years of Pinochet 's presidency . Military junta A military junta was established immediately following the coup , made up of General Pinochet representing the Army , Admiral José Toribio Merino representing the Navy , General Gustavo Leigh representing the Air Force , and General César Mendoza representing the Carabineros ( national police ) . As established , the junta exercised both executive and legislative functions of the government , suspended the Constitution and the Congress , imposed strict censorship and curfew , banned all parties and halted all political activities . This military junta held the executive role until 17 December 1974 , after which it remained strictly as a legislative body , the executive powers being transferred to Pinochet with the title of President . Presidency The junta members originally planned that the presidency would be held for a year by the commanders-in-chief of each of the four military branches in turn . However , Pinochet soon consolidated his control , first retaining sole chairmanship of the military junta , and then proclaiming himself `` Supreme Chief of the Nation '' ( de facto provisional president ) on 27 June 1974 . He officially changed his title to `` President '' on 17 December 1974 . General Leigh , head of the Air Force , became increasingly opposed to Pinochet 's policies and was forced into retirement on 24 July 1978 , after contradicting Pinochet on that year 's plebiscite ( officially called Consulta Nacional , or National Consultation , in response to a UN resolution condemning Pinochet 's government ) . He was replaced by General Fernando Matthei . Pinochet organized a plebiscite on 11 September 1980 to ratify a new constitution , replacing the 1925 Constitution drafted during Arturo Alessandri 's presidency . The new Constitution , partly drafted by Jaime Guzmán , a close adviser to Pinochet who later founded the right-wing party Independent Democratic Union ( UDI ) , gave a lot of power to the President of the Republic—Pinochet . It created some new institutions , such as the Constitutional Tribunal and the controversial National Security Council ( COSENA ) . It also prescribed an 8-year presidential period , and a single-candidate presidential referendum in 1988 , where a candidate nominated by the Junta would be approved or rejected for another 8-year period . The new constitution was approved by a margin of 67.04 % to 30.19 % according to official figures ; Hudson , Rex A. , ed . `` Chile : A Country Study '' . GPO for the Library of Congress . 1995 . 20 March 2005 http : //lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cltoc.html the opposition , headed by ex-president Eduardo Frei Montalva ( who had supported Pinochet 's coup ) , denounced extensive irregularities such as the lack of an electoral register , which facilitated multiple voting , and said that the total number of votes reported to have been cast was very much larger than would be expected from the size of the electorate and turnout in previous elections . Interviews after Pinochet 's departure with people involved with the referendum confirmed that fraud had , indeed , been widespread . The Constitution was promulgated on 21 October 1980 , taking effect on 11 March 1981 . Pinochet was replaced as President of the Junta that day by Admiral Merino . In a massive operation spearheaded by Chilean Army para-commandos , some 2,000 security forces troops were deployed in the mountains of Neltume from June to November 1981 , where they destroyed two MIR bases , seizing large caches of munitions and killing a number of guerrillas . In a 1985 report , the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights stated that it hoped that `` the case now under way will lead to the identification and punishment of the persons responsible for the execution of so culpable an act . '' Eventually , six members of the police secret service were given life sentences . According to a book by Ozren Agnic Krstulovic , weapons including C-4 plastic explosives , RPG-7 and M72 LAW rocket launchers as well as more than 3,000 M-16 rifles were smuggled into the country by opponents of the government . In September weapons from the same source were used in an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Pinochet by the FPMR . His military bodyguard was taken by surprise , and five members were killed . Pinochet 's bulletproof Mercedes Benz vehicle was struck by a rocket , but it failed to explode and Pinochet suffered only minor injuries . Suppression of opposition Almost immediately after the military 's seizure of power , the junta banned all the leftist parties that had constituted Allende 's UP coalition .. Retrieved 24 October 2006 through Google Books . All other parties were placed in `` indefinite recess '' and were later banned outright . The government 's violence was directed not only against dissidents but also against their families and other civilians . The Rettig Report concluded 2,279 persons who disappeared during the military government were killed for political reasons or as a result of political violence . According to the later Valech Report approximately 31,947 were tortured and 1,312 exiled . The exiles were chased all over the world by the intelligence agencies . In Latin America , this was made in the frame of Operation Condor , a cooperation plan between the various intelligence agencies of South American countries , assisted by a United States CIA communication base in Panama . Pinochet believed these operations were necessary in order to `` save the country from communism '' . In 2011 the commission identified an additional 9,800 victims of political repression during Pinochet 's rule , increasing the total number of victims to approximately 40,018 , including 3,065 killed . Some political scientists have ascribed the relative bloodiness of the coup to the stability of the existing democratic system , which required extreme action to overturn . Some of the most infamous cases of human rights violation occurred during the early period : in October 1973 , at least 70 people were killed throughout the country by the Caravan of Death . Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi , both US journalists , `` disappeared '' , as did Víctor Olea Alegría , a member of the Socialist Party , and many others , in 1973 . British priest Michael Woodward , who vanished within 10 days of the coup , was tortured and beaten to death aboard the Chilean naval ship , Esmeralda ( BE-43 ) . Many other important officials of Allende 's government were tracked down by the DINA in the frame of Operation Condor . General Carlos Prats , Pinochet 's predecessor and army commander under Allende , who had resigned rather than support the moves against Allende 's government , was assassinated in Buenos Aires , Argentina , in 1974 . A year later , the murder of 119 opponents abroad was disguised as an internal conflict , the DINA setting up a propaganda campaign to support this idea ( Operation Colombo ) , a campaign publicised by the leading newspaper in Chile , El Mercurio . Other victims of Condor included , among hundreds of less famous persons , Juan José Torres , the former President of Bolivia , assassinated in Buenos Aires on 2 June 1976 ; Carmelo Soria , a UN diplomat working for the CEPAL , assassinated in July 1976 ; Orlando Letelier , a former Chilean ambassador to the United States and minister in Allende 's cabinet , assassinated after his release from internment and exile in Washington , D.C. by a car bomb on 21 September 1976 . Documents confirm that Pinochet directly ordered the assassination of Letelier . This led to strained relations with the US and to the extradition of Michael Townley , a US citizen who worked for the DINA and had organized Letelier 's assassination . Other targeted victims , who escaped assassination , included Christian-Democrat Bernardo Leighton , who escaped an assassination attempt in Rome in 1975 by the Italian terrorist Stefano delle Chiaie ; Carlos Altamirano , the leader of the Chilean Socialist Party , targeted for murder in 1975 by Pinochet , along with Volodia Teitelboim , member of the Communist Party ; Pascal Allende , the nephew of Salvador Allende and president of the MIR , who escaped an assassination attempt in Costa Rica in March 1976 ; US Congressman Edward Koch , who became aware in 2001 of relations between death threats and his denunciation of Operation Condor , etc . Furthermore , according to current investigations , Eduardo Frei Montalva , the Christian Democrat President of Chile from 1964 to 1970 , may have been poisoned in 1982 by toxin produced by DINA biochemist Eugenio Berrios . Protests continued , however , during the 1980s , leading to several scandals . In March 1985 , the murder of three Communist Party members led to the resignation of César Mendoza , head of the Carabineros and member of the junta since its formation . During a 1986 protest against Pinochet , 21-year-old American photographer Rodrigo Rojas DeNegri and 18-year-old student Carmen Gloria Quintana were burnt alive , with only Carmen surviving . In August 1989 , Marcelo Barrios Andres , a 21-year-old member of the FPMR ( the armed wing of the PCC , created in 1983 , which had attempted to assassinate Pinochet on 7 September 1986 ) , was assassinated by a group of military personnel who were supposed to arrest him on orders of Valparaíso 's public prosecutor . However , they simply executed him ; this case was included in the Rettig Report . Among the killed and disappeared during the military junta were 440 MIR guerrillas . In December 2015 , three former DINA agents were sentenced to ten years in prison for the murder of a 29 year old theology student and activist , German Rodriguez Cortes , in 1978 . That same month 62 year old Guillermo Reyes Rammsy , a former Chilean soldier during the Pinochet years , was arrested and charged with murder for boasting of participating in 18 executions during a live phone-in to the Chilean radio show `` Chacotero Sentimental . '' Economic policy In 1973 , the Chilean economy was deeply hurt for several reasons , including the expropriation of 600 businesses by the Allende government , a tiered exchange rate that distorted markets , protectionism , and the economic sanctions imposed by the Nixon administration , inflation was 1000 % , the country had no foreign reserves , and GDP was falling rapidly . By mid-1975 , the government set forth an economic policy of free-market reforms that attempted to stop inflation and collapse . Pinochet declared that he wanted `` to make Chile not a nation of proletarians , but a nation of proprietors . '' To formulate the economic rescue , the government relied on the so-called Chicago Boys and a text called El ladrillo . Chile 's nationalized main copper mines remained in government hands , with the 1980 Constitution later declaring them `` inalienable '' . [ http : //newleftreview.org/article/download_pdf ? language es & id2685 Spanish pdf . ] [ http : //newleftreview.org/article/download_pdf ? language it & id=2685 Italian pdf . ] In 1976 , Codelco was established to exploit them but new mineral deposits were opened to private investment . Capitalist involvement was increased , the Chilean pension system and healthcare and education were privatized . Wages decreased by 8 % . Family allowances in 1989 were 28 % of what they had been in 1970 and the budgets for education , health and housing had dropped by over 20 % on average The junta relied on the middle class , the oligarchy , foreign corporations , and foreign loans to maintain itself . Businesses recovered most of their lost industrial and agricultural holdings , for the junta returned properties to original owners who had lost them during expropriations , and sold other industries expropriated by Allende 's Popular Unity government to private buyers . This period saw the expansion of business and widespread speculation . Financial conglomerates became major beneficiaries of the liberalized economy and the flood of foreign bank loans . Large foreign banks reinstated the credit cycle , as the Junta saw that the basic state obligations , such as resuming payment of principal and interest installments , were honored . International lending organizations such as the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund , and the Inter-American Development Bank lent vast sums anew . Many foreign multinational corporations such as International Telephone and Telegraph ( ITT ) , Dow Chemical , and Firestone , all expropriated by Allende , returned to Chile . Pinochet 's policies eventually led to substantial GDP growth , in contrast to the negative growth seen in the early years of his administration . Foreign debt also grew substantially under Pinochet , rising 300 % between 1974 and 1988 . His government implemented an economic model that had three main objectives : economic liberalization , privatization of state owned companies , and stabilization of inflation . In 1985 , the government started with a second round of privatization , it revised previously introduced tariff increases and gave a greater supervisory role for the Central Bank . Pinochet 's market liberalizations have continued after his death , led by Patricio Aylwin . Critics argue the neoliberal economic policies of the Pinochet regime resulted in widening inequality and deepening poverty as they negatively impacted the wages , benefits and working conditions of Chile 's working class . According to Chilean economist Alejandro Foxley , by the end of Pinochet 's reign around 44 % of Chilean families were living below the poverty line . According to The Shock Doctrine by Naomi Klein , by the late 1980s the economy had stabilized and was growing , but around 45 % of the population had fallen into poverty while the wealthiest 10 % saw their incomes rise by 83 % . 1988 referendum and transition to democracy According to the transitional provisions of the 1980 Constitution , a referendum was scheduled for 5 October 1988 , to vote on a new eight-year presidential term for Pinochet . Confronted with increasing opposition , notably at the international level , Pinochet legalized political parties in 1987 and called for a vote to determine whether or not he would remain in power until 1997 . If the `` YES '' won , Pinochet would have to implement the dispositions of the 1980 Constitution , mainly the call for general elections , while he would himself remain in power as President . If the `` NO '' won , Pinochet would remain President for another year , and a joint Presidential and Parliamentary election would be scheduled . Another reason of Pinochet 's decision to call for elections was the April 1987 visit of Pope John Paul II to Chile . According to the US Catholic author George Weigel , he held a meeting with Pinochet during which they discussed a return to democracy . John Paul II allegedly pushed Pinochet to accept a democratic opening of his government , and even called for his resignation . Political advertising was legalized on 5 September 1987 , as a necessary element for the campaign for the `` NO '' to the referendum , which countered the official campaign , which presaged a return to a Popular Unity government in case of a defeat of Pinochet . The Opposition , gathered into the Concertación de Partidos por el NO ( `` Coalition of Parties for NO '' ) , organized a colorful and cheerful campaign under the slogan La alegría ya viene ( `` Joy is coming '' ) . It was formed by the Christian Democracy , the Socialist Party and the Radical Party , gathered in the Alianza Democrática ( Democratic Alliance ) . In 1988 , several more parties , including the Humanist Party , the Ecologist Party , the Social Democrats , and several Socialist Party splinter groups added their support . On 5 October 1988 , the `` NO '' option won with 55.99 % of the votes , against 44.01 % of `` YES '' votes . Pinochet accepted the result and the ensuing Constitutional process led to presidential and legislative elections the following year . The

odql_12145--Augusto_Pinochet.txt

Which Chilean socialist leader was deposed and killed by General Pinochet during a U.S. backed coup in 1973?

Marie Antoinette ( , , , ; ; born Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna von Habsburg-Lothringen ( 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793 ) , an Archduchess of Austria , was the fifteenth and second youngest child of Francis I , Holy Roman Emperor and Empress Maria Theresa . In April 1770 , upon her marriage ( at the age of 14 years and 5 months ) to Louis-Auguste , heir to the throne of France , she became Dauphine of France . On 10 May 1774 , when her husband ascended the throne as Louis XVI , upon the death of his grandfather Louis XV , she became Queen of France and Navarre , a title she held until September 1791 , when , as the French Revolution proceeded , she became Queen of the French , a title she held until 21 September 1792 . After eight years of marriage , Marie Antoinette gave birth to a daughter , Marie-Thérèse Charlotte , the first of her four children . Despite her initial popularity , a growing number of the population eventually came to dislike her , accusing L'Autrichienne , `` the Austrian woman '' ( a nickname given her upon her arrival to France by Louis XV 's daughters , Mesdames de France ) , of being profligate , promiscuous , and of harbouring sympathies for France 's enemies , particularly her native Austria . The Diamond Necklace affair damaged her reputation further . During the Revolution , she became known as Madame Déficit because the country 's financial crisis was blamed on her lavish spending and her opposition to the social and financial reforms of Turgot and Necker . During the Revolution , after the government had placed the royal family under house arrest in the Tuileries Palace in October 1789 , several events linked to Marie Antoinette , in particular the June 1791 attempt to flee , and her role in the War of the First Coalition , had disastrous effects on French popular opinion . On 10 August 1792 , the attack on the Tuileries forced the royal family to take refuge at the Assembly , and on 13 August the family was imprisoned in the Temple . On 21 September 1792 , the monarchy was abolished . After a two-day trial begun on 14 October 1793 , Marie Antoinette was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason , and executed by guillotine on Place de la Révolution on 16 October 1793 . Early life ( 1755–70 ) Maria Antonia was born on 2 November 1755 at the Hofburg Palace , in Vienna . She was the youngest daughter of Emperor Francis I and Empress Maria Theresa . Her godparents were Joseph I and Mariana Victoria , King and Queen of Portugal ; Archduke Joseph and Archduchess Maria Anna acted as proxies for their newborn sister . Shortly after her birth , she was placed under the care of the Governess of the Imperial children , Countess von Brandeis . Maria Antonia was raised with her three-year older sister Maria Carolina , with whom she had a lifelong close relationship . As to her relationship with her mother , it was difficult but both the empress and her daughter loved each other . Maria Antonia spent her formative years between the Hofburg Palace and Schönnbrunn , the imperial summer residence in Vienna , where on 13 October 1762 , when she was seven , she met Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , two months her junior and who was , at that time , a child prodigy . Despite the private tutoring she received , results of her schooling were less than satisfactory . At the age of ten , she could not write correctly in German or in any language commonly used at court , such as French and Italian . Conversations with her were stilted . Under the teaching of Christoph Willibald Gluck , Maria Antonia developed into a good musician . She learned to play the harp , the harpsichord and the flute . During the family 's gatherings in the evenings , she would sing , as she had a beautiful voice . She also excelled at dancing , had an `` exquisite '' poise , and loved dolls . Dauphine of France ( 1770–74 ) Following the Seven Years ' War and the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 , Empress Maria Theresa decided to end hostilities with her longtime enemy , King Louis XV of France . Their common desire to destroy the ambitions of Prussia and Great Britain and to help secure a definitive peace between them led them to seal their alliance with a marriage : on 7 February 1770 , Louis XV formally asked the hand of Maria Antonia for his eldest surviving grandson and heir Louis-Auguste , Duke of Berry and Dauphin of France . Maria Antonia formally renounced all her rights over the Habsburg domains , and on 19 April she was married by proxy to the Dauphin of France at the Augustinian Church in Vienna , with her brother Archduke Ferdinand standing in for the Dauphin . On 14 May she met her husband at the edge of the forest of Compiègne . Upon her arrival in France , she adopted the French version of her name : Marie Antoinette . A further ceremonial wedding took place on 16 May 1770 in the Palace of Versailles and , after the festivities , the day ended with the ritual bedding . The lack of consummation of the marriage plagued the reputation of both Louis-Auguste and Marie Antoinette for the next seven years . The initial reaction to the marriage between Marie Antoinette and Louis-Auguste was mixed . On the one hand , the Dauphine was beautiful , personable and well-liked by the common people . Her first official appearance in Paris on 8 June 1773 was a resounding success . On the other hand , those opposed to the alliance with Austria , and others , for personal reasons , had a difficult relationship with Marie Antoinette . Madame du Barry , for example , was Louis XV 's mistress and had considerable political influence over him . In 1770 she was instrumental in ousting Étienne François , duc de Choiseul , who had helped orchestrate the Franco-Austrian alliance and Marie Antoinette 's marriage , and exiling his sister the duchesse de Gramont , one of Marie Antoinette 's ladies-in-waiting . Marie Antoinette was persuaded by her husband 's aunts to refuse to even acknowledge du Barry , but some saw this as a political blunder that jeopardised Austria 's interests at the French court . However , Marie Antoinette 's mother and the Austrian ambassador to France , comte de Mercy-Argenteau who was sending the Empress secret reports on Marie-Antoinette 's behavior , put Marie Antoinette under pressure and she grudgingly agreed to speak to Madame du Barry on New Year 's Day 1772 . She only said `` there are a lot of people at Versailles today '' , but Madame du Barry was satisfied by this victory and the crisis passed . Two days after the death of Louis XV in 1774 , Louis XVI exiled Madame du Barry to the Abbaye de Pont-aux-Dames in Meaux , pleasing his wife and aunts . Two and a half years later , at the end of October 1776 , Madame du Barry 's exile ended and she was allowed to return to her beloved chateau at Louveciennes , but she was never permitted to return to Versailles . Queen of France ( 1774–91 ) Early years ( 1774–78 ) Upon the death of Louis XV on 10 May 1774 , the Dauphin ascended the throne as King Louis XVI of France and Navarre , and Marie Antoinette became Queen of France and Navarre . At the outset , the new queen had limited political influence with her husband , who with the support of his two most important ministers , Chief Minister Maurepas and Foreign Minister Vergennes , blocked several of her candidates from taking important positions , including Choiseul , . However , the queen did play a decisive role in the disgrace and exile of the most powerful of Louis XV 's ministers , the Duke of Aiguillon . On 24 May 1774 , two weeks after the death of Louis XV , her husband gave her an estate , the Petit Trianon , and free rein to renovate it ; soon rumours circulated that she plastered the walls with gold and diamonds . The queen spent heavily on fashion , luxuries and gambling , though the country was facing a grave financial crisis and the population suffering . For her , Rose Bertin created dresses , hair styles such as poufs up to three feet ( 90 cm ) high and the panache ( bundle of feathers ) . She and her court also adopted the English fashion of dresses made of indienne ( a material banned in France from 1686 until 1759 ) , percale and muslin . By the time of the Flour War of 1775 , a series of riots against the high price of flour and bread , her reputation among the general public was no better than that of the favourites of the previous kings . As early as 1774 , Marie Antoinette began to befriend a few male admirers , such as the baron de Besenval , the duc de Coigny , and the Count Valentin Esterházy. , and formed deep friendships with various ladies at court . Most noted was Marie-Louise , princesse de Lamballe , related to the royal family through her marriage into the Penthièvre family . On 19 September 1774 , she appointed her Superintendent of her Household , a charge she soon gave to her new favourite , the duchesse de Polignac . In 1774 , she took under her patronage her former music teacher , the German composer of operas Christoph Willibald Gluck , who remained in France until 1779 . Motherhood , changes at court , intervention in politics ( 1778–81 ) Amidst the atmosphere of a wave of libelles , the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph came to France incognito , under the name comte de Falkenstein , for a six-week visit during which he toured Paris extensively and was a simple guest at Versailles . He met his sister and her husband on 18 April 1777 at the château de la Muette , and spoke frankly to his brother-in-law , curious as to why the royal marriage had not been consummated , arriving at the conclusion that no obstacle to the couple 's conjugal relations existed , save the queen 's lack of interest and the king 's unwillingness to exert himself in that arena . In a letter to his brother Leopold , Joseph graphically described them as `` a couple of complete blunderers . '' Due to Joseph 's intervention , the marriage was finally consummated in August 1777 . Eight months later , in April 1778 , it was suspected that the queen was pregnant , which was officially announced the following May 16 . Marie Antoinette 's daughter , Marie-Thérèse Charlotte , Madame Royale , was born at Versailles on 19 December 1778 . The child 's paternity was contested in the libelles . In the middle of the queen 's pregnancy , two events occurred which had a profound impact on her later life : the return of Count Axel von Fersen to Versailles for two years , and her brother 's claims on the throne of Bavaria . Marie Antoinette pleaded with her husband for the French to help intercede on behalf of Austria . The Peace of Teschen , signed on 13 May 1779 , ended the brief conflict , with the queen imposing French mediation on the demand of her mother , and Austria 's gaining a territory of at least 100,000 inhabitants - a strong retreat from the early French position which was hostile towards Austria with the impression , partially justified , that the queen sided with Austria against France . Meanwhile , the queen began to institute changes in the customs practiced at court . Some changes were met with disapproval from the older generation , such as the abandonment of heavy make-up and the popular wide-hooped panniers . The new fashion called for a more simple feminine look , typified first by the rustic robe à la polonaise and later by the gaulle , a simple muslin dress Marie Antoinette wore in a 1783 Vigée-Le Brun portrait . She also began to participate in amateur plays and musicals , starting in 1780 , in a theatre built for her by Mique at the Petit Trianon . Repayment of the French debt remained a difficult problem , further exacerbated by Vergennes and also Marie Antoinette 's prodding Louis XVI to involve France in Great Britain 's war with its North American colonies : the queen played a very important role in supporting the American Revolution by securing Austrian and Russian support for France which resulted in the establishment of a neutral league which stopped Great Britain 's attack , and by weighing in decisively for the nomination of Philippe Henri , marquis de Ségur , as Minister of War and Charles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix , marquis de Castries , Secretary of the Navy in 1780 , who helped George Washington in defeating the British in the American Revolutionary War , which ended in 1783 . In 1783 , the queen played a decisive role in the nomination of Charles Alexandre de Calonne , a close friend of the Polignacs , as Controller-General of Finances , and of the baron de Breteuil as the Minister for the Maison du Roi ( Minister of the Royal Household ) , making him perhaps the strongest and most conservative minister of the reign . The result of these two nominations was that Marie Antoinette 's influence became paramount in government and the new ministers rejected any major change to the structure of the old regime . More than that , the decree by de Ségur , the minister of war , requiring four quarterings of nobility as a condition for the appointment of officers , blocked the access of commoners to important positions in the armed forces , posing the concept of equality one of the main grievances and causes of the French Revolution . Empress Maria Theresa died on 29 November 1780 in Vienna . Marie Antoinette feared that the death of her mother would jeopardise the Franco-Austrian alliance ( as well as , ultimately , herself ) , but her brother , Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , wrote to her that he had no intention of breaking the alliance . Marie Antoinette 's second pregnancy ended in a miscarriage early in July 1779 , as confirmed by letters between the queen and her mother . Her third pregnancy was confirmed in March 1781 , and on 22 October of that year , she gave birth to Louis Joseph Xavier François , Dauphin of France . A second visit from Joseph II , which had taken place in July 1781 , to reaffirm the Franco-Austrian alliance and also to see his sister again , was tainted with rumours that Marie Antoinette was siphoning treasury money to him . Issue Declining popularity ( 1782–85 ) Despite the general celebration over the birth of the Dauphin , Marie Antoinette 's political influence , such as it was , did greatly benefit Austria . During the Kettle War , in which her brother Joseph attempted to open the Scheldt River for naval passage ; Marie Antoinette succeeded in obliging Vergennes to pay a huge financial compensation to Austria . Finally , the queen was able to obtain her brother 's support against Great Britain in the American Revolution and she neutralized French hostility to his alliance with Russia . In 1782 , after the governess of the Enfants de France , the princesse de Guéméné , went bankrupt and resigned , Marie Antoinette appointed her favourite , the duchesse de Polignac , to the position . This decision met with disapproval from the court , as the duchess was considered to be of too modest a birth to occupy such an exalted position . On the other hand , both the king and the queen trusted Mme de Polignac completely , gave her thirteen-room apartment in Versailles and paid her well . The entire Polignac family benefited greatly from the royal favour in titles and positions , but its sudden wealth and lavish lifestyle outraged most aristocratic families who resented the Polignacs ' dominance at court , and also fueled the increasing popular disapprobation toward Marie Antoinette , mostly in Paris . Mercy wrote to the Empress : '' It is almost unexampled that in so short a time , the royal favour should have brought such overwhelming advantages to a family '' . In June 1783 , Marie Antoinette 's new pregnancy was announced ; however , on the night of 1–2 November , her 28th birthday , she suffered a miscarriage . Count Axel von Fersen , after his return from America in June 1783 , was accepted into the queen 's private society . There were and still are claims that the two were romantically involved , but since most of the correspondence between the two has been either lost or destroyed , there is no conclusive evidence of this . In 1783 , the queen was busy with the creation of her `` hamlet '' , a rustic retreat built by her favoured architect , Richard Mique , according to the designs of the painter Hubert Robert . Its creation , however , caused another uproar when its cost became widely known . Around this time , she accumulated a library of 5000 books . Those on music , often dedicated to her , were the most read , though she also liked to read history . She sponsored the arts , in particular music , and also supported some scientific endeavours , encouraging and witnessing the first launch of a hot air balloon ( Montgolfière ) . On 27 April 1784 , Beaumarchais 's play The Marriage of Figaro premiered in Paris . After initially having been banned by the king due to its negative portrayal of the nobility , the play was finally allowed to be publicly performed because of the queen 's support and its overwhelming popularity at court , where secret readings of it had been given by Marie Antoinette . The play was a disaster for the image of the monarchy and aristocracy . It did inspire Mozart 's Le nozze di Figaro , which premiered in Vienna on 1 May 1786 . On 24 October 1784 , putting the baron de Breteuil in charge of its acquisition , Louis XVI bought the Château de Saint-Cloud from the duc d'Orléans , in the name of his wife . This was unpopular , particularly with some factions of the nobility who disliked the queen , but also with a growing percentage of the population who disapproved of a Queen of France owning her private residence independently of the king ; thus , the purchase of Saint-Cloud contributed to damage the image of the queen even further in the public opinion . The château 's expensive price , almost 6 million livres , plus the substantial extra cost of redecorating it , ensured that there was much less money going towards repaying France 's substantial debt . Prelude to the Revolution : Scandals and the failure of Reforms ( 1786–89 ) On 27 March 1785 , Marie Antoinette gave birth to a second son , Louis Charles , who bore the title of Duke of Normandy . The fact that the birth occurred exactly nine months after Fersen 's return did not escape the attention of many , leading to doubt as to the parentage of the child , and to a noticeable decline of the queen 's reputation in public opinion . However , the majority of Marie-Antoinette 's and Louis XVII 's biographers believe that the young prince was the biological son of Louis XVI , even Stefan Zweig and Antonia Fraser , who believe that Fersen and Marie Antoinette were romantically involved . Courtiers at Versailles noted in their diaries that the date of the child 's conception in fact corresponded perfectly with a period when the king and the queen had spent a lot of time together , but these details were ignored amid attacks on the queen 's character . These suspicions of illegitimacy , along with the continued publication of the libelles , and never-ending cavalcades of court intrigues , the actions of Joseph II in the Kettle War , the purchase of Saint-Cloud and the Diamond Necklace scandal combined to turn popular opinion sharply against the queen , and the image of a licentious , spendthrift , empty-headed foreign queen was quickly taking root in the French psyche . A second daughter , Marie Sophie Hélène Béatrice , Madame Sophie , was born on 9 July 1786 . She died on 19 June 1787 , before reaching her first year , and was Marie Antoinette 's last child . The diamond necklace scandal Marie-Antoinette began to abandon her more carefree activities to become increasingly involved in politics in her role as `` Queen of France '' . By showing to the public her attention to the education and care of her children , the queen sought to improve the dissolute image she had acquired in 1785 from the `` Diamond Necklace Affair '' , in which public opinion had falsely accused her of criminal participation in defrauding the jewelers Boehmer and Bassenge of the cost of a very expensive diamond necklace they had created originally for Madame du Barry . The main actors of the scandal were the Cardinal de Rohan , prince de Rohan-Guéméné , Great Almoner of France , and Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy , comtesse de La Motte , a descendant of an illegitimate child of Henry II of France of the House of Valois . Marie Antoinette had a profound dislike for Rohan since the time he had been the French ambassador to Vienna when she was a child . Despite his high clerical position at the Court , she never addressed a word to him . Others involved were Nicole le Guay d'Oliva , a prostitute who happened to be a lookalike of Marie Antoinette , Rétaux de Villette , a forger , Alessandro Cagliostro , an Italian adventurer , and the comte de La Motte , Jeanne de Valois ' husband . Mme de La Motte tricked Rohan into buying the necklace as a gift to Marie-Antoinette , in order for him to get into the favors of the queen . When the affair was discovered , those involved ( except de La Motte and Réaux de Villette who managed to flee ) were arrested , tried , convicted and either imprisoned or exiled . The only one imprisoned was Mme de La Motte , who was given a life sentence to Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital , which also served as a prison for women . Judged by the Parlement , Rohan was found innocent of any wrongdoing ( which he was ) , and allowed to leave the Bastille . Marie Antoinette , who had insisted on the arrest of the Cardinal was dealt a heavy personal blow , as was the monarchy , and despite the fact that the guilty parties were tried and convicted , the affair proved to be extremely damaging to her reputation , which never recovered from it . Failure of political and financial reforms Suffering from an acute case of depression , the king began to seek the advice of his wife . In her new role and with increasing degree of power as a politically viable entity , the queen tried to help the situation brewing between the assembly and the king . This change of the queen 's political position signalled the end of the Polignacs ' influence and their impact on the finances of the Crown . Continuing deterioration of the financial situation , despite cutbacks to the royal retinue and court expenses , ultimately forced the king , the queen and the Minister of Finance , Calonne , at the urging of Vergennes , to call the Assembly of Notables , after a hiatus of 160 years . The assembly was held to attempt passing necessary financial reforms , but the Parlements refused to cooperate . The first meeting took place on 22 February 1787 , ( nine days after the death of Vergennes on 13 February ) . Marie Antoinette did not attend the meeting and her absence resulted in accusations that the queen was trying to undermine its purpose . The Assembly was a failure : it did not pass any reforms and , instead , fell into the pattern of defying the king . On the urging of the queen , Louis XVI dismissed Calonne on 8 April 1787 . On 1 May 1787 , Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne , the archbishop of Toulouse and one of the queen 's political allies , was appointed by the king , on Marie Antoinette 's urging , to replace Calonne , first as the Controller-General of Finances and then as Prime Minister . He began to institute more cutbacks at court , while trying to restore the royal absolute power weakened by parliaments . Brienne , though , was not able to improve the financial situation , and since he was the queen 's ally , this failure adversely affected her political position . The continued poor financial climate of the country resulted in the 25 May dissolution of the Assembly of Notables because of its inability to get things done , and the lack of solutions was blamed on the queen . France 's financial problems were the result of a combination of factors : several expensive wars ; a large royal family whose expenditures were paid for by the state ; and an unwillingness on the part of most members of the privileged classes , aristocracy and clergy , to help defray the costs of the government out of their own pockets by relinquishing some of their financial privileges . As a result of the public perception that she had single-handedly ruined the national finances , Marie Antoinette was given the nickname of `` Madame Déficit '' in the summer of 1787 . While sole fault for the financial crisis did not lie with her , Marie Antoinette was the biggest obstacle to any major reform effort . She had played a decisive role in the disgrace of the reformer Ministers of Finance , Turgot ( in 1776 ) , and Jacques Necker ( first dismissal in 1781 ) . If the secret expenses of the queen were taken into account , the expense of the court was much higher than the official estimate of 7 % of the state budget . The queen attempted to fight back with propaganda portraying her as a caring mother , most notably in the painting by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun exhibited at the Royal Académie Salon de Paris in August 1787 , showing her with her children . Around the same time , Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy escaped from prison and fled to London , where she published damaging slander concerning her supposed amorous affair with the queen . The political situation in 1787 worsened when , on Marie Antoinette 's urging , on 15 August the Parlement was exiled in Troyes . It further deteriorated when Louis XVI tried to use a lit de justice on 11 November to impose legislation . The new duc d'Orléans publicly protested the king 's actions , and was subsequently exiled to his estate at Villers-Cotterêts . The May Edicts issued on 8 May 1788 were also opposed by the public and parliaments . Finally , on 8 August , Louis XVI announced his intention to bring back the Estates General , the traditional elected legislature of the country , which had not been convened since 1614 . While from late 1787 up to his death in June 1789 , Marie-Antoinette 's primary concern was the continued deterioration of the health of the Dauphin , who suffered from tuberculosis , she was directly involved with the exile of the Parlement , the May Edicts and the announcement regarding the Estates General ; she did participate in the King Council , the first queen to do this in over 175 years ( since Marie de ' Medici had been named Chef du Conseil du Roi , between 1614 and 1617 ) , and she was making the major decisions behind the scene and in the King Council . Marie Antoinette was instrumental in the recall of Jacques Necker as Finance Minister on 26 August , a popular move , even

qb_2975--Marie_Antoinette.txt

Marie Antoinette, Queen of France and Navarre, was born in which country?

Couscous ( Arabic : الكسكس Kuskus - Berber : ⵙⵉⴽⵙⵓ Seksu ) is a North African dish of small steamed balls of semolina , usually served with a stew spooned on top . Couscous is a staple food throughout the North African cuisines of Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia , Mauritania and Libya and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and Trapani in Sicily . Etymology The original name is derived from the Arabic word Keskes , which refers to the cookingpot in which the dish is prepared . Numerous different names and pronunciations for couscous exist around the world . Couscous is or in the United Kingdom and only the latter in the United States . It is in , pronounced kuskusi , while it is also known in Morocco as seksu or kesksu ; in Algeria as seksu or ṭa ` ām ( , literally meaning `` food '' ) ; in Tunisia and Libya kosksi or kuseksi , in Egypt kuskusi ( ) , ; and keskes in Tuareg . History The origin of couscous is uncertain . Lucie Bolens affirms that Berbers were preparing couscous as early as 238 to 149 b.c.e.Lucie Bolens described primitive couscous pots found in tombs dating back to the reign of the Berber King Massinissa . Nevertheless , Charles Perry states that couscous originated between the end of the Zirid dynasty and the rise of the Almohadian dynasty between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries . The remains of the first vessels ( known ) in the Tiaret region ( Algeria ) where cooking tools dating from the ninth century have been discovered , very strongly resemble the primary tool for cooking couscous One of the first written references is from an anonymous 13th-century North African cookbook , Kitāb al-tabǐkh fǐ al-Maghrib wa ' l-Andalus `` The cookbook of the Maghreb and Andalusia '' , with a recipe for couscous that was 'known all over the world ' . To this day , couscous is known as 'the North Africa national dish ' . Couscous was known to the Nasrid royalty in Granada as well . And in the 13th century a Syrian historian from Aleppo includes four references for couscous . These early mentions show that couscous spread rapidly , but generally that couscous was common from Tripolitania to the west , while from Cyrenaica to the east the main cuisine was Egyptian , with couscous as an occasional dish . Today , in Egypt and the Middle East , couscous is known , but in Tunisia , Algeria , Morocco and Libya couscous is a staple . It is also common in Western Africa whence it has spread into Central Africa . It is the national dish of the Maghreb countries . Couscous reached Turkey from Syria to in the 16th century and is eaten in most of the Turkish southern provinces . Couscous is a traditional dish in Trapani , Sicily . In Rome Bartolomeo Scappi 's culinary guide of 1570 describes a Moorish dish , succussu . One of the earliest references to couscous in France is in Brittany , in a letter dated January 12 , 1699 . But it made an earlier appearance in Provence , where the traveler Jean-Jacques Bouchard wrote of eating it in Toulon in 1630 . Couscous was originally made from millet . Historians have different opinions as to when wheat began to replace the use of millet . The conversion seems to have occurred sometime in the 20th century , although many regions continue to use the traditional millet . Couscous seems to have a North African origin . Archaeological evidence dating back to the 10th century , consisting of kitchen utensils needed to prepare this dish , has been found in this part of the world . Ibn Battuta statement of `` from it kuskusu and porridge are made '' This quotation contains what may be the earliest mention of couscous ( kuskusu ) in Western Africa . Ibn Battuta ( b. Morocco , AD 1304-1368 ? ) was the greatest traveler and travel writer of his era . His Rihlah ( or Travels ) documents a lifetime of travels and employment in every Muslim society , and many non-Muslim societies , in the Eastern hemisphere . He traveled to Western Africa in the early 1350s ; his writings of that journey are an important source for modern historians studying medieval Africa . This quotation comes from the translation in Ibn Battuta in Black Africa by Said Hamdun and Noël King ( Princeton : Markus Wiener Publishers , 1994 ) . [ Mali , 1351-1352 AD ] `` When the traveler arrives in a village the women of the blacks come with anlî and milk and chickens and flour of nabaq [ lotus ] , rice , and fûnî [ fonio ] , this is like the grain of mustard and from it kuskusu and porridge are made , and bean flour . He buys from them what he likes , but not rice , as eating the rice is harmful to white men and the fûnî is better than it . '' Evidence is mounting that the process of couscous cookery , especially steaming grain over a broth in a special pot , might have originated before the tenth century in the area of West Africa where the medieval Sudanic kingdom thrived , today encompassing parts of the contemporary nations of Niger , Mali , Mauritania , Ghana , and Burkina Faso . Even today in the region of Youkounkoun of Guinea and Senegal , a millet couscous with meat or peanut sauce is made , as well as a rice couscous . Millet was also used for couscous by the Kel Ahaggar , a nomadic people of the desert of southern Algeria , who probably learned about it in the West African Sudan , where it has been known for centuries . Ibn Baṭṭūṭa journeyed to Mali in 1352 , and in today ’ s Mauritania he had a millet couscous : “ When the traveler arrives in a village the negresses take out millet , sour milk , chickens , lotus-flour , rice , founi [ Digitaria exilis Stapf . ] , which resembles mustard grains , and they make a couscous. ” Ibn Baṭṭūṭa also mentions rice couscous in the area of Mali in 1350 . Millet couscous was never as popular as hard wheat couscous because it took longer to cook and didn ’ t taste as good . This claim for the African origins of couscous was originally proposed by Professor É. Lévi-Provençal , in his monumental Histoire de l ’ Espagne Musulmane and is suggested in the early Arabic sources on West Africa . Other studies , such as Professor Robert Hall ’ s , using the tenth-century work of Ibn al-Faqīh ’ s Mukhtasar Kitāb al-Buldān , also seem to support this suggestion . In West Africa , one finds sorghum , founi , black fonio ( Digitaria iburua ) , and finger millet ( Eleusine coracana ) , a cereal of Nigeria ( also cultivated in India ) made into couscous . The Hausa of central Nigeria and the Lambas of Togo call this couscous made with black fonio , wusu-wusu . Sorghum was a popular grain for making couscous , and the Moroccan Berber word for sorghum , illan or ilni , is the same as the word in the West African language of Songhai , illé , lending further circumstantial evidence for an African genesis for couscous . In some regions couscous is made from Farina or coarsely ground barley or pearl millet . In Brazil , the traditional couscous is made from cornmeal . [ http : //revistagloborural.globo.com/GloboRural/0,6993 , EEC533123-1488-4,00.html Receitas ] Preparation The semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets , sprinkled with dry flour to keep them separate , and then sieved . Any pellets that are too small to be finished granules of couscous fall through the sieve and are again rolled and sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets . This process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny granules of couscous . This process is labor-intensive . In the traditional method of preparing couscous , groups of women came together to make large batches over several days , which were then dried in the sun and used for several months . Couscous was traditionally made from the hard part of the durum , the part of the grain that resisted the grinding of the millstone . In modern times , couscous production is largely mechanized , and the product is sold in markets around the world . In the Sahelian countries of West Africa , such as Mali and Senegal , pearl millet is pounded or milled to the size and consistency necessary for the couscous . Properly cooked couscous is light and fluffy , not gummy or gritty . Traditionally , North Africans use a food steamer ( called aTaseksut in Berber , a kiskas in Arabic or a couscoussier in French ) . The base is a tall metal pot shaped rather like an oil jar in which the meat and vegetables are cooked as a stew . On top of the base , a steamer sits where the couscous is cooked , absorbing the flavours from the stew . The lid to the steamer has holes around its edge so steam can escape . It is also possible to use a pot with a steamer insert . If the holes are too big , the steamer can be lined with damp cheesecloth . There is little archaeological evidence of early diets including couscous , possibly because the original couscoussier was probably made from organic materials that could not survive extended exposure to the elements . Instant couscous The couscous that is sold in most Western supermarkets has been pre-steamed and dried . It is typically prepared by adding 1.5 measures of boiling water or stock to each measure of couscous then leaving covered tightly for about 5 minutes . Pre-steamed couscous takes less time to prepare than regular couscous , most dried pasta , or dried grains ( such as rice ) . Local variations In Tunisia , Algeria , Morocco , and Libya , couscous is generally served with vegetables ( carrots , potatoes , turnips , etc . ) cooked in a spicy or mild broth or stew , and some meat ( generally , chicken , lamb or mutton ) . In Algeria and Morocco it is also served , sometimes at the end of a meal or just by itself , as a delicacy called `` seffa '' . The couscous is usually steamed several times until it is very fluffy and pale in color . It is then sprinkled with almonds , cinnamon and sugar . Traditionally , this dessert is served with milk perfumed with orange flower water , or it can be served plain with buttermilk in a bowl as a cold light soup for supper . In Tunisia , it is made mostly spicy with harissa sauce and served with almost everything , including lamb , fish , seafood , beef and sometimes in southern regions , camel . Fish couscous is a Tunisian specialty and can also be made with octopus , squid or other seafood in hot , red , spicy sauce . Couscous in Tunisia is served on every occasion ; it is also served in some regions ( mostly during Ramadan ) , sweetened as a dessert called masfouf . In Libya , it is mostly served with meat , specifically mostly lamb , but also camel , and very rarely beef , in Tripoli and the western parts of Libya , but not during official ceremonies or weddings . Another way to eat couscous is as a dessert ; it is prepared with dates , sesame , and pure honey , and locally referred to as `` maghrood '' . Israelis typically serve it on occasions and holidays . It was brought by Maghrebi migrants from Tunisia , Algeria , Morocco and Libya to Israel . In Egypt , couscous is eaten more as a dessert . It is prepared with butter , sugar , cinnamon , raisins , and nuts and topped with cream . Couscous is also very popular in France , where it is now considered a traditional dish , and has also become popular in Spain , Portugal , Italy , and Greece . Indeed , many polls have indicated that it is often a favorite dish . Study conducted on January 11 and 12 , 2006 , for the magazine Notre Temps based on face-to-face interviews with a sample of people representative of the adult French population , stratified by age , sex , profession of the head of household , region and type of municipality . Couscous is served in many Maghrebi restaurants all over the world . In France , Spain , Italy , and Portugal , the word `` couscous '' ( cuscús in Spanish and Italian ; cuscuz in Portuguese ) usually refers to couscous together with the stew . Packaged sets containing a box of quick-preparation couscous and a can of vegetables and , generally , meat are sold in French , Spanish , Italian , and Portuguese grocery stores and supermarkets . In France , it is generally served with harissa sauce , a style inherited from the Tunisian cuisine . Indeed , couscous was voted as the third-favourite dish of French people in 2011 in a study by TNS Sofres for magazine Vie Pratique Gourmand , and the first in the east of France . In North America , Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom , couscous is available most commonly either plain or pre-flavoured in quick-preparation boxes . In the United States , it is widely available , normally found in the ethnic or health-food section of larger grocery stores . There are related recipes in Latin America , where a corn meal mix is boiled and moulded into a timbale with other ingredients . Among them , cuscuz , a popular recipe usually associated with Northeastern Brazil and its diaspora , a steamed cake of corn meal served with sugar and milk , varied meats , cheese and eggs or other ingredients . Maftoul is considered as a special type of couscous but made from different ingredients and a different shape . It is larger than North African couscous . Maftoul is an Arabic word derived from the root `` fa-ta-la '' , which means to roll or to twist , which is exactly describing the method used to make maftoul by hand rolling bulgur with wheat flour . In Israel there is a dish similar to maftoul ( by look , not taste ) called ptitim , which has many variations and can appear as a mini triangles , or looking like rice ( the original type , sometimes called 'Ben Gurion rice ' ) and many other variations . The most famous variation of ptitim looks like couscous and as Americans started to call it `` Israeli couscous '' , the Osem company started to produce it outside Israel under this name . Ptitim is not the same as mograbia ( a.k.a . maftoul , pearl couscous etc . ) , though the two can be used similarly . Mograbia is a coated couscous ; ptitim is an extruded paste . The word `` maftoul '' is sometimes incorrectly used in America to refer to Israeli couscous . Nutrition Couscous has 3.6 g of protein for every 100 grams . Furthermore , couscous contains a 1 % fat-to-calorie ratio . Similar products * Attiéké is a variety of couscous that is a staple food in Ivory Coast and is also known to surrounding regions of West Africa , made from grated cassava . * Wassa wassa is another variety of couscous made in northern Togo made from yams . * Berkoukesh are pasta bullets made by the same process , but are larger than the grains of couscous . * Kouskousaki ( Κουσκουσάκι in Greek or kuskus in Turkish ) , a pasta from Greece and Turkey , that is boiled and served with cheese and walnuts . * In Brazilian cuisine , the `` cuscuz marroquino '' is a version , usually eaten cold , of the `` couscous '' . Brazilian cuscuz is usually made out of corn meal , rather than semolina wheat . Another festive moulded couscous dish , containing chicken , vegetables , spices , steamed in a mould and decorated with orange slices is called `` Cuscuz de Galinha '' . * In Lebanese cuisine , Jordanian cuisine and Palestinian cuisine , a similar but larger product is known as maftoul or moghrabieh . * `` Israeli couscous '' ( in Hebrew פתיתים 'flakes ' ) , also called `` ptitim '' , is a larger , baked wheat product similar to the Italian orzo .

wh_3928--Couscous.txt

"Which North African food dish made of coarsely ground wheat takes it’s name from the Arabic word Kaskasa meaning ""To Pound"" ?"

Essex County Cricket Club is one of eighteen first-class county clubs within the domestic cricket structure of England and Wales . It represents the historic county of Essex . Its limited overs team is called the Essex Eagles , whose team colours are all-blue . Founded in 1876 , the club had minor county status until 1894 when it was promoted to major status pending its entry into the County Championship in 1895 . Essex is classified as an unofficial first-class team by substantial sources in 1894 ; classified as an official first-class team from 1895 by Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and the County Championship clubs ; classified as a List A team since the beginning of limited overs cricket in 1963 ; and classified as a major Twenty20 team since 2003 . The club plays most of its home games at the County Cricket Ground , Chelmsford . It also plays some games at Lower Castle Park in Colchester . The club has formerly used other venues throughout the county including Ilford , Leyton Cricket Ground , Romford , Billericay , and Garon Park and Southchurch Park , both in Southend . Honours First XI honours * County Championship ( 6 ) – 1979 , 1983 , 1984 , 1986 , 1991 , 1992 Division Two ( 1 ) – 2002 * Sunday/Pro 40 League ( 5 ) – 1981 , 1984 , 1985 , 2005 , 2006 Division Two ( 1 ) – 2008 * Gillette/NatWest/C & G/Friends Provident Trophy ( 3 ) – 1985 , 1997 , 2008 * Twenty20 Cup ( 0 ) - * Benson & Hedges Cup ( 2 ) – 1979 , 1998 Second XI honours * Second XI Championship ( 1 ) - 1973 ; shared ( 0 ) - * Second XI Trophy ( 0 ) - * Minor Counties Championship ( 0 ) - ; shared ( 0 ) - Earliest cricket It is almost certain that cricket reached Essex by the 16th century and that it developed during the 17th century with inter-parish matches being played . The first definite mention of cricket in connection with the county is a highly controversial match in 1724 between Chingford and Mr Edwin Stead 's XI , which is recorded in The Dawn of Cricket by H T Waghorn . The venue is unknown but , if it was at Chingford , it is also the earliest reference to cricket being played in Essex as well as by an Essex team . The game echoed an earlier one in 1718 as the Chingford team refused to play to a finish when Mr Stead 's team had the advantage . A court case followed and , as in 1718 , it was ordered to be played out presumably so that all wagers could be fulfilled . We know that Lord Chief Justice Pratt presided over the case and that he ordered them to play it out on Dartford Brent , though it is not known if this was the original venue . The game was completed in 1726 . See : History of cricket to 1725 The earliest reference to a team called Essex is in July 1732 when a combined Essex & Herts team played against the London Cricket Club . In July 1737 , there was London v Essex at the Artillery Ground , London winning by 45 runs . In a return game at Ilford on 1 August 1737 , Essex won by 7 runs . References are then occasional until 1785 when the Hornchurch Cricket Club became prominent . This club had a strong team that was representative of Essex as a county . However , the sources differed among themselves re whether the team should be called Essex or Hornchurch . But there is no doubt that Essex was a First-Class county from 1785 until 1794 , after which the county strangely and abruptly disappeared from the records for a long time . For information about Essex county teams before the formation of Essex CCC , see : Essex county cricket teams Club history Little was heard of Essex cricket from 1794 until the formation of Essex CCC on 14 January 1876 at a meeting in the Shire Hall , Chelmsford . The new club did not become First-Class until 1894 . Essex CCC played its inaugural first-class match on 14 , 15 & 16 May 1894 against Leicestershire CCC at Leyton . It was the initial First-Class match played by either club , and Essex failed to win a match against any other county . In 1895 , both of these clubs and Warwickshire CCC joined the County Championship . In the club ’ s first championship match , of their first championship season , James Burns scored 114 against Warwickshire at Edgbaston and this was the first century for Essex in the First-Class cricket . G.F. Higgins scored the second championship century for Essex in the same match putting on 205 with Burns for the fourth wicket . The club made an extraordinary score of 692 against Somerset with the rarely available veteran Bunny Lucas scoring 145 , but the most notable feat was by Walter Mead who took 17–119 against Hampshire CCC at Southampton . Essex improved rapidly from 1895 , so that by 1897 they were in the running for the Championship , only losing it when Surrey beat them at Leyton . They fell off after this despite beating a fine Australian team on a dubious pitch in 1899 , never finishing higher than sixth between 1899 and 1932 . Their batting on Leyton 's excellent pitches was generally good with the “ Essex Twins ” of Perrin and McGahey and the sound and skilful Jack Russell , but the bowling depended too much on Mead , Buckenham and later Douglas and when available Louden . With the decline of these players , Essex fell to some of their lowest levels ever during the late 1920s . Their bowlers conceded over 40 runs a wicket in 1928 – about the highest ever with uncovered pitches . The emergence of Jack O'Connor , Stan Nichols and when available , the amateur fast bowlers Ken Farnes and Hopper Read , though , made Essex during the 1930s a dangerous if inconsistent side . They finished as high as fourth in 1933 , and owing to their pace bowling maintained almost as high a standard up to the outbreak of war . The batting , however , tended to depend too much upon O'Connor and a number of amateurs who were rarely available , and Essex lost too many games to break the North ’ s stronghold on the Championship . After the war , however , Essex fell off , taking their first wooden spoon in 1950 . During this period it was left to Trevor Bailey to do all the pace bowling , and he was often unavailable due to Test calls , whilst spinner Peter Smith was frequently overbowled until he retired in 1951 – thus a strong batting line-up led by Bailey and Doug Insole could seldom win games . Not until 1957 did Essex come back into the top half of the table , but Bailey and Barry Knight never had support of sufficient class to permit them to reach the top of the table , even when Robin Hobbs became England 's last successful leg-spinner late in the 1960s . In the 1970s , with overseas players now permitted , Essex were able to gradually strengthen their team to achieve much more than they ever had before . This decade saw the advent of Graham Gooch , one of England 's finest opening batsmen , even though he began his Test career with a pair against Australia in 1975 . He did n't return to the England team until 1978 , but after a slow start began to assert his dominance over Test bowlers as he had on the county scene . Dedicated to training , he forced his burly physique through a tough regime to prolong his career long after some of his contemporaries had retired . Along with Gooch , county captain and England batsman Keith Fletcher built a powerful eleven in the late 1970s that dominated domestic cricket from 1979 to 1992 , when Essex won six of thirteen County Championship titles . The bowling in the first half of this period was borne by tireless left arm seamer John Lever and spinner and prankster Ray East . The South African Ken McEwan and Fletcher were the best batsmen after Gooch . As Lever declined , England all rounder Derek Pringle and fast bowler Neil Foster took over , whilst John Childs crossed from Gloucestershire to take over as the chief spinner . In the 1990s , Essex had more internationals , including Nasser Hussain , who captained England in several series . Bowlers Mark Ilott and Peter Such earned caps , as well as wicket keeper James Foster . Ashley Cowan toured the West Indies in 1997/98 without playing an international match . Essex were also able to sign England fast bowlers Darren Gough and Alex Tudor , after they left Yorkshire and Surrey respectively . Enjoying a new sponsorship deal at their Chelmsford home , and a pitch which is always full of runs , Essex , led by combative all rounder Ronnie Irani and boasting the excellent Zimbabwe-born batsman Andy Flower in their ranks , have a young team with the talent required to relive their glory days . Recent use of overseas international players including Danish Kaneria and Andre Adams has also increased the overall strength of their squad . They fulfilled their promise by winning the National League Division 1 title in 2005 , their first major title in eight years . The future looks bright for Essex , especially with the breakthrough of young talent . Alastair Cook has become a regular England batsman , having previously been the England Under 19s captain , and after scoring a double century against the touring Australians in 2005 . Ravi Bopara is another promising youngster , who is widely tipped for success . 2006 season In 2006 , Essex successfully defended their National League title in the newly rebranded Pro40 format by the narrowest of margins , having tied for the title on points . The club missed out on promotion in the County Championship only on the last day of the season , losing to Leicestershire while their rivals Worcestershire beat Northamptonshire . In the Twenty20 Cup Essex beat Yorkshire to reach the semi-finals at Trent Bridge , although they were beaten in the semi-finals by eventual tournament winners Leicestershire . Essex also had Twenty20 success in the first floodlit Twenty20 Tournament , held between the four teams with permanent floodlights , in a series of 2 legged matches . Essex beat Derbyshire 1–0 , after the first leg was washed out , and they won the second leg convincingly . Notable and strange facts : -In the Championship Essex were the only county who Mark Ramprakash did not score a fifty against . -The 150/9 scored against Leicestershire in the Twenty20 Cup semi-final was the lowest total scored by Essex when they batted the whole innings -Essex 's 2nd XI did better than the England cricket team by beating Sri Lanka in a one-day match Success in 2008 Despite regularly losing Alastair Cook and Ravi Bopara on England duty , the 2008 season was the most successful season in the history of Essex in the limited overs format . After being relegated in the Pro40 competition the year before , as well as suffering the retirements of veterans Ronnie Irani and Andy Flower , Essex made valuable signings in Jason Gallian from Nottinghamshire , David Masters from Leicestershire and also Chris Wright from Middlesex . These pre-season signings , notably Masters , would prove to be crucial in the various trophy campaigns . Friends Provident Trophy Essex were runners up to Kent in the group stage , but still comfortably qualified for a quarter-final fixture away at Leicestershire . Essex inflicted a crushing victory on the hosts , with the margin at 118 runs . The match can also be remembered for Ravi Bopara 's 201 not out off just 138 balls . This meant Essex would host the semi-final against Yorkshire at Chelmsford , in which the hosts posted 285–8 off the 50 overs thanks to a 95 off Alastair Cook and 61 by big-hitting Graham Napier . Impressive bowling from Danish Kaneria and Ryan ten Doeschate left Yorkshire all out for 198 , thus ensuring Essex would proceed to a Lord 's final against Robert Key 's Kent . The final on 16 August drew fans from both sides of the River Thames and filled the 30,000 capacity ground ( a huge crowd for domestic cricket ) . Kent won the toss and elected to bat first , a decision which many pundits suggested eventually cost Kent the final . Kent were left limping after losing openers Joe Denly and Rob Key . It was only a 53 by overseas star Martin van Jaarsveld and 63 from fellow South African Ryan McLaren that helped Kent to a modest 214 all out . Initially Essex made hard work of chasing down the total after losing Alastair Cook as the 4th wicket for 93 runs . However , the experience of Grant Flower ( 70 not out ) and his partnership with Ryan ten Doeschate ( 30 not out ) helped Essex over the line with 7 balls to spare . Essex had thus won The Friends Provident Trophy for the third time after previous successes in 1985 and 1997 . Twenty20 Cup Although Essex did not win the Twenty20 tournament , making the finals at The Rose Bowl with generally a young team was measured as a reasonable success in itself . The tournament also saw the emergence of Graham Napier as a big-hitting batsman ( hitting a world record 16 sixes in his 152 not out off just 58 balls against Sussex at Chelmsford ) . Napier performed with both bat and ball in the quarter-final against Northants ( 40 off 20 balls and conceding 10 runs for 4 wickets when bowling ) to help see Essex through to finals day for the second time in 3 years . Despite a steady 54 from captain Mark Pettini in the semi-final , Essex were defeated by Kent by 14 runs , mainly due to some restrictive bowling by Kent 's Yasir Arafat . Kent went on to lose the final to Middlesex . Pro40 Division 2 Essex were expected to bounce back strongly after relegation from the top tier the season before . A five-wicket win at home to Yorkshire provided a good start to the league . A quickfire 99 from Ryan ten Doeschate clinched a tie away at Leicestershire soon after . The Eagles then extended their unbeaten run with a win away at Derbyshire , which included unbeaten centuries from Jason Gallian and Ravi Bopara , the former 's coming off just 54 balls . Good quality bowling on an infrequently used wicket at Southend allowed Essex to bowl out Northants for just 61 , before knocking off the total in just under 15 overs . Two days later The Eagles further consolidated their place at the top of the table with a victory over struggling Surrey in a rain-affected match at County Cricket Ground , Chelmsford . Promotion then seemed certain after Mark Pettini 's 70 guided Essex to another win at Colchester against Glamorgan . An abandonment at Warwickshire left Essex with enough points to be certain of promotion , but The Eagles would have to win away at Kent to be sure of winning the league . The match was notable for the huge level of away support Essex received , a rarity in domestic cricket . Despite an unbeaten Rob Key century and the fact Essex lost captain Mark Pettini on the first ball of their own innings , Essex managed to score the 247 needed for victory thanks to an unbeaten 68 from veteran Grant Flower , as well as fifties from Jason Gallian and Ravi Bopara , to pick up the Pro40 Division 2 title . The win at Kent meant Essex had won their first double since 1984 . Despite not being promoted in the County Championship , the 2008 season will be regarded as one of the most successful seasons in the history of Essex County Cricket Club , certainly in the shorter forms of the game . The season also established a rivalry between Essex and Kent , which often became extremely heated in a small amount of cases due to the amount of alcohol consumed at cricket grounds combined with newly found passions for the game boiling over . Home grounds * County Cricket Ground , Chelmsford * Lower Castle Park , Colchester Players Current squad * No . denotes the player 's squad number , as worn on the back of their shirt . * denotes players with international caps . * denotes a player who has been awarded a county cap . Essex players with international caps Essex county cricketers who have during their career also represented their national team in Test cricket or One Day International cricket England * Ronnie Irani * Graham Gooch * Keith Fletcher * Jack Russell * Stan Nichols * Ravi Bopara * Nasser Hussain * Alastair Cook * Barry Knight * James Foster * Neil Foster * Nick Knight * Darren Gough * Paul Grayson * Adam Hollioake * Mark Ilott * Alex Tudor * Jason Gallian * John Lever * Walter Mead * Claude Buckenham * Jack O'Connor * Johnny Douglas * Frederick Fane * Charlie McGahey * Paul Gibb * Mike Denness * Aftab Habib * John Stephenson * Jim Laker * Derek Pringle * Martin Saggers * Peter Such * Owais Shah * Sajid Mahmood * Reece Topley * Monty Panesar * Trevor Bailey * John Childs * Doug Insole * Peter Smith * Ken Farnes * Neil Williams * Sailor Young * Hopper Read India * Harbhajan Singh * Gautam Gambhir Australia * Mark Waugh * Andy Bichel * Bruce Francis * Michael Kasprowicz * Stuart Law * Allan Border * Merv Hughes * Bryce McGain * Robert Quiney * Shaun Tait Pakistan * Mohammad Akram * Danish Kaneria * Saleem Malik Netherlands * Ryan ten Doeschate Zimbabwe * Andy Flower * Grant Flower South Africa * Hashim Amla * Lee Irvine * Dale Steyn * André Nel * Lonwabo Tsotsobe * Alviro Petersen * Charl Willoughby West Indies * Keith Boyce * Bertie Clarke * Norbert Phillip * Dwayne Bravo New Zealand * Andre Adams * Chris Martin * Tim Southee * Scott Styris * James Franklin * Hamish Rutherford * Jesse Ryder Records Most first-class runs for Essex Qualification – 20000 runs Most first-class wickets for Essex Qualification – 1000 wickets

odql_8725--Essex_County_Cricket_Club.txt

By what name are the Essex one-day cricket team known?

The Netherlands ( ; ) is the main constituent country ( ) of the Kingdom of the Netherlands . It is a small , densely populated country located in Western Europe with three island territories in the Caribbean.designated Bonaire , Sint Eustatius and Saba within ISO [ http : //www.iso.org/iso/newsletter_vi-9_fiji-myanmar_and_other_minor_corrections-incl_bulgaria.pdf ISO 3166-1 ] . The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east , Belgium to the south , and the North Sea to the northwest , sharing maritime borders with Belgium , the United Kingdom and Germany . The largest and most important cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam , The Hague and Rotterdam . Amsterdam is the country 's capital , while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of government and parliament . The port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe – as large as the next three largest combined – and was the world 's largest port between 1962 and 2004 . The name Holland is also frequently used to refer informally to the whole of the country of the Netherlands . `` Netherlands '' literally means `` lower countries '' , influenced by its low land and flat geography , with only about 50 % of its land exceeding one metre above sea level . Most of the areas below sea level are man-made . Since the late 16th century , large areas ( polders ) have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes , amounting to nearly 17 % of the country 's current land mass . With a population density of 408 people per km2 – 505 ( July 2016 ) if water is excluded – the Netherlands is a very densely populated country . Only Bangladesh , South Korea , and Taiwan have both a larger population and a higher population density . Nevertheless , the Netherlands is the world 's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products , after the United States . This is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate . The Netherlands was the third country in the world to have an elected parliament , and since 1848 it has been governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy , organised as a unitary state . The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and is generally regarded as a liberal country , having legalised abortion , prostitution and euthanasia , while maintaining a progressive drugs policy . In 2001 , it became the world 's first country to legalise same-sex marriage . The Netherlands is a founding member of the EU , Eurozone , G-10 , NATO , OECD and WTO , and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union . The country is host to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and five international courts : the Permanent Court of Arbitration , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia , the International Criminal Court and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon . The first four are situated in The Hague , as is the EU 's criminal intelligence agency Europol and judicial co-operation agency Eurojust . This has led to the city being dubbed `` the world 's legal capital '' . The Netherlands is also a part of the Schengen Area . The Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy , ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom . It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund . In 2013 , the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world , reflecting its high quality of life . Etymology The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to by the much older designation `` Holland '' ( meaning holt land , or wood land ) , though this refers only to North and South Holland , two of the nation 's twelve provinces , formerly a single province and earlier the County of Holland . This originally Frankish county emerged from the dissolved Frisian Kingdom and was , after the decline of Brabant , economically and politically the most important county in the region . Because of this importance and the emphasis on Holland during the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 17th and 18th century , Holland served as a pars pro toto for the entire country in English , and is considered either incorrect , informal , or on occasion opprobrious , depending on the context , but is more acceptable when referring to the national football team . Place names with Neder ( or lage ) , Nieder , Nether ( or low ) and Nedre are in use in various places in countries where a Germanic language is spoken , and has in French and Latin its respective counterparts in Bas or Inferior . They are sometimes used in relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper , Boven , Oben , Superior or Haut . In the case of the Low Countries the geographical location of the lower region has been more or less downstream and near the sea , the geographical location of the upper region changed over time tremendously . The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior ( nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands ) and upstream Germania Superior ( nowadays part of Germany ) . The designation 'Low ' to refer to the region returns again in the 10th century Duchy of Lower Lorraine , that covered much of the Low Countries . But this time the corresponding Upper region is Upper Lorraine , in nowadays Northern France . The Dukes of Burgundy , who ruled the Low Countries in the 15th century , used the term les pays de par deçà ( ~ the lands over here ) for the Low Countries as opposed to les pays de par delà ( ~ the lands over there ) for their original homeland : Burgundy in present-day east-central France . Under Habsburg rule , Les pays de par deçà developed in pays d'embas ( lands down-here ) , a deictic expression in relation to other Habsburg possessions in Europe . This was translated as Neder-landen in contemporary Dutch official documents . However , Niderlant was also the region between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages . The area known as Oberland ( High country ) was in this deictic context considered to begin approximately at the nearby higher located Cologne . From the mid-sixteenth century on , the Low Countries or the `` Netherlands '' was – besides Flanders – probably the most commonly used name . The Eighty Years ' War ( 1568–1648 ) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces ( Belgica Foederata in Latin , the `` Federated Netherlands '' ) and the Southern Netherlands ( Belgica Regia , `` Royal Netherlands '' ) . The Low Countries today is a designation that includes the countries the Netherlands , Belgium and Luxembourg . It is used synonymous with the more neutral and geopolitical term Benelux . History Prehistory ( before 500 BC ) The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography . The oldest human ( Neanderthal ) traces in the Netherlands were found in higher soils , near Maastricht , from 250,000 years ago . After the end of the Ice Age , various Paleolithic groups inhabited the area , and around 8000 BC Mesolithic tribes resided in Friesland and Drenthe , where the oldest canoe in the world was recovered . Autochthonous hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture are attested from around 5600 BC onwards.Louwe Kooijmans , L.P. , `` [ https : //openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf ? sequence 1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute , Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam ] '' , 1998 , Spiegel Historiael 33 , pp . 423–428 They are strongly linked to rivers and open water and were related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture ( 5300–4000 BC ) . To the west , the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game . People made the switch to animal husbandry sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC . Agricultural transformation took place very gradually , between 4300 BC and 4000 BC . The farming Funnelbeaker culture extended from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands , and erected the dolmens , large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe ( built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC ) . To the southwest , the Vlaardingen culture ( around 2600 BC ) , an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the Neolithic period . Around 2950 BC there was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture. , , in J.H.F . Bloemers & T. van Dorp ( Eds ) , Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen . De Haan/Open Universiteit , 1991 . ISBN 90-269-4448-9 , NUGI 644 The Bell Beaker culture , also present in the Netherlands , apparently rose out of the Corded Ware culture.Lanting , J.N . & J.D . van der Waals , ( 1976 ) , `` Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin '' , , in Lanting et al . ( Eds ) Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974 . Bussum-Haarlem : Uniehoek N.V . Copper finds show that there was trade with other areas in Europe , as natural copper is not found in Dutch soil . The Bronze Age probably started somewhere around 2000 BC and lasted until around 800 BC . The many finds in Drenthe of rare and valuable objects , suggest that it was a trading centre in the Bronze Age . The Bell Beaker cultures ( 2700–2100 BC ) locally developed into the Bronze Age Barbed-Wire Beaker culture ( 2100–1800 BC ) . In the second millennium BC , the region was the boundary between the Atlantic and Nordic horizons , roughly divided by the course of the Rhine . In the north , the Elp culture ( c. 1800 BC to 800 BC ) was a Bronze Age archaeological culture having earthenware pottery of low quality as a marker . The initial phase was characterised by tumuli ( 1800–1200 BC ) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia , and were apparently related to the Tumulus culture ( 1600–1200 BC ) in central Europe . This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring Urnfield ( cremation ) burial customs ( 1200–800 BC ) . The southern region became dominated by the Hilversum culture ( 1800–800 BC ) , which apparently inherited cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture . The Iron Age brought a measure of prosperity . Iron ore was available throughout the country , including bog iron extracted from the ore in peat bogs in the north , the natural iron-bearing balls found in the Veluwe and the red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant . Smiths travelled from small settlement to settlement with bronze and iron , fabricating tools on demand , including axes , knives , pins , arrowheads and swords . Some evidence even suggests the making of Damascus steel swords using an advanced method of forging that combined the flexibility of iron with the strength of steel . The King 's grave of Oss dating from around 500 BC was found in a burial mound , the largest of its kind in western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral . Germanic groups and Romans ( 500 BC – 410 AD ) The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC , that further deteriorated around 650 BC , might have triggered migration of Germanic tribes from the North . By the time this migration was complete , around 250 BC , a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged . The North Sea Germanic Ingvaeones ( or Istvaeones ) inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries . They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons . A second grouping , the Weser-Rhine Germanic , extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers . This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks . Also the Celtic La Tène culture ( c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest ) had expanded over a wide range , including the southern area of the Low Countries . Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language , neither Germanic nor Celtic , survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period , the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture , that eventually was being absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east . During the Gallic Wars , the area south of the Oude Rijn and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC . Caesar describes two main tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands : the Menapii and the Eburones . The Rhine became fixed as Rome 's northern frontier around 12 AD . Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus : Nijmegen and Voorburg . At first part of Gallia Belgica , the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior . The area to the north of the Rhine , inhabited by the Frisii , remained outside Roman rule ( but not its presence and control ) , while the border tribes Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry . The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69AD , but were eventually defeated . The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks , whose identity emerged at the first half of the third century . Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies . The Salian Franks were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century . From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands , they were raiding the English Channel . Roman forces pacified the region , but did not expel the Franks , who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate ( 358 ) , when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as foederati in Toxandria . After deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans withdrawal , the Frisii disappeared from the northern Netherlands , probably forced to resettle within Roman territory as laeti in c. 296 . Coastal lands remained largely unpopulated for the next two centuries . Early Middle Ages ( 411–1000 ) After Roman government in the area collapsed , the Franks expanded their territories in numerous kingdoms . By the 490s , Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom , and from there continued his conquests into Gaul . During this expansion , Franks migrating to the south eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population . A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north ( i.e . southern Netherlands and Flanders ) , who kept on speaking Old Frankish , which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch . A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence . To the north of the Franks , climatic conditions on the coast improved , and during the Migration Period the abandoned land was resettled again , mostly by Saxons , but also by the closely related Angles , Jutes and ancient Frisii . Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons , but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian , named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii . Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast , and it is still the closest to English related living language on continental Europe . By the seventh century a Frisian Kingdom ( 650–734 ) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Utrecht as its centre of power , while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place . Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks . In 734 , at the Battle of the Boarn , the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars . With the approval of the Franks , the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity . He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became bishop of the Frisians . However , his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum , in 754 . The Frankish Carolingian empire modeled itself after the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe . However , as of 843 , it was divided into three parts—East , Middle , and West Francia . Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia , which was a weak kingdom and subject of numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours . It comprises territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south . When the middle kingdom was partitioned , the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and consecutively were named Lotharingia . After he died in 869 , Lotharingia was partitioned , into Upper and Lower Lotharingia , the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870 , although it was effectively under the control of Vikings , who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers . Around 850 , Lothair I acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia . Around 879 , another Viking raided the Frisian lands , Godfrid , Duke of Frisia . The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak . Resistance to the Vikings , if any , came from local nobles , who gained in stature as a result , and that lay the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states . One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland , who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid , and Viking rule came to an end . High Middle Ages ( 1000–1384 ) The Holy Roman Empire ( the successor state of East Francia ) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century , but was not able to maintain political unity . Powerful local nobles turned their cities , counties and duchies into private kingdoms , that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor . Holland , Hainaut , Flanders , Gelre , Brabant , and the Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions . The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian . As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant , the area quickly became Old Low Franconian ( or Old Dutch ) . The rest of Frisia in the north ( now Friesland and Groningen ) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions ( collectively called the `` Frisian freedom '' ) and resented the imposition of the feudal system . Around 1000 AD , due to several agricultural developments , the economy started to develop at a fast pace , and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen . Towns grew around monasteries and castles , and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas , especially in Flanders and later also Brabant . Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign . In practice , this meant that Brugge and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe . Around 1100 AD , farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands , and made the emergence of the County of Holland as center of power possible . The title of Count of Holland were fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars ( ) between 1350 and 1490 . The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities , while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen . These noblemen invited the Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy – who was also Count of Flanders – to conquer Holland . Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands ( 1384–1581 ) Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good , duke of Burgundy in 1433 . The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581 . Before the Burgundian union , the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county . The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began . The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests , which then developed rapidly . The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times . Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region . Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium , Northern France and England . This trade was vital , because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself . Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained . Under Habsburg Charles V , ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain , all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces , which also included most of present-day Belgium , Luxembourg , and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany . In 1568 , the Eighty Years ' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began . In 1579 , the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army . The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands . In 1581 , the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration , the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II of Spain as reigning monarch in the northern provinces . The Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against the Spanish , and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish . The English army under command of Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester was of no real benefit to the Dutch rebellion . Philip II , the son of Charles V , was not prepared to let them go easily , and war continued until 1648 , when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster . Parts of the southern provinces became de facto colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire . Dutch Republic ( 1581–1795 ) After declaring their independence , the provinces of Holland , Zeeland , Groningen , Friesland , Utrecht , Overijssel , and Gelderland formed a confederation . All these duchies , lordships and counties were autonomous and had their own government , the States-Provincial . The States General , the confederal government , were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives from each of the seven provinces . The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic too , although it was not considered one of the provinces . Moreover , the Republic had come to occupy during the Eighty Years ' War a number of so-called Generality Lands in Flanders , Brabant and Limburg . Their population was mainly Roman Catholic , and these areas did not have a governmental structure of their own , and were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands . In the Dutch Golden Age , spanning much of the 17th century , the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers . Science , military , and art ( especially painting ) were among the most acclaimed in the world . By 1650 , the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships . The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world , including ruling the northern parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667 . The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614 . In South Africa , the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652 . Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains , among them Colony of Surinam ( now Suriname ) . In Asia , the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , and the only western trading post in Japan , Dejima . Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world . In early modern Europe it had the wealthiest trading city ( Amsterdam ) and the first full-time stock exchange . The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle , the world 's first asset-inflation bubble , the tulip mania of 1636–1637 , and the world 's first bear raider , Isaac le Maire , who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount . The republic went into a state of general decline in the later 18th century , with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society , the republican Staatsgezinden and the supporters of the stadtholder the Prinsgezinden , as main political factions . Batavian Republic and kingdom ( 1795–1890 ) With the armed support of revolutionary France , Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic , modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795 . The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England . But from 1806 to 1810 , the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively . However , King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother 's , and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810 . The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 , when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig . William Frederick , son of the last stadtholder , returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands . Two years later , the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France . William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself King William I . In addition , William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions . However , the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581 , and rebelled . The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium , while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890 , when William III died with no surviving male heirs . Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess . The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy . However , the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830 ; in the Dutch East Indies , 20 % of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export . The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient . On the other hand , the colonies in the West Indies ( Dutch Guiana and Curaçao and Dependencies ) , relied heavily on African slaves in which the Dutch part is estimated at 5–7 percent , or more than half a million Africans . The Netherlands abolished slavery in 1863 . Furthermore , slaves in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873 , since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition . The Dutch were also one of the last European

tc_2544--Netherlands.txt

In which Netherlands city does the United Nations International Court of Justice sit?

Suhindol ( Сухиндол ) is a town in north central Bulgaria , part of Veliko Tarnovo Province . It is the administrative centre of the homonymous Suhindol Municipality . As of December 2009 , the town has a population of 2,146 inhabitants . Its position in the middle of the Danubian Plain creates excellent conditions for growing wine grapes . The local co-operative `` Gamza '' is famous for producing wines from the local vine with the same name . In addition , Suhindol winemakers craft Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon , as well as a local variety `` Dimyat '' . The town 's proximity to a large dam on the Rositsa river and to the foothills of the Balkan Mountains make it a favourable tourist destination . The Rositza River near this town is known to hold `` som '' or European Catfish and some of them reach lengths of over 2 meters , especially the ones that live in the dam Alexandar Stamboliiski . History Suhindol is one of the most well-known and wealthiest historical Bulgarian settlements . It is known as Bulgarian Champagne by the lovers of Bacchus . According to archeologists of the Veliko Turnovo 's museum , signs of human settlement in the area date to the Neolithic ( New Stone ) age - approx . 6000 years B.C . They have dated remains of domiciles , captured springs , ceramic fragments , jewelry , household items ( hammers , woodworking instruments and bowls ) and there is evidence of settlement and activity throughout the centuries . Suhindol has existed as a town for over a century . According to the archaeologist Polichronii Sirku who visited the town in 1878 , a wealthy Roman village existed in the vicinity . Folk tales tell that the town is ancient , however , the age it is not established with any certainty . In the area of `` Seltze '' there are remnants of a settlement dating back to the 2nd century and in the neighborhood of `` Drachevo '' a medieval fort known as `` Diritza '' existed . The ancient name of Suhindol was `` Seoundal '' . Famous people from Suhindol Marko Vachkov - founder of the first wine co-operative on the Balkan peninsula , Christo Garbov - actor , Milka Dimanova - artist Honour Suhindol Point on Smith Island , South Shetland Islands is named after Suhindol .

odql_15005--Suhindol.txt

In which country are the wine areas of Suhindol and Thrace?

Noss is a small , previously inhabited island in Shetland , Scotland . It is a sheep farm and has been a national nature reserve since 1955 . Geography Noss is separated from the island of Bressay by the narrow Noss Sound . It has been run as a sheep farm since 1900 . Noss had a population of 20 in 1851 but has had no permanent inhabitants since 1939 . The main focus of settlement on Noss was around the low lying west side of the island at Gungstie ( Old Norse : a landing place ) . Gungstie was built in the 1670s and is currently used by the seasonal wildlife wardens . Another settlement at Setter , on the south east of the island was inhabited until the 1870s and now lies derelict . Among the few families living on Noss were the Booth family headed by Joseph Booth ( 1765–1847 ) . Genealogical records indicate that he was occupied as a farmer and fish curer . Records show that he was resident on Noss as early as 1834 . Wildlife Noss has been a national nature reserve since 1955 . The island is linked to Bressay by a seasonal ferry service , run by the wildlife wardens using an inflatable boat . Attractions on Noss include a visitor centre , the Pony Pund built to breed Shetland ponies , the Holm of Noss rock and the Noup cliff . The sandstone cliffs of Noss have weathered into a series of horizontal ledges making ideal breeding grounds for gannets , puffins , guillemots , shags , black-legged kittiwakes , razorbills , fulmars and great skuas . Otters are frequently seen around the island . Gallery File : Noss Noup of Noss Noss Head.jpg|Noup of Noss and Noss Head File : Noss Pundsgeo.jpg|Pundsgeo File : Noss Holm of Noss.jpg File : Noss North Croo Building.jpg

qb_8090--Noss.txt

Noss, Unst, Lamba and Foula are part of which Scottish island group?

David ( ; ; ISO 259-3 Dawid ; ; ) was the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah , reigning c.1010-970 BCE . According to the New Testament , he was an ancestor of Jesus . Depicted as a valorous warrior of great renown , and a poet and musician credited for composing many of the psalms contained in the Book of Psalms , King David is widely viewed as a righteous and effective king in battle and civil and criminal justice . He is described as a man after God 's own heart in and . The story of David God is angered when Saul , Israel 's king , unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine instruction to utterly destroy the Amalekites . Consequently , he sends the prophet Samuel to anoint David , the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem , to be king instead . God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul . Saul 's courtiers recommend that he send for David , a man skillful on the lyre , wise in speech , and brave in battle . So David enters Saul 's service as one of the royal armour-bearers , and plays the lyre to soothe the king whenever the evil spirit is upon him . War comes between Israel and the Philistines , and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat . David , sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul 's army , declares that he can defeat Goliath . Refusing the king 's offer of the royal armour , he kills Goliath with his sling . Saul inquires the name of the young hero . Saul sets David over his army . All Israel loves David , but his popularity causes Saul to fear him ( `` What else can he wish but the kingdom ? `` ) . Saul plots his death , but Saul 's son Jonathan , one of those who love David , warns him of his father 's schemes and David flees . He becomes a vassal of the Philistine king Achish of Gath , but Achish 's nobles question his loyalty , and he is left behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul . Jonathan and Saul are killed , and David is anointed king over Judah . In the north , Saul 's son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel , and war ensues until Ish-Bosheth is murdered . With the death of Saul 's son , the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all Israel . He conquers Jerusalem , previously a Jebusite stronghold , and makes it his capital . He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city , intending to build a temple for God , but the prophet Nathan forbids it , prophesying that the temple would be built by one of his sons . Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David : `` Your throne shall be established forever . '' David wins more victories over the Philistines , and the Moabites and Hadadezer of Zobah pay tribute . David seduces Bathsheba and intentionally causes the death of her husband Uriah the Hittite . In response , Nathan prophesies the punishment that shall fall upon him : `` the sword shall never depart from your house . '' David 's son Absalom rebels . The rebellion ends at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim . Absalom 's forces are routed , and Absalom is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree , and killed by Joab , the commander of David 's army . David laments the death of his favourite son : `` O my son Absalom , my son , my son Absalom ! Would I had died instead of you , O Absalom , my son , my son ! '' When David is old and bedridden , Adonijah , his eldest surviving son and natural heir , declares himself king . Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba 's son Solomon as king , and the revolt of Adonijah is put down . David dies at the age of 70 after reigning 40 years , and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take revenge on his enemies . Family 1 Samuel makes David the youngest of the eight sons of Jesse of Bethlehem . His mother is not named in any book of the Bible , but the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet daughter of Adael . When the story was retold in 1 Chronicles ( 4th century BCE ) he was made the youngest of seven sons and given two sisters , Zeruiah and Abigail . The Book of Ruth ( possibly also 4th century BCE ) traces his ancestry back to Ruth the Moabite . David cemented his relations with various political and national groups through marriage.Lemaire , Andre . in Ancient Israel , ( Hershel Shanks , ed . ) , Biblical Archaeology Society ; Revised edition ( 1999 ) , ISBN 978-1880317549 He had eight wives : Michal , the second daughter of King Saul ; Ahinoam the Jezreelite ; Abigail the Carmelite , previously wife of Nabal ; Maachah , daughter of Talmai , king of Geshur ; Haggith ; Abital ; Eglah ; and Bathsheba . The Book of Chronicles lists his sons by various wives and concubines . In Hebron , David had six sons : Amnon , by Ahinoam ; Daniel , by Abigail ; Absalom , by Maachah ; Adonijah , by Haggith ; Shephatiah , by Abital ; and Ithream , by Eglah . By Bathsheba , his sons were Shammua , Shobab , Nathan and Solomon . David 's sons born in Jerusalem by other wives included Ibhar , Elishua , Eliphelet , Nogah , Nepheg , Japhia , Elishama and Eliada . Jerimoth , who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies , is mentioned as another of his sons in . His daughter Tamar , by Maachah , is a key character in the incident of her rape by one of her half-brothers . David in history and literature The Tel Dan Stele , an inscribed stone erected by a king of Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate his victory over two enemy kings , contains the phrase , bytdwd , which most scholars translate as `` House of David '' . Although challenged by some scholars , it is likely that is that this is a reference to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its ancestry to a founder named David . The Mesha Stele from Moab , dating from approximately the same period , may also contain the name David in two places , although this is less certain than the mention in the Tel Dan inscription . Apart from these , all that is known of David comes from the Biblical literature . The oldest account is that in the Books of Samuel : this was substantially composed during the time of King Josiah at the end of the 7th century , extended during the Babylonian exile ( 6th century ) , and substantially complete by about 550 BCE , although further editing was done even after then – the silver quarter-shekel which Saul 's servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 almost certainly fixes the date of this episode in the Persian or Hellenistic periods . The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources , including , for their history of David , the `` history of David 's rise '' ( 1 Samuel 16:14-2 Samuel 5:10 ) , and the `` succession narrative '' ( 2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2 ) . The Book of Chronicles , which tells the story from a different point of view , was composed probably in the period 350–300 BCE , and uses Samuel as its source . The intention of the authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles was not to record history , but to promote David 's reign as inevitable and desirable , and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed . The archaeological evidence indicates that in the 10th century , the time of David , Judah was sparsely inhabited and Jerusalem was no more than a small village ; over the following century it slowly evolved from a highland chiefdom to a kingdom , but always overshadowed by the older and more powerful kingdom of Israel to the north . The Biblical evidence likewise indicates that David 's Judah was something less than a full-fledged monarchy : he is often called negid , for example , meaning prince or chief , rather than melek , meaning king , he sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs ( even his army is made up of volunteers ) , and his followers are largely related to him and from his small home-area around Hebron . Beyond this , the full range of possible interpretations is available . The late John Bright , in his History of Israel takes Samuel at face value . Donald B. Redford , however , thinks all reconstructions from biblical sources for the United Monarchy period are examples of `` academic wishful thinking '' . Thomas L. Thompson rejects the historicity of the biblical narrative , `` The history of Palestine and of its peoples is very different from the Bible 's narratives , whatever political claims to the contrary may be . An independent history of Judea during the Iron I and Iron II periods has little room for historicizing readings of the stories of I-II Samuel and I Kings . '' Amihai Mazar however , concludes that based on recent archeological findings , like those in City of David , Khirbet Qeiyafa , Tel Dan , Tel Rehov , Khirbet en-Nahas and others `` the deconstruction of United Monarchy and the devaluation of Judah as a state in 9th century is unacceptable interpretation of available historic data . '' According to Mazar , based on archeological evidences , United Monarchy can be described as a `` state in development '' . Some studies of David have been written : Baruch Halpern has pictured David as a lifelong vassal of Achish , the Philistine king of Gath ; Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have identified as the oldest and most reliable section of Samuel those chapters which describe David as the charismatic leader of a band of outlaws who captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital . Steven McKenzie , Associate Professor of the Hebrew Bible at Rhodes College and author of King David : A Biography , states the belief that David actually came from a wealthy family , was `` ambitious and ruthless '' and a tyrant who murdered his opponents , including his own sons . Critical Bible scholarship holds that the biblical account of David 's rise to power is a political apology—an answer to contemporary charges against him , of his involvement in murders and regicide . Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman reject the idea that David ruled over a united monarchy , suggesting instead that he ruled only as a chieftain over the southern kingdom of Judah , much smaller than the northern kingdom of Israel at that time . They posit that Israel and Judah were still polytheistic in the time of David and Solomon , and that much later seventh century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a united , monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs . They note a lack of archeological evidence for David 's military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem , the capital of Judah , compared to a more developed and urbanized Samaria , capital of Israel . Jacob L. Wright , Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible at Emory University , has written that the most popular legends about David , including his killing of Goliath , his affair with Bathsheba , and his ruling of a United Kingdom of Israel rather than just Judah , are the creation of those who lived generations after him , in particular those living in the late Persian or Hellenistic period . David as Psalmist While almost half of the Psalms are headed `` A Psalm of David '' ( though the phrase can also be translated as `` to David '' or `` for David '' ) and tradition identifies several with specific events in David ’ s life ( e.g. , Psalms 3 , 7 , 18 , 34 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 59 , 60 , 63 and 142 ) , the headings are late additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty . Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the occasion of his escape from the Abimelech ( king ) Achish by pretending to be insane . According to the narrative in 1 Samuel 21 , instead of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him , Abimelech allows David to depart , exclaiming , `` Am I so short of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me ? Must this man come into my house ? '' Rabbinic Judaism David is an important figure in Rabbinic Judaism . Many legends have grown around the figure of David . According to one Rabbinic tradition , David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father 's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school . Only at his anointing by Samuel—when the oil from Samuel 's flask turned to diamonds and pearls—was his true identity as Jesse 's son revealed . David 's adultery with Bathsheba was only an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance , and the Talmud states that it was not adultery at all , quoting a Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle . Furthermore , according to Talmudic sources , the death of Uriah was not to be considered murder , on the basis that Uriah had committed a capital offense by refusing to obey a direct command from the King . However , in tractate Sanhedrin , David expressed remorse over his transgressions and sought forgiveness . God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture . According to midrashim , Adam gave up 70 years of his life for the life of David . Also , according to the Talmud Yerushalmi , David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot ( Feast of Weeks ) . His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven . Christianity The concept of the Messiah is important in Christianity . Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment ( `` the anointed one '' , as the title Messiah had it ) , the `` son of David '' became in the last two pre-Christian centuries the apocalyptic and heavenly one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom . This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity , which interpreted the career of Jesus `` by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult , in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and man '' . The early Church believed that `` the life of David [ foreshadowed ] the life of Christ ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both ; the shepherd life of David points out Christ , the Good Shepherd ; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds ; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor , Achitophel , and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ 's Sacred Passion . Many of the Davidic Psalms , as we learn from the New Testament , are clearly typical of the future Messiah . `` John Corbett ( 1911 ) [ http : //www.newadvent.org/cathen/04642b.htm King David ] The Catholic Encyclopedia ( New York : Robert Appleton Company ) In the Middle Ages , `` Charlemagne thought of himself , and was viewed by his court scholars , as a 'new David ' . [ This was ] not in itself a new idea , but [ one whose ] content and significance were greatly enlarged by him '' . The linking of David to earthly kingship was reflected in later Medieval cathedral windows all over Europe through the device of the Tree of Jesse , its branches demonstrating how divine kingship descended from Jesse , through his son David , to Jesus . Western Rite churches ( Lutheran , Roman Catholic ) celebrate his feast day on 29 December , Eastern-rite on 19 December . The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the feast day of the `` Holy Righteous Prophet and King David '' on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers ( two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord ) , when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus . He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity , together with Joseph and James , the Brother of the Lord . Middle Ages In European Christian culture of the Middle Ages , David was made a member of the Nine Worthies , a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry . His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status . This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised firstly through literature , and was thereafter adopted as a frequent subject for painters and sculptors . David was considered as a model ruler and a symbol of the God-ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom . David was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the name `` New David '' was used as an honorific reference to these rulers . The Georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed a direct biological descent from him . Likewise , the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David ; Charlemagne himself occasionally used the name of David as his pseudonym . Islam David ( Arabic داود , Dāwūd ) is a highly important figure in Islam as one of the major prophets sent by God to guide the Israelites . David is mentioned several times in the Quran , often with his son Solomon . The actual Arabic equivalent to the Hebrew Davīd is Dawūd . In the Qur'an : David killed Goliath ( 2:251 ) , a powerful king who used to invade random kingdoms and villages . Goliath was spreading evil and corruption . When David killed Goliath , God granted him kingship and wisdom and enforced it ( 38:20 ) . David was made God 's `` vicegerent on earth '' ( 38:26 ) and God further gave David sound judgment ( 21:78 ; 37:21–24 , 26 ) as well as the Psalms , regarded as books of divine wisdom ( 4:163 ; 17:55 ) . The birds and mountains united with David in uttering praise to God ( 21:79 ; 34:10 ; 38:18 ) , while God made iron soft for David ( [ http : //quran.com/34/10 , 34:10 ] ) , God also instructed David in the art of fashioning chain-mail out of iron ( [ http : //quran.com/21/80 21:80 ] ) ; an indication of the first use of Wrought iron , this knowledge gave David a major advantage over his bronze and cast iron-armed opponents , not to mention the cultural and economic impact . Together with Solomon , David gave judgment in a case of damage to the fields ( 21:78 ) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber ( 38:21–23 ) . Since there is no mention in the Qur'an of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference to Bathsheba , Muslims reject this narrative . Muslim tradition and the hadith stress David 's zeal in daily prayer as well as in fasting . Qur'an commentators , historians and compilers of the numerous Stories of the Prophets elaborate upon David 's concise Qur'anic narratives and specifically mention David 's gift in singing his Psalms as well as his musical and vocal talents . His voice is described as having had a captivating power , weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature , who would unite with him to praise God . Modern art and literature Literature Literary works about David include : * 1681-82 Dryden 's long poem Absalom and Achitophel is an allegory that uses the story of the rebellion of Absalom against King David as the basis for his satire of the contemporary political situation , including events such as the Monmouth Rebellion ( 1685 ) , the Popish Plot ( 1678 ) and the Exclusion Crisis . * 1893 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle used the story of David and Bathsheba as the main structure for the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Crooked Man . The betrayal of the Crooked Man is paralleled with David 's betrayal of Uriah the Hittite , carried out in order to win Bathsheba . * 1928 Elmer Davis 's novel Giant Killer retells and embellishes the Biblical story of David , casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the `` dirty work '' of heroism and kingship . In the novel , Elhanan in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit ; and Joab , David 's cousin and general , took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead . * 1936 William Faulkner 's Absalom , Absalom ! refers to the story of Absalom , David 's son ; his rebellion against his father and his death at the hands of David 's general , Joab . In addition it parallels Absalom 's vengeance for the rape of his sister Tamar by his half-brother , Amnon . * 1939 In Agatha Christie 's novel/play And Then There Were None ( also known as Ten Little Indians ) , one character compares his own predicament to the story of David and Uriah . * 1946 Gladys Schmitt 's novel David the King was a richly embellished biography of David 's entire life . The book took a risk , especially for its time , in portraying David 's relationship with Jonathan as overtly homoerotic , but was ultimately panned by critics as a bland rendition of the title character . * 1966 Juan Bosch , a Dominican political leader and writer , wrote David : Biography of a King , as a realistic portrayal of David 's life and political career . * 1970 Dan Jacobson 's The Rape of Tamar is an imagined account , by one of David 's courtiers Yonadab , of the rape of Tamar by Amnon . * 1972 Stefan Heym wrote The King David Report , a work of fiction depicting the writings of the Bible historian Ethan , upon King Solomon 's orders , of a true and authoritative report on the life of David , Son of Jesse . * 1974 In Thomas Burnett Swann 's Biblical fantasy novel How are the Mighty Fallen , David and Jonathan are explicitly stated to be lovers . Moreover , Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race ( possibly nephilim ) , one of several such races coexisting with humanity but often persecuted by it . * 1980 Malachi Martin 's factional novel King of Kings : A Novel of the Life of David relates the life of David , Adonai 's champion in his battle with the Philistine deity Dagon . * 1984 Joseph Heller wrote a novel based on David called God Knows , published by Simon & Schuster . Told from the perspective of an aging David , the humanity—rather than the heroism—of various biblical characters is emphasized . The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed , lust , selfishness , and his alienation from God , the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th-century interpretation of the events told in the Bible . * 1993 Madeleine L'Engle 's novel Certain Women explores family , the Christian faith , and the nature of God through the story of King David 's family and an analogous modern family 's saga . * 1995 Allan Massie wrote King David , a novel about David 's career that portrays the king 's relationship to Jonathan as sexual . * 2007 , 2010 `` Occupation Duty , '' a short alternate history story by Harry Turtledove , published in Time Twisters , ( eds . Jean Rabe and Martin H. Greenberg ) , and in Atlantis and Other Places , is set in modern times in a world in which Goliath defeated David , resulting in the state of `` Philistinia '' having the same function in that world as the State of Israel has in ours . * 2015 Pulitzer Prize-winning author Geraldine Brooks published a novel about King David , The Secret Chord . * 2016 New York Times-Bestselling Author Eric Shaw Quinn published a novel about King David , The Prince 's Psalm . with a special emphasis on the love and devotion between the youthful David and Jonathan , Crown Prince of Israel and son of King Saul . Film * 1951 In David and Bathsheba , directed by Henry King , Gregory Peck played David . * 1959 In Solomon and Sheba , directed by King Vidor , Finlay Currie playing an aged King David . * 1960 In A Story of David , directed by Bob McNaught , Jeff Chandler played David . * 1985 In King David , directed by Bruce Beresford , Richard Gere played King David . Music * 14th/15th century Josquin des Prez 's Planxit autem , David is a polyphonic setting of 2 Samuel , chapter one verses 17–27 , David 's lamentation for the dead Saul and Jonathan . His Absalon fili mi is a polyphonic lamentation from David 's perspective on the death of his son . * 1738 George Frideric Handel 's oratorio Saul features David as one of its main characters . * 1921 Arthur Honegger 's oratorio Le Roi David with a libretto by Rene Morax , instantly became a staple of the choral repertoire . * 1984 Flash of the Blade by Iron Maiden mentions David in the line `` You 're St. George or you 're David and you always killed the beast '' . * 1984 Leonard Cohen 's song Hallelujah has references to David ( `` there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord '' , `` The baffled king composing Hallelujah '' ) and Bathsheba ( `` you saw her bathing on the roof '' ) in its opening verses . * 1989 The Pixies ' song Dead on Doolittle is a retelling of David 's adultery and repentance . * 1990 The song One of the Broken by Paddy McAloon , performed by Prefab Sprout on the album Jordan : The Comeback , has a reference to David ( `` I remember King David , with his harp and his beautiful , beautiful songs , I answered his prayers , and showed him a place where his music belongs '' ) . * 1991 Mad About You , a song on Sting 's the album The Soul Cages , explores David 's obsession with Bathsheba from David 's perspective . * 1999 Eric Whitacre composed a choral piece , `` When David Heard '' , chronicling the death of Absalom and David 's grief over losing his son . * 2000 The song Gim me a Stone appears on the Little Feat album Chinese Work Songs chronicles the duel with Goliath and contains a lament to Absalom as a bridge . * 2009 The Angel of Death Came to David 's Room by MewithoutYou is in reference to King David . * 2011 Your Heart by Chris Tomlin on Music inspired by The Story is a prayer of David . Musical theater * 1997 King David , a modern oratorio , with

sfq_2608--David.txt

In the Bible who was David's father?

The 1984 Summer Olympics , officially known as the Games of the XXIII Olympiad , was an international multi-sport event held in Los Angeles , California , United States in 1984 . When Tehran , the only other interested city on the international level , declined to bid due to the concurrent Iranian political and social changes , the IOC awarded Los Angeles the Games by default . This was the second occasion Los Angeles hosted the games , the first being in 1932 . In response to the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , 14 Eastern Bloc countries , including the Soviet Union , Cuba and East Germany , boycotted the Games ; only Romania elected to attend . For differing reasons , Iran and Libya also boycotted . The USSR announced its intention not to participate on May 8 , 1984 , citing security concerns and `` chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria being whipped up in the United States . '' Boycotting countries organized another large event in June–September 1984 , called the Friendship Games ; however , not even a single competition was held between July 28 and August 12 . Representatives of the organizing countries , the Soviets in particular , underlined it was `` not held to replace the Olympics '' . Elite athletes from the U.S. and USSR would only compete against each other at the 1986 Goodwill Games in Moscow , organized in response to the boycotts . Where ambitious construction for the 1976 games in Montreal and 1980 games in Moscow had saddled organizers with expenses greatly in excess of revenues , Los Angeles strictly controlled expenses by using existing facilities except a swim stadium and a velodrome that were paid for by corporate sponsors . The Olympic Committee led by Peter Ueberroth used some of the profits to endow the LA84 Foundation to promote youth sports in Southern California , educate coaches and maintain a sports library . The 1984 Summer Olympics are often considered the most financially successful modern Olympics . The host state of California was the home state of U.S. President Ronald Reagan , who officially opened the Games . He had served as Governor of California from 1967 to 1975 . The official mascot of the Los Angeles Games was Sam the Olympic Eagle . The logo of the games featured five blue , white and red stars arranged horizontally and struck through with alternating streaks ; it was named `` Stars in Motion . '' These were the first Summer Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch . On July 18 , 2009 , a 25th anniversary celebration was held in the main stadium . This celebration included a speech by the former president of the Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee , Ueberroth , and a re-creation of the lighting of the cauldron . Host selection The selection process for the 1984 Summer Olympics consisted of a single finalized bid , with the International Olympic Committee accepting the bid of Los Angeles . A bid from Tehran was withdrawn before the selection . Los Angeles had unsuccessfully bid for the two previous Summer Olympics , for 1976 and 1980 . The United States Olympic Committee had at least one bid for every Olympics since 1944 , but had not succeeded since the Los Angeles Olympics in 1932 , the previous time a single bid had been issued for the Summer Olympics . Torch relay The 1984 Olympic Torch Relay began in New York City and ended in Los Angeles , traversing 33 states and the District of Columbia . Unlike later torch relays , the torch was continuously carried by runners on foot . The route covered more than 9,320 mi ( 15,000 km ) and involved 3,636 runners , including 200 from the sponsoring company AT & T . Noted athlete O.J . Simpson was among the runners , carrying the torch up the California Incline in Santa Monica . Gina Hemphill , granddaughter of Jesse Owens , carried the torch into the Coliseum , completed a lap around the track , then handed it off to the final runner , Rafer Johnson , winner of the decathlon at the 1960 Summer Olympics . With the torch , he touched off the flame which passed through a specially designed flammable Olympic logo , igniting all five rings . The flame then passed up to cauldron atop the peristyle and remained aflame for the duration of the Games . Music John Williams composed the theme for the Olympiad , `` Olympic Fanfare and Theme '' . This piece won a Grammy for Williams and became one of the most well-known musical themes of the Olympic Games , along with Leo Arnaud 's `` Bugler 's Dream '' ; the latter is sometimes attached to the beginning of Olympic Fanfare and Theme . Composer Bill Conti also wrote a song to inspire the weightlifters called `` Power '' . An album , The Official Music of the XXIII Olympiad—Los Angeles 1984 , featured three of those tracks along with sports themes written for the occasion by popular musical artists including Foreigner , Toto , Loverboy , Herbie Hancock , Quincy Jones , Christopher Cross , Philip Glass and Giorgio Moroder . The album was released on Columbia Records and the catalogue number was BJS 39322 . The Brazilian composer Sérgio Mendes also produced a special song for the 1984 Olympic Games , `` Olympia , '' from his 1984 album Confetti . A choir of approximately one thousand voices was assembled of singers in the region . All were volunteers from nearby churches , schools and universities . Etta James performed `` When the Saints Go Marching In '' at the Opening Ceremony . Vicki McClure along with the International Children 's Choir of Long Beach sang `` Reach Out and Touch '' . Lionel Richie performed a 9-minute version of his hit single `` All Night Long '' at the closing ceremonies . Highlights Arts Festival The 1984 Summer Olympics was preceded by the 10-week-long adjunct Los Angeles Olympic Arts Festival , which opened on June 2 and ended on August 12 . It provided more than 400 performances by 146 theater , dance and music companies , representing every continent and 18 countries . It was organized by then-CalArts President Robert Fitzpatrick . General * The opening ceremony featured the arrival of Bill Suitor by means of the Bell Aerosystems rocket pack ( also known as a Jet Pack ) . * The United States Army Band formed the Olympic rings , waiting to start the opening ceremony . * As a result of an IOC agreement designating the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) Chinese Taipei , the People 's Republic of China returned to the summer Olympics for the first time since Helsinki 1952 and won 15 gold medals . In weightlifting , athletes from the Chinese Taipei and China teams won medals at the same event . * Eleven athletes failed drug tests at the Los Angeles Games . * Local Los Angeles artist Rodolfo Escalera was commissioned to create nine paintings depicting the summer games that would later be turned into collectible plates and presented as `` The Official Gift of the 1984 Olympics '' . Track and field * Carl Lewis , making his first of four appearances at the Olympics , equaled the 1936 performance of Jesse Owens by winning four gold medals , in the 100 m , 200 m , 4 × 100 m relay and long jump . * Eighteen-year-old Zola Budd , a South African runner given British citizenship in order to dodge the apartheid-based ban on South African competitors , collided with home favourite Mary Decker-Slaney in the final of the 3000 m , causing the American to fall . With the crowd booing her for the rest of the race , Budd dropped back and finished well down the order . She was later cleared of wrongdoing and was also declared not culpable by Decker-Slaney . While the Decker-Budd duel was highly sensationalized , the race itself was won by Maricica Puica of Romania , one of that era 's most successful middle distance runners , whose accomplishment was diminished by the controversy . * Edwin Moses won the gold medal in the 400m hurdles 8 years after winning in 1976 . * Joaquim Cruz won the 800 meter run with a time of 1:43.00 to set an Olympic record . * Nawal El Moutawakel of Morocco became the first female Olympic champion of a Muslim nation—and the first of her country—in the 400 m hurdles . * Carlos Lopes , from Portugal , won the Marathon with a time of 2:09:21 , an Olympic record that stood for 24 years . It was the first gold medal ever for Portugal . Gold medal favourite , World Record holder and the then World Champion , Robert de Castella from Australia , finished in 5th place , 1:48 behind Lopes . * A marathon for women was held for the first time at the Olympics ( won by Joan Benoit ) . The event was considered notable because of Swiss runner Gabi Andersen-Schiess , who – suffering from heat exhaustion – stumbled through the last lap , providing dramatic images . * Daley Thompson apparently missed a new world record in winning his second consecutive gold medal in the decathlon ; the next year his score was retroactively raised to 8847 , giving him the record . * Sebastian Coe became the first man to win consecutive gold medals in the 1500m . Other sports * The first gold medal to be awarded at the Los Angeles Olympics was also the first-ever medal to be won by an athlete from China when Xu Haifeng won the 50 m Pistol event . * Archer Neroli Fairhall from New Zealand was the first paraplegic Olympian at any Olympic Games , coming 35th in the Women 's individual event . * Synchronized swimming and rhythmic gymnastics debuted in Los Angeles as Olympic events , as did wind surfing . * Li Ning from the People 's Republic of China won 6 medals in gymnastics , 3 gold , 2 silver , and 1 bronze , earning him the nickname `` Prince of Gymnasts '' in China . Li would later light the Olympic Cauldron at the 2008 Olympics . * Steve Redgrave won his first title in rowing of the record five he would go on to win in five Olympic competitions . * Victor Davis set a new world record in winning the gold medal in the 200-metre breaststroke in swimming . * Mary Lou Retton became the first gymnast outside Eastern Europe to win the gymnastics all-around competition . * In men 's gymnastics , the American team won the Gold Medal . * France won the Olympic football tournament , defeating Brazil 2–0 in the final . Olympic football was unexpectedly played before massive crowds throughout America , with several sell-outs at the 100,000+ seat Rose Bowl . This interest eventually led to the US hosting the 1994 FIFA World Cup . * The Soviet-led boycott affected weightlifting more than any other sport : 94 of the world 's top 100 ranked lifters were absent , as were 29 of the 30 medalists from the recent world championships . All 10 of the defending world champions in the 10 weight categories were absent . * Future Dream Team members Michael Jordan , Patrick Ewing , and Chris Mullin were on the team that won the gold medal in basketball . The 1984 US men 's Olympic basketball team was coached by Indiana Hoosiers head coach Bobby Knight . * Connie Carpenter-Phinney became the first woman to win an Olympic cycling event when she won the women 's individual road race . Post Closing Ceremony Fanfare * Featured powerful trumpet and choral music as Richard Basehart lent his voice to a rousing monologue . * Thus Spake Zarathustra blared as a 52-foot diameter scale model UFO appeared and then communicated via sound and light . * Next , a 7 ' 8 '' tall man dressed in gray alien costume emerged and saluted humanity 's efforts . * Fireworks * Handover of the Olympic flag from the Mayor of Los Angeles to the Mayor of Seoul , the host of the 1988 Summer Olympics . Venues Los Angeles venues * Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum – opening/closing ceremonies , athletics * Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena – boxing * Dodger Stadium – baseball * Pauley Pavilion , University of California , Los Angeles – gymnastics * Eagle 's Nest Arena , California State University , Los Angeles – judo * Olympic ( McDonald 's ) Swim Stadium , University of Southern California – swimming , diving , synchronized swimming * Olympic Village ( athlete housing ) , University of Southern California * Los Angeles Tennis Center , University of California , Los Angeles – tennis * Athletes Village , University of California , Los Angeles * Albert Gersten Pavilion , Loyola Marymount University , Westchester , California – weightlifting * Streets of Los Angeles – athletics ( marathon ) Southern California venues * El Dorado Park , Long Beach , California – archery * The Forum , Inglewood , California – basketball * Lake Casitas , Ventura County , California – canoeing , rowing * Olympic ( 7-Eleven ) Velodrome , California State University , Dominguez Hills , Carson , California – cycling ( track ) * Mission Viejo , Orange County , California – cycling ( individual road race ) * Santa Anita Park , Arcadia , California – equestrian * Fairbanks Ranch Country Club , Rancho Santa Fe , California , California – equestrian sports ( eventing endurance ) * Long Beach Convention Center , Long Beach , California – fencing * Rose Bowl , Pasadena , California – football ( final ) * Titan Gymnasium , California State University , Fullerton , Fullerton , California – handball * Weingart Stadium , East Los Angeles College , Monterey Park , California – field hockey * Coto de Caza , Orange County , California – modern pentathlon ( fencing , riding , running , shooting ) * Olympic Shooting Range , Prado Recreational Area , Chino , California – shooting * Long Beach Arena , Long Beach , California – volleyball * Raleigh Runnels Memorial Pool , Pepperdine University , Malibu , California – water polo * Anaheim Convention Center , Anaheim , California – wrestling * Long Beach Shoreline Marina , Long Beach , California – sailing * Artesia Freeway – cycling ( road team time trial ) * Heritage Park Aquatic Center – modern pentathlon ( swimming ) * Santa Monica College – athletics ( marathon start ) * Santa Monica , California – athletics ( marathon ) Other venues * Harvard Stadium , Harvard University , Boston , Massachusetts – association football preliminaries * Navy-Marine Corps Memorial Stadium , United States Naval Academy , Annapolis , Maryland – association football preliminaries * Stanford Stadium , Stanford University , Stanford , California – association football preliminaries Medals awarded The 1984 Summer Olympic program featured 221 events in the following 21 sports : * Aquatics * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Road ( 3 ) * * Track ( 5 ) * * * Dressage ( 2 ) * * Eventing ( 2 ) * * Show jumping ( 2 ) * * * * * * Artistic ( 14 ) * * Rhythmic ( 1 ) * * * * * * * * * * * Freestyle ( 10 ) * * Greco-Roman ( 10 ) Demonstration sports * Baseball * Tennis Calendar All times are in Pacific Daylight Time ( UTC-7 ) ; the other two cities , Boston and Annapolis uses Eastern Daylight Time ( UTC-4 ) Medal count These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1984 Games . Participating National Olympic Committees Athletes from 140 nations competed at the Los Angeles Games . The following countries made their first Olympic appearance in 1984 : Bahrain , Bangladesh , Bhutan , British Virgin Islands , Djibouti , Equatorial Guinea , Gambia , Grenada , Mauritania , Mauritius , North Yemen , Oman , Qatar , Rwanda , Samoa , Solomon Islands , Tonga , and the United Arab Emirates . Zaire had competed previously as Congo Kinshasa . The People 's Republic of China made their first appearance in a Summer Olympics since 1952 , while for the first time the Republic of China team participated under the politically made-up name as Chinese Taipei . The Soviet Union led the Warsaw Pact and other Communist and Socialist countries on a boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics , in retaliation for the U.S.-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow over the Soviet Union 's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 . However , a handful of Socialist countries disregarded the boycott and attended anyway . Among them were Yugoslavia ( which hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics ) , the People 's Republic of China , and Romania . The fact that Romania , a Warsaw Pact country , opted to compete despite Soviet demands led to a warm reception of the Romanian team by the United States . When the Romanian athletes entered during the opening ceremonies , they received a standing ovation from the spectators , which comprised mostly U.S. citizens . Romania won 53 medals , including 20 golds , more than the nation has in any other Olympics . The number of athletes representing that nation is shown in parentheses : Boycotting countries Fourteen countries took part in the Soviet-led boycott of the 1984 Olympic Games : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Albania , Iran and Libya also boycotted the games , citing political reasons , but were not a part of the Soviet-led boycott . Albania and Iran were the only countries to boycott both the 1980 and 1984 events . * * * Los Angeles as host city Following the news of the massive financial losses of the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , only Los Angeles and New York City expressed serious interest in hosting the 1984 games . Given only one city per country is allowed to bid for any Games , the USOC vote for an American bid city was essentially the deciding vote for the 1984 Olympics host city . In this case , Los Angeles 's bid won by a vote of 55 to 39 . New York City 's 1984 bid fell 16 votes shy of winning the Games and is the closest the city has ever come to becoming a host city for the Olympics , coming even closer than they did in their 2012 bid . Los Angeles is the only US city to host the Summer Olympics twice . The low level of interest among cities was seen as a major threat to the future of the Olympic Games . However , with the financially successful Los Angeles Games , cities began to line up to be hosts again . The Los Angeles and Montreal Games are seen as examples of what to do and what not to do when organizing the Olympics , and serve as object lessons to prospective host cities . Montreal organizers had run up a substantial debt eight years earlier by constructing many new , overly ambitiously designed venues , but as the only bidding city the Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee was able to extract concessions from the IOC : namely , that the city would not be responsible for any cost overruns and that it could use area venues that were already in existence , particularly Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum , which was also the Olympic Stadium for the 1932 Summer Olympics . The Olympic Velodrome and the Olympic Swim Stadium , funded largely by the 7-Eleven and McDonald 's corporations respectively , were the only two new venues constructed specifically for the L.A. Games . The resulting low construction costs , coupled with a heavy reliance on private corporate funding , allowed the Games to generate a profit of more than $ 200 million , making them by far the most financially successful in history . In addition to corporate support , the Olympic committee also made use of the burgeoning prices being paid for exclusive television rights . Starting with the Los Angeles Games , these contracts would be a significant source of revenue . Adjusted for inflation , the Los Angeles Games received twice the amount received by the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics and four times that of the 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics . Because these contracts were signed well in advance of the Games , Los Angeles found itself in an easier planning position as most of its revenue was already assured before the Games . On September 1 , 2015 , Los Angeles has been chosen as the U.S. candidate to bid for the 2024 Summer Olympics . In popular culture McDonald 's ran a promotion entitled `` When the U.S. Wins , You Win '' where customers scratched off a ticket with the name of an Olympic event on it , and if the U.S. won that event then they would be given a free menu item : a Big Mac for a gold medal , an order of french fries for a silver medal , and a Coca-Cola for a bronze medal . The promotion became a near financial disaster due to the Soviet boycott which led to the U.S. winning far more Olympic medals than expected . This promotion was parodied in the The Simpsons episode `` Lisa 's First Word '' , where Krusty Burger runs a similar offer . The promotion was intended to be rigged so that prizes would only be offered in events dominated by the Eastern Bloc , but the Soviet-led boycott causes Krusty to personally lose $ 44 million . He vehemently promises `` to spit in every fiftieth burger , '' to which Homer retorts `` I like those odds ! '' Chief Wiggum also exclaims that he could kiss Carl Lewis , who won four gold medals at the Games . On NCIS , Tim McGee has an obsession with jet packs , stemming from having attended the 1984 Olympic ceremony as a child and having Bill Suitor fly over his head in his jet pack . This storyline is based on the real experience of executive producer and writer Jesse Stern . Pop punk band Bowling For Soup references the games in the song `` I Ca n't Stand LA '' . During a section showing appreciation for the city , the song states , `` thank you for hair metal and the '84 Olympics . '' Jilly Cooper 's novel Riders has a storyline set at the show jumping event in the 1984 LA Olympics . Computer company Apple Inc made an advertisement tying its product Macintosh into the 1984 Olympics javelin throwing competition and the novel 1984 . The commercial features a javelin thrower hurling a javelin at a telescreen of Big Brother , destroying it . Broadcast rights The games were covered by the following broadcasters : * : Network Ten * : Rede Globo , Rede Manchete , Rede Record and Rede Bandeirantes * : RTÉ * : BBC * : CCTV * : KABC-7 ( ABC ) * : Rupavahini ( SLRC ) * : NPO * : SVT * : NRK * : CBC * : NHK * : ATV and TVB * : TDM * : RTP * : TVE * : TTV , CTV and CTS * : KBS and MBC * : Televisa * : ARD and ZDF * : DFF * : Magyar Televízió * : TF1 * : National Television Thailand * : Doordarshan * : TRT * : TVNZ * : TVRI Jakarta * : Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad TV3 a member of New Straits Times Press ( live direct television broadcast transmission ) * : Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad TV3 a member of New Straits Times Press ( live direct television broadcast transmission ) * : Maharlika Broadcasting System * : Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad TV3 a member of New Straits Times Press ( live direct television broadcast transmission ) * : RAI * : TVN , UC-TV * : Argentina Televisora Color , Canal 13 , Canal 11 * : TVP * : CT-USSR * : TVR

tc_298--1984_Summer_Olympics.txt

Which was the only eastern bloc country to participate in the 1984 LA Olympics?

A music video or song video is a short film integrating a song and imagery , produced for promotional or artistic purposes . Modern music videos are primarily made and used as a marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings . There are also cases where songs are used in tie in marketing campaigns that allow them to become more than just a song . Tie ins and merchandising could be used in toys or marketing campaigns for food and other products . Although the origins of music videos date back to musical short films that first appeared in the 1920s , they came into prominence in the 1980s when MTV based their format around the medium . Prior to the 1980s , these works were described by various terms including `` illustrated song '' , `` filmed insert '' , `` promotional ( promo ) film '' , `` promotional clip '' , `` promotional video '' , `` song video '' , `` song clip '' or `` film clip '' . Since the creation and increased popularity of YouTube , mainstream artists now promote new music videos by releasing trailers of short promos on the site for their upcoming song and music video . Consequentially , YouTube has been converted into a social media platform for celebrities and artists to market themselves to their fans and audiences . Music videos use a wide range of styles of contemporary video making techniques , including animation , live action filming , documentaries , and non-narrative approaches such as abstract film . Some music videos blend different styles , such as animation , music , and live action . Combining these styles and techniques has become more popular because of the variation it resent to the audience . Many music videos interpret images and scenes from the song 's lyrics , while others take a more thematic approach . Other music videos may be without a set concept , being merely a filmed version of the song 's live performance . Music videos have also become a place where product placement is evident in almost every mainstream video . They are always parent and it usually takes place because the artist is sponsoring a product or brand . An example of product placement is the Beats Pill being featured in numerous hip hop videos . The strong emphasis on product placement is something that has evolved because of the global scale music videos can reach because of websites such as YouTube . History and development In 1894 , sheet music publishers Edward B . Marks and Joe Stern hired electrician George Thomas and various performers to promote sales of their song `` The Little Lost Child '' . Using a magic lantern , Thomas projected a series of still images on a screen simultaneous to live performances . This would become a popular form of entertainment known as the illustrated song , the first step toward music video . 1926–1959 : Talkies , soundies , and shorts In 1926 , with the arrival of `` talkies '' many musical short films were produced . Vitaphone shorts ( produced by Warner Bros. ) featured many bands , vocalists and dancers . Animation artist Max Fleischer introduced a series of sing-along short cartoons called Screen Songs , which invited audiences to sing along to popular songs by `` following the bouncing ball '' , which is similar to a modern karaoke machine . Early 1930s cartoons featured popular musicians performing their hit songs on-camera in live-action segments during the cartoons . The early animated films by Walt Disney , such as the Silly Symphonies shorts and especially Fantasia , which featured several interpretations of classical pieces , were built around music . The Warner Brothers cartoons , even today billed as Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies , were initially fashioned around specific songs from upcoming Warner Brothers musical films . Live action musical shorts , featuring such popular performers as Cab Calloway , were also distributed to theaters . Blues singer Bessie Smith appeared in a two-reel short film called St. Louis Blues ( 1929 ) featuring a dramatized performance of the hit song . Numerous other musicians appeared in short musical subjects during this period . Soundies , produced and released from 1940 to 1947 , were musical films that often included short dance sequences , similar to later music videos . In the mid-1940s , musician Louis Jordan made short films for his songs , some of which were spliced together into a feature film Lookout Sister . These films were , according to music historian Donald Clarke , the `` ancestors '' of music video . Musical films were another important precursor to music video , and several well-known music videos have imitated the style of classic Hollywood musicals from the 1930s to the 1950s . One of the best-known examples is Madonna 's 1985 video for `` Material Girl '' ( directed by Mary Lambert ) which was closely modelled on Jack Cole 's staging of `` Diamonds Are A Girl 's Best Friend '' from the film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . Several of Michael Jackson 's videos show the unmistakable influence of the dance sequences in classic Hollywood musicals , including the landmark `` Thriller '' and the Martin Scorsese-directed `` Bad '' which was influenced by the stylised dance `` fights '' in the film version of West Side Story . According to the Internet Accuracy Project , disc jockey–singer J. P. `` The Big Bopper '' Richardson was the first to coin the phrase `` music video '' , in 1959 . 1950s : Early music clips In his autobiography , Tony Bennett claims to have created `` ... the first music video '' when he was filmed walking along the Serpentine in Hyde Park , London in 1956 , with the resulting clip being set to his recording of the song `` Stranger in Paradise '' . The clip was sent to UK and US television stations and aired on shows including Dick Clark 's American Bandstand . The oldest example of a promotional music video with similarities to more abstract , modern videos seems to be `` Dáme si do bytu '' ( `` Let 's get to the apartment '' ) created in 1958 and directed by Ladislav Rychman . 1960–1973 : Promotional clips and others In the late 1950s the Scopitone , a visual jukebox , was invented in France and short films were produced by many French artists , such as Serge Gainsbourg , Françoise Hardy , Jacques Brel , and Jacques Dutronc to accompany their songs . Its use spread to other countries and similar machines such as the Cinebox in Italy and Color-Sonic in the USA were patented . In 1961 , for the Canadian show Singalong Jubilee , Manny Pittson began pre-recording the music audio , went on-location and taped various visuals with the musicians lip-synching , then edited the audio and video together . Most music numbers were taped in-studio on stage , and the location shoot `` videos '' were to add variety . In 1964 , Kenneth Anger 's experimental short film , Scorpio Rising used popular songs instead of dialog . In 1964 , The Moody Blues producer , Alex Murray , wanted to promote his version of `` Go Now '' . The short film clip he produced and directed to promote the single has a striking visual style that predates Queen 's similar `` Bohemian Rhapsody '' video by a full decade . It also predates what The Beatles did with promotional films of their singles `` Rain '' and `` Paperback Writer '' , both released in 1966 . In the same year , The Beatles starred in their first feature film A Hard Day 's Night , directed by Richard Lester . Shot in black-and-white and presented as a mock documentary , it interspersed comedic and dialogue sequences with musical tones . The musical sequences furnished basic templates on which countless subsequent music videos were modeled . It was the direct model for the successful US TV series The Monkees ( 1966–1968 ) , which similarly consisted of film segments that were created to accompany various Monkees songs . The Beatles ' second feature Help ! ( 1965 ) was a much more lavish affair , filmed in colour in London and on international locations . The title track sequence , filmed in black-and-white , is arguably one of the prime archetypes of the modern performance-style music video , employing rhythmic cross-cutting , contrasting long shots and close-ups , and unusual shots and camera angles , such as the shot 50 seconds into the song , in which George Harrison 's left hand and the neck of his guitar are seen in sharp focus in the foreground while the completely out-of-focus figure of John Lennon sings in the background . In 1965 , the Beatles began making promotional clips ( then known as `` filmed inserts '' ) for distribution and broadcast in other countries—primarily the USA—so they could promote their record releases without having to make in-person appearances . Their first batch of promo videos recorded in late 1965 ( including their then-current single , `` Day Tripper '' / '' We Can Work It Out '' ) , were fairly straightforward mimed-in-studio performance pieces ( albeit sometimes in silly sets ) and meant to blend in fairly seamlessly with television shows like Top of the Pops and Hullabaloo . By the time The Beatles stopped touring in late 1966 , their promotional films , like their recordings , had become highly sophisticated . In May 1966 they filmed two sets of colour promotional clips for their current single `` Rain '' / '' Paperback Writer '' all directed by Michael Lindsay-Hogg , who went on to direct The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus and The Beatles final film Let It Be . The colour promotional clips for `` Strawberry Fields Forever '' and `` Penny Lane '' , made in early 1967 and directed by Peter Goldman took the promotional film format to a new level . They used techniques borrowed from underground and avant garde film , including reversed film and slow motion , dramatic lighting , unusual camera angles and color filtering added in post-production . At the end of 1967 the group released their third film , the one hour , made-for-television project Magical Mystery Tour ; it was written and directed by the group and first broadcast on the BBC on Boxing Day 1967 . Although poorly received at the time for lacking a narrative structure , it showed the group to be accomplished music video makers in their own right . Concert films were being released in the mid-1960s , at least as early as 1964 , with the T.A.M.I . Show . The monochrome 1966 clip for Bob Dylan 's `` Subterranean Homesick Blues '' filmed by D. A. Pennebaker was featured in Pennebaker 's Dylan film documentary Dont Look Back . Eschewing any attempt to simulate performance or present a narrative , the clip shows Dylan standing in a city back alley , silently shuffling a series of large cue cards ( bearing key words from the song 's lyrics ) . Many `` filmed inserts '' were produced by UK artists so they could be screened on TV when the bands were not available to appear live . Pink Floyd were pioneers in producing promotional films for their songs including `` San Francisco : Film '' , directed by Anthony Stern , `` Scarecrow '' , `` Arnold Layne '' and `` Interstellar Overdrive '' , the latter directed by Peter Whitehead , who also made several pioneering clips for The Rolling Stones between 1966 and 1968 . In the UK The Kinks made one of the first `` plot '' promo clips for a song . For their single `` Dead End Street '' ( 1966 ) a miniature comic movie was made . The BBC reportedly refused to air the clip because it was considered to be in `` poor taste '' . The Who featured in several promotional clips in this period , beginning with their 1965 clip for I Ca n't Explain . Their plot clip for Happy Jack ( 1966 ) shows the band acting like a gang of thieves . The promo film to Call Me Lightning ( 1968 ) tells a story of how drummer Keith Moon came to join the group : The other three band members are having tea inside what looks like an abandoned hangar when suddenly a `` bleeding box '' arrives , out of which jumps a fast-running , time lapse , Moon that the other members subsequently try to get a hold of in a sped-up slapstick chasing sequence to wind him down . The Rolling Stones appeared in many promotional clips for their songs in the 1960s . In 1966 , Peter Whitehead directed two promo clips for their single `` Have You Seen Your Mother , Baby , Standing In The Shadow ? '' In 1967 , Whitehead directed a plot clip colour promo clip for the Stones single `` We Love You '' , which first aired in August 1967 . This clip featured sped-up footage of the group recording in the studio , intercut with a mock trial that clearly alludes to the drug prosecutions of Mick Jagger and Keith Richards underway at that time . Jagger 's girlfriend Marianne Faithfull appears in the trial scenes and presents the `` judge '' ( Richards ) with what may be the infamous fur rug that had featured so prominently in the press reports of the drug bust at Richards ' house in early 1967 . When it is pulled back , it reveals an apparently naked Jagger with chains around his ankles . The clip concludes with scenes of the Stones in the studio intercut with footage that had previously been used in the `` concert version '' promo clip for `` Have You Seen Your Mother , Baby '' . The group also filmed a colour promo clip for the song `` 2000 Light Years From Home '' ( from their album Their Satanic Majesties Request ) directed by Michael Lindsay-Hogg . In 1968 , Michael Lindsay-Hogg directed three clips for their single `` Jumping Jack Flash '' / `` Child Of The Moon '' —a colour clip for `` Child Of The Moon '' and two different clips for `` Jumpin ' Jack Flash '' . In 1968 , they collaborated with Jean-Luc Godard on the film Sympathy for the Devil , which mixed Godard 's politics with documentary footage of the song 's evolution during recording sessions . In 1966 , Nancy Sinatra filmed a music video for her song These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' . In June 1968 , Elvis Presley recorded music videos again , in recording studios , in order to promote their new albums , making videos where famous stars If I Can Dream and Trouble/Guitar Man . During late 1972–73 David Bowie featured in a series of promotional films directed by pop photographer Mick Rock , who worked extensively with Bowie in this period . Rock directed and edited four clips to promote four consecutive David Bowie singles— '' John , I 'm Only Dancing '' ( May 1972 ) , `` The Jean Genie '' ( Nov. 1972 ) , the December 1972 US re-release of `` Space Oddity '' and the 1973 release of the single `` Life on Mars ? '' ( lifted from Bowie 's earlier album Hunky Dory ) . The clip for `` John , I 'm Only Dancing '' was made with a budget of just US $ 200 and filmed at the afternoon rehearsal for Bowie 's Rainbow Theatre concert on August 19 , 1972 . It shows Bowie and band miming to the record intercut with footage of Bowie 's dancers The Astronettes dancing on stage and behind a back-lit screen . The clip was turned down by the BBC , who reportedly found the homosexual overtones of the film distasteful , although Top of the Pops replaced it with footage of bikers and a dancer . The `` Jean Genie '' clip , produced for just US $ 350 , was shot in one day and edited in less than two days . It intercuts footage of Bowie and band in concert with contrasting footage of the group in a photographic studio , wearing black stage outfits and standing against a white background . It also includes location footage with Bowie and Cyrinda Foxe ( a MainMan employee and a friend of David and Angie Bowie ) shot in San Francisco outside the famous Mars Hotel , with Fox posing provocatively in the street while Bowie lounges against the wall , smoking . Country music also picked up on the trend of promotional clips to go along with songs . Sam Lovullo , the producer of the television series Hee Haw , said his show presented `` what were , in reality , the first musical videos , '' while JMI Records made the same claim with Don Williams ' 1973 song , `` The Shelter of Your Eyes . Country music historian Bob Millard wrote that JMI had pioneered the country music video concept by `` producing a 3-minute film '' to go along with Williams ' song . Lovullo said his videos were conceptualized by having the show 's staff go to nearby rural areas and film animals and farmers , before editing the footage to fit the storyline of a particular song . `` The video material was a very workable production item for the show , '' he wrote . `` It provided picture stories for songs . However , some of our guests felt the videos took attention away from their live performances , which they hoped would promote record sales . If they had a hit song , they did n't want to play it under comic barnyard footage . '' The concept 's mixed reaction eventually spelled an end to the `` video '' concept on Hee Haw . Promotional videos of country music songs , however , continued to be produced . 1974–1980 : Beginnings of music television The Australian TV shows Countdown and Sounds , both of which premiered in 1974 , were significant in developing and popularizing the music video genre in Australia and other countries , and in establishing the importance of music video clips as a means of promoting both emerging acts and new releases by established acts . In early 1974 , former radio DJ Graham Webb launched a weekly teen-oriented TV music show which screened on Sydney 's ATN-7 on Saturday mornings ; this was renamed Sounds Unlimited in 1975 and later shortened simply to Sounds . In need of material for the show , Webb approached Seven newsroom staffer Russell Mulcahy and asked him to shoot film footage to accompany popular songs for which there were no purpose-made clips ( e.g . Harry Nilsson 's `` Everybody 's Talkin '' ) . Using this method , Webb and Mulcahy assembled a collection of about 25 clips for the show . The success of his early efforts encouraged Mulcahy to quit his TV job and become a full-time director , and he made clips for several popular Australian acts including Stylus , Marcia Hines , Hush and AC/DC . As it gained popularity , Countdown talent coordinator Ian `` Molly '' Meldrum and producer Michael Shrimpton quickly realized that `` film clips '' were becoming an important new commodity in music marketing . Despite the show 's minuscule budget , Countdowns original director Paul Drane was able to create several memorable music videos especially for the show , including the classic film-clips for the AC/DC hits `` It 's a Long Way to the Top ( If You Wan na Rock 'n ' Roll ) '' and `` Jailbreak '' . After relocating to the UK in the mid-1970s , Mulcahy made successful music videos for several noted British pop acts—his early UK credits included XTC 's `` Making Plans for Nigel '' ( 1979 ) and his landmark video for The Buggles ' `` Video Killed the Radio Star '' ( 1979 ) which became the first music video played on MTV in 1981 . In 1975 , the British rock band Queen employed Bruce Gowers to make a promotional video to show their new single `` Bohemian Rhapsody '' on the BBC music series Top of the Pops . According to rock historian Paul Fowles , the song is `` widely credited as the first global hit single for which an accompanying video was central to the marketing strategy '' . Rolling Stone has said of `` Bohemian Rhapsody '' : `` Its influence can not be overstated , practically inventing the music video seven years before MTV went on the air . '' Video Concert Hall , created by Jerry Crowe and Charles Henderson , launched on November 1 , 1979 , was the first nationwide video music programming on American television , predating MTV by almost three years . The USA Cable Network program Night Flight was one of the first American programs to showcase these videos as an artform . In 1980 , the music video to David Bowie 's `` Ashes to Ashes '' became the most expensive ever made , having a production cost of $ 582,000 ( $ 1,671,487 in 2016 ) , the first music video to have a production cost of over $ 500,000 . The video was made in solarised color with stark black-and-white scenes and was filmed in multiple locations , including a padded room and a rocky shore . The video became one of the most iconic ever made at the time , and its complex nature is seen as significant in the evolution of the music video . The same year , the New Zealand group Split Enz had major success with the single `` I Got You '' and the album True Colours , and later that year they produced a complete set of promo clips for each song on the album ( directed by their percussionist , Noel Crombie ) and to market these on video cassette . This was followed a year later by the first American video album , The Completion Backward Principle by The Tubes , directed by the group 's keyboard player Michael Cotten , which included two videos directed by Russell Mulcahy ( `` Talk to Ya Later '' and `` Do n't Want to Wait Anymore '' ) . Among the first music videos were clips produced by ex-Monkee Michael Nesmith who started making short musical films for Saturday Night Live . In 1981 , he released Elephant Parts , the first winner of a Grammy for music video , directed by William Dear . Billboard credits the independently produced Video Concert Hall as being the first with nationwide video music programming on American television . 1981–1991 : Music videos go mainstream In 1981 , the U.S. video channel MTV launched , airing `` Video Killed the Radio Star '' and beginning an era of 24-hour-a-day music on television . With this new outlet for material , the music video would , by the mid-1980s , grow to play a central role in popular music marketing . Many important acts of this period , most notably Adam and the Ants , Duran Duran and Madonna , owed a great deal of their success to the skillful construction and seductive appeal of their videos . Two key innovations in the development of the modern music video were the development of relatively inexpensive and easy-to-use video recording and editing equipment , and the development of visual effects created with techniques such as image compositing . The advent of high-quality color videotape recorders and portable video cameras coincided with the DIY ethos of the new wave era , enabling many pop acts to produce promotional videos quickly and cheaply , in comparison to the relatively high costs of using film . However , as the genre developed , music video directors increasingly turned to 35 mm film as the preferred medium , while others mixed film and video . During the 1980s , music videos had become de rigueur for most recording artists . The phenomenon was famously parodied by BBC television comedy program Not The Nine O'Clock News who produced a spoof music video `` Nice Video , Shame About The Song '' . In this period , directors and the acts they worked with began to explore and expand the form and style of the genre , using more sophisticated effects in their videos , mixing film and video , and adding a storyline or plot to the music video . Occasionally videos were made in a non-representational form , in which the musical artist was not shown . Because music videos are mainly intended to promote the artist , such videos are comparatively rare ; three early 1980s examples are Bruce Springsteen 's `` Atlantic City '' , directed by Arnold Levine , David Mallet 's video for David Bowie and Queen 's `` Under Pressure '' , and Ian Emes ' video for Duran Duran 's `` The Chauffeur '' . One notable later example of the non-representational style is Bill Konersman 's innovative 1987 video for Prince 's `` Sign o ' the Times '' – influenced by Dylan 's `` Subterranean Homesick Blues '' clip , it featured only the text of the song 's lyrics . In the early 1980s , music videos also began to explore political and social themes . Examples include the music videos for David Bowie 's `` China Girl '' and `` Let 's Dance '' ( 1983 ) which both explored race issues . In an 1983 interview , Bowie spoke about the importance of using music videos in addressing social issues , `` Let 's try to use the video format as a platform for some kind of social observation , and not just waste it on trotting out and trying to enhance the public image of the singer involved '' . In 1983 , the most successful , influential and iconic music video of all time was released : the nearly 14-minute-long video for Michael Jackson 's song `` Thriller '' , directed by John Landis . The video set new standards for production , having cost US $ 800,000 to film . The video for `` Thriller '' , along with earlier videos by Jackson for his songs `` Billie Jean '' and `` Beat It '' , were instrumental in getting music videos by African American artists played on MTV . Prior to Jackson 's success , videos by African-American artists were rarely played on MTV : according to MTV , this was because it initially conceived itself as a rock-music-oriented channel , although musician Rick James was outspoken in his criticism of the cable channel , claiming in 1983 that MTV 's refusal to air the music video for his song `` Super Freak '' and clips by other African-American performers was `` blatant racism '' . On March 5 , 1983 , Country Music Television , or CMT , was launched , created and founded by Glenn D. Daniels and uplinked from the Video World Productions facility in Hendersonville , Tennessee . The MuchMusic music channel was launched in Canada in 1984 . In 1984 , MTV also launched the MTV Video Music Awards ( later to be known as the VMA 's ) , an annual awards event that would come to underscore MTV 's importance in the music industry . The inaugural event rewarded The Beatles and David Bowie with the 'Video Vanguard Award ' for their work in pioneering the music video . In 1985 , MTV launched the channel VH1 ( then known as `` VH-1 : Video Hits One '' ) , featuring softer music , and meant to cater to an older demographic than MTV . MTV Europe was launched in 1987 , and MTV Asia in 1991 . Another important development in music videos was the launch of The Chart Show on the UK 's Channel 4 in 1986 . This was a program which consisted entirely of music videos ( the only outlet many videos had on British TV at the time ) , without presenters . Instead , the videos were linked by then state of the art computer graphics . The show moved to ITV in 1989 . The video for the 1985 Dire Straits song `` Money for Nothing '' made pioneering use of computer animation , and helped make the song an international hit . Ironically , the song itself was a wry comment on the music-video phenomenon , sung from the point of view of an appliance deliveryman both drawn to and repelled by the outlandish images and personalities that appeared on MTV . In 1986 , Peter Gabriel 's song `` Sledgehammer '' used special effects

sfq_21770--Music_video.txt

Who directed the Michael Jackson video ‘Bad’?

A film director is a person who directs the making of a film . Generally , a film director controls a film 's artistic and dramatic aspects , and visualizes the script while guiding the technical crew and actors in the fulfillment of that vision . The director has a key role in choosing the cast members , production design , and the creative aspects of filmmaking . Under European Union law , the director is viewed as the author of the film . The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized , or noticed . Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions and stay in the boundaries of the film 's budget . There are many pathways to becoming a film director . Some film directors started as screenwriters , cinematographers , film editors or actors . Other film directors have attended a film school . Directors use different approaches . Some outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue , while others control every aspect , and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely . Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners . Some directors edit or appear in their films , or compose the music score for their films . Responsibility Film directors create an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized/noticed . Realizing this vision includes overseeing the artistic and technical elements of film production , as well as directing the shooting timetable and meeting deadlines . This entails organizing the film crew in such a way as to achieve their vision of the film . This requires skills of group leadership , as well as the ability to maintain a singular focus even in the stressful , fast-paced environment of a film set . Moreover , it is necessary to have an artistic eye to frame shots and to give precise feedback to cast and crew , thus , excellent communication skills are a must . Since the film director depends on the successful cooperation of many different creative individuals with possibly strongly contradicting artistic ideals and visions , he or she or it or they also needs/need to possess conflict resolution skills in order to mediate whenever necessary . Thus the director ensures that all individuals involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the completed film . The set of varying challenges he or she has to tackle has been described as `` a multi-dimensional jigsaw puzzle with egos and weather thrown in for good measure '' . It adds to the pressure that the success of a film can influence when and how they will work again . Omnipresent are the boundaries of the films budget . Additionally , the director may also have to ensure an intended age rating . Theoretically the sole superior of a director is the studio that is financing the film , however a poor working relationship between a film director and an actor could possibly result in the director being replaced if the actor is a major film star . Even so , it is arguable that the director spends more time on a project than anyone else , considering that the director is one of the few positions that requires intimate involvement during every stage of film production . Thus , the position of film director is widely considered to be a highly stressful and demanding one . It has been said that `` 20-hour days are not unusual '' . Under European Union law , the film director is considered the `` author '' or one of the authors of a film , largely as a result of the influence of auteur theory . Auteur theory is a film criticism concept that holds that a film director 's film reflects the director 's personal creative vision , as if they were the primary `` auteur '' ( the French word for `` author '' ) . In spite of—and sometimes even because of—the production of the film as part of an industrial process , the auteur 's creative voice is distinct enough to shine through studio interference and the collective process . Career pathways Some film directors started as screenwriters , film editors or actors . Several American cinematographers have become directors , including Barry Sonnenfeld , originally the Coen brothers ' DP ; Jan de Bont , cinematographer on films as Die Hard and Basic Instinct , directed Speed and Twister . Recently Wally Pfister , cinematographer on Christopher Nolan 's three Batman films made his directorial debut with Transcendence . Other film directors have attended a film school to `` get formal training and education in their craft '' . Film students generally study the basic skills used in making a film . This includes , for example , preparation , shot lists and storyboards , blocking , protocols of dealing with professional actors , and reading scripts . Some film schools are equipped with sound stages and post-production facilities . Besides basic technical and logistical skills , students also receive education on the nature of professional relationships that occur during film production . A full degree course can be designed for up to five years of studying . Future directors usually complete short films during their enrollment . The National Film School of Denmark has the student 's final projects presented on national TV . Some film schools retain the rights for their students ' works . Many directors successfully prepared for making feature films by working in television . The German Film and Television Academy Berlin consequently cooperates with the Berlin/Brandenburg TV station RBB ( Berlin-Brandenburg Broadcasting ) and ARTE . A handful of top directors made from $ 13 million to $ 257 million in 2011 , such as James Cameron and Steven Spielberg . In May 2011 , the average United States film director made $ 122,220 . Characteristics Different directors can vary immensely amongst themselves , under various characteristics . Several examples are : * Those who outline a general plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue . Notable examples include Ingmar Bergman , Christopher Guest , Spike Lee , Wim Wenders , Mike Leigh , Barry Levinson , Jean-Luc Godard , Miklós Jancsó , Gus Van Sant , Judd Apatow , Terrence Malick , Harmony Korine , Jay and Mark Duplass , and occasionally Robert Altman , Joe Swanberg , Sergio Leone and Federico Fellini . * Those who control every aspect , and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions precisely . Notable examples include David Lean , Akira Kurosawa , Steven Spielberg , Ridley Scott , Victor Fleming , Erich von Stroheim , James Cameron , George Lucas , Stanley Kubrick , Sidney Lumet , Andrew Bujalski , Christopher Nolan , David Fincher , Guillermo del Toro and Alfred Hitchcock . * Those who write their own screenplays . Notable examples include Woody Allen , Werner Herzog , Alejandro Jodorowsky , John Cassavetes , Ingmar Bergman , Stanley Kubrick , Quentin Tarantino , James Cameron , George Lucas , J. F. Lawton , David Cronenberg , Charlie Chaplin , Billy Wilder , Ed Wood , David Lynch , the Coen brothers , Francis Ford Coppola , Sofia Coppola , Pier Paolo Pasolini , Pedro Almodóvar , John Hughes , Nick Park , Edward Burns , Kevin Smith , Todd Field , Cameron Crowe , Terrence Malick , Oren Peli , Eli Roth , Harmony Korine , Paul Thomas Anderson , Guillermo del Toro , Rainer Werner Fassbinder , Daryush Shokof , Oliver Stone , John Singleton , Spike Lee , Orson Welles , Akira Kurosawa , Hayao Miyazaki , M. Night Shyamalan , Paul Haggis , Billy Bob Thornton , James Wong , Tyler Perry , Robert Rodriguez , Christopher Nolan , George A. Romero , Sergio Leone , Satyajit Ray , Joss Whedon and David O. Russell . Steven Spielberg and Sidney J. Furie have written screenplays for a small number of their films . * Those who collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners . Notable examples include Alejandro González Iñárritu and Guillermo Arriaga , Elia Kazan and Tennessee Williams , Terry Gilliam and Charles McKeown/Tony Grisoni , Wes Anderson and Owen Wilson/Noah Baumbach , Edgar Wright and Simon Pegg , Martin Scorsese and Nicholas Pileggi/Paul Schrader/Jay Cocks , Yasujirō Ozu and Kôgo Noda , Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh , Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor , Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale , Luis Buñuel and Jean-Claude Carrière/Luis Alcoriza , Krzysztof Kieślowski/Krzysztof Piesiewicz , Rajkumar Hirani/Abhijat Joshi/Vidhu Vinod Chopra , Frank Capra/Robert Riskin , Michelangelo Antonioni/Tonino Guerra , Billy Wilder/I.A.L . Diamond , Sergio Leone and Sergio Donati , Guillermo del Toro and Matthew Robbins , and Christopher Nolan/Jonathan Nolan/David S. Goyer . * Those who edit their own films . Notable examples include Akira Kurosawa , Alfonso Cuarón , David Fincher Mike Cahill , Jean-Marc Vallée , Steven Soderbergh , David Lean , Don Coscarelli , Charlie Chaplin , Robert Rodriguez , Rajkumar Hirani , James Cameron , Ed Wood , Gaspar Noe , Takeshi Kitano , John Woo , Andy Warhol , Shinya Tsukamoto , Kenneth Anger , Gregg Araki , Gus Van Sant , Xavier Dolan , Ben Wheatley , Kelly Reichardt , Leni Riefenstahl , Kevin Smith , Rodrigo Cortes , Joe Swanberg , Steve James , Jafar Panahi , Ti West , Joel and Ethan Coen and many indie , Internet and arthouse filmmakers . * Those who shoot their own films . Notable examples include Nicolas Roeg , Mike Cahill , Peter Hyams , Steven Soderbergh , Joe Swanberg , Tony Kaye , Gaspar Noe , Gregg Araki , Robert Rodriguez , Don Coscarelli , Josef von Sternberg , Shinya Tsukamoto and Kenneth Anger . * Those who appear in their films . Notable examples include Clint Eastwood , Orson Welles , Mel Gibson , Martin Scorsese , Peter Jackson , John Waters , John Carpenter , Spike Lee , Tyler Perry , Rainer Werner Fassbinder , Kevin Costner , Kenneth Anger , Woody Allen , Jon Favreau , Quentin Tarantino , Eli Roth , Michael Bay , Mel Brooks , Ben Stiller , Alejandro Jodorowsky , Charlie Chaplin , Terry Jones , Edward Burns , Pier Paolo Pasolini , Sam Raimi , Roman Polanski , Erich von Stroheim , Billy Bob Thornton , Sylvester Stallone , M. Night Shyamalan , Harold Ramis , Robert De Niro , John Woo , Kevin Smith , Warren Beatty , Robert Redford , Takeshi Kitano , Kenneth Branagh and Ed Wood . Alfred Hitchcock , Abel Ferrara , Shawn Levy , Edgar Wright and Spike Jonze made cameo appearances in their films . * Those who compose the music score for their films . Notable examples include Charlie Chaplin , Clint Eastwood , David Lynch , Alejandro Jodorowsky , John Carpenter , Mike Figgis , Hal Hartley , Alejandro Amenábar , Satyajit Ray , Robert Rodriguez and Tom Tykwer . * Another way to categorize directors is by their membership in a `` school '' of filmmaking , such as the French New Wave , the British New Wave or the New Hollywood school of filmmakers . Professional organizations In the United States , directors usually belong to the Directors Guild of America . The Canadian equivalent is the Directors Guild of Canada . In the UK , directors usually belong to Directors UK or the Directors Guild of Great Britain . In Europe , FERA , the Federation of European Film Directors , represents 37 national directors ' guilds in 30 countries . Notable individuals For each director , one notable film that they directed is given as an example of their work . The chosen film may be their film which won the highest awards or it may be one of their best-known movies . * J.J. Abrams ( Star Wars : The Force Awakens - 2015 ) * Ben Affleck ( Argo - 2012 ) * Robert Aldrich ( The Dirty Dozen - 1967 ) * Lewis Allen ( The Uninvited - 1944 ) * Woody Allen ( Annie Hall - 1977 ) * Pedro Almodóvar ( All About My Mother - 1999 ) * Robert Altman ( MASH - 1970 ) * Lindsay Anderson ( if .... - 1968 ) * Michael Anderson ( The Dam Busters - 1955 ) * Paul Thomas Anderson ( Boogie Nights - 1997 ) * Paul W. S. Anderson ( Resident Evil - 2002 ) * Wes Anderson ( The Royal Tenenbaums - 2001 ) * Theodoros Angelopoulos ( Eternity and a Day - 1998 ) * Jean-Jacques Annaud ( The Name of the Rose - 1986 ) * Sathyan Anthikad ( Rasathanthram - 2006 ) * Michelangelo Antonioni ( L'Avventura - 1960 ) * Dario Argento ( Suspiria - 1977 ) * Darren Aronofsky ( Black Swan - 2010 ) * Dorothy Arzner ( The Bride Wore Red - 1937 ) * Hal Ashby ( Coming Home - 1978 ) * Richard Attenborough ( Gandhi - 1982 ) * John G. Avildsen ( Rocky - 1976 ) * John Badham ( Saturday Night Fever - 1977 ) * Sooraj Barjatya ( Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! - 1994 ) * Mario Bava ( Lisa and the Devil - 1972 ) * Michael Bay ( Transformers - 2007 ) * Warren Beatty ( Reds - 1981 ) * Robert Benton ( Kramer vs. Kramer - 1979 ) * Ingmar Bergman ( Wild Strawberries - 1957 ) * Busby Berkeley ( Take Me Out to the Ball Game - 1949 ) * Bernardo Bertolucci ( The Last Emperor - 1987 ) * Luc Besson ( Lucy - 2014 ) * Sanjay Leela Bhansali ( Devdas - 2002 ) * Kathryn Bigelow ( The Hurt Locker - 2008 ) * Brad Bird ( Ratatouille - 2007 ) * Neill Blomkamp ( District 9 - 2009 ) * Don Bluth ( The Land Before Time - 1988 ) * Budd Boetticher ( Seven Men from Now - 1956 ) * Peter Bogdanovich ( The Last Picture Show - 1971 ) * John Boorman ( Deliverance - 1972 ) * Frank Borzage ( A Farewell to Arms - 1932 ) * Danny Boyle ( Slumdog Millionaire - 2008 ) * Robert Bresson ( Au Hasard Balthazar - 1966 ) * James L. Brooks ( Terms of Endearment - 1983 ) * Mel Brooks ( Spaceballs - 1987 ) * Tod Browning ( Dracula - 1931 ) * Luis Buñuel ( Un Chien Andalou - 1929 ) * Tim Burton ( Big Fish - 2003 ) * James Cameron ( Titanic - 1997 ) * Jane Campion ( The Piano - 1993 ) * Frank Capra ( It Happened One Night - 1934 ) * Marcel Carné ( Children of Paradise - 1945 ) * John Carpenter ( Halloween - 1978 ) * John Cassavetes ( A Woman Under the Influence - 1974 ) * Liliana Cavani ( The Night Porter - 1974 ) * Nuri Bilge Ceylan ( Once Upon a Time in Anatolia - 2011 ) * Claude Chabrol ( Madame Bovary - 1991 ) * Charlie Chaplin ( Modern Times - 1936 ) * Michael Cimino ( The Deer Hunter - 1978 ) * George Clooney ( Good Night , and Good Luck - 2005 ) * Henri-Georges Clouzot ( The Wages of Fear - 1953 ) * Joel and Ethan Coen ( Fargo - 1996 ) * Chris Columbus ( Home Alone - 1990 ) * Ryan Coogler ( Creed - 2015 ) * Francis Ford Coppola ( The Godfather - 1972 ) * Sofia Coppola ( Lost in Translation - 2003 ) * Roger Corman ( The Little Shop of Horrors - 1960 ) * Kevin Costner ( Dances with Wolves - 1990 ) * Wes Craven ( A Nightmare on Elm Street - 1984 ) * David Cronenberg ( The Fly - 1986 ) * Cameron Crowe ( Jerry Maguire - 1996 ) * Alfonso Cuarón ( Gravity - 2013 ) * Michael Curtiz ( Casablanca - 1942 ) * Stephen Daldry ( Billy Elliot - 2000 ) * Joe Dante ( Gremlins - 1984 ) * Frank Darabont ( The Shawshank Redemption - 1994 ) * Jean-Pierre and Luc Dardenne ( The Kid with a Bike - 2011 ) * Delmer Daves ( The Hanging Tree - 1959 ) * Andrew Davis ( The Fugitive - 1993 ) * Cecil B. DeMille ( The Ten Commandments - 1956 ) * Jonathan Demme ( The Silence of the Lambs - 1991 ) * Pete Docter ( Inside Out - 2015 ) * Andrew Dominik ( The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford - 2007 ) * Stanley Donen ( Singin ' in the Rain - 1952 ) * Richard Donner ( Lethal Weapon - 1987 ) * Carl Theodor Dreyer ( The Passion of Joan of Arc - 1928 ) * Guru Dutt ( Pyaasa - 1957 ) * Clint Eastwood ( Unforgiven - 1992 ) * Atom Egoyan ( The Sweet Hereafter - 1997 ) * Sergei Eisenstein ( Battleship Potemkin - 1925 ) * Roland Emmerich ( Independence Day - 1996 ) * Ray Enright ( Coroner Creek - 1948 ) * Víctor Erice ( Dream of Light - 1992 ) * Asghar Farhadi ( A Separation - 2011 ) * Rainer Werner Fassbinder ( The Marriage of Maria Braun - 1979 ) * Federico Fellini ( 8½ - 1963 ) * Todd Field ( Little Children - 2006 ) * David Fincher ( Gone Girl - 2014 ) * Victor Fleming ( Gone With the Wind - 1939 ) * John Ford ( The Grapes of Wrath - 1940 ) * Miloš Forman ( One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest - 1975 ) * Bob Fosse ( Cabaret - 1972 ) * John Frankenheimer ( The Manchurian Candidate - 1962 ) * William Friedkin ( The Exorcist - 1973 ) * Kinji Fukasaku ( Battle Royale - 2000 ) * Lucio Fulci ( Zombi 2 - 1979 ) * Samuel Fuller ( The Naked Kiss - 1964 ) * Ritwik Ghatak ( Jukti Takko Aar Gappo - 1974 ) * Mel Gibson ( Braveheart - 1995 ) * Lewis Gilbert ( Educating Rita - 1983 ) * Terry Gilliam ( Brazil - 1985 ) * Jean-Luc Godard ( Breathless - 1960 ) * Michel Gondry ( Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind - 2004 ) * Adoor Gopalakrishnan ( Swayamvaram - 1972 ) * Ashutosh Gowariker ( Lagaan - 2001 ) * F. Gary Gray ( Straight Outta Compton - 2015 ) * Paul Greengrass ( The Bourne Ultimatum - 2007 ) * D. W. Griffith ( The Birth of a Nation - 1915 ) * James Gunn ( Guardians of the Galaxy - 2014 ) * Paul Haggis ( Crash - 2004 ) * Lasse Hallström ( My Life as a Dog - 1985 ) * Michael Haneke ( The White Ribbon - 2009 ) * Renny Harlin ( Die Hard 2 - 1990 ) * Henry Hathaway ( Lives of a Bengal Lancer - 1935 ) * Howard Hawks ( Gentlemen Prefer Blondes - 1953 ) * Michel Hazanavicius ( The Artist - 2011 ) * Stuart Heisler ( Along Came Jones - 1945 ) * Werner Herzog ( Rescue Dawn - 2006 ) * George Roy Hill ( Slaughterhouse-Five - 1972 ) * Walter Hill ( 48 Hrs . - 1982 ) * Rajkumar Hirani ( 3 Idiots - 2009 ) * Oliver Hirschbiegel ( Downfall - 2004 ) * Alfred Hitchcock ( Psycho - 1960 ) * Tobe Hooper ( The Texas Chain Saw Massacre - 1974 ) * Tom Hooper ( The King 's Speech - 2010 ) * Ron Howard ( A Beautiful Mind - 2001 ) * John Hughes ( Ferris Bueller 's Day Off - 1986 ) * John Huston ( The Maltese Falcon - 1941 ) * Kon Ichikawa ( Fires on the Plain - 1959 ) * Alejandro González Iñárritu ( Birdman or ( The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance ) - 2014 ) * Miklós Jancsó ( The Red and the White - 1967 ) * Peter Jackson ( The Lord of the Rings - 2001-2003 ) * Jim Jarmusch ( Broken Flowers - 2005 ) * Jean-Pierre Jeunet ( Amélie - 2001 ) * Norman Jewison ( In the Heat of the Night - 1967 ) * Alejandro Jodorowsky ( El Topo - 1970 ) * Karan Johar ( Kuch Kuch Hota Hai - 1998 ) * Rian Johnson ( Looper - 2012 ) * Joe Johnston ( Honey , I Shrunk the Kids - 1989 ) * Chuck Jones ( What 's Opera , Doc ? - 1957 ) * Spike Jonze ( Her - 2013 ) * Neil Jordan ( The Crying Game - 1992 ) * Deborah Kampmeier ( Hounddog - 2003 ) * Raj Kapoor ( Awaara - 1951 ) * Lawrence Kasdan ( The Big Chill - 1983 ) * Philip Kaufman ( The Right Stuff - 1983 ) * Elia Kazan ( A Streetcar Named Desire - 1951 ) * Buster Keaton ( Sherlock , Jr. - 1928 ) * Burt Kennedy ( The Rounders - 1965 ) * Mehboob Khan ( Mother India - 1957 ) * Abbas Kiarostami ( Taste of Cherry - 1997 ) * Krzysztof Kieślowski ( The Three Colors trilogy - 1993-1994 ) * Masaki Kobayashi ( The Human Condition - 1959-1961 ) * Barbara Kopple ( Harlan County , USA - 1976 ) * Stanley Kramer ( Judgment at Nuremberg - 1961 ) * Stanley Kubrick ( 2001 : A Space Odyssey - 1968 ) * Thiagarajan Kumararaja ( Aaranya Kaandam - 2011 ) * Akira Kurosawa ( Seven Samurai - 1954 ) * Emir Kusturica ( Underground - 1995 ) * Fritz Lang ( Metropolis - 1927 ) * John Lasseter ( Toy Story - 1995 ) * Charles Laughton ( The Night of The Hunter - 1955 ) * David Lean ( Lawrence of Arabia - 1962 ) * Ang Lee ( Brokeback Mountain - 2005 ) * Spike Lee ( Do the Right Thing - 1989 ) * Mike Leigh ( Naked - 1993 ) * Sergio Leone ( The Good , the Bad and the Ugly - 1966 ) * Barry Levinson ( Rain Man - 1988 ) * Joseph H. Lewis ( The Big Combo - 1955 ) * Richard Linklater ( Boyhood - 2014 ) * Ken Loach ( The Wind That Shakes the Barley - 2006 ) * Joseph Losey ( Monsieur Klein - 1976 ) * George Lucas ( Star Wars - 1977 ) * Sidney Lumet ( Dog Day Afternoon - 1975 ) * Ernst Lubitsch ( Heaven Can Wait - 1943 ) * Baz Luhrmann ( Moulin Rouge ! - 2001 ) * David Lynch ( Mulholland Dr. - 2001 ) * Adrian Lyne ( Fatal Attraction - 1987 ) * Kevin Macdonald ( The Last King of Scotland - 2006 ) * Mahendran ( Mullum Malarum - 1978 ) * Samira Makhmalbaf ( At Five in the Afternoon - 2003 ) * Terrence Malick ( The Tree of Life - 2011 ) * Louis Malle ( Au revoir les enfants - 1987 ) * Joseph L. Mankiewicz ( Guys and Dolls - 1955 ) * Anthony Mann ( Man of the West - 1958 ) * Delbert Mann ( Marty - 1955 ) * Michael Mann ( Heat - 1995 ) * Garry Marshall ( Pretty Woman - 1990 ) * Penny Marshall ( A League of Their Own - 1992 ) * Rob Marshall ( Chicago - 2002 ) * Steve McQueen ( 12 Years a Slave - 2013 ) * John McTiernan ( Die Hard - 1988 ) * Deepa Mehta ( Water - 2005 ) * Georges Méliès ( A Trip to the Moon - 1902 ) * Sam Mendes ( American Beauty - 1999 ) * Márta Mészáros ( Diary for My Children - 1984 ) * Nancy Meyers ( Something 's Got ta Give - 2003 ) * Takashi Miike ( 13 Assassins - 2010 ) * Lewis Milestone ( All Quiet on the Western Front - 1930 ) * George Miller ( Mad Max : Fury Road - 2015 ) * Anthony Minghella ( The English Patient - 1996 ) * Hayao Miyazaki ( Spirited Away - 2001 ) * Kenji Mizoguchi ( Ugetsu - 1953 ) * Mario Monicelli ( Rossini ! Rossini ! - 1991 ) * Michael Moore ( Fahrenheit 9/11 - 2004 ) * Hrishikesh Mukherjee ( Anand - 1971 ) * F. W. Murnau ( Nosferatu - 1922 ) * Mira Nair ( Salaam Bombay ! - 1988 ) * Mike Nichols ( The Graduate - 1967 ) * Christopher Nolan ( The Dark Knight - 2008 ) * Frank Oz ( The Score - 2001 ) * Yasujirō Ozu ( Tokyo Story - 1953 ) * Padmarajan ( Aparan - 1988 ) * Brian De Palma ( Scarface - 1983 ) * Park Chan-Wook ( Oldboy - 2003 ) * Sergei Parajanov ( The Color of Pomegranates - 1969 ) * Alan Parker ( Midnight Express - 1978 ) * Pier Paolo Pasolini ( Salò , or the 120 Days of Sodom - 1975 ) * Sam Peckinpah ( The Wild Bunch - 1969 ) * Arthur Penn ( Bonnie and Clyde - 1967 ) * Sean Penn ( Into the Wild - 2007 ) * Wolfgang Petersen ( Das Boot - 1981 ) * Dadasaheb Phalke ( Gangavataran - 1937 ) * Roman Polanski ( Chinatown - 1974 ) * Sydney Pollack ( Tootsie - 1982 ) * Sally Potter ( The Man Who Cried - 2000 ) * Otto Preminger ( Anatomy of a Murder - 1959 ) * Powell and Pressburger ( The Red Shoes - 1948 ) * Bob Rafelson ( Five Easy Pieces - 1970 ) * Sam Raimi ( Spider-Man - 2002 ) * S. S. Rajamouli ( Baahubali : The Beginning - 2015 ) * Harold Ramis ( Groundhog Day - 1993 ) * Mani Ratnam ( Nayakan - 1987 ) * Nicholas Ray ( Rebel Without a Cause - 1955 ) * Satyajit Ray ( The Apu Trilogy - 1955-1959 ) * Robert Redford ( Quiz Show - 1994 ) * Nicolas Winding Refn ( Drive - 2011 ) * Rob Reiner ( The Princess Bride - 1987 ) * Ivan Reitman ( Ghostbusters - 1984 ) * Jason Reitman ( Up in the Air - 2009 ) * Jean Renoir ( Grand Illusion - 1937 ) * Alain Resnais ( Last Year at Marienbad - 1961 ) * Leni Riefenstahl ( Triumph of the Will - 1935 ) * Guy Ritchie ( Snatch - 2000 ) * Robert Rodriguez ( From Dusk till Dawn - 1996 ) * Éric Rohmer ( Pauline at the Beach - 1983 ) * George A. Romero ( Night of the Living Dead - 1968 ) * Roberto Rossellini ( Rome , Open City - 1945 ) * Eli Roth ( Hostel - 2005 ) * Bimal Roy ( Do Bigha Zamin - 1953 ) * Anthony and Joe Russo ( Captain America : Civil War - 2016 ) * Mark Rydell ( On Golden Pond - 1981 ) * Gus Van Sant ( Good Will Hunting - 1997 ) * John Sayles ( The Secret of Roan Inish - 1994 ) * Franklin J. Schaffner ( Patton - 1970 ) * John Schlesinger ( Midnight Cowboy - 1969 ) * Volker Schlöndorff ( The Tin Drum - 1979 ) * Joel Schumacher ( The Lost Boys - 1987 ) * Ettore Scola

sfq_17158--Film_director.txt

Who directed the film Life of Pi?

Country music is a genre of United States popular music that originated in the Southern United States in the 1920s . It takes its roots from the southeastern genre of United States such as folk music , Blues music , and Western music . Blues modes have been used extensively throughout its recorded history . Country music often consists of ballads and dance tunes with generally simple forms and harmonies accompanied by mostly string instruments such as banjos , electric and acoustic guitars , dobros and fiddles as well as harmonicas . The term country music gained popularity in the 1940s in preference to the earlier term hillbilly music ; it came to encompass Western music , which evolved parallel to hillbilly music from similar roots , in the mid-20th century . The term country music is used today to describe many styles and subgenres . The origins of country music are the folk music of mostly white , working-class Americans , who blended popular songs , Irish and Celtic fiddle tunes , traditional ballads , and cowboy songs , and various musical traditions from European immigrant communities . In 2009 country music was the most listened to rush hour radio genre during the evening commute , and second most popular in the morning commute in the United States . Generations of country music Immigrants to the Southern Appalachian Mountains of North America brought the music and instruments of Europe along with them for nearly 300 years . Country music was `` introduced to the world as a Southern phenomenon . '' The first generation emerged in the early 1920s , with Atlanta 's music scene playing a major role in launching country 's earliest recording artists . Okeh Records began issuing hillbilly music records by Fiddlin ' John Carson as early as 1923 , followed by Columbia Records ( series 15000D `` Old Familiar Tunes '' ) ( Samantha Bumgarner ) in 1924 , and RCA Victor Records in 1927 ( the Carter Family and Jimmie Rodgers ) . Many `` hillbilly '' musicians , such as Cliff Carlisle , recorded blues songs throughout the 1920s . During the second generation ( 1930s–1940s ) , radio became a popular source of entertainment , and `` barn dance '' shows featuring country music were started all over the South , as far north as Chicago , and as far west as California . The most important was the Grand Ole Opry , aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day . During the 1930s and 1940s , cowboy songs , or Western music , which had been recorded since the 1920s , were popularized by films made in Hollywood . Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a `` hot string band , '' and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns . His mix of country and jazz , which started out as dance hall music , would become known as Western swing . Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band , in 1938 . Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939 , shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall , when Johnny Barfield recorded `` Boogie Woogie '' . The third generation ( 1950s–1960s ) started at the end of World War II with `` mountaineer '' string band music known as bluegrass , which emerged when Bill Monroe , along with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs were introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry . Gospel music remained a popular component of country music . Another type of stripped-down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar , bass , dobro or steel guitar ( and later ) drums became popular , especially among poor whites in Texas and Oklahoma . It became known as honky tonk , and had its roots in Western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states . By the early 1950s a blend of Western swing , country boogie , and honky tonk was played by most country bands . Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s , and 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music . Beginning in the mid-1950s , and reaching its peak during the early 1960s , the Nashville Sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville , Tennessee . The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres . In the aftermath of the British Invasion , many desired a return to the `` old values '' of rock n ' roll . At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music . What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock . Fourth generation ( 1970s–1980s ) music included outlaw country with roots in the Bakersfield sound , and country pop with roots in the countrypolitan , folk music and soft rock . Between 1972 and 1975 singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles . During the early 1980s country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts . In 1980 a style of `` neocountry disco music '' was popularized . During the mid-1980s a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts in favor of more traditional `` back-to-basics '' production . During the fifth generation ( 1990s ) , country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Garth Brooks and Alan Jackson . The Dixie Chicks became one of the most popular country bands in the 1990s and early 2000s . The sixth generation ( 2000s–present ) is exemplified by country singer Carrie Underwood . The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s . Attempts to combine punk and country were pioneered by Jason and the Scorchers , and in the 1980s Southern Californian cowpunk scene with bands like the Long Ryders . Hip-hop also made its mark on country music with the emergence of country rap . Most of the best-selling country songs of this era however were in the country pop genre , such as those by Lady Antebellum , Florida Georgia Line , and Taylor Swift . First generation ( 1920s ) Atlanta 's music scene played a major role in launching country 's earliest recording artists in the early 1920s—many Appalachian people had come to the city to work in its cotton mills and brought their music with them . It would remain a major recording center for two decades and a major performance center for four decades , up to the first country music TV shows on local Atlanta stations in the 1950s . Some record companies in Atlanta turned away early artists such as Fiddlin ' John Carson , while others realized that his music would fit perfectly with the lifestyle of the country 's agricultural workers . The first commercial recordings of what was considered country music were `` Arkansas Traveler '' and `` Turkey in the Straw '' by fiddlers Henry Gilliland & A.C. ( Eck ) Robertson on June 30 , 1922 , for Victor Records and released in April 1923 . Columbia Records began issuing records with `` hillbilly '' music ( series 15000D `` Old Familiar Tunes '' ) as early as 1924 . A year later , on June 14 , 1923 , Fiddlin ' John Carson recorded `` Little Log Cabin in the Lane '' for Okeh Records . Vernon Dalhart was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit in May 1924 with `` Wreck of the Old 97 '' . The flip side of the record was `` Lonesome Road Blues '' , which also became very popular . In April 1924 , `` Aunt '' Samantha Bumgarner and Eva Davis became the first female musicians to record and release country songs . Many `` hillbilly '' musicians , such as Cliff Carlisle , recorded blues songs throughout the decade and into the 1930s . Other important early recording artists were Riley Puckett , Don Richardson , Fiddlin ' John Carson , Uncle Dave Macon , Al Hopkins , Ernest V. Stoneman , Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers and The Skillet Lickers . The steel guitar entered country music as early as 1922 , when Jimmie Tarlton met famed Hawaiian guitarist Frank Ferera on the West Coast . Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be important early country musicians . Their songs were first captured at a historic recording session in Bristol , Tennessee , on August 1 , 1927 , where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist . A scene in the movie O Brother , Where Art Thou ? depicts a similar occurrence in the same timeframe . Rodgers fused hillbilly country , gospel , jazz , blues , pop , cowboy , and folk , and many of his best songs were his compositions , including `` Blue Yodel '' , which sold over a million records and established Rodgers as the premier singer of early country music . Beginning in 1927 , and for the next 17 years , the Carters recorded some 300 old-time ballads , traditional tunes , country songs and gospel hymns , all representative of America 's southeastern folklore and heritage . Second generation ( 1930s–1940s ) Record sales declined during the Great Depression , but radio became a popular source of entertainment , and `` barn dance '' shows featuring country music were started by radio stations all over the South , as far north as Chicago , and as far west as California . The most important was the Grand Ole Opry , aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day . Some of the early stars on the Opry were Uncle Dave Macon , Roy Acuff and African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey . WSM 's 50,000-watt signal ( in 1934 ) could often be heard across the country . Many musicians performed and recorded songs in any number of styles . Moon Mullican , for example , played Western swing but also recorded songs that can be called rockabilly . Between 1947 and 1949 , country crooner Eddy Arnold placed eight songs in the top 10 . From 1945 to 1955 Jenny Lou Carson was one of the most prolific songwriters in country music . Singing cowboys and Western swing During the 1930s and 1940s , cowboy songs , or Western music , which had been recorded since the 1920s , were popularized by films made in Hollywood . Some of the popular singing cowboys from the era were Gene Autry , the Sons of the Pioneers , and Roy Rogers . Country music and western music were frequently played together on the same radio stations , hence the term country and western music . And it was n't only cowboys ; cowgirls contributed to the sound in various family groups . Patsy Montana opened the door for female artists with her history-making song `` I Want To Be a Cowboy 's Sweetheart '' . This would begin a movement toward opportunities for women to have successful solo careers . Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a `` hot string band , '' and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns . His mix of country and jazz , which started out as dance hall music , would become known as Western swing . Cliff Bruner , Moon Mullican , Milton Brown and Adolph Hofner were other early Western swing pioneers . Spade Cooley and Tex Williams also had very popular bands and appeared in films . At its height , Western swing rivaled the popularity of big band swing music . Changing instrumentation Drums were scorned by early country musicians as being `` too loud '' and `` not pure '' , but by 1935 Western swing big band leader Bob Wills had added drums to the Texas Playboys . In the mid-1940s , the Grand Ole Opry did not want the Playboys ' drummer to appear on stage . Although drums were commonly used by rockabilly groups by 1955 , the less-conservative-than-the-Grand Ole Opry Louisiana Hayride kept its infrequently used drummer back stage as late as 1956 . By the early 1960s , however , it was rare that a country band did n't have a drummer . Bob Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band , in 1938 . A decade later ( 1948 ) Arthur Smith achieved top 10 US country chart success with his MGM Records recording of `` Guitar Boogie '' , which crossed over to the US pop chart , introducing many people to the potential of the electric guitar . For several decades Nashville session players preferred the warm tones of the Gibson and Gretsch archtop electrics , but a `` hot '' Fender style , using guitars which became available beginning in the early 1950s , eventually prevailed as the signature guitar sound of country . Hillbilly boogie Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939 , shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall , when Johnny Barfield recorded `` Boogie Woogie '' . The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie , or okie boogie ( later to be renamed country boogie ) , became a flood beginning in late 1945 . One notable release from this period was The Delmore Brothers ' `` Freight Train Boogie '' , considered to be part of the combined evolution of country music and blues towards rockabilly . In 1948 , Arthur `` Guitar Boogie '' Smith achieved top ten US country chart success with his MGM Records recordings of `` Guitar Boogie '' and `` Banjo Boogie '' , with the former crossing over to the US pop charts . Other country boogie artists included Moon Mullican , Merrill Moore and Tennessee Ernie Ford . The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s and remains one of many subgenres of country into the 21st century . Bluegrass , folk and gospel By the end of World War II , `` mountaineer '' string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs , introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry . Gospel music , too , remained a popular component of country music . Red Foley , the biggest country star following World War II , had one of the first million-selling gospel hits ( `` Peace in the Valley '' ) and also sang boogie , blues and rockabilly . In the post-war period , country music was called `` folk '' in the trades , and `` hillbilly '' within the industry . In 1944 , The Billboard replaced the term `` hillbilly '' with `` folk songs and blues , '' and switched to `` country '' or `` country and Western '' in 1949 . Honky Tonk Another type of stripped down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar , bass , dobro or steel guitar ( and later ) drums became popular , especially among poor whites in Texas and Oklahoma . It became known as honky tonk and had its roots in Western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states , particularly Texas , together with the blues of the American South . Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys personified this music which has been described as `` a little bit of this , and a little bit of that , a little bit of black and a little bit of white ... just loud enough to keep you from thinking too much and to go right on ordering the whiskey . '' East Texan Al Dexter had a hit with `` Honky Tonk Blues '' , and seven years later `` Pistol Packin ' Mama '' . These `` honky tonk '' songs associated barrooms , were performed by the likes of Ernest Tubb , Kitty Wells ( the first major female country solo singer ) , Ted Daffan , Floyd Tillman , and the Maddox Brothers and Rose , Lefty Frizzell and Hank Williams , would later be called `` traditional '' country . Williams ' influence in particular would prove to be enormous , inspiring many of the pioneers of rock and roll , such as Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis , as well as Chuck Berry and Ike Turner , while providing a framework for emerging honky tonk talents like George Jones . Webb Pierce was the top-charting country artist of the 1950s , with 13 of his singles spending 113 weeks at number one . He charted 48 singles during the decade ; 31 reached the top ten and 26 reached the top four . Third generation ( 1950s–1960s ) By the early 1950s a blend of Western swing , country boogie , and honky tonk was played by most country bands . Western music , influenced by the cowboy ballads and Tejano music rhythms of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico , reached its peak in popularity in the late 1950s , most notably with the song `` El Paso '' , first recorded by Marty Robbins in September 1959 . The country music scene largely kept the music of the folk revival and folk rock at a distance , despite the similarity in instrumentation and origins ( see , for instance , The Byrds ' negative reception during their appearance on the Grand Ole Opry ) . The main concern was politics : the folk revival was largely driven by progressive activists , a stark contrast to the culturally conservative audiences of country music . Only a handful of folk artists , such as Burl Ives , John Denver and Canadian musician Gordon Lightfoot , would cross over into country music after the folk revival died out . During the mid-1950s a new style of country music became popular , eventually to be referred to as rockabilly . Rockabilly Rockabilly was most popular with country fans in the 1950s , and 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music . Rockabilly was an early form of rock and roll , an upbeat combination of blues and country music . The number two , three and four songs on Billboard 's charts for that year were Elvis Presley , `` Heartbreak Hotel '' ; Johnny Cash , `` I Walk the Line '' ; and Carl Perkins , `` Blue Suede Shoes '' . Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No . 3 `` Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In , Stranger '' by Cash , and No . 5 by Presley `` Don't/I Beg of You . '' Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style , saying `` The colored folk been singin ' and playin ' it just the way I 'm doin ' it now , man for more years than I know . '' But he also said , `` My stuff is just hopped-up country . '' Within a few years , many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style . Country music gained national television exposure through Ozark Jubilee on ABC-TV and radio from 1955 to 1960 from Springfield , Missouri . The program showcased top stars including several rockabilly artists , some from the Ozarks . As Webb Pierce put it in 1956 , `` Once upon a time , it was almost impossible to sell country music in a place like New York City . Nowadays , television takes us everywhere , and country music records and sheet music sell as well in large cities as anywhere else . '' The late 1950s saw the emergence of Buddy Holly , but by the end of the decade , backlash as well as traditional artists such as Ray Price , Marty Robbins , and Johnny Horton began to shift the industry away from the rock n ' roll influences of the mid-1950s . The Nashville and countrypolitan sounds Beginning in the mid-1950s , and reaching its peak during the early 1960s , the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville , Tennessee . Under the direction of producers such as Chet Atkins , Paul Cohen , Owen Bradley , Bob Ferguson , and later Billy Sherrill , the sound brought country music to a diverse audience and helped revive country as it emerged from a commercially fallow period . This subgenre was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings : a prominent and smooth vocal , backed by a string section and vocal chorus . Instrumental soloing was de-emphasized in favor of trademark `` licks '' . Leading artists in this genre included Jim Reeves , Skeeter Davis , The Browns , Patsy Cline , and Eddy Arnold . The `` slip note '' piano style of session musician Floyd Cramer was an important component of this style . Nashville 's pop song structure became more pronounced and it morphed into what was called countrypolitan . Countrypolitan was aimed straight at mainstream markets , and it sold well throughout the later 1960s into the early 1970s ( a rarity in an era where American popular music was being decimated by the British Invasion ) . Top artists included Tammy Wynette , Lynn Anderson and Charlie Rich , as well as such former `` hard country '' artists as Ray Price and Marty Robbins . Despite the appeal of the Nashville sound , many traditional country artists emerged during this period and dominated the genre : Loretta Lynn , Merle Haggard , Buck Owens , Porter Wagoner , and Sonny James among them . Country soul - crossover In 1962 , Ray Charles surprised the pop world by turning his attention to country and western music , topping the charts and rating number three for the year on Billboard 's pop chart with the `` I Ca n't Stop Loving You '' single , and recording the landmark album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music . The Bakersfield sound Another genre of country music grew out of hardcore honky tonk with elements of Western swing and originated 112 mi north-northwest of Los Angeles in Bakersfield , California . Influenced by one-time West Coast residents Bob Wills and Lefty Frizzell , by 1966 it was known as the Bakersfield sound . It relied on electric instruments and amplification , in particular the Telecaster electric guitar , more than other subgenres of country of the era , and can be described as having a sharp , hard , driving , no-frills , edgy flavor . Leading practitioners of this style were Buck Owens , Merle Haggard , Tommy Collins , Gary Allan , and Wynn Stewart , each of whom had his own style . Decline of Western music and the cowboy ballad By the late 1960s , Western music , in particular the cowboy ballad , was in decline . Relegated to the `` country and Western '' genre by marketing agencies , popular Western recording stars released albums to only moderate success . Rock-and-roll artists got hit songs , but Western artists also got country hits . The latter was largely limited to Buck Owens , Merle Haggard , and a few other bands . In the process , country and western music as a genre lost most of its southwestern , ranchera , and Tejano musical influences . However the cowboy ballad and honky-tonk music would be resurrected and reinterpreted in the 1970s with the growth in popularity of `` outlaw country '' music from Texas and Oklahoma . Fourth generation ( 1970s–1980s ) Outlaw country Derived from the traditional Western and honky tonk musical styles of the late 1950s and 1960s , including Ray Price ( whose band , the `` Cherokee Cowboys '' , included Willie Nelson and Roger Miller ) and mixed with the anger of an alienated subculture of the nation during the period , outlaw country revolutionized the genre of country music . `` After I left Nashville ( the early 70s ) , I wanted to relax and play the music that I wanted to play , and just stay around Texas , maybe Oklahoma . Waylon and I had that outlaw image going , and when it caught on at colleges and we started selling records , we were O.K . The whole outlaw thing , it had nothing to do with the music , it was something that got written in an article , and the young people said , 'Well , that 's pretty cool . ' And started listening . '' ( Willie Nelson ) The term outlaw country is traditionally associated with Hank Williams , Jr. , Willie Nelson , Waylon Jennings , David Allan Coe , Whitey Morgan and the 78 's , John Prine , Billy Joe Shaver , Gary Stewart , Townes Van Zandt , Kris Kristofferson , Michael Martin Murphey , and the later career renaissance of Johnny Cash , with a few female vocalists such as Jessi Colter and Sammi Smith . It was encapsulated in the 1976 album Wanted ! The Outlaws . A related subgenre is Red Dirt . Country pop Country pop or soft pop , with roots in the countrypolitan sound , folk music , and soft rock , is a subgenre that first emerged in the 1970s . Although the term first referred to country music songs and artists that crossed over to top 40 radio , country pop acts are now more likely to cross over to adult contemporary music . It started with pop music singers like Glen Campbell , Bobbie Gentry , John Denver , Olivia Newton-John , Anne Murray , Marie Osmond , B. J. Thomas , The Bellamy Brothers , and Linda Ronstadt having hits on the country charts . Between 1972 and 1975 , singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles ( `` Rocky Mountain High '' , `` Sunshine on My Shoulders '' , `` Annie 's Song '' , `` Thank God I 'm a Country Boy '' , and `` I 'm Sorry '' ) , and was named Country Music Entertainer of the Year in 1975 . The year before , Olivia Newton-John , an Australian pop singer , won the `` Best Female Country Vocal Performance '' as well as the Country Music Association 's most coveted award for females , `` Female Vocalist of the Year '' . In response George Jones , Tammy Wynette , and other traditional Nashville country artists dissatisfied with the new trend formed the short-lived Association of Country Entertainers in 1974 . During the mid-1970s , Dolly Parton , a successful mainstream country artist since the late 1960s , mounted a high profile campaign to cross over to pop music , culminating in her 1977 hit `` Here You Come Again '' , which topped the U.S. country singles chart , and also reached No . 3 on the pop singles charts . Parton 's male counterpart , Kenny Rogers , came from the opposite direction , aiming his music at the country charts , after a successful career in pop , rock and folk music , achieving success the same year with `` Lucille '' , which topped the country charts and reached No . 5 on the U.S. pop singles charts , as well as reaching Number 1 on the British all-genre chart . Parton and Rogers would both continue to have success on both country and pop charts simultaneously , well into the 1980s . Artists like Crystal Gayle , Ronnie Milsap and Barbara Mandrell would also find success on the pop charts with their records . In 1975 , author Paul Hemphill stated in the Saturday Evening Post , `` Country music is n't really country anymore ; it is a hybrid of nearly every form of popular music in America . '' During the early 1980s , country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts . Willie Nelson and Juice Newton each had two songs in the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the early eighties : Nelson

bb_5302--Country_music.txt

The big-selling country and western hit song, notably by Elvis Presley in 1957, is '(What?) Christmas'?

Game theory is `` the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers . `` Myerson , Roger B . ( 1991 ) . Game Theory : Analysis of Conflict , Harvard University Press , p. [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id E8WQFRCsNr0C & printsecfind & pg PA1 1 ] . Chapter-preview links , pp . [ https : //books.google.com/books ? idE8WQFRCsNr0C & printsec find & pg=PR7 vii–xi ] . Game theory is mainly used in economics , political science , and psychology , as well as logic , computer science , biology and poker . Originally , it addressed zero-sum games , in which one person 's gains result in losses for the other participants . Today , game theory applies to a wide range of behavioral relations , and is now an umbrella term for the science of logical decision making in humans , animals , and computers . Modern game theory began with the idea regarding the existence of mixed-strategy equilibria in two-person zero-sum games and its proof by John von Neumann . Von Neumann 's original proof used Brouwer fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets , which became a standard method in game theory and mathematical economics . His paper was followed by the 1944 book Theory of Games and Economic Behavior , co-written with Oskar Morgenstern , which considered cooperative games of several players . The second edition of this book provided an axiomatic theory of expected utility , which allowed mathematical statisticians and economists to treat decision-making under uncertainty . This theory was developed extensively in the 1950s by many scholars . Game theory was later explicitly applied to biology in the 1970s , although similar developments go back at least as far as the 1930s . Game theory has been widely recognized as an important tool in many fields . With the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences going to game theorist Jean Tirole in 2014 , eleven game-theorists have now won the economics Nobel Prize . John Maynard Smith was awarded the Crafoord Prize for his application of game theory to biology . Representation of games The games studied in game theory are well-defined mathematical objects . To be fully defined , a game must specify the following elements : the players of the game , the information and actions available to each player at each decision point , and the payoffs for each outcome . ( Eric Rasmusen refers to these four `` essential elements '' by the acronym `` PAPI '' . ) A game theorist typically uses these elements , along with a solution concept of their choosing , to deduce a set of equilibrium strategies for each player such that , when these strategies are employed , no player can profit by unilaterally deviating from their strategy . These equilibrium strategies determine an equilibrium to the game—a stable state in which either one outcome occurs or a set of outcomes occur with known probability . Most cooperative games are presented in the characteristic function form , while the extensive and the normal forms are used to define noncooperative games . Extensive form The extensive form can be used to formalize games with a time sequencing of moves . Games here are played on trees ( as pictured here ) . Here each vertex ( or node ) represents a point of choice for a player . The player is specified by a number listed by the vertex . The lines out of the vertex represent a possible action for that player . The payoffs are specified at the bottom of the tree . The extensive form can be viewed as a multi-player generalization of a decision tree . The game pictured consists of two players . The way this particular game is structured ( i.e. , with sequential decision making and perfect information ) , Player 1 `` moves '' first by choosing either F or U ( letters are assigned arbitrarily for mathematical purposes ) . Next in the sequence , Player 2 , who has now seen Player 1s move , chooses to play either A or R. Once Player 2 has made his/ her choice , the game is considered finished and each player gets their respective payoff . Suppose that Player 1 chooses U and then Player 2 chooses A : Player 1 then gets a payoff of `` eight '' ( which in real-world terms can be interpreted in many ways , the simplest of which is in terms of money but could mean things such as eight days of vacation or eight countries conquered or even eight more opportunities to play the same game against other players ) and Player 2 gets a payoff of `` two '' . The extensive form can also capture simultaneous-move games and games with imperfect information . To represent it , either a dotted line connects different vertices to represent them as being part of the same information set ( i.e . the players do not know at which point they are ) , or a closed line is drawn around them . ( See example in the imperfect information section . ) Normal form The normal ( or strategic form ) game is usually represented by a matrix which shows the players , strategies , and payoffs ( see the example to the right ) . More generally it can be represented by any function that associates a payoff for each player with every possible combination of actions . In the accompanying example there are two players ; one chooses the row and the other chooses the column . Each player has two strategies , which are specified by the number of rows and the number of columns . The payoffs are provided in the interior . The first number is the payoff received by the row player ( Player 1 in our example ) ; the second is the payoff for the column player ( Player 2 in our example ) . Suppose that Player 1 plays Up and that Player 2 plays Left . Then Player 1 gets a payoff of 4 , and Player 2 gets 3 . When a game is presented in normal form , it is presumed that each player acts simultaneously or , at least , without knowing the actions of the other . If players have some information about the choices of other players , the game is usually presented in extensive form . Every extensive-form game has an equivalent normal-form game , however the transformation to normal form may result in an exponential blowup in the size of the representation , making it computationally impractical . Characteristic function form In games that possess removable utility , separate rewards are not given ; rather , the characteristic function decides the payoff of each unity . The idea is that the unity that is 'empty ' , so to speak , does not receive a reward at all . The origin of this form is to be found in John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern 's book ; when looking at these instances , they guessed that when a union \mathbf { C } appears , it works against the fraction \left ( \frac { \mathbf { N } } { \mathbf { C } } \right ) as if two individuals were playing a normal game . The balanced payoff of C is a basic function . Although there are differing examples that help determine coalitional amounts from normal games , not all appear that in their function form can be derived from such . Formally , a characteristic function is seen as : ( N , v ) , where N represents the group of people and v:2^N \to \mathbf { R } is a normal utility . Such characteristic functions have expanded to describe games where there is no removable utility . General and applied uses As a method of applied mathematics , game theory has been used to study a wide variety of human and animal behaviors . It was initially developed in economics to understand a large collection of economic behaviors , including behaviors of firms , markets , and consumers . The first use of game-theoretic analysis was by Antoine Augustin Cournot in 1838 with his solution of the Cournot duopoly . The use of game theory in the social sciences has expanded , and game theory has been applied to political , sociological , and psychological behaviors as well . Although pre-twentieth century naturalists such as Charles Darwin made game-theoretic kinds of statements , the use of game-theoretic analysis in biology began with Ronald Fisher 's studies of animal behavior during the 1930s . This work predates the name `` game theory '' , but it shares many important features with this field . The developments in economics were later applied to biology largely by John Maynard Smith in his book Evolution and the Theory of Games . In addition to being used to describe , predict , and explain behavior , game theory has also been used to develop theories of ethical or normative behavior and to prescribe such behavior.Colin F. Camerer ( 2003 ) . Behavioral Game Theory : Experiments in Strategic Interaction , pp . 5–7 ( scroll to at [ http : //press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7517.html 1.1 What Is Game Theory Good For ? ] ) . In economics and philosophy , scholars have applied game theory to help in the understanding of good or proper behavior . Game-theoretic arguments of this type can be found as far back as Plato . Description and modeling The primary use of game theory is to describe and model how human populations behave . Some scholars believe that by finding the equilibria of games they can predict how actual human populations will behave when confronted with situations analogous to the game being studied . This particular view of game theory has been criticized . It is argued that the assumptions made by game theorists are often violated when applied to real world situations . Game theorists usually assume players act rationally , but in practice , human behavior often deviates from this model . Game theorists respond by comparing their assumptions to those used in physics . Thus while their assumptions do not always hold , they can treat game theory as a reasonable scientific ideal akin to the models used by physicists . However , empirical work has shown that in some classic games , such as the centipede game , guess 2/3 of the average game , and the dictator game , people regularly do not play Nash equilibria . There is an ongoing debate regarding the importance of these experiments and whether the analysis of the experiments fully captures all aspects of the relevant situation . Some game theorists , following the work of John Maynard Smith and George R. Price , have turned to evolutionary game theory in order to resolve these issues . These models presume either no rationality or bounded rationality on the part of players . Despite the name , evolutionary game theory does not necessarily presume natural selection in the biological sense . Evolutionary game theory includes both biological as well as cultural evolution and also models of individual learning ( for example , fictitious play dynamics ) . Prescriptive or normative analysis Some scholars , like Leonard Savage , see game theory not as a predictive tool for the behavior of human beings , but as a suggestion for how people ought to behave . Since a strategy , corresponding to a Nash equilibrium of a game constitutes one 's best response to the actions of the other players – provided they are in ( the same ) Nash equilibrium – playing a strategy that is part of a Nash equilibrium seems appropriate . This normative use of game theory has also come under criticism . Economics and business Game theory is a major method used in mathematical economics and business for modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents . Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches , such as auctions , bargaining , mergers & acquisitions pricing , fair division , duopolies , oligopolies , social network formation , agent-based computational economics , general equilibrium , mechanism design , and voting systems ; and across such broad areas as experimental economics , behavioral economics , information economics , industrial organization , and political economy . This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as `` solution concepts '' or `` equilibria '' . A common assumption is that players act rationally . In non-cooperative games , the most famous of these is the Nash equilibrium . A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies . If all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium , they have no unilateral incentive to deviate , since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing . The payoffs of the game are generally taken to represent the utility of individual players . A prototypical paper on game theory in economics begins by presenting a game that is an abstraction of a particular economic situation . One or more solution concepts are chosen , and the author demonstrates which strategy sets in the presented game are equilibria of the appropriate type . Naturally one might wonder to what use this information should be put . Economists and business professors suggest two primary uses ( noted above ) : descriptive and prescriptive . Political science The application of game theory to political science is focused in the overlapping areas of fair division , political economy , public choice , war bargaining , positive political theory , and social choice theory . In each of these areas , researchers have developed game-theoretic models in which the players are often voters , states , special interest groups , and politicians . Early examples of game theory applied to political science are provided by Anthony Downs . In his book An Economic Theory of Democracy , he applies the Hotelling firm location model to the political process . In the Downsian model , political candidates commit to ideologies on a one-dimensional policy space . Downs first shows how the political candidates will converge to the ideology preferred by the median voter if voters are fully informed , but then argues that voters choose to remain rationally ignorant which allows for candidate divergence . Game Theory was applied in 1962 to the Cuban missile crisis during the presidency of John F. Kennedy . It has also been proposed that game theory explains the stability of any form of political government . Taking the simplest case of a monarchy , for example , the king , being only one person , does not and can not maintain his authority by personally exercising physical control over all or even any significant number of his subjects . Sovereign control is instead explained by the recognition by each citizen that all other citizens expect each other to view the king ( or other established government ) as the person whose orders will be followed . Coordinating communication among citizens to replace the sovereign is effectively barred , since conspiracy to replace the sovereign is generally punishable as a crime . Thus , in a process that can be modeled by variants of the prisoner 's dilemma , during periods of stability no citizen will find it rational to move to replace the sovereign , even if all the citizens know they would be better off if they were all to act collectively . A game-theoretic explanation for democratic peace is that public and open debate in democracies send clear and reliable information regarding their intentions to other states . In contrast , it is difficult to know the intentions of nondemocratic leaders , what effect concessions will have , and if promises will be kept . Thus there will be mistrust and unwillingness to make concessions if at least one of the parties in a dispute is a non-democracy . Game theory could also help predict a nation 's responses when there is a new rule or law to be applied to that nation . One example would be Peter John Wood 's ( 2013 ) research when he looked into what nations could do to help reduce climate change . Wood thought this could be accomplished by making treaties with other nations to reduce green house gas emissions . However , he concluded that this idea could not work because it would create a prisoner 's dilemma to the nations . Biology Unlike those in economics , the payoffs for games in biology are often interpreted as corresponding to fitness . In addition , the focus has been less on equilibria that correspond to a notion of rationality and more on ones that would be maintained by evolutionary forces . The best known equilibrium in biology is known as the evolutionarily stable strategy ( ESS ) , first introduced in . Although its initial motivation did not involve any of the mental requirements of the Nash equilibrium , every ESS is a Nash equilibrium . In biology , game theory has been used as a model to understand many different phenomena . It was first used to explain the evolution ( and stability ) of the approximate 1:1 sex ratios . suggested that the 1:1 sex ratios are a result of evolutionary forces acting on individuals who could be seen as trying to maximize their number of grandchildren . Additionally , biologists have used evolutionary game theory and the ESS to explain the emergence of animal communication . The analysis of signaling games and other communication games has provided insight into the evolution of communication among animals . For example , the mobbing behavior of many species , in which a large number of prey animals attack a larger predator , seems to be an example of spontaneous emergent organization . Ants have also been shown to exhibit feed-forward behavior akin to fashion ( see Paul Ormerod 's Butterfly Economics ) . Biologists have used the game of chicken to analyze fighting behavior and territoriality . According to Maynard Smith , in the preface to Evolution and the Theory of Games , `` paradoxically , it has turned out that game theory is more readily applied to biology than to the field of economic behaviour for which it was originally designed '' . Evolutionary game theory has been used to explain many seemingly incongruous phenomena in nature . One such phenomenon is known as biological altruism . This is a situation in which an organism appears to act in a way that benefits other organisms and is detrimental to itself . This is distinct from traditional notions of altruism because such actions are not conscious , but appear to be evolutionary adaptations to increase overall fitness . Examples can be found in species ranging from vampire bats that regurgitate blood they have obtained from a night 's hunting and give it to group members who have failed to feed , to worker bees that care for the queen bee for their entire lives and never mate , to vervet monkeys that warn group members of a predator 's approach , even when it endangers that individual 's chance of survival . [ http : //www.seop.leeds.ac.uk/entries/altruism-biological/ Biological Altruism ( Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ) ] . Seop.leeds.ac.uk . Retrieved on 2013-01-03 . All of these actions increase the overall fitness of a group , but occur at a cost to the individual . Evolutionary game theory explains this altruism with the idea of kin selection . Altruists discriminate between the individuals they help and favor relatives . Hamilton 's rule explains the evolutionary rationale behind this selection with the equation c The coefficient values depend heavily on the scope of the playing field ; for example if the choice of whom to favor includes all genetic living things , not just all relatives , we assume the discrepancy between all humans only accounts for approximately 1 % of the diversity in the playing field , a co-efficient that was ½ in the smaller field becomes 0.995 . Similarly if it is considered that information other than that of a genetic nature ( e.g . epigenetics , religion , science , etc . ) persisted through time the playing field becomes larger still , and the discrepancies smaller . Computer science and logic Game theory has come to play an increasingly important role in logic and in computer science . Several logical theories have a basis in game semantics . In addition , computer scientists have used games to model interactive computations . Also , game theory provides a theoretical basis to the field of multi-agent systems . Separately , game theory has played a role in online algorithms ; in particular , the k-server problem , which has in the past been referred to as games with moving costs and request-answer games . Yao 's principle is a game-theoretic technique for proving lower bounds on the computational complexity of randomized algorithms , especially online algorithms . The emergence of the internet has motivated the development of algorithms for finding equilibria in games , markets , computational auctions , peer-to-peer systems , and security and information markets . Algorithmic game theory and within it algorithmic mechanism design combine computational algorithm design and analysis of complex systems with economic theory . Philosophy Game theory has been put to several uses in philosophy . Responding to two papers by , used game theory to develop a philosophical account of convention . In so doing , he provided the first analysis of common knowledge and employed it in analyzing play in coordination games . In addition , he first suggested that one can understand meaning in terms of signaling games . This later suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis . Following game-theoretic account of conventions , Edna Ullmann-Margalit ( 1977 ) and Bicchieri ( 2006 ) have developed theories of social norms that define them as Nash equilibria that result from transforming a mixed-motive game into a coordination game . Game theory has also challenged philosophers to think in terms of interactive epistemology : what it means for a collective to have common beliefs or knowledge , and what are the consequences of this knowledge for the social outcomes resulting from agents ' interactions . Philosophers who have worked in this area include Bicchieri ( 1989 , 1993 ) , Skyrms ( 1990 ) , and Stalnaker ( 1999 ) . In ethics , some authors have attempted to pursue Thomas Hobbes ' project of deriving morality from self-interest . Since games like the prisoner 's dilemma present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest , explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important component of this project . This general strategy is a component of the general social contract view in political philosophy ( for examples , see and ) . Other authors have attempted to use evolutionary game theory in order to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors . These authors look at several games including the prisoner 's dilemma , stag hunt , and the Nash bargaining game as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality ( see , e.g. , and ) . Game types Cooperative / Non-cooperative A game is cooperative if the players are able to form binding commitments . For instance , the legal system requires them to adhere to their promises . In noncooperative games , this is not possible . Often it is assumed that communication among players is allowed in cooperative games , but not in non-cooperative ones . However , this classification on two binary criteria has been questioned , and sometimes rejected . Of the two types of games , noncooperative games are able to model situations to the finest details , producing accurate results . Cooperative games focus on the game at large . Considerable efforts have been made to link the two approaches . The so-called Nash-programme ( Nash program is the research agenda for investigating on the one hand axiomatic bargaining solutions and on the other hand the equilibrium outcomes of strategic bargaining procedures ) has already established many of the cooperative solutions as noncooperative equilibria . Hybrid games contain cooperative and non-cooperative elements . For instance , coalitions of players are formed in a cooperative game , but these play in a non-cooperative fashion . Symmetric / Asymmetric A symmetric game is a game where the payoffs for playing a particular strategy depend only on the other strategies employed , not on who is playing them . If the identities of the players can be changed without changing the payoff to the strategies , then a game is symmetric . Many of the commonly studied 2×2 games are symmetric . The standard representations of chicken , the prisoner 's dilemma , and the stag hunt are all symmetric games . Some scholars would consider certain asymmetric games as examples of these games as well . However , the most common payoffs for each of these games are symmetric . Most commonly studied asymmetric games are games where there are not identical strategy sets for both players . For instance , the ultimatum game and similarly the dictator game have different strategies for each player . It is possible , however , for a game to have identical strategies for both players , yet be asymmetric . For example , the game pictured to the right is asymmetric despite having identical strategy sets for both players . Zero-sum / Non-zero-sum Zero-sum games are a special case of constant-sum games , in which choices by players can neither increase nor decrease the available resources . In zero-sum games the total benefit to all players in the game , for every combination of strategies , always adds to zero ( more informally , a player benefits only at the equal expense of others ) . Poker exemplifies a zero-sum game ( ignoring the possibility of the house 's cut ) , because one wins exactly the amount one 's opponents lose . Other zero-sum games include matching pennies and most classical board games including Go and chess . Many games studied by game theorists ( including the famed prisoner 's dilemma ) are non-zero-sum games , because the outcome has net results greater or less than zero . Informally , in non-zero-sum games , a gain by one player does not necessarily correspond with a loss by another . Constant-sum games correspond to activities like theft and gambling , but not to the fundamental economic situation in which there are potential gains from trade . It is possible to transform any game into a ( possibly asymmetric ) zero-sum game by adding a dummy player ( often called `` the board '' ) whose losses compensate the players ' net winnings . Simultaneous / Sequential Simultaneous games are games where both players move simultaneously , or if they do not move simultaneously , the later players are unaware of the earlier players ' actions ( making them effectively simultaneous ) . Sequential games ( or dynamic games ) are games where later players have some knowledge about earlier actions . This need not be perfect information about every action of earlier players ; it might be very little knowledge . For instance , a player may know that an earlier player did not perform one particular action , while he does not know which of the other available actions the first player actually performed . The difference between simultaneous and sequential games is captured in the different representations discussed above . Often , normal form is used to represent simultaneous games , while extensive form is used to represent sequential ones . The transformation of extensive to normal form is one way , meaning that multiple extensive form games correspond to the same normal form . Consequently , notions of equilibrium for simultaneous games are insufficient for reasoning about sequential games ; see subgame perfection . In short , the differences between sequential and simultaneous games are as follows : Perfect information and imperfect information An important subset of sequential games consists of games of perfect information . A game is one of perfect information if , in extensive form , all players know the moves previously made by all other players . Simultaneous games can not be games of perfect information , because the conversion to extensive form converts simultaneous moves into a sequence of moves with earlier

bb_5713--Game_theory.txt

Name the pioneering Game Theory US mathematician featured in the film A Beautiful Mind?

The Rockford Files is an American television drama series starring James Garner that aired on the NBC network between September 13 , 1974 , and January 10 , 1980 , and has remained in syndication to the present day . Garner portrays Los Angeles-based private investigator Jim Rockford with Noah Beery , Jr. , in the supporting role of his father , a retired truck driver nicknamed `` Rocky '' . The show was created by Roy Huggins and Stephen J. Cannell . Huggins created the television show Maverick ( 1957–1962 ) , which starred Garner , and he wanted to recapture that magic in a `` modern day '' detective setting . He teamed with Cannell , who had written for Jack Webb productions such as Adam-12 and Chase ( 1973–1974 , NBC ) , to create The Rockford Files . The show was credited as `` A Public Arts/Roy Huggins Production '' along with Cherokee Productions in association with Universal Television . Cherokee was owned by Garner , with partners Meta Rosenberg and Juanita Bartlett , who doubled as story editor during most of The Rockford Files run . The series theme music by composers Mike Post and Pete Carpenter was released as a single and went to # 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 , remaining on the chart for 16 weeks . and won a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Arrangement for 1975.Knight , Judson . [ http : //arts.enotes.com/contemporary-musicians/post-mike-biography Mike Post ] — at eNotes.com [ http : //www.grammy.com/GRAMMY_Awards/Winners/Results.aspx ? title & winner carpenter & year1975 & genreID 0 & hp=1 Post and Carpenter ] — Grammy.com In 2002 , The Rockford Files was ranked # 39 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time . Premise Producers Roy Huggins and Stephen J. Cannell devised the Rockford character as a rather significant departure from typical television detectives of the time , essentially Bret Maverick as a modern detective . Rockford had served time in California 's San Quentin Prison in the 1960s due to a wrongful conviction . After five years , he was pardoned . His infrequent jobs as a private investigator barely allow him to maintain his dilapidated mobile home ( which doubles as his office ) in a parking lot on a Malibu , California beach . In early episodes of the first season , Rockford 's trailer is located in a parking lot alongside the highway at 2354 Beach Boulevard ( Pacific Coast Highway ) , Malibu and near the ocean ; for the rest of the series , the trailer is at Paradise Cove ( address 29 Cove Road ) , adjacent to a pier and a restaurant ( `` The Sand Castle '' , now known as the `` Paradise Cove Beach Cafe '' ) ( ) . In the television movies from 1994 to 1999 , Rockford is living in a trailer that has been extensively enlarged and remodeled . In contrast to most television private eyes , Rockford wears low-budget `` off the rack '' clothing and does his best to avoid fights -- although he will engage in fistfights when there 's absolutely no other option . He rarely carries his Colt Detective Special revolver , for which he has no permit , preferring to talk his way out of trouble . He works on cold cases , missing persons investigations , and low-budget insurance scams , and repeatedly states that he does not handle `` open cases '' to avoid trouble with the police . ( This self-imposed rule of Rockford 's was relaxed in later seasons . ) He has been a P.I . since 1968 , and his usual fee is $ 200 per day plus expenses . Cast * James Garner as James `` Jim/Jimmy '' Scott Rockford * Noah Beery , Jr. as Joseph `` Rocky '' Rockford , Jim 's father , a retired truck driver . ( The role was played by actor Robert Donley in the 1974 pilot episode . ) Intermittently recurring players : * Joe Santos as Sergeant Dennis Becker , Jim 's friend on the Los Angeles Police Department ( LAPD ) ( promoted to lieutenant in season 5 ) * Stuart Margolin as Evelyn `` Angel '' Martin , Jim 's former prison friend . Angel is an untrustworthy con artist who constantly gets Jim in trouble , yet Jim remains his friend . * Gretchen Corbett as Elizabeth `` Beth '' Davenport , Jim 's lawyer and sometime girlfriend ( seasons 1–4 ) * James Luisi as Lieutenant Douglas J . `` Doug '' Chapman ( seasons 3–6 ) , Becker 's boss ( until Becker 's promotion ) . He and Jim despise each other . * Tom Atkins as Lieutenant Alex / Thomas Diehl ( seasons 1–2 and 4 ) * Luis Delgado as Officer Todd / Jack Billings * Bo Hopkins as John `` Coop '' Cooper , Jim 's disbarred attorney friend ( Season 5 ) * Pat Finley as Peggy Becker , Dennis ' wife * Isaac Hayes as Gandolph `` Gandy '' Fitch , an acquaintance of Jim 's from his prison days . Gandy was a much feared inmate , and it is implied that even Rockford ( whom he calls `` Rockfish '' ) was a victim of his brutality . Rockford helps prove that Fitch was sent to prison for a crime he did not commit . * Tom Selleck as Lance White , a suave and dapper ( and successful ) private investigator , who sometimes works with Jim on cases . * Dennis Dugan as Richie Brockelman , a young , idealistic and naive private investigator who seeks Jim 's help from time to time . Bereft of Jim 's cynicism and physical toughness , this character was spun off for the short-lived Richie Brockelman , Private Eye . * Kathryn Harrold as Dr. Megan Dougherty , a blind psychiatrist who hires Jim . Their relationship eventually blossoms into a romance . Jim is upset in a later episode to learn that she has become engaged to another man . * Simon Oakland as Vern St . Cloud , a fellow private investigator , blustery , arrogant , and accustomed to getting his way , St . Cloud and Rockford grudgingly accept each other 's assistance from time to time , trading insults along the way . * Louis Gossett , Jr. as Marcus Aurelius `` Gabby '' Hayes , an impeccably dressed Private Investigator , chauffeur driven , boastful and nearly always on a hustle , usually to Rockford 's misfortune . Gossett appeared first in Foul on the First Play wearing a full wig with sideburns , appearing the following season in Just Another Polish Wedding without it . * Rita Moreno as Rita Capkovic , a former call girl and police informant , who has given up that profession for that of a hair dresser . Associates from her former life as a callgirl ( particularly her former pimp ) cause problems , which lead her to seek out Jim 's help in going straight . Jim and Rita are mutually attracted , and a potential romance is suggested . * Al Stevenson as L.J. , a friend of Rocky 's , who often performs odd jobs for Rocky ( in one episode , Jim discovers him alone at Rocky 's house repairing a shower faucet ) . L.J . is closer to Jim 's age than Rocky 's , and it is likely they met during the latter 's career as a trucker . * Hunter von Leer ( credited as Hunter Von Leer ) as Skip Spence , a libidinous lifeguard , with an penchant for underaged girls , stationed on the beach near Jim 's trailer , who occasionally provides information to Jim regarding the goings on in Paradise Cove in his absence . Valentino , a cat that either Jim has adopted , or is a stray who frequents Jim 's trailer , is seen in one episode , and is referred to in another by the same name . Supporting characters Dennis Becker : Rockford 's pursuit of cases often leads to difficulties with his friend in the LAPD , Sgt . Dennis Becker ( Joe Santos ) , a homicide detective struggling to advance in the department under a series of overbearing lieutenants . The two most notable are Alex/Thomas Diehl ( Tom Atkins ) during the first , second and fourth seasons and Doug Chapman ( James Luisi ) in the third to sixth seasons . Those higher-ups invariably dislike Rockford ( and private investigators generally ) because of their perception that either he is meddling in open cases or is trying to make the LAPD look incompetent in its handling of closed cases . Further , Rockford often calls Becker asking for favors , such as running license plates through the California Department of Motor Vehicles ( DMV ) computer system , often annoying the already overworked cop . By the fifth season , Becker is promoted to lieutenant ; it was stated in the episode where Becker is promoted that Becker 's association with Rockford , considered by LAPD brass to be a shifty ex-con , had hampered Becker 's chances for promotion . Chapman intensely dislikes it when Becker becomes his `` equal '' . In season 6 episode The Big Cheese , the third-to-last of the series , Rockford gets a degree of revenge when Chapman inadvertently makes incriminating statements about his tax evasion before an undercover IRS agent who is with Rockford . Becker appears in 89 of the 123 episodes . Joseph `` Rocky '' Rockford : Rockford 's father , Joseph `` Rocky '' Rockford , is an ex-Seabee , semi-retired , semi-truck driver who nags his son to find stable ( and less dangerous ) employment , often urging him to follow in his footsteps as a truck driver ( especially in early seasons ) . The relationship of father and son was an integral part of the show . Rocky appears in 101 episodes , and usually becomes involved ( like it or not ) in his son 's cases . Occasionally , he hires Jim himself . Jim Rockford 's mother is never shown or named , and is very seldom referred to . Although never directly stated , the way Jim and Rocky talk about her would seem to indicate she had died ( before the series ' start ) . Rocky was portrayed by Noah Beery , Jr. ( nephew of actor Wallace Beery ) except in the 1974 pilot film , where he was portrayed by Robert Donley . Though much of the character 's backstory is the same , in the pilot Rocky is portrayed as more of a small-time grifter and operator -- at one point , working with a partner , Rocky unsuccessfully tries to run a minor scam on Jim , his own son . This element of Rocky 's character would largely be dropped as the series started , and Beery 's version of Rocky was honest and reliable , albeit sometimes gullible and too trusting . Angel Martin : Rockford 's scheming former San Quentin cellmate , Evelyn `` Angel '' Martin was something of a comic relief character played by Stuart Margolin . Jim employs Angel as an operative from time to time , often to gather street-level information , or to help him access the files of the newspaper where Angel works as a low-level filing clerk . Keeping this job is a condition of Angel 's parole ; even so , it 's doubtful that the ever-shifty Angel would be capable of doing so , except that his brother-in-law owns the paper . Jim also uses Angel on a few occasions to play a supporting role in the elaborate con games that he sets up to sting especially difficult adversaries . Angel is himself forever running some sort of ( usually very bottom-of-the-barrel ) con game , and is consistently ready to sell anyone out at a moment 's notice for his own benefit — and often does . In doing so , Angel almost always gets Rockford in trouble , usually by involving him in hare-brained scams ... often without Jim 's knowledge , and never with his consent . As often as not , Angel 's antics result in Angel 's , Jim 's and/or others ' arrests , and/or being placed on somebody 's hit list . In spite of this , Jim considers Angel as one of his best , if most exasperating , pals . Towards the very end of the series , there is a noticeable cooling in Jim 's attitude toward Angel in their often fractious relationship ; however , the rift seems to have been repaired by the time of the reunion movies . Beth Davenport : Rockford has a close relationship with his attorney , the idealistic , tenacious Elizabeth `` Beth '' Davenport ( Gretchen Corbett ) . In second season episode `` A Portrait of Elizabeth '' , it is explained that Beth and Rockford had dated for a time ( prior to the beginning of the series ) , but she soon became aware of his emotional unavailability and lack of interest in a longterm relationship , and realized that they 'd be better off as friends ( though the two do seem to still casually date on occasion during early seasons ) . * Others : After Corbett was dropped from the show following the fourth season ( allegedly due to contract disputes between Universal , which owned her contract , and Cherokee Productions , Garner 's company ) , a new legal adviser ( John `` Coop '' Cooper , a disbarred attorney who befriends Jim ) , and a new romantic interest ( Kathryn Harrold as Dr. Megan Dougherty ) for Rockford were added . Megan Dougherty was a blind highly independent psychiatrist , who makes three appearances in the fifth and sixth seasons . Rockford has romantic flings with numerous women , but none become permanent . Garner 's brother , Jack Garner , made 23 appearances playing ( at various times ) a policeman , a gas station attendant , and a stranger in a bathroom . The most regular character Jack played was that of police officer `` Captain McEnroe '' a number of times in the final season . Credits Writers The show 's pilot was written by Cannell , who also wrote 36 episodes and was the show 's co-creator . Juanita Bartlett , one of the show 's producers and Garner 's partner at Cherokee Productions , wrote 34 episodes . She also wrote for Scarecrow and Mrs. King , The Greatest American Hero , and In the Heat of the Night . David Chase wrote 16 episodes ; he later went on to Northern Exposure and The Sopranos . The show 's co-creator , Roy Huggins , also wrote for the show during the first season , always using pen name John Thomas James . However , Huggins ' contributions to the show ended mid-way through the first season , after he submitted a script rewrite direct to set as the episode was shooting , without getting approval from any other writer or producer . Garner , trying to work with the material on set , felt the rewrite was unsatisfactory , and could not figure out why it had been approved for shooting . When he discovered that neither Cannell nor any of the other production staff members knew anything about the rewrite , Garner issued a directive that Cannell , not Huggins , had final say on all script material . Though Huggins was credited as a producer for the entire run of the series , this effectively ended his creative involvement with the show , as he submitted no further material to The Rockford Files and did not involve himself in the day-to-day running of the series . Directors Frequent directors included William Wiard ( 23 episodes ) , Lawrence Doheny ( 10 episodes ) , and Ivan Dixon ( previously a regular on Hogan 's Heroes ) ( 9 episodes ) . Veteran actor James Coburn directed an episode . Coburn had co-starred with Garner in the classic movies The Great Escape ( 1963 ) and The Americanization of Emily ( 1964 ) . Other actors who directed episodes include Jackie Cooper ( 3 episodes ) Richard Crenna and Dana Elcar ( 1 episode each ) . Co-creator Stephen J. Cannell directed several episodes ; series regular Stuart Margolin and executive producer Meta Rosenberg each helmed 2 ; and James Garner directed one episode in the second season , `` The Girl in The Bay City Boys ' Club '' . It was Garner 's only directing credit in his entire 50+ year film career ; in his autobiography , The Garner Files , Garner states he only took on the assignment because the scheduled director was unexpectedly unavailable at the last minute . Firebird Esprit Familiar to viewers was Jim Rockford 's gold Pontiac Firebird Esprit car . One oft-recurring element of the show was the famous `` Jim Rockford turn-around '' ( also known as a J-turn or a `` moonshiner 's turn '' - commonly employed as an evasive driving technique taught to Secret Service ) . Garner explained the move in his 2011 autobiography The Garner Files : `` When you are going straight in reverse about 35 miles an hour , you come off the gas pedal , go hard left , and pull on the emergency brake . That locks the wheels and throws the front end around . Then you release everything , hit the gas , and off you go in the opposite direction . '' James Garner stated in a Season One DVD interview that he performed this stunt for the duration of the series . The car 's license plate was 853 OKG , although the plate in some early episodes displayed the number 835 OKG . Garner writes in his autobiography that he believes that the letters OKG stood for `` Oklahoma Garner '' but that he does not know the origin of the numbers 853 . Starting with the 1974 model year , Rockford would get a new model-year Pontiac Firebird each year throughout the series . The Firebirds used had an identical `` copper mist '' color with the Esprit 's exterior and interior . Although the Firebirds were badged as Esprit 's , they were actually the higher performance `` Formula '' model without the twin scoop hood . Garner needed Rockford 's car to look like the lower tiered `` Esprit '' model , a car Rockford could afford , but have the performance necessary for the chase sequences in the show . To achieve this , the show featured Pontiac Firebird Formula 's re-badged and re-hooded to look like the `` Esprit '' model . The `` Formula '' model was developed to provide the performance of the top level `` Trans Am '' in a less ostentatious form . Formula 's did n't have the Shaker hood scoop , side vents , graphics or lettering used on the Trans Am , but they had the same higher horsepower engines and drive trains , larger front and rear anti-roll bars , stiffer springs and shocks , and a twin scoop hood . ( Sharp-eyed car connoisseurs can spot the twin exhausts and rear anti-roll bar on the cars used on the show , options that were not part of the `` Esprit '' package , as well as spot the different model year cars used in various chase scenes that differed from those in an actual episode , especially in later seasons ) . Although the series ran until early 1980 , no Firebird was used past the 1978 model year as Garner reportedly was displeased with the restyled front end of the 1979 and later Firebird models and as such did not wish them featured on the show ( although an answering machine message in one episode in the final season indicated his car was 1979 Firebird ) . Answering machine introduction Each episode began with the image of Rockford 's answering machine , and the opening title sequence was accompanied by someone leaving Rockford a message on a Dictaphone remote Ansafone 660 . As the camera focuses on the telephone , it rings twice and then Rockford 's recorded voice is heard providing the following greeting : The messages were usually unrelated to the episodes . They were a humorous device that invited the viewer to return to the quirky , down-on-his-luck world of Jim Rockford . The messages usually had to do with creditors , deadbeat clients , or were just oddball vignettes . Numerous celebrities and well-known contemporary public figures were used in the recordings . Though a distinctive and clever entry device , the messages became difficult for the writers to create . Suggestions from staffers and crew were welcome and often used . In total 122 different messages were created through the run of the original six series . The eight CBS TV movies ( also referred to as season 8 ) feature a unique message . However episodes syndicated as James Rockford , Private Investigator use the same message ; it was taken from episode 507 , “ A Three-Day Affair with a Thirty-Day Escrow ” . Each message is a standalone gag that often provides a small amount of biographical detail about Rockford , the people he knows and the activities that occur in his life as a Private Investigator . Only extremely rarely ( such as in episode # 209 , `` Chicken Little is a Little Chicken '' , during which Rockford house- and cat-sits for an absent Beth ) is the content of the answering machine message in any way connected to the plot or situations of the episode itself . End The show went into hiatus late in 1979 when Garner was told by his doctors to take time off because of numerous knee injuries and back trouble , as well as an ulcer . He sustained the former conditions largely because of his insistence on performing most of his own stunts , especially those involving fist fights or car chases . Because of his physical pain , Garner eventually opted not to continue with the show some months later , and NBC cancelled the program in mid-season . It was alleged that Rockford had become very expensive to produce , mainly due to the location filming and use of high-end actors as guest stars . According to sources , NBC and Universal claimed the show was generating a deficit of several million dollars , a staggering amount for a nighttime show at the time , although Garner and his production team Cherokee Productions claimed the show turned a profit . Garner told a story to Johnny Carson on The Tonight Show that the studio once paid a carpenter $ 700 to build a shipping crate for a shoot-out on a boat dock , though there were shipping crates on the dock . The script often called for Garner to damage his car , so the car could be sold , repaired , and repurchased for each episode . Aftermath Later in the 1980s Garner became engaged in a legal dispute with Universal regarding the profits from Rockford Files that lasted over a decade . The dispute caused significant ill will between Garner and the studio . The dispute was settled out of court in Garner 's favor , but the conflict meant that the Rockford character would not re-emerge until 1994 . Universal began syndicating the show in 1979 and aggressively marketed it to local stations well into the early and middle 1980s . This accounts for its near-ubiquity on afternoon and late-night schedules in those days . From those showings , Rockford developed a following with younger viewers , with the momentum continuing throughout the 1990s and 2000s ( decade ) on cable . ( The Ben Folds Five song `` Battle of Who Could Care Less , '' in which The Rockford Files is mentioned , is one example of the show 's newfound youth following ; furthermore , the Rockford Files theme song is played at the end of the band 's concerts . ) In 2006 the show was broadcast for a few months on Superstation WGN . In 2007 , the Retro Television Network began broadcasting the program nationwide , as did the digital cable channel Sleuth and Chicago TV station WWME-CA . ION Television has rights to the show and it is slated for future broadcast . In the fall of 2009 , the show reappeared in Canada on Deja View . The series was broadcast in the UK on BBC1 and has since been repeated on BBC2 and ITV and also on Granada +Plus , which later became ITV3 , although none of these channels repeated the later seasons . In Australia , the series runs Monday - Friday on cable and satellite channel Fox Classics and on 7Mate . Currently the series airs in the United States on the Me-TV digital subchannel network , and the series is available in full via Netflix Watch Instantly , with the first three seasons available on Hulu Plus . Rockford 's style influenced a number of detective characters , most notably Tom Selleck as Thomas Magnum in Magnum , P.I .. Tenspeed and Brown Shoe , also created by Cannell , was another detective modeled after the Rockford character . Selleck made two guest appearances on Rockford in the comic role of private investigator Lance White , a character who was everything Rockford was not — wealthy , highly educated , debonair , irresistible to women , and ethical to a fault . Rockford 's producers would tap Selleck after the Rockford cancellation for Universal 's Magnum , P.I. , where he played a character similar in many ways to Rockford , although with wholesome , patriotic undertones in the context and plots . Several episodes of Magnum make reference to the character Lance White . Rockford was penciled in to appear in the seventh season Magnum , P.I . episode `` A.A.P.I . '' ( 1986 ; in which Cannell guest starred ) , concerning a murder at a Private Investigator awards ceremony , but a dispute between Garner and Universal ( Garner reportedly refused to set foot on any Universal film set until it was resolved ) meant that the planned cameo was dropped . Episodes The series pilot aired on NBC March 27 , 1974 , as a 90-minute made-for-television movie . In the pilot , Robert Donley played Rockford 's father ; Lindsay Wagner also starred and later made a return appearance . The pilot was titled Backlash of the Hunter for syndication . Four written but unproduced Season 6 episodes were referred to in `` Thirty Years of the Rockford Files '' by Ed Robertson ( 2005 ) . There is no mention of these episodes being filmed . This would appear to be the source of the unsubstantiated rumor that four filmed but unaired Rockford episodes were destroyed in a fire in 1980 . Movies Eight Rockford Files reunion TV movies were made from 1994 to 1999 , airing on the CBS network ( whereas the original series aired on NBC ) and reuniting most of the cast from the original show . Beery died on November 1 , 1994 , so the first of these movies , which aired later that month , stated , `` This picture is dedicated to the memory of Noah Beery , Jr. We love you and miss you , Pidge . '' ( `` Pidge '' was Beery 's nickname . ) Spinoffs * The limited-run series , Richie Brockelman , Private Eye was not technically a spin-off of The Rockford Files , as the character of Richie Brockelman , played by Dennis Dugan , first appeared in a 1976 TV movie produced by Cannell . However , Brockleman did appear in the 1978 Rockford episode `` The House on Willis Avenue '' , which was broadcast the week before Richie Brockelman , Private Eye began its five-week run in The Rockford Files time slot . The character of Richie Brockelman returned to Rockford in the 1979 episode , `` Never Send a Boy King To Do a Man 's Job . '' * Universal made a back door pilot featuring the characters Gandolph `` Gandy '' Fitch and Marcus `` Gabby '' Hayes ( played by Isaac Hayes and Lou Gossett , Jr. , respectively ) titled Gabby & Gandy . The series never came to fruition , but the pilot was broadcast as an episode of Rockford called `` Just Another Polish Wedding

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Who played the title role in the TV series 'The Rockford Files'?

Derry ( ) , officially Londonderry ( ) , is the second-largest city in Northern Ireland and the fourth-largest city on the island of Ireland . The name Derry is an anglicisation of the Irish name Daire or Doire meaning `` oak grove '' . In 1613 , the city was granted a Royal Charter by King James I and gained the `` London '' prefix to reflect the funding of its construction by the London guilds . While the city is more usually known colloquially as Derry , Londonderry is also commonly used and remains the legal name . The old walled city lies on the west bank of the River Foyle , which is spanned by two road bridges and one footbridge . The city now covers both banks ( Cityside on the west and Waterside on the east ) . The population of the city was 83,652 at the 2001 Census , while the Derry Urban Area had a population of 90,736 . The district administered by Derry City and Strabane District Council contains both Londonderry Port and City of Derry Airport . Derry is close to the border with County Donegal , with which it has had a close link for many centuries . The person traditionally seen as the founder of the original Derry is Saint Colmcille , a holy man from Tír Chonaill , the old name for almost all of modern County Donegal , of which the west bank of the Foyle was a part before 1610 . In 2013 , Derry was the inaugural UK City of Culture , having been awarded the title in 2010 . Name According to the city 's Royal Charter of 10 April 1662 , the official name is `` Londonderry '' . This was reaffirmed in a High Court decision in 2007 when Derry City Council sought guidance on the procedure for effecting a name change . The council had changed its name from `` Londonderry City Council '' to `` Derry City Council '' in 1984 ; the court case was seeking clarification as to whether this had also changed the name of the city . The decision of the court was that it had not but it was clarified that the correct procedure to do so was via a petition to the Privy Council . Derry City Council since started this process and were involved in conducting an equality impact assessment report ( EQIA ) . Firstly it held an opinion poll of district residents in 2009 , which reported that 75 % of Catholics and 77 % of Nationalists found the proposed change acceptable , compared to 6 % of Protestants and 8 % of Unionists . Then the EQIA held two consultative forums , and solicited comments from the general public on whether or not the city should have its name changed to Derry . A total of 12,136 comments were received , of which 3,108 were broadly in favour of the proposal , and 9,028 opposed to it . On 23 July 2015 , the council voted in favour of a motion to change the official name of the city to Derry and to write to Mark H. Durkan , Northern Ireland Minister of the Environment , to ask how the change could be effected . Despite the official name , the city is more usually known as `` Derry '' , which is an anglicisation of the Irish Daire or Doire , and translates as `` oak-grove/oak-wood '' . The name derives from the settlement 's earliest references , Daire Calgaich ( `` oak-grove of Calgach '' ) . The name was changed from Derry in 1613 during the Plantation of Ulster to reflect the establishment of the city by the London guilds . The name `` Derry '' is preferred by nationalists and it is broadly used throughout Northern Ireland 's Catholic community , as well as that of the Republic of Ireland , whereas many unionists prefer `` Londonderry '' ; however in everyday conversation Derry is used by most Protestant residents of the city . Linguist Kevin McCafferty argues that `` It is not , strictly speaking , correct that Northern Ireland Catholics call it Derry , while Protestants use the Londonderry form , although this pattern has become more common locally since the mid-1980s , when the city council changed its name by dropping the prefix '' . In McCafferty 's survey of language use in the city , `` only very few interviewees—all Protestants—use the official form '' . Apart from the name of Derry City Council , the city is usually known as Londonderry in official use within the UK . In the Republic of Ireland , the city and county are almost always referred to as Derry , on maps , in the media and in conversation . In April 2009 , however , the Republic of Ireland 's Minister for Foreign Affairs , Micheál Martin , announced that Irish passport holders who were born there could record either Derry or Londonderry as their place of birth . Whereas official road signs in the Republic use the name Derry , those in Northern Ireland bear Londonderry ( sometimes abbreviated to `` L'Derry '' ) , although some of these have been defaced with the reference to London obscured . Usage varies among local organisations , with both names being used . Examples are City of Derry Airport , City of Derry Rugby Club , Derry City FC and the Protestant Apprentice Boys of Derry , as opposed to Londonderry Port , Londonderry YMCA Rugby Club and Londonderry Chamber of Commerce . Most companies within the city choose local area names such as Pennyburn , Rosemount or `` Foyle '' from the River Foyle to avoid alienating the other community . Londonderry railway station is often referred to as Waterside railway station within the city but is called Derry/Londonderry at other stations . The council changed the name of the local government district covering the city to Derry on 7 May 1984 , consequently renaming itself Derry City Council . This did not change the name of the city , although the city is coterminous with the district , and in law the city council is also the `` Corporation of Londonderry '' or , more formally , the `` Mayor , Aldermen and Citizens of the City of Londonderry '' . The form `` Londonderry '' is used for the post town by the Royal Mail , however use of Derry will still ensure delivery . The city is also nicknamed the Maiden City by virtue of the fact that its walls were never breached despite being besieged on three separate occasions in the 17th century , the most notable being the Siege of Derry of 1688-89 . It is also nicknamed Stroke City by local broadcaster , Gerry Anderson , due to the 'politically correct ' use of the oblique notation Derry/Londonderry ( which appellation has itself been used by BBC Television ) . A recent addition to the landscape has been the erection of several large stone columns on main roads into the city welcoming drivers , euphemistically , to `` the walled city '' . The name Derry is very much in popular use throughout Ireland for the naming of places , and there are at least six towns bearing that name and at least a further 79 places . The word Derry often forms part of the place name , for example Derrybeg , Derryboy , Derrylea and Derrymore . The names Derry and Londonderry are not limited to Ireland . There is a town called Derry situated right beside another town called Londonderry in New Hampshire in the United States . There are also Londonderrys in Yorkshire , England , in Vermont , United States , in Nova Scotia , Canada , and in northern and eastern Australia . Londonderry Island is situated off Tierra del Fuego in Chile . Derry is also a fictional town in Maine , United States , used in some Stephen King novels . City walls Derry is the only remaining completely intact walled city in Ireland and one of the finest examples of a walled city in Europe . The walls constitute the largest monument in State care in Northern Ireland and , as the last walled city to be built in Europe , stands as the most complete and spectacular . The Walls were built in 1613–1619 by The Honourable The Irish Society as defences for early 17th century settlers from England and Scotland . The Walls , which are approximately 1 mi in circumference and which vary in height and width between 12 and , are completely intact and form a walkway around the inner city . They provide a unique promenade to view the layout of the original town which still preserves its Renaissance style street plan . The four original gates to the Walled City are Bishop 's Gate , Ferryquay Gate , Butcher Gate and Shipquay Gate . Three further gates were added later , Magazine Gate , Castle Gate and New Gate , making seven gates in total . Historic buildings within the walls include the 1633 Gothic cathedral of St Columb , the Apprentice Boys Memorial Hall and the courthouse . It is one of the few cities in Europe that never saw its fortifications breached , withstanding several sieges including one in 1689 which lasted 105 days , hence the city 's nickname , The Maiden City . History Early history Derry is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in Ireland . The earliest historical references date to the 6th century when a monastery was founded there by St Columba or Colmcille , a famous saint from what is now County Donegal , but for thousands of years before that people had been living in the vicinity . Before leaving Ireland to spread Christianity elsewhere , Colmcille founded a monastery at Derry ( which was then called Doire Calgach ) , on the west bank of the Foyle . According to oral and documented history , the site was granted to Colmcille by a local king . The monastery then remained in the hands of the federation of Columban churches who regarded Colmcille as their spiritual mentor . The year 546 is often referred to as the date that the original settlement was founded . However , it is now accepted by historians that this was an erroneous date assigned by medieval chroniclers . It is accepted that between the 6th century and the 11th century , Derry was known primarily as a monastic settlement . The town became strategically more significant during the Tudor conquest of Ireland and came under frequent attack . During O'Doherty 's Rebellion in 1608 it was attacked by Sir Cahir O'Doherty , Irish chieftain of Inishowen , who burnt much of the town and killed the governor George Paulet . The soldier and statesman Sir Henry Docwra made vigorous efforts to develop the town , earning the reputation of being `` the founder of Derry '' ; but he was accused of failing to prevent the O'Doherty attack , and returned to England . Plantation What became the City of Derry was part of the relatively new County Donegal up until 1610 . In that year , the west bank of the future city was transferred by the English Crown to The Honourable The Irish Society and was combined with County Coleraine , part of County Antrim and a large portion of County Tyrone to form County Londonderry . Planters organised by London livery companies through The Honourable The Irish Society arrived in the 17th century as part of the Plantation of Ulster , and rebuilt the town with high walls to defend it from Irish insurgents who opposed the plantation . The aim was to settle Ulster with a population supportive of the Crown . It was then renamed `` Londonderry '' . This city was the first planned city in Ireland : it was begun in 1613 , with the walls being completed in 1619 , at a cost of £10,757 . The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence . The grid pattern chosen was subsequently much copied in the colonies of British North America . The charter initially defined the city as extending three Irish miles ( about 6.1 km ) from the centre . The modern city preserves the 17th century layout of four main streets radiating from a central Diamond to four gateways – Bishop 's Gate , Ferryquay Gate , Shipquay Gate and Butcher 's Gate . The city 's oldest surviving building was also constructed at this time : the 1633 Plantation Gothic cathedral of St Columb . In the porch of the cathedral is a stone that records completion with the inscription : `` If stones could speake , then London 's prayse should sound , Who built this church and cittie from the grounde . '' 17th-century upheavals During the 1640s , the city suffered in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , which began with the Irish Rebellion of 1641 , when the Gaelic Irish insurgents made a failed attack on the city . In 1649 the city and its garrison , which supported the republican Parliament in London , were besieged by Scottish Presbyterian forces loyal to King Charles I . The Parliamentarians besieged in Derry were relieved by a strange alliance of Roundhead troops under George Monck and the Irish Catholic general Owen Roe O'Neill . These temporary allies were soon fighting each other again however , after the landing in Ireland of the New Model Army in 1649 . The war in Ulster was finally brought to an end when the Parliamentarians crushed the Irish Catholic Ulster army at the Battle of Scarrifholis , near Letterkenny in nearby County Donegal , in 1650 . During the Glorious Revolution , only Derry and nearby Enniskillen had a Protestant garrison by November 1688 . An army of around 1,200 men , mostly `` Redshanks '' ( Highlanders ) , under Alexander Macdonnell , 3rd Earl of Antrim , was slowly organised ( they set out on the week William of Orange landed in England ) . When they arrived on 7 December 1688 the gates were closed against them and the Siege of Derry began . In April 1689 , King James came to the city and summoned it to surrender . The King was rebuffed and the siege lasted until the end of July with the arrival of a relief ship . 18th and 19th centuries The city was rebuilt in the 18th century with many of its fine Georgian style houses still surviving . The city 's first bridge across the River Foyle was built in 1790 . During the 18th and 19th centuries the port became an important embarkation point for Irish emigrants setting out for North America . Some of these founded the colonies of Derry and Londonderry in the state of New Hampshire . Also during the 19th century , it became a destination for migrants fleeing areas more severely affected by the Irish Potato Famine . One of the most notable shipping lines was the McCorkell Line operated by Wm . McCorkell & Co. Ltd. from 1778 . The McCorkell 's most famous ship was the Minnehaha , which was known as the `` Green Yacht from Derry '' . Early 20th century World War I The city contributed over 5,000 men to the British Army from Catholic and Protestant families . Partition During the Irish War of Independence , the area was rocked by sectarian violence , partly prompted by the guerilla war raging between the Irish Republican Army and British forces , but also influenced by economic and social pressures . By mid-1920 there was severe sectarian rioting in the city . Many lives were lost and in addition many Catholics and Protestants were expelled from their homes during this communal unrest . After a week 's violence , a truce was negotiated by local politicians on both unionist and republican sides . In 1921 , following the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the Partition of Ireland , it unexpectedly became a 'border city ' , separated from much of its traditional economic hinterland in County Donegal . World War II During World War II , the city played an important part in the Battle of the Atlantic . Ships from the Royal Navy , the Royal Canadian Navy , and other Allied navies were stationed in the city and the United States military established a base . Over 20,000 Royal Navy , 10,000 Royal Canadian Navy , and 6,000 American Navy personnel were stationed in the city during the war . The establishment of the American presence in the city was the result of a secret agreement between the Americans and the British before the Americans entered the war . It was the first American naval base in Europe and the terminal for American convoys en route to Europe . The reason for such a high degree of military and naval activity was self-evident : Derry was the United Kingdom 's westernmost port ; indeed , the city was the westernmost Allied port in Europe : thus , Derry was a crucial jumping-off point , together with Glasgow and Liverpool , for the shipping convoys that ran between Europe and North America . The large numbers of military personnel in Derry substantially altered the character of the city , bringing in some outside colour to the local area , as well as some cosmopolitan and economic buoyancy during these years . Several airfields were built in the outlying regions of the city at this time , Maydown , Eglinton and Ballykelly . RAF Eglinton went on to become City of Derry Airport . The city contributed significant number of men to the war effort throughout the services , most notably the 500 men in the 9th ( Londonderry ) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment , known as the 'Derry Boys ' . This regiment served in North Africa , the Sudan , Italy and mainland UK . Many others served in the Merchant Navy taking part in the convoys that supplied the UK and Russia during the war . The border location of the city , and influx of trade from the military convoys allowed for significant smuggling operations to develop in the city . At the conclusion of the Second World War , eventually some 60 U-boats of the German Kriegsmarine ended in the city 's harbour at Lisahally after their surrender . The initial surrender was attended by Admiral Sir Max Horton , Commander-in-Chief of the Western Approaches , and Sir Basil Brooke , third Prime Minister of Northern Ireland . Late 20th century 1950s and 1960s The city languished after the second world war , with unemployment and development stagnating . A large campaign , led by the University for Derry Committee , to have Northern Ireland 's second university located in the city , ended in failure . The Civil Rights Movement Derry was a focal point for the nascent civil rights movement in Northern Ireland . Catholics were discriminated against under Unionist government in Northern Ireland , both politically and economically . In the late 1960s the city became the flashpoint of disputes about institutional gerrymandering . Political scientist John Whyte explains that : All the accusations of gerrymandering , practically all the complaints about housing and regional policy , and a disproportionate amount of the charges about public and private employment come from this area . The area – which consisted of Counties Tyrone and Fermanagh , Londonderry County Borough , and portions of Counties Londonderry and Armagh – had less than a quarter of the total population of Northern Ireland yet generated not far short of three-quarters of the complaints of discrimination ... The unionist government must bear its share of responsibility . It put through the original gerrymander which underpinned so many of the subsequent malpractices , and then , despite repeated protests , did nothing to stop those malpractices continuing . The most serious charge against the Northern Ireland government is not that it was directly responsible for widespread discrimination , but that it allowed discrimination on such a scale over a substantial segment of Northern Ireland . A civil rights demonstration in 1968 led by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association was banned by the Government and blocked using force by the Royal Ulster Constabulary . The events that followed the August 1969 Apprentice Boys parade resulted in the Battle of the Bogside , when Catholic rioters fought the police , leading to widespread civil disorder in Northern Ireland and is often dated as the starting point of the Troubles . On Sunday 30 January 1972 , 13 unarmed civilians were shot dead by British paratroopers during a civil rights march in the Bogside area . Another 13 were wounded and one further man later died of his wounds . This event came to be known as Bloody Sunday . The Troubles The conflict which became known as the Troubles is widely regarded as having started in Derry with the Battle of the Bogside . The Civil Rights movement had also been very active in the city . In the early 1970s the city was heavily militarised and there was widespread civil unrest . Several districts in the city constructed barricades to control access and prevent the forces of the state from entering . Violence eased towards the end of the Troubles in the late 1980s and early 1990s . Irish journalist Ed Maloney claims in `` The Secret History of the IRA '' that republican leaders there negotiated a de facto ceasefire in the city as early as 1991 . Whether this is true or not , the city did see less bloodshed by this time than Belfast or other localities . The city was visited by a killer whale in November 1977 at the height of the Troubles ; it was dubbed Dopey Dick by the thousands who came from miles around to see him . Governance The local district council is Derry City Council , which consists of five electoral areas : Cityside , Northland , Rural , Shantallow and Waterside . The council of 30 members is re-elected every four years . As of the 2011 election , 14 Social Democratic and Labour Party ( SDLP ) members , ten Sinn Féin , five Democratic Unionist Party ( DUP ) , and one Ulster Unionist Party ( UUP ) make up the council . The mayor and deputy mayor are elected annually by councillors . The local authority boundaries correspond to the Foyle constituency of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and the Foyle constituency of the Northern Ireland Assembly . In European Parliament elections , it is part of the Northern Ireland constituency . Coat of arms and motto The devices on the city 's arms are a skeleton and a three-towered castle on a black field , with the chief or top third of the shield depicting the arms of the City of London : a red cross and sword on white . In the centre of the cross is a gold harp . The blazon of the arms is as follows : Sable , a human skeleton Or seated upon a mossy stone proper and in dexter chief a castle triple towered argent on a chief also argent a cross gules thereon a harp or and in the first quarter a sword erect gules According to documents in the College of Arms in London and the Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland in Dublin , the arms of the city were confirmed in 1613 by Daniel Molyneux , Ulster King of Arms . The College of Arms document states that the original arms of the City of Derry were ye picture of death ( or a skeleton ) on a moissy stone & in ye dexter point a castle and that upon grant of a charter of incorporation and the renaming of the city as Londonderry in that year the first mayor had requested the addition of a `` chief of London '' . Theories have been advanced as to the meaning of the `` old '' arms of Derry , before the addition of the chief bearing the arms of the City of London : * A suggestion has been made that the castle is related to an early 14th-century castle in nearby Greencastle belonging to the Anglo-Norman Earl of Ulster Richard de Burgh . * The most popular theory about the skeleton is that it is that of a Norman De Burgh knight who was starved to death in the castle dungeons in 1332 on the orders of his cousin the above-mentioned Earl of Ulster . Another explanation put forward was that it depicted Cahir O'Doherty ( Sir Charles O'Dogherty ) , who was put to death after Derry was invested by the English army in 1608 . During the days of Gerrymandering and discrimination against the Catholic population of Derry , Derry 's Roman Catholics often used to claim in dark wit that the skeleton was a local waiting for help from the council bureaucracy . In 1979 , Londonderry City Council , as it was then known , commissioned a report into the city 's arms and insignia , as part of the design process for an heraldic badge . The published report found that there was no basis for any of the popular explanations for the skeleton and that it was `` purely symbolic and does not refer to any identifiable person '' . The 1613 records of the arms depicted a harp in the centre of the cross , but this was omitted from later depictions of the city arms , and in the Letters Patent confirming the arms to Londonderry Corporation in 1952 . In 2002 Derry City Council applied to the College of Arms to have the harp restored to the city arms , and Garter and Norroy & Ulster Kings of Arms accepted the 17th century evidence , issuing letters patent to that effect in 2003 . The motto attached to the coat of arms reads in Latin , `` Vita , Veritas , Victoria '' . This translates into English as , `` Life , Truth , Victory '' . The councillors elected in 2014 for the city are : Geography Derry is characterised by its distinctively hilly topography . The River Foyle forms a deep valley as it flows through the city , making Derry a place of very steep streets and sudden , startling views . The original walled city of Londonderry lies on a hill on the west bank of the River Foyle . In the past , the river branched and enclosed this wooded hill as an island ; over the centuries , however , the western branch of the river dried up and became a low-lying and boggy district that is now called the Bogside . Today , modern Derry extends considerably north and west of the city walls and east of the river . The half of the city the west of the Foyle is known as the Cityside and the area east is called the Waterside . The Cityside and Waterside are connected by the Craigavon Bridge and Foyle Bridge , and by a foot bridge in the centre of the city called Peace Bridge . The district also extends into rural areas to the southeast of the city . This much larger city , however , remains characterised by the often extremely steep hills that form much of its terrain on both sides of the river . A notable exception to this lies on the north-eastern edge of the city , on the shores of Lough Foyle , where large expanses of sea and mudflats were reclaimed in the middle of the 19th century . Today , these slob lands are protected from the sea by miles of sea walls and dikes . The area is an internationally important bird sanctuary , ranked among the top 30 wetland sites in the UK . Other important nature reserves lie at Ness Country Park , 10 mi east of Derry ; and at Prehen Wood , within the city 's south-eastern suburbs . Climate Derry has , like most of Ireland , a temperate maritime climate according to the Köppen climate classification system . The nearest official Met Office Weather Station for which climate data is available is Carmoney , just west of City of Derry Airport and about 5 mi north east of the city centre .

odql_4538--Derry.txt

What name was given to the day of serious conflict in Londonderry on January 30th 1972?

J.C. Bamford Excavators Limited , universally known as JCB , is a British multinational corporation , with headquarters in Rocester , Staffordshire , manufacturing equipment for construction , agriculture , waste handling and demolition . It is the world 's third-largest construction equipment manufacturer . It produces over 300 types of machines , including diggers ( backhoes ) , excavators , tractors and diesel engines . It has 22 factories across Asia , Europe , North America , and South America ; its products are sold in over 150 countries . JCB was founded in 1945 by Joseph Cyril Bamford , after whom it is named ; it continues to be owned by the Bamford family . In the UK and India , 'JCB ' is often used colloquially as a generic description for mechanical diggers and excavators and now appears in the Oxford English Dictionary , although it is still held as a trademark . History 20th century JCB was founded by Joseph Cyril Bamford in October 1945 in Uttoxeter , Staffordshire , England . He rented a lock-up garage 12 by . In it , using a welding set which he bought second-hand for £1 from English Electric , he made his first vehicle , a tipping trailer from war-surplus materials . The trailer 's sides and floor were made from steel sheet that had been part of air-raid shelters . On the same day as his son Anthony was born , he sold the trailer at a nearby market for £45 ( plus a part-exchanged farm cart ) and at once made another trailer . At one time he made vehicles in Eckersley 's coal yard in Uttoxeter . The first trailer and the welding set have been preserved : In 1948 , six people were working for the company , and it made the first hydraulic tipping trailer in Europe . In 1950 , it moved to an old cheese factory in Rocester , still employing six . A year later , he began painting his products yellow . In 1953 , his first backhoe loader was launched , and the JCB logo appeared for the first time . It was designed by Derby Media and advertising designer Leslie Smith . In 1957 , the firm launched the `` hydra-digga '' , incorporating the excavator and the major loader as a single all-purpose tool useful for the agricultural and construction industries . In 1960 , JCB 's hydraulic tractors entered the North American market , proving a long-lasting success . JCB became , and still is , the brand leader in the world . By 1964 , JCB had sold over 3,000 3C backhoe loaders . The next year , the first 360-degree excavator was introduced , the JCB 7 . In 1978 , the Loadall machine was introduced . The next year , JCB started its operation in India . In 1991 , the firm entered a joint venture with Sumitomo of Japan to produce excavators , which ended in 1998 . Two years later , a JCB factory was completed in Pooler near Savannah , Georgia in the USA , and the next year a factory was opened in Brazil . 21st century Production of the first engine designed and manufactured by JCB , the JCB444 diesel engine , started in 2004 . In 2005 , for the first time in nearly forty years , JCB bought a company , purchasing the German equipment firm Vibromax . In the same year , the firm opened a new factory in Pudong China . By 2006 , the firm had 4000 employees , twice what it had in 1975 . Planning of a new £40 million pound JCB Heavy Products site began following the launch of an architectural design competition in 2007 managed by RIBA Competitions , and by the next year , the firm began to move from its old site in Pinfold Street in Uttoxeter to the new site beside the A50 ; the Pinfold Street site was demolished in 2009 . During that year , JCB announced plans to make India its largest manufacturing hub . Its factory at Ballabgarh in Haryana , was to become the world ’ s largest backhoe loader manufacturing facility . JCB shed 2,000 jobs during the recession , but in 2010 it announced it was recruiting up to 200 new workers . Worldwide operations JCB has 18 factories in the UK , Germany , North and South America , Australia , India , and China . The company employs some 12,000 people on four continents and sells its products in 150 countries through 1500 dealer depot locations . The company has a range of more than 300 products . JCB is headquartered in Rocester , United Kingdom , which is also the production site for backhoe loaders and telescopic 'Loadall ' handlers . It has a further three factories in nearby Cheadle , Staffordshire ( JCB Earthmovers , JCB Landpower and JCB Compact Products ) , one in Rugeley ( JCB Cab Systems ) , three in Uttoxeter ( JCB Attachments , JCB Heavy Products and JCB World Parts Centre ) , one in Foston in Derbyshire ( JCB Power Systems ) and one in Wrexham in North Wales ( JCB Drivetrain Systems ) . In July 2013 the company opened a dedicated logistics hub in Newcastle-Under-Lyme . This facility is the central hub for component distribution to production facilities , as distinct from the World Parts Centre in Uttoxeter which distributes spare parts to dealers and customers . In December 2013 it was announced that the Rugeley Cab Systems plant would move to a new facility in Uttoxeter which would allow the in-sourcing of cab assembly currently contracted to third parties . This investment is to be accompanied by the expansion of the Rocester and Cheadle production sites by 2018 . Its Indian factories are based in Ballabgarh ( Haryana ) , Jaipur and Pune , its US factory is in Pooler , Georgia , its Brazilian factory in Sorocaba , and its Chinese factory was completed in 2005 in Pudong near Shanghai . JCB also owns Vibromax , a German compaction equipment company based in Gatersleben . JCB has also licensed its name and image to a line of consumer power tools , manufactured by Alba PLC . The products are sold through franchised dealerships , many of which are often exclusive and cover whole countries . JCB dominates the Indian construction equipment market with every three out of every four construction equipment sold in India being a JCB . JCB India 's revenue rose more than 12 times to $ 1 billion in 2012-13 from $ 75 million in 2001 . The Indian operations of the UK company account for 17.5 % of its total revenue . Products Many of the vehicles produced by JCB are variants of the backhoe loader , including tracked or wheeled variants , mini and large versions and other variations for carrying and moving items , for example fork lift vehicles and telescopic handlers for moving materials to the upper floors of a building site . Wheeled loading shovels and articulated dump trucks are also produced . Excavators Tracked 360° excavators ranging from the JZ70 ( 7 tonne zero tail swing excavator ) to the JS460 ( 46 tonne tracked excavator ) . In 2008 at Con expo JCB revealed a new top range JS520 which included the new style paintjob with rams painted black . Wheeled 360° excavators ranging from the JS130W to the JS200W . Machines can be produced with either monoboom or a triple articulated boom . Wheeled loaders Industrial and agricultural wheeled loaders from compact 6 tonne hydrostatic machines to larger 25 tonne quarrying machines using a mix of 4 and 6 cylinder diesel engines . : - ) Tractors JCB has also made its name in the tractor world by producing one of the first such machines that features proper suspension and is capable of travelling at speed on roads . The JCB Fastrac entered production in 1990 . Prior to this design , the suspension was difficult because of the fixed-height connections required to farm machinery , and tractors were notoriously slow on the roads . Dependent on the model , the Fastrac can travel at 50 km/h , 65 km/h or 75 km/h ( 40 mph ) . At launch the Fastrac was featured on the BBC television programme Tomorrow 's World , and years later as Jeremy Clarkson 's tractor of choice in Top Gear . From 2006 the company also produces a range of compact tractors designed for grounds-care , horticultural , and light agricultural duties . Military vehicles JCB also makes a range of military vehicles , which also concentrate on load-handling and excavation . These include the JCB HMEE . JCB Dieselmax In April 2006 , JCB announced that they were developing a Diesel-powered Land Speed Record vehicle known as the 'JCB Dieselmax ' . The car is powered by two modified JCB 444 diesel powerplants using a two-stage turbocharger to generate 750 bhp , one engine driving the front wheels and the other the rear wheels . On August 22 , 2006 the Dieselmax , driven by Andy Green broke the diesel engine land speed record , attaining a speed of 328.767 mph ( 529 km/h ) . The following day , the record was again broken , this time with a speed of 350.092 mph ( 563.418 km/h ) . JCB Vibromax JCB acquired the German company Vibromax , which manufactures compaction equipment . JCB Phones JCB licenses its brand for a series of rugged feature phones and smartphones targeted at construction personnel . The design and marketing contract was awarded to Data Select in 2010 . Marketing Logo The JCB logo dates from 1953 ; from 1960 the company typewriters were given an extra key to render it accurately . The company has mainly advertised in the trade publications and their advertisements have won many awards , particularly for photography . The logo was designed by Leslie Smith , and is off-set at 18 degrees from the horizontal and 22 degrees from the vertical - the angles Joe Bamford liked . Display team To demonstrate his faith in the hydraulic fail safes on JCB machines ( which lock the arms in the event of a loss of hydraulic pressure , preventing them from crashing to the ground ) , Joe Cyril Bamford arranged to have several backhoes raise themselves up on their arms , and drove his car beneath them . This has since developed into a world famous demonstration of the versatility of the backhoe configuration . The JCB display team ( JCB Dancing Diggers ) tour agricultural shows and produce videos , showing some of the unusual ways in which such vehicles can support themselves or manoeuvre . For example , it is quite common for drivers to support the vehicle on both buckets , either for turning on the spot without damaging ground , or for spinning the tracks in a puddle to clean them . The display team expanded this concept into a sort of vehicle gymnastics . The drivers are members of JCB 's demonstration team , who visit prospective customers and demonstrate machines on the customer 's property in order to prove the machine 's suitability for the task at hand . JCB Insurance Services Ltd JCB Insurance Services was founded in 1984 by JCB Chairman Sir Anthony Bamford as a fully owned subsidiary of to provide for the insurance needs of the customers purchasing the firm 's equipment , with the funding they obtained from another fully owned subsidiary , JCB Finance . The insurance subsidiary provides all-risks policies , with optional additions for road risks coverage , and for Public liability and employers liability . JCB Academy JCB is the sponsor of JCB Academy , a new secondary school in Rocester which had its first intake of pupils in September 2010 . JCB Research JCB Research is described as an obscure company worth £27,000 which donated £2m to the Conservative party making it the largest donor in the run up to the 2010 election . Ownership of the company which has never filed accounts is disputed by the Bamford brothers . According to the Guardian , much of the Bamford money was held in shares in offshore trusts . In popular culture * In 1958 the singer Lenny Green had a song called JCB and Me . * In UK version of the Teletubbies one of the live-action visual 5-minute segments ( seen from a Teletubby belly ) featured number counting involving vehicles in lines . A row of JCBs are seen in line , their hydraulics operated as if they are 'dancing ' . * JCB is prominently featured in the song entitled `` JCB '' by the music group Nizlopi , which has achieved UK Number One status . The song is about a boy who goes to work with his father for the day . * A JCB ( not talking ) named Jekub appears in volume 2 ( Diggers ) of The Bromeliad ( alias Nomes ) series by Terry Pratchett . * The Lego Technic range featured a scale-model of the JCB backhoe ( Set [ http : //www.brickset.com/search.aspx ? Set=8862-1 8862 ] ) , complete with working hydraulics systems ( simulated using pneumatics ) and many other features of the original . * In series 9 of Top Gear , Jeremy Clarkson bought a JCB Fastrac 8250 for a challenge involving `` growing your own petrol '' . Jeremy Clarkson , James May , and Richard Hammond all had to reverse their vehicles around the Top Gear car park . * The song `` McCavity '' by the UK group The Macc Lads contains the line `` He 's filled more holes than a JCB '' to ( rather crudely ) demonstrate the sexual prowess of the band-member being sung about . * One digger stars in the music video Sunday Morning - 1985 hit song by The Bolshoi . Three band members are standing on this 360-degree excavator while Trevor Tanner ( the singer ) is lying on the sofa . * In the Popular ITV drama Primeval , JCB machines are used multiple times , sometimes to fight off prehistoric creatures . * JCB machines are often used and referred to ( e.g . `` bring in the JCB '' ) during excavations on the television series Time Team

qb_7262--JCB_(company).txt

What were the names of the founder of British company JCB?

Rosalie Anderson `` Andie '' MacDowell ( born April 21 , 1958 ) is an American actress and fashion model . She made her film debut in 1984 's Greystoke : The Legend of Tarzan , Lord of the Apes , before receiving critical acclaim for her role in Sex , Lies , and Videotape ( 1989 ) . Since then she has appeared in several notable films , including Groundhog Day ( 1993 ) and Four Weddings and a Funeral ( 1994 ) . She has also starred in Green Card ( 1990 ) , Short Cuts ( 1993 ) , Michael ( 1996 ) and Multiplicity ( 1996 ) . From 2013 to 2015 , she starred in the drama series Cedar Cove . She has modeled for Calvin Klein Inc. and has been a spokeswoman for L'Oréal since 1986 celebrating 25 years with the company in 2011 . Early life Andie MacDowell was born in Gaffney , South Carolina , the daughter of Pauline `` Paula '' Johnston ( née Oswald ) , a music teacher , and Marion St. Pierre MacDowell , a lumber executive . Her ancestry includes English , French , Scottish , Irish , and Welsh . [ http : //www.imdb.com/name/nm0000510/bio ? ref_nm_ov_bio_sm Andie MacDowell - Biography - IMDb ] Her family owned an Antebellum period summer house in Arden , North Carolina , which has since been made into a bed-and-breakfast named the Blake House Inn . Graffiti from her childhood visits are preserved in an upstairs bedroom closet . She attended Winthrop University for two years before moving briefly to Columbia , South Carolina . She was initially spotted by a rep from Wilhelmina Models while on a trip to Los Angeles before she would later sign with Elite Model Management in New York City in 1978 . Career In the early 1980s , MacDowell modelled for Vogue magazine and appeared in ad campaigns for Yves Saint Laurent , Vassarette , Armani perfume , Sabeth-Row , Mink International , Anne Klein and Bill Blass . A series of billboards in Times Square and national television commercials for Calvin Klein drew attention to her and led to her 1984 film debut in Greystoke : The Legend of Tarzan , Lord of the Apes , a role in which her lines were dubbed by Glenn Close because her Southern accent was too pronounced for her to play the role of an Englishwoman . The irony of this is not lost , as in the original book by Edgar Rice Burroughs , Jane travels to Africa with her father , and both are from the American South . In 1985 , she had a supporting part as a doctor in St. Elmo 's Fire . MacDowell studied method acting with teachers from the Actors Studio , in addition to working privately with the renowned coach Harold Guskin . Four years later , director Steven Soderbergh cast her in the independent film Sex , Lies , and Videotape ( 1989 ) . Her performance earned her an Independent Spirit Award , a Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress , several other award nominations and led to a series of starring roles in films such as Green Card , The Object of Beauty , and Short Cuts . In the 1990s , MacDowell achieved stardom due to the box office success of director Harold Ramis 's 1993 comedy , Groundhog Day , and Four Weddings and a Funeral ( 1994 ) , opposite Hugh Grant . Since 1986 , MacDowell has appeared in print and television advertisements for the cosmetic and haircare company L'Oréal . In later years she has acted primarily on television and in independent films . In 2012 she co-starred in the short-lived ABC Family series Jane by Design . From 2013 to 2015 , she starred in the Hallmark Channel family series Cedar Cove . Personal life MacDowell married rancher and fellow former model Paul Qualley in 1986 . The two met while both were posing for Gap ads . They had a son , Justin ( born 1986 ) , and two daughters , Rainey ( born 1990 , named Miss Golden Globe 2012 ) and Sarah Margaret Qualley ( born 1994 ) , an actress . They divorced in 1999 . She was married to businessman Rhett Hartzog from November 10 , 2001 , until their divorce in October 2004 . As of 2013 , MacDowell resides in Marina Del Rey , California . Filmography

dpql_4711--Andie_MacDowell.txt

In which film does Andie MacDowell try to fiddle a US stay for Gerard Depardieu?

Snooker ( , ) is a cue sport played on a table covered with a green cloth or baize , with pockets at each of the four corners and in the middle of each of the long side cushions . A full-size table measures 11 ft 8 in × 5 ft 10 in ( 3569 mm x 1778 mm ) , commonly referred to as 12 × 6 ft . The game is played using a cue and 22 snooker balls : one white cue ball , 15 red balls worth one point each , and six balls of different colours : yellow ( two points ) , green ( three ) , brown ( four ) , blue ( five ) , pink ( six ) and black ( seven ) . The red balls are initially placed in a triangular formation , and the other coloured balls on marked positions on the table known as `` spots '' . Players execute shots by striking the cue ball with the cue , causing the cue ball to hit a red or coloured ball . Points are scored by sinking the red and coloured balls ( knocking them into the pockets , called `` potting '' ) in the correct sequence . A player receives additional points if the opponent commits a foul . A player ( or team ) wins a frame ( individual game ) of snooker by scoring more points than the opponent ( s ) . A player wins a match when a predetermined number of frames have been won . Snooker , generally regarded as having been invented in India by British Army officers , is popular in many of the English-speaking and Commonwealth countries , with top professional players attaining multimillion-pound career earnings from the game . The sport has become increasingly popular in China . Touring professional players compete regularly around the world , the premier tournament being the World Snooker Championship , held annually in Sheffield , England . History Snooker in its modern form originated in the latter half of the 19th century . Billiards had been a popular activity amongst British Army officers stationed in India , and variations on the more traditional billiard games were devised . One variation , devised in the officers ' mess in Jabalpur during 1874 or 1875 , was to add coloured balls in addition to the reds and black which were used for pyramid pool and life pool . The rules were formally finalised in 1884 by Sir Neville Chamberlain at Ooty . The word snooker also has military origins , being a slang term for first-year cadets and inexperienced personnel . One version of events states that Chamberlain , of the Devonshire regiment , was playing this new game when his opponent failed to pot a ball and Chamberlain called him a snooker . It thus became attached to the billiards game now bearing its name as inexperienced players were labelled as `` snookers '' . Snooker grew in popularity in England but generally it was still a game for the gentry , and many well established gentlemen 's clubs which had a billiards table would not allow non-members inside to play . To accommodate the popularity of the game , smaller and more open snooker-specific clubs started to be formed . The game of snooker grew in the later half of the 19th century and the early 20th century , and by 1927 the first World Snooker Championship had been organised by Joe Davis who , as a professional English billiards and snooker player , moved the game from a pastime activity into a more professional sphere . Davis won every world championship until 1946 when he retired . The game went into a decline through the 1950s and 1960s with little interest generated outside of those who played . In 1959 , Davis introduced a variation of the game , known as `` snooker plus '' ( see the Variations section below ) to try to improve the game 's popularity by adding two extra colours . However , it never caught on . A major advance occurred in 1969 , when David Attenborough commissioned the snooker tournament Pot Black to demonstrate the potential of colour television , with the green table and multi-coloured balls being ideal for showing off the advantages of colour broadcasting . The TV series became a ratings success and was for a time the second most popular show on BBC Two . Interest in the game increased and the 1978 World Snooker Championship was the first to be fully televised . The game quickly became a mainstream game in the UK , Ireland and much of the Commonwealth and has enjoyed much success in the last 30 years , with most of the ranking tournaments being televised . In 1985 a total of 18.5 million viewers watched the concluding frame of the world championship final between Dennis Taylor and Steve Davis . The loss of tobacco sponsorship during the 2000s led to a decrease in the number of professional tournaments , although some new sponsors were sourced ; and the popularity of the game in the Far East and China , with emerging talents such as Liang Wenbo and more established players such as Ding Junhui and Marco Fu , boosted the sport in that part of the world . In 2010 , promoter Barry Hearn gained a controlling interest in World Snooker Ltd , the professional sport 's commercial arm , pledging to revitalise the `` moribund '' professional game . Under his direction , the number of professional tournaments has increased , certain tournament formats have been changed in an attempt to increase their appeal , and , as of 2013 , total prize money had more than doubled from £3m to more than £7m . The game The object of the game is to score more than one 's opponent by potting in the correct order . At the start of a frame , the balls are positioned as shown , and the players then take turns to hit shots by striking the cue ball with the of the cue , their aim being to pot one of the red balls into a pocket and thereby score a point , or , if this is not possible , to at least hit a red ball so as to avoid making a foul shot . If the striker pots a red ball , he or she must then pot one of the six `` colours '' ( in snooker , the term colour is understood to exclude the red balls ) . If the player successfully pots a colour , the value of that ball is added to the player 's score , and the ball is returned to its starting position on the table . After that , the player must pot another red ball , then another colour , and so on . This process continues until the striker fails to pot the desired ball , at which point the opponent comes to the table to play the next shot . The game continues in this manner until all the reds are potted and only the six colours are left on the table . At this point the colours must be potted in the order from least to most valuable ball – that is , yellow first ( two points ) , then green ( three points ) , brown ( four points ) , blue ( five points ) , pink ( six points ) and finally black ( seven points ) , with the balls not being returned to play . When the final ball is potted , the player with more points wins . If the scores are equal when all the balls have been potted , the black is placed back on its spot as a tiebreaker . A player may also concede a frame while on strike if he or she thinks there are not enough points available on the table to beat the opponent 's score . In professional snooker this is a common occurrence . Points may also be scored in a game when a player 's opponent . A foul can occur for various reasons , most commonly for failing to hit the correct ball ( e.g . hitting a colour first when the player was attempting to hit a red ) , or for sending the cue ball into a pocket . The former may occur when the player fails to escape from `` '' – a situation in which the previous player leaves the cue ball positioned such that no legal ball can be struck directly without obstruction by an illegal ball . Points gained from a foul vary from a minimum of four , to a maximum of seven if the black ball is involved . The total number of consecutive points ( excluding fouls ) that a player amasses during one to the table is known as a `` '' . A player attaining a break of 15 , for example , could have reached it by potting a red then a black , then a red then a pink , before failing to pot the next red . The traditional maximum break in snooker is achieved by potting all reds with blacks then all colours , yielding 147 points ; this is often known as a `` 147 '' or a `` maximum '' . The highest possible break is a 155 break , also known as a `` super maximum '' . This is achieved via the opponent leaving a , with the black being potted as the additional colour , and then potting 15 reds and blacks with the colours . Jamie Cope has the distinction of being the first player in snooker history to post a verified 155 break , achieved in a practice frame in 2005 . One , from the balls in their starting position until the last ball is potted , is called a `` '' . A generally consists of a predetermined number of frames and the player who wins the most frames wins the match . Most professional matches require a player to win five frames , and are called `` best of nine '' as that is the maximum possible number of frames . Tournament finals are usually best of 17 or best of 19 , while the world championship uses longer matches – ranging from best of 19 in the qualifiers and the first round proper , up to 35 frames in length ( first to 18 ) , and is played over two days , extended if necessary until a winner is determined . Professional and competitive amateur matches are officiated by a referee who is the sole judge of fair play . The referee also replaces the colours on the table when necessary and calls out how many points the player has scored during a break . Professional players usually play the game in a sporting manner , declaring fouls the referee has missed , acknowledging good shots from their opponent , or holding up a hand to apologise for fortunate shots , also known as `` flukes '' . Accessories used for snooker include for the tip of the cue , of various sorts ( needed often , due to the length of a full-size table ) , a triangle to the reds , and a scoreboard . One drawback of snooker on a full-size table is the size of the room ( 22 x ) , which is the minimum required for comfortable cueing room on all sides . This limits the number of locations in which the game can easily be played . While pool tables are common to many pubs , snooker tends to be played either in private surroundings or in public snooker halls . The game can also be played on smaller tables using fewer red balls . The variants in table size are : 10 ft × 5 ft , 9 ft × 4.5 ft , 8 ft × 4 ft , 6 ft × 3 ft ( the smallest for realistic play ) and 4 ft × 2 ft . Smaller tables can come in a variety of styles , such as fold-away or dining-table convertible . A traditional snooker scoreboard resembles an abacus , and records units , tens and hundreds via horizontal sliding pointers . They are typically attached to a wall by the snooker table . A simple scoring bead is also sometimes used , called a `` scoring string '' , or `` scoring wire '' . Each bead ( segment of the string ) represents a single point . Snooker players typically move one or several beads with their cue . Governance and tournaments Organisation The World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association ( WPBSA , also known as World Snooker ) , founded in 1968 as the Professional Billiard Players ' Association , is the governing body for the professional game . The amateur game is governed by the International Billiards and Snooker Federation ( IBSF ) . Tournaments Professional snooker players can play on the World Snooker main tour ranking circuit . Ranking points , earned by players through their performances over the previous two seasons , determine the current world rankings . A player 's ranking determines what level of qualification he or she requires for ranking tournaments . The elite of professional snooker are generally regarded as the `` top 16 '' ranking players , who are not required to pre-qualify for three of the tournaments , namely the Shanghai Masters , Australian Open and the World Snooker Championship . The tour contains 96 players – the top 64 from the previous two seasons , the 8 highest ranked professional players on the Players Tour Championship Order of Merit who are not in the top 64 , 12 players from the Q School , and various regional , junior and amateur champions . The most important event in professional snooker is the world championship , held annually since 1927 ( except during World War II and between 1958 and 1963 ) . The tournament has been held at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield , England since 1977 , and was sponsored by Embassy from 1976 to 2005 . Since 2005 , tobacco companies have not been allowed to sponsor sporting events in the United Kingdom , and the world championship has had to find a new sponsor . It was announced in January 2006 that the 2006–2010 world championships would be sponsored by online casino 888.com . The championship is currently sponsored by Betfred.com after 888.com pulled out of their five-year sponsorship deal after three years . On 15 April 2009 the World Snooker Championship website announced that Betfred.com would be the new sponsor of the world championship for the next four years . The status of the world championship is great , and it is the most highly valued prize in professional snooker , both in terms of financial reward ( £300,000 for the winner , formerly £250,000 ) as well as ranking points and prestige . The world championship is televised extensively in the UK by the BBC and gains significant coverage in Europe on Eurosport and in the Far East . The group of tournaments that come next in importance are the other ranking tournaments . Players in these tournaments score world ranking points . A high ranking ensures qualification for the next year 's tournaments , opportunities to play in invitational tournaments and an advantageous draw in tournaments . The most prestigious of these , after the world championship , is the UK Championship . Third in line are the invitational tournaments , to which most of the highest ranked players are invited . The most important tournament in this category is the Masters , [ http : //news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/4611510.stm `` Snooker finds new Masters sponsor '' ] , BBC Sport , 13 January 2006 , ( Retrieved 25 February 2007 , ( [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20060213033334/http : //news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/4611510.stm Archive Version ] ) which to most players is the second or third most sought-after prize . In an attempt to answer criticisms that televised matches can be slow or get bogged down in lengthy safety exchanges and that long matches cause problems for advertisers , an alternative series of timed tournaments has been organised by Matchroom Sport chairman Barry Hearn . The shot-timed Premier League Snooker was established , with seven players invited to compete at regular United Kingdom venues , televised on Sky Sports . Players had twenty-five seconds to take each shot , with five time-outs per player per match . While some success was achieved with this format , it generally did not receive the same amount of press attention or status as the regular ranking tournaments . However , this event has been taken out of the tour since 2013 , when the Champion of Champions was established . There are also other tournaments that have less importance , earn no world ranking points and are not televised . These can change on a year-to-year basis depending on calendars and sponsors . In 2015 , the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association submitted a bid for snooker to be played at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo . Criticism Several players , such as Ronnie O'Sullivan , Mark Allen and Steve Davis , have warned that there are so many tournaments that players risk burning out . In 2012 , O'Sullivan played fewer tournaments in order to spend more time with his children , and ended the 2012-'13 season ranked No . 19 in the world . Furthermore , he did not play any tournament in 2013 except the world championship , which he won . Equipment ; Table The playing surface , 11 feet 8.5 inches by 5 feet 10 inches for a standard full-size table , with six pocket holes , one at each corner and one at the center of each of the longer side cushions . For further information see Billiard table , specifically the section Snooker and English billiards tables . ; Cloth The cloth is usually green , with a directional nap running from the baulk end of the table towards the end with the black ball spot . The cloth is often called `` baize '' ; however baize is a much inferior type of cloth sometimes used on pool tables . The nap will affect the direction of the cue ball depending on which direction the cue ball is shot and also on whether left or right side ( spin ) is placed on the ball . Even if the cue ball is hit in exactly the same way , the nap will cause a different effect depending on whether the ball is hit down table ( towards the black ball spot ) or up table towards the baulk line . The cloth on a snooker table is not vacuumed , as this can destroy the nap . The cloth is brushed in a straight line from the baulk end to the far end with multiple brush strokes that are straight in direction ( i.e . not across the table ) . Some table men will also then drag a dampened cloth wrapped around a short piece of board ( like a two by four ) to collect any remaining fine dust and help lay the nap down . Strachan cloth as used in official snooker tournaments is made up of 100 % wool . Some other cloths include a small percentage of nylon . ; Balls 22 balls ( 15 red , 6 colour balls and a white cue ball ) , 52.5 mm or 2 inches in diameter . For further information see Billiard ball , particularly the section Snooker ; Cue A stick , made of wood or fibreglass , tapering to a tip , usually ending in leather , which is used to strike the cue-ball . ; Cue-tip chalk The tip of the cue is `` chalked '' to ensure good contact between the cue and the cue-ball . This `` chalk '' is generally a silica based compound rather than actual chalk of the type used used on blackboards . ; Extension A shorter baton that fits over , or screws into , the back end of the cue , effectively lengthening it . Is used for shots where the cue ball is a long distance from the player . ; Rest A stick with an X-shaped head that is used to support the cue when the cue ball is out of reach at normal extension . ; Rest head adaptor An attachment that slips onto a conventional rest head to make a spider or to give a slightly different bridge . ; Hook rest Identical to the normal rest , yet with a hooked metal end . It is used to set the rest around another ball . The hook rest is the most recent invention in snooker . ; Spider Similar to the rest but with an arch-shaped head ; it is used to elevate and support the tip of the cue above the height of the cue-ball . ; Swan ( or swan-neck spider or giraffe ) This equipment , consisting of a rest with a single extended neck and a fork-like prong at the end , is used to give extra cueing distance over a group of balls . If not available , a regular X rest can be placed on a spider so it in turn hangs the required distance beyond to provide similar support . ; Triangle/rack The piece of equipment is used for gathering the red balls into the formation required for the break to start a frame . ; Extended rest Similar to the regular rest , but with a mechanism at the butt end which makes it possible to extend the rest by up to three feet . ; Extended spider A hybrid of the swan and the spider . Its purpose is to bridge over large packs of reds . Is less common these days in professional snooker but can be used in situations where the position of one or more balls prevents the spider being placed where the striker desires . ; Half butt Usually housed underneath the side of the table , the half butt is a combination of a table length rest and cue which is rarely used unless the cue ball needs to be struck in such a way that the entire length of the table is the actual obstacle . ; Ball marker A multi-purpose instrument with a `` D '' shaped notch , which a referee can place next to a ball , in order to mark the position of it . They can then remove the ball to clean it ; also used to judge if a ball is preventing a colour from being placed on its spot and to judge if the cue ball can hit the extreme edge of a `` ball on '' when awarding a free ball ( by placing it alongside the potentially intervening ball ) . Notable players In the professional era that began with Joe Davis in the 1930s and continues until the present day , a relatively small number of players have succeeded at the top level . Through the decades , certain players have tended to dominate the game , but none more than its original star player , Joe Davis . Davis was world champion for twenty years , retiring unbeaten after claiming his fifteenth world title in 1946 when the tournament was reinstated after the Second World War . Davis was unbeaten in world championship play , and was only ever beaten four times in his entire life , with all four defeats coming after his world championship retirement and inflicted by his own brother Fred . He did lose matches in handicapped tournaments , but on level terms these four defeats were the only losses of his entire career . He was also world billiards champion . It is regarded as highly unlikely that anyone will ever dominate the game to his level again . After Davis retired from world championship play , the next dominant force was his younger brother Fred Davis who had lost the 1940 final by a single frame . By 1947 he was deemed ready by his brother to take over the mantle but lost the world final to the Scotsman Walter Donaldson . After this setback , Fred and Walter contested the next four finals with Fred proving himself the stronger player . After the abandonment of the world championship in 1953 , with the 1952 final boycotted by British professionals , the Professional Match Play Championship became the unofficial world championship in all but name . Fred won the event every year until its penultimate one , when in 1957 he did not enter . After winning three official and five unofficial world titles , his absence from the 1957 tournament was to prove vital , as its winner , John Pulman , was automatically awarded the official world title on resumption of the tournament in 1964 . Davis would try , but never regain the world title again . John Pulman was the king of the 1960s , when the world championship was played on a challenge basis . However , when the tournament reverted to a knockout formula in 1969 , he did not prosper . Ray Reardon became the dominant force in the 1970s winning six titles , with John Spencer winning three . By the time Steve Davis won his first world title in 1981 , there had been just ten world champions since 1927 , with Davis becoming the eleventh , including the winner of the boycotted 1952 title , Horace Lindrum . Stephen Hendry became the fourteenth in 1990 and dominated through the 1990s . Reardon won six ( 1970 , 1973–1976 and 1978 ) , Davis also six ( 1981 , 1983 , 1984 and 1987–1989 ) and Hendry seven ( 1990 , 1992–1996 and 1999 ) . O'Sullivan is the closest to dominance in the modern era , having won the title on five occasions in the 21st century ( 2001 , 2004 , 2008 , 2012 and 2013 ) . Mark Williams has won twice ( 2000 and 2003 ) and John Higgins four times ( 1998 , 2007 , 2009 , 2011 ) but since the beginning of the century , there has not been a dominant force like in previous decades , and the modern era has seen many players playing to a similar standard , instead of one player raising the bar . Davis for example , won more ranking tournaments than the rest of the top 64 players put together by 1985 and still holds the record for most tournament wins overall , at a time when there were far fewer tournaments than today . By retaining his title in 2013 , O'Sullivan became the first player to successfully defend the world championship since 1996 when Hendry won the sixth of his seven titles , his fifth in a row . Variants * American snooker , a variant dating to 1925 , usually played on a 10 by 5 foot table with inch balls , and a simpler rule set influenced by pool ( despite its name , American snooker is not governed or recognised by the United States Snooker Association ) . * Power snooker , a variant with only nine reds , in a diamond-shaped pack , instead of 15 in a triangle , and matches limited to 30 minutes . * Sinuca brasileira , a Brazilian version with only one red ball , and divergent rules . * Six-red snooker , a variant played with only six reds in a triangular pack . * Snookerpool , a variant played on an American pool table with ten reds in a triangular pack . * Snooker plus , a variant with two additional ( 8pt orange and 10pt purple ) , allowing a maximum break of 210 . The variation was created by Joe Davis in 1959 and used at the 1959 News of the World Snooker Plus Tournament . It failed to gain popularity . * Ten-red snooker , a variant played with only ten reds in a triangle . * Volunteer snooker , a variant from the early 1900s .

odql_14327--Snooker.txt

What is the name of the line on a Snooker table on which the yellow, green and brown are placed at the start of a frame?