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is there a toll on george washington bridge | George Washington bridge - Wikipedia
The George Washington Bridge -- known informally as the GW Bridge, the GWB, the GW, or the George -- is a double - decked suspension bridge spanning the Hudson River between the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City and Fort Lee, New Jersey. As of 2016, the George Washington Bridge carried over 103 million vehicles per year, making it the world 's busiest motor vehicle bridge. It is owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bi-state government agency that operates several bridges, tunnels and airports, as well as marine seaports, and the PATH rapid transit system.
The bridge, an integral conduit within the New York metropolitan area, has an upper level that carries four lanes in each direction and a lower level with three lanes in each direction, for a total of 14 lanes of travel. The speed limit on the bridge is 45 mph (72 km / h), though congestion frequently slows traffic on both weekdays and weekends. The bridge 's upper level also carries pedestrian and bicycle traffic. Interstate 95 (I - 95) and U.S. Route 1 / 9 (US 1 / 9) cross the river via the bridge. US 46, which lies entirely within New Jersey, terminates halfway across the bridge at the state border with New York. At its eastern terminus in New York City, the bridge connects with the Trans - Manhattan Expressway (part of I - 95, connecting to the Cross Bronx Expressway).
The bridge sits near the sites of Fort Washington (in New York) and Fort Lee (in New Jersey), which were fortified positions used by General George Washington and his American forces as they attempted to deter the occupation of New York City in 1776 during the American Revolutionary War. Unsuccessful, Washington evacuated Manhattan by crossing between the two forts.
Construction on the bridge began in October 1927 as a project of the Port of New York Authority. The bridge 's chief engineer was Othmar Ammann, with Cass Gilbert as architect. Geologists made 300 - foot (91 m) test bores on the New Jersey side to determine if the geological strata would support the bridge. When construction started, the estimated cost of the bridge was $75,000,000. It was expected to carry 8 million vehicles and 1.5 million pedestrians in its first year of operation.
Prior to and while under construction, the bridge was unofficially known as the "Hudson River Bridge ''. That name was the popular choice, chosen over a host of other proposed names as well as the Port Authority 's preference for the name "George Washington Bridge '', based on 1931 ballot voting submitted to the Port Authority by New York and New Jersey residents. However, the Port Authority named the bridge after George Washington that year.
The bridge was dedicated on October 24, 1931, and opened to traffic the following day. The George Washington Bridge, with a span of 4,760 feet (1,450 m) in total -- including a main span of 3,500 feet (1,100 m) -- was the longest main bridge span in the world at the time, at nearly double the 1,850 feet (560 m) of the previous record holder, the Ambassador Bridge in Detroit. It held this title until the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge in 1937.
In 1946, two more lanes were created on the current upper level, widening it from the original six lanes. A second, lower deck, which had been anticipated in Ammann 's original plans, was approved by Lt. Col. Joseph R. McCammon, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and opened to the public on August 29, 1962. The lower level, nicknamed "Martha '' after George 's wife Martha Washington, increased the capacity of the bridge by 75 percent, and simultaneously made the George Washington Bridge the world 's only 14 - lane suspension bridge.
The original design for the towers of the bridge called for them to be encased in concrete and granite. However, because of cost considerations during the Great Depression and favorable aesthetic critiques of the bare steel towers, this was never done. The exposed steel towers, with their distinctive criss - crossed bracing, have become one of the bridge 's most identifiable characteristics.
The George Washington Bridge was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers on October 24, 1981, the 50th anniversary of the bridge 's dedication ceremony.
Starting on July 4, 2000, and for subsequent special occasions, each tower is illuminated by 380 light fixtures that highlight the exposed steel structure. On each tower there are a mix of 150 and 1000 watt metal halide lamp fixtures. The architectural lighting design was completed by Domingo Gonzalez Associates.
As the enclosed lower level is more vulnerable to hazardous material (HAZMAT) incidents than the upper level, most HAZMATs have long been prohibited there. Following the September 11 attacks, the Port Authority also prohibited people from taking photographs on the premises of the bridge out of fear that terrorist groups might study photographs to plot an attack on the bridge, but the photography ban has since been lifted.
Since 2006, the bridge has flown the world 's largest free - flying American flag, measuring at 90 feet (27 m) long, 60 feet (18 m) wide, and 450 pounds (200 kg). It is hoisted on special occasions when weather allows, and appears on Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, Presidents Day, Memorial Day, Flag Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, and Veterans Day, as well as on dates honoring those lost in the September 11 attacks. On events where the flag is flown, the tower lights are lit from dusk until 11: 59 p.m in the evening.
In December 2011, the Port Authority announced plans to repair the bridge. For the first time, the vertical suspender cables would be replaced, at an expected cost of more than $1 billion paid for by toll revenue. On August 5, 2013, repair crews began an $82 - million effort to fix cracks in upper - deck structural steel caused by traffic, particularly heavy trucks. The plan called for replacing 632 road deck panels, which would add at least 20 years of service life to the roadway. The work proceeded at night, and was slated to be complete by year 's end. But delays prevented completion and ultimately the work was halted for the winter. It was restarted on June 16, 2014, and was expected to last another 12 weeks.
From September 9 to 13, 2013, dedicated toll lanes for one of the local Fort Lee entrances to the bridge 's upper level were reduced from three to one, the two given to highway traffic, without notification to local government officials and emergency responders on orders from aides and appointees of New Jersey Governor Chris Christie causing a political controversy called "Bridgegate ''. The local toll lane reductions caused massive traffic congestion, with major delays for school transportation and police and emergency service responses within Fort Lee. The repercussions and controversy surrounding these actions have been investigated by the Port Authority, federal prosecutors, and a New Jersey legislature committee.
The George Washington Bridge carries I - 95 and US 1 / 9 between New Jersey and New York. Coming from New Jersey, US 46 terminates at the state border in the middle of the bridge. Further west, I - 80, US 9W, New Jersey Route 4, and the New Jersey Turnpike also feed into the bridge via either I - 95, U.S. 1 / 9, or U.S. 46 but end before reaching it. The Palisades Interstate Parkway connects directly to the bridge 's upper level, though not to the lower level (plans to give direct access to the lower level from the parkway have been postponed). The marginal roads and local streets above the highways are known as GWB Plaza.
On the New York side, the 12 - lane Trans - Manhattan Expressway heads east across the narrow neck of upper Manhattan, from the bridge to the Harlem River, providing access from both decks to 178th Street, the Henry Hudson Parkway and Riverside Drive on the West Side of Manhattan, and to Amsterdam Avenue and the Harlem River Drive on the East Side. The Expressway connects directly with the Alexander Hamilton Bridge, which spans the Harlem River as part of the Cross-Bronx Expressway (I - 95), providing access to the Major Deegan Expressway (I - 87). Heading towards New Jersey, local access to the bridge is available from 179th Street. There are also ramps connecting the bridge to the George Washington Bridge Bus Terminal, a commuter bus terminal with direct access to the New York City Subway at the 175th Street (A train) station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line.
Emergency services are provided by the Port Authority 's Tunnel & Bridge Agents, who are stationed at the bridge 24 / 7 and maintain various apparatus such as fire trucks, rescue trucks, and wreckers specially designed for the GW Bridge for serious incidents, such as fires, vehicle extrications, Haz - Mat incidents, overturned vehicles, and many other emergencies. Emergency Medical Services are also provided by the Agents.
The George Washington Bridge is notorious for traffic jams during rush hour, as are the highways connected to it, including the Trans - Manhattan Expressway that turns into the Cross Bronx Expressway to the east, the Harlem River Drive that turns into the FDR Drive, the Henry Hudson Parkway that turns into West Side Highway to the south, and the Major Deegan Expressway (I - 87) in the Bronx at the other side of the Harlem River at its interchange with I - 95. The western approaches in New Jersey are also slow, specifically I - 95, US 1 - 9, and 46 (merged before the bridge), Route 4, and the Palisades Parkway.
Within New York City, the Lincoln Tunnel (NJ 495) and Holland Tunnel (Interstate 78 / NJ 139) also enter Manhattan, albeit further south. The Verrazano Bridge (I - 278), which connects Staten Island with Brooklyn and also handles traffic from New Jersey, is an alternate route even further south. Within the New York metropolitan area, the Tappan Zee Bridge (Interstates 87 / 287 and New York State Thruway) is an alternate route further north that avoids the city proper.
For traffic from further away, such as traffic between New England (and points north / east) and Pennsylvania (and points south / west), Interstate 84, which crosses the Hudson on the Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge, is often used as an alternative rather than either the GWB or the Tappan Zee Bridge, as it avoids the inner New York metropolitan area and is a less congested route.
Eastbound vehicles must pay a toll to cross the bridge; as with all Hudson River crossings along the North River, westbound vehicles cross for free. As of December 6, 2015, the cash tolls going from New Jersey to New York are $15 for both cars and motorcycles. E-ZPass users are charged $10.50 for cars and $9.50 for motorcycles during off - peak hours, and $12.50 for cars and $11.50 for motorcycles during peak hours. Trucks are charged cash tolls of $20.00 per axle, with discounted peak, off - peak, and overnight E-ZPass tolls. A discounted carpool toll ($6.50) is available at all times for cars with three or more passengers using NY or NJ E-ZPass, who proceed through a staffed toll lane (provided they have registered with the free "Carpool Plan ''). There is an off - peak toll of $7.00 for qualified low - emission passenger vehicles, which have received a Green E-ZPass based on registering for the Port Authority Green Pass Discount Plan.
Tolls for the bridge cost $. 50 one way in 1931, but have been raised over the years up to the current $15 cash toll for passenger vehicles, which was enacted on December 6, 2015. In 2006, bridge tolls totaled about $1 million per day; at the time, tolls for cars were $6 cash, $5 E-ZPass peak hours, and $4 E-ZPass off - peak hours.
The bridge has 29 toll lanes: 12 in the main upper - level toll plaza, 10 in the lower - level toll plaza, and seven in the Palisades Interstate Parkway toll plaza leading to the upper level. The toll plazas on the lower level and Palisades Parkway are not staffed during the overnight hours and accept only E-ZPass transactions during this period. Pedestrians and cyclists cross for free on the sidewalk. Though there are sidewalks on each side of the bridge, cyclists and pedestrians can use only the south side. The bridge offers spectacular views of the Hudson River, the Manhattan skyline, and the New Jersey Palisades. Pedestrians had to pay tolls of 10 cents shortly after the bridge opened, but non-motorized traffic is no longer tolled.
In January 2007, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey announced a two - year, $3.2 - million deal with GEICO, the auto insurance giant, that would have posted a large billboard atop the toll plaza that said "GEICO Drive Safely, '' along with GEICO signs on the tollbooths and approach roads. A week later, however, the Port Authority canceled the contract after critics said the signs would mar the landmarked bridge, that the Port Authority had failed to negotiate a good price for the deal, and that the signs might violate Fort Lee 's regulations.
The George Washington Bridge is popular among sightseers and commuters traveling by foot, bicycle, or roller skates. The southern sidewalk (accessible by a long, steep ramp on the Manhattan side of the bridge) is shared by cyclists and pedestrians, with a level surface from end to end. The entrance in Manhattan is at 178th Street, just west of Cabrini Boulevard which also has access to the Hudson River Greenway north of the bridge. The sidewalk is accessible on the New Jersey side from Hudson Terrace, where a gate open in daytime and evening allows pedestrians and bikes to pass. Also on Hudson Terrace, less than one hundred yards north of the bike / ped entrance, walkers will find the start of the Long Path hiking trail, which leads after a short walk to some spectacular views of the bridge and continues north toward Albany. The George Washington Bridge carries New York State Bicycle Route 9, a bike route that runs from New York City north to Rouses Point.
The Port Authority closed the northern sidewalk at all times in 2008. Though it offers direct access into Palisades Interstate Park, the northern sidewalk requires stairway climbs and descents on both sides, which was inaccessible for people with physical disabilities and posed a risk in poor weather conditions.
Transportation Alternatives, a New York City advocacy group, has proposed an enhanced River Road connector in Fort Lee, which would create safer pedestrian and bicycle access to the George Washington Bridge on the New Jersey side of the bridge.
The George Washington Bridge is among the most frequently chosen sites in the New York metropolitan area for committing suicide.
In 1994, a caller into The Howard Stern Show was on the bridge threatening to commit suicide, but Howard Stern managed to talk him out of it. The 2010 suicide of Tyler Clementi, who had jumped from the bridge, drew national attention to cyberbullying and the struggles facing LGBT youth.
In 2012, a record 18 people threw themselves off the bridge to their deaths, with 43 suicide attempts overall. In 2014 and 2015, there were also 18 deaths reported. In 2014, there were 74 people were stopped by the Port Authority police, while the next year, another 86 people were stopped by the Port Authority police. In 2016, there were 12 reported deaths, a decrease from previous years, while 70 people were stopped by the Port Authority police.
The landmark bridge is seen in many movies set in New York, mostly in establishing shots. The bridge is featured, along with the nearby Little Red Lighthouse, in Hildegarde Swift 's 1942 children 's book The Little Red Lighthouse and the Great Gray Bridge. The bridge is also featured in Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather, Woody Allen 's Broadway Danny Rose, Mike Newell 's Donnie Brasco, and Abraham Polonsky 's Force of Evil. On Sesame Street, Ernie often sang the words "George Washington Bridge '' to the tune of Sobre las Olas ("The Loveliest Night of the Year '').
In the 1976 film Network, the character Max Schumacher (William Holden) tells a funny story to his friend Howard Beale (Peter Finch), in which the young Schumacher, who overslept for a news shoot about the new lower deck at the bridge, gets into a cab wearing a raincoat over his pajamas and tells the cabbie to: "Take me to the middle of the George Washington Bridge. '' The cabbie, concerned that Schumacher intended to jump from the bridge, turns around and begs him: "Do n't do it buddy! You 're a young man! You got your whole life ahead of you! ''
Explanatory notes
Notes
Route map: Google
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where does the premier meet to govern the province of ontario | Premier (Canada) - wikipedia
In Canada, a premier is the head of government of a province or territory. Though the word is merely a synonym for prime minister, it is employed for provincial prime ministers to differentiate them from the Prime Minister of Canada. There are currently 10 provincial premiers and three territorial premiers. These persons are styled The Honourable only while in office, unless they are admitted to the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada, in which case they retain the title even after leaving the premiership.
The prime minister -- premier distinction does not exist in French, with both federal and provincial first ministers being styled premier ministre.
In a number of provinces, premiers were previously known by the title prime minister, with premier being an informal term used to apply to all prime ministers, even the Prime Minister of Canada. This practice was eventually phased out to avoid confusing the provincial leaders with the federal prime minister, as well as to indicate the distinct nature of the provincial offices. Officially, the last such case outside Quebec was that of W.A.C. Bennett, who served as Premier of British Columbia and styled himself as prime minister until leaving office in 1972. The title premier is not granted by any written law. The formal name of the government position held by the premier is President of the Executive Council or some similar term, but that formal term is rarely used.
In Canadian French, the head of government of a province or territory is called premier ministre: the French language does not have a synonym for prime minister. In Quebec, this designation is often translated to prime minister in English. The designation, however, is not exclusive. When they visit Quebec or are described by the Quebec government or many Quebec media, all the other heads of government of the other provinces are also called prime minister in the English version of the official French texts. The name of the province is always added to avoid confusion.
The terms prime minister and premier come from the United Kingdom, where there is only one prime minister / premier. Prime ministers of constituent countries in the UK are titled first minister. Collectively, Canada 's federal prime minister and the premiers are collectively referred to as first ministers, another synonym of British origin.
Under Canada 's system of responsible government, the premier is both a member of the provincial legislative assembly and the head of the executive. The premier normally holds a seat in the legislative assembly, being elected in one of the electoral constituencies of the province. The leader of the party which commands a majority in the assembly is then legally appointed the premier by the lieutenant governor, representing the Canadian monarch in right of the province. While most often the leader of the largest party in the provincial legislature is invited to become premier, this is not always the case, the most recent occurring after the 2017 general election in British Columbia.
Premiers advise the lieutenant governor on whom to appoint to the cabinet and they guide legislation through the legislature. Premiers thus exercise a significant amount of power within the Canadian federation, especially in regard to the federal government. In many ways they remain the most effective representatives of provincial interests to the federal government, as parliament 's strong party discipline and other factors have impaired provincial representation there. This reality is acknowledged in annual "first ministers conferences '' in which the federal prime minister and the 10 premiers meet to discuss provincial - federal relations. The Meech Lake Accord proposed that these meetings be constitutionally mandated, and some premiers have even proposed that these meetings become a formal branch of government, active in the legislative process (see Council of the Federation). However, only one Canadian provincial premier has ever gone on to serve as prime minister: Sir John Thompson. Canada 's first and sixth prime ministers (Sir John A. Macdonald and Sir Charles Tupper) had also been co-premier and premier of British provinces that became part of Canada, but no one who has led a victorious general election campaign in a Canadian province has ever been prime minister.
Canada 's three territories have premiers as well, though they are technically known as "government leaders ''. The Premier of Yukon is chosen in the usual fashion, but the premiers of Nunavut and Northwest Territories are selected from within the small and non-partisan elected territorial councils.
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who is currently the youngest sitting supreme court justice | List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest ranking judicial body in the United States. Its membership, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869, consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices, any six of whom would constitute a quorum. Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution grants plenary power to the President of the United States to nominate, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the United States Senate, appoint justices to the Supreme Court. Justices have life tenure, and receive a salary which is set at $255,500 per year for the chief justice and at $244,400 per year for each associate justice as of 2014.
The Supreme Court was created by Article III of the United States Constitution, which stipulates that the "judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, '' and was organized by the 1st United States Congress. Through the Judiciary Act of 1789, Congress specified the Court 's original and appellate jurisdiction, created thirteen judicial districts, and fixed the number of justices at six (one chief justice and five associate justices).
Since 1789, Congress has occasionally altered the size of the Supreme Court, historically in response to the country 's own expansion in size. An 1801 act would have decreased the Court 's size to five members upon its next vacancy. However, an 1802 act negated the effects of the 1801 act upon the Court before any such vacancy occurred, maintaining the Court 's size at six members. Later legislation increased its size to seven members in 1807, to nine in 1837, and to ten in 1863. An 1866 act was to have reduced the Court 's size from ten members to seven upon its next three vacancies, and two vacancies did occur during this period. However, before a third vacancy occurred, the Judiciary Act of 1869 intervened, restoring the Court 's size to nine members, where it has remained since.
While the justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life, many have retired or resigned. Beginning in the early 20th century, many justices who left the Court voluntarily did so by retiring from the Court without leaving the federal judiciary altogether. A retired justice, according to the United States Code, is no longer a member of the Supreme Court, but remains eligible to serve by designation as a judge of a U.S. Court of Appeals or District Court, and many retired justices have served in these capacities. Historically, the average length of service on the Court has been less than 15 years. However, since 1970 the average length of service has increased to about 26 years.
There are currently nine justices serving on the Supreme Court; listed in order of seniority, they are:
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 114 persons have served on the Court. The length of service on the Court for the 105 non-incumbent justices ranges from William O. Douglas 's 36 years, 211 days to the 163 - day tenure of Thomas Johnson. As of October 29, 2018, the length of service for the nine incumbent justices ranges from Clarence Thomas ' 7003986800000000000 ♠ 27 years, 6 days to Brett Kavanaugh 's 7001230000000000000 ♠ 23 days. Five individuals were confirmed for associate justice, and later appointed chief justice separately: John Rutledge, Edward Douglass White, Charles Evans Hughes, Harlan F. Stone, and William Rehnquist. While listed twice, each of them has been assigned only one index number. The justices of the Supreme Court are:
This graphical timeline depicts the progression of the justices on the Supreme Court. Information regarding each justice 's predecessors, successors and fellow justices, as well as their tenure on the court can be gleaned (and comparisons between justices drawn) from it. Additionally, The progression of presidents, along with the number of justices each nominated, is shown at the top of the timeline to give a more detailed historical context. There are no formal names or numbers for the individual seats of the associate justices, which are listed in the table below simply by number. Note that, due to the several changes in the size of the Court since 1789, two of the seats chronicled -- "5 '' and "7 '' -- have been abolished, both as a result of the Judicial Circuits Act of 1866.
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which of the following in an image can be removed by using smoothing filter | Noise reduction - wikipedia
Noise reduction is the process of removing noise from a signal.
All signal processing devices, both analog and digital, have traits that make them susceptible to noise. Noise can be random or white noise with an even frequency distribution, or frequency dependent noise introduced by a device 's mechanism or signal processing algorithms.
In electronic recording devices, a major type of noise is hiss created by random electron motion due to thermal agitation at all temperatures above absolute zero. These agitated electrons rapidly add and subtract from the voltage of the output signal and thus create detectable noise.
In the case of photographic film and magnetic tape, noise (both visible and audible) is introduced due to the grain structure of the medium. In photographic film, the size of the grains in the film determines the film 's sensitivity, more sensitive film having larger sized grains. In magnetic tape, the larger the grains of the magnetic particles (usually ferric oxide or magnetite), the more prone the medium is to noise.
To compensate for this, larger areas of film or magnetic tape may be used to lower the noise to an acceptable level.
Many noise reduction algorithms tend to alter signals to a greater or lesser degree. The local signal - and - noise orthogonalization algorithm can be used to avoid changes to the signals.
Boosting signals in seismic data is especially crucial for seismic imaging, inversion, and interpretation, thereby greatly improving the success rate in oil & gas exploration. The useful signal that is smeared in the ambient random noise is often neglected and thus may cause fake discontinuity of seismic events and artifacts in the final migrated image. Enhancing the useful signal while preserving edge properties of the seismic profiles by attenuating random noise can help reduce interpretation difficulties and misleading risks for oil and gas detection.
When using analog tape recording technology, they may exhibit a type of noise known as tape hiss. This is related to the particle size and texture used in the magnetic emulsion that is sprayed on the recording media, and also to the relative tape velocity across the tape heads.
Four types of noise reduction exist: single - ended pre-recording, single - ended hiss reduction, single - ended surface noise reduction, and codec or dual - ended systems. Single - ended pre-recording systems (such as Dolby HX Pro) work to affect the recording medium at the time of recording. Single - ended hiss reduction systems (such as DNL or DNR) work to reduce noise as it occurs, including both before and after the recording process as well as for live broadcast applications. Single - ended surface noise reduction (such as CEDAR and the earlier SAE 5000A and Burwen TNE 7000) is applied to the playback of phonograph records to attenuate the sound of scratches, pops, and surface non-linearities. Dual - ended systems have a pre-emphasis process applied during recording and then a de-emphasis process applied at playback.
Dual - ended compander noise reduction systems include the professional systems Dolby A and Dolby SR by Dolby Laboratories, dbx Professional and dbx Type I by dbx, Donald Aldous ' EMT NoiseBX, Burwen Laboratories ' Model 2000 (it) and Telefunken 's telcom c4 (de) as well as the consumer systems Dolby NR, Dolby B, Dolby C and Dolby S, dbx Type II, Telefunken 's High Com and Nakamichi 's High Com II, Toshiba 's adres (ja), JVC 's ANRS (ja)) and Super ANRS, Sanyo 's Super D, and the Hungarian / East - German Ex-Ko system. These systems have a pre-emphasis process applied during recording and then a de-emphasis process applied at playback.
The first widely used audio noise reduction technique was developed by Ray Dolby in 1966. Intended for professional use, Dolby Type A was an encode / decode system in which the amplitude of frequencies in four bands was increased during recording (encoding), then decreased proportionately during playback (decoding). The Dolby B system (developed in conjunction with Henry Kloss) was a single band system designed for consumer products. In particular, when recording quiet parts of an audio signal, the frequencies above 1 kHz would be boosted. This had the effect of increasing the signal to noise ratio on tape up to 10 dB depending on the initial signal volume. When it was played back, the decoder reversed the process, in effect reducing the noise level by up to 10 dB. The Dolby B system, while not as effective as Dolby A, had the advantage of remaining listenable on playback systems without a decoder.
dbx was a competing analog noise reduction system developed by David E. Blackmer, founder of dbx laboratories. It used a root - mean - squared (RMS) encode / decode algorithm with the noise - prone high frequencies boosted, and the entire signal fed through a 2: 1 compander. dbx operated across the entire audible bandwidth and unlike Dolby B was unusable as an open ended system. However it could achieve up to 30 dB of noise reduction.
Since analog video recordings use frequency modulation for the luminance part (composite video signal in direct colour systems), which keeps the tape at saturation level, audio style noise reduction is unnecessary.
Dynamic noise limiter (DNL) is an audio noise reduction system originally introduced by Philips in 1971 for use on cassette decks. Its circuitry is also based on a single chip.
It was further developed into dynamic noise reduction (DNR) by National Semiconductor to reduce noise levels on long - distance telephony. First sold in 1981, DNR is frequently confused with the far more common Dolby noise reduction system. However, unlike Dolby and dbx Type I & Type II noise reduction systems, DNL and DNR are playback - only signal processing systems that do not require the source material to first be encoded, and they can be used together with other forms of noise reduction.
Because DNL and DNR are non-complementary, meaning they do not require encoded source material, they can be used to remove background noise from any audio signal, including magnetic tape recordings and FM radio broadcasts, reducing noise by as much as 10 dB. They can be used in conjunction with other noise reduction systems, provided that they are used prior to applying DNR to prevent DNR from causing the other noise reduction system to mistrack.
The Telefunken High Com integrated circuit U401BR could be utilized to work as a mostly Dolby B -- compatible DNR - style compander as well. In various late - generation High Com tape decks the Dolby - B emulating DNR functionality worked not only for playback, but undocumentedly also during recording.
One of DNR 's first widespread applications was in the GM Delco car stereo systems in U.S. GM cars introduced in 1984. It was also used in factory car stereos in Jeep vehicles in the 1980s, such as the Cherokee XJ. Today, DNR, DNL, and similar systems are most commonly encountered as a noise reduction system in microphone systems.
A second class of algorithms work in the time - frequency domain using some linear or non-linear filters that have local characteristics and are often called time - frequency filters. Noise can therefore be also removed by use of spectral editing tools, which work in this time - frequency domain, allowing local modifications without affecting nearby signal energy. This can be done manually by using the mouse with a pen that has a defined time - frequency shape. This is done much like in a paint program drawing pictures. Another way is to define a dynamic threshold for filtering noise, that is derived from the local signal, again with respect to a local time - frequency region. Everything below the threshold will be filtered, everything above the threshold, like partials of a voice or "wanted noise '', will be untouched. The region is typically defined by the location of the signal Instantaneous Frequency, as most of the signal energy to be preserved is concentrated about it.
Modern digital sound (and picture) recordings no longer need to worry about tape hiss so analog style noise reduction systems are not necessary. However, an interesting twist is that dither systems actually add noise to a signal to improve its quality.
Most general purpose voice editing software will have one or more noise reduction functions (Audacity, WavePad, etc.). Special purpose noise reduction software programs include Gnome Wave Cleaner, Sony Creative Noise Reduction, SoliCall Pro, Voxengo Redunoise and X-OOM Music Clean.
Images taken with both digital cameras and conventional film cameras will pick up noise from a variety of sources. Further use of these images will often require that the noise be (partially) removed -- for aesthetic purposes as in artistic work or marketing, or for practical purposes such as computer vision.
In salt and pepper noise (sparse light and dark disturbances), pixels in the image are very different in color or intensity from their surrounding pixels; the defining characteristic is that the value of a noisy pixel bears no relation to the color of surrounding pixels. Generally this type of noise will only affect a small number of image pixels. When viewed, the image contains dark and white dots, hence the term salt and pepper noise. Typical sources include flecks of dust inside the camera and overheated or faulty CCD elements.
In Gaussian noise, each pixel in the image will be changed from its original value by a (usually) small amount. A histogram, a plot of the amount of distortion of a pixel value against the frequency with which it occurs, shows a normal distribution of noise. While other distributions are possible, the Gaussian (normal) distribution is usually a good model, due to the central limit theorem that says that the sum of different noises tends to approach a Gaussian distribution.
In either case, the noise at different pixels can be either correlated or uncorrelated; in many cases, noise values at different pixels are modeled as being independent and identically distributed, and hence uncorrelated.
In selecting a noise reduction algorithm, one must weigh several factors:
In real - world photographs, the highest spatial - frequency detail consists mostly of variations in brightness ("luminance detail '') rather than variations in hue ("chroma detail ''). Since any noise reduction algorithm should attempt to remove noise without sacrificing real detail from the scene photographed, one risks a greater loss of detail from luminance noise reduction than chroma noise reduction simply because most scenes have little high frequency chroma detail to begin with. In addition, most people find chroma noise in images more objectionable than luminance noise; the colored blobs are considered "digital - looking '' and unnatural, compared to the grainy appearance of luminance noise that some compare to film grain. For these two reasons, most photographic noise reduction algorithms split the image detail into chroma and luminance components and apply more noise reduction to the former.
Most dedicated noise - reduction computer software allows the user to control chroma and luminance noise reduction separately.
One method to remove noise is by convolving the original image with a mask that represents a low - pass filter or smoothing operation. For example, the Gaussian mask comprises elements determined by a Gaussian function. This convolution brings the value of each pixel into closer harmony with the values of its neighbors. In general, a smoothing filter sets each pixel to the average value, or a weighted average, of itself and its nearby neighbors; the Gaussian filter is just one possible set of weights.
Smoothing filters tend to blur an image, because pixel intensity values that are significantly higher or lower than the surrounding neighborhood would "smear '' across the area. Because of this blurring, linear filters are seldom used in practice for noise reduction; they are, however, often used as the basis for nonlinear noise reduction filters.
Another method for removing noise is to evolve the image under a smoothing partial differential equation similar to the heat equation, which is called anisotropic diffusion. With a spatially constant diffusion coefficient, this is equivalent to the heat equation or linear Gaussian filtering, but with a diffusion coefficient designed to detect edges, the noise can be removed without blurring the edges of the image.
Another approach for removing noise is based on non-local averaging of all the pixels in an image. In particular, the amount of weighting for a pixel is based on the degree of similarity between a small patch centered on that pixel and the small patch centered on the pixel being de-noised.
A median filter is an example of a non-linear filter and, if properly designed, is very good at preserving image detail. To run a median filter:
A median filter is a rank - selection (RS) filter, a particularly harsh member of the family of rank - conditioned rank - selection (RCRS) filters; a much milder member of that family, for example one that selects the closest of the neighboring values when a pixel 's value is external in its neighborhood, and leaves it unchanged otherwise, is sometimes preferred, especially in photographic applications.
Median and other RCRS filters are good at removing salt and pepper noise from an image, and also cause relatively little blurring of edges, and hence are often used in computer vision applications.
The main aim of an image denoising algorithm is to achieve both noise reduction and feature preservation. In this context, wavelet - based methods are of particular interest. In the wavelet domain, the noise is uniformly spread throughout coefficients while most of the image information is concentrated in a few large ones. Therefore, the first wavelet - based denoising methods were based on thresholding of detail subbands coefficients. However, most of the wavelet thresholding methods suffer from the drawback that the chosen threshold may not match the specific distribution of signal and noise components at different scales and orientations.
To address these disadvantages, non-linear estimators based on Bayesian theory have been developed. In the Bayesian framework, it has been recognized that a successful denoising algorithm can achieve both noise reduction and feature preservation if it employs an accurate statistical description of the signal and noise components.
Statistical methods for image denoising exist as well, though they are infrequently used as they are computationally demanding. For Gaussian noise, one can model the pixels in a greyscale image as auto - normally distributed, where each pixel 's "true '' greyscale value is normally distributed with mean equal to the average greyscale value of its neighboring pixels and a given variance.
Let δ i (\ displaystyle \ delta _ (i)) denote the pixels adjacent to the i (\ displaystyle i) th pixel. Then the conditional distribution of the greyscale intensity (on a (0, 1) (\ displaystyle (0, 1)) scale) at the i (\ displaystyle i) th node is:
P (x (i) = c x (j) ∀ j ∈ δ i) ∝ e − β 2 λ ∑ j ∈ δ i (c − x (j)) 2 (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (P) (x (i) = c x (j) \ forall j \ in \ delta i) \ propto e ^ (- (\ frac (\ beta) (2 \ lambda)) \ sum _ (j \ in \ delta i) (c-x (j)) ^ (2)))
for a chosen parameter β ≥ 0 (\ displaystyle \ beta \ geq 0) and variance λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda). One method of denoising that uses the auto - normal model uses the image data as a Bayesian prior and the auto - normal density as a likelihood function, with the resulting posterior distribution offering a mean or mode as a denoised image.
A block - matching algorithm can be applied to group similar image fragments into overlapping macroblocks of identical size, stacks of similar macroblocks are then filtered together in the transform domain and each image fragment is finally restored to its original location using a weighted average of the overlapping pixels.
Shrinkage fields is a random field - based machine learning technique that brings performance comparable to that of Block - matching and 3D filtering yet requires much lower computational overhead (such that it could be performed directly within embedded systems).
Various deep learning approaches have been proposed to solve noise reduction and such image restoration tasks. Deep Image Prior is one such technique which makes use of convolutional neural network and is distinct in that it requires no prior training data.
Most general purpose image and photo editing software will have one or more noise reduction functions (median, blur, despeckle, etc.). Special purpose noise reduction software programs include Neat Image, Noiseless, Noiseware, Noise Ninja, G'MIC (through the - denoise command), and pnmnlfilt (nonlinear filter) found in the open source Netpbm tools. General purpose image and photo editing software including noise reduction functions include Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, PhotoImpact, Paint Shop Pro, Helicon Filter, and Darktable.
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phantom of the opera movie christine's father | Christine Daaé - wikipedia
Christine Daaé is a fictional character and the female protagonist of Gaston Leroux 's 1910 novel The Phantom of the Opera and of the various adaptations of the work. Erik, the Phantom of the Opera and Viscount Raoul de Chagny both fall in love with her.
Christine Daaé was born in a town near Uppsala, Sweden. Her mother died when she was six years old. Raised by her father, they constantly traveled to fairs where he played the violin and she sang. They were discovered at one of these fairs by Professor Valérius, who took them to Gothenburg and then to Paris, providing for Christine 's education.
Christine was extremely close to her father, who told her Scandinavian fairy - tales; the tale of the "Angel of Music '' was her favorite. Christine entered the Paris Conservatoire and trained for four years to become an opera singer to please her father and Mamma Valérius, the bedridden wife of the late Professor. However, by the end of the four years, she had lost her passion for singing and the music.
When Christine arrives at the Opéra Garnier, she was described as "sounding like a rusty hinge '', but one person found the beauty hidden in her voice. When Erik, the Phantom of the Opera began to tutor her, he told her that he is the "Angel of Music '' of whom her father had spoken. She believed him, and he inspired her soul back into her voice. Christine debuted at a gala at the opera in place of the singer Carlotta, who had fallen ill. Christine 's singing was described as "seraphic ''.
Christine became torn between her loyalty and sympathy for her mentor, Erik, and her love for her childhood friend Viscount Raoul de Chagny.
In the Lofficier translation of the novel, Christine 's age is given as 15 years old. However, this is a mistranslation of a passage that says her heart was "as pure as that of a 15 year old ''. The evidence of Christine 's childhood friendship with Raoul, and her studies at the Paris Conservatoire, put her age at 20 years old.
Christine is a chorus girl, who becomes the object of obsession, passion and love for the mysterious Phantom of the Opera. He becomes her mentor, and with his help, she is chosen to replace the company 's prima donna, Carlotta. When she falls in love with her childhood sweetheart, Raoul, the Phantom kidnaps Christine in a jealous rage and drags her down to his lair. She is forced to choose between the Phantom and Raoul, but her compassion for the Phantom moves him to free them both and allow them to flee.
The film version of the musical follows the musical 's script closely, but Christine 's age is reduced. Her gravemark says that she was born in 1854, and the beginning the movie shows the setting as 1870, so that makes her 15 or 16 years old.
In the novel, Christine 's loving father is named Daddy Daaé. In the musical, he is called Gustave, and in Sarah Brightman 's music video version of "Wishing You Were Somehow Here Again '', his name is Charles.
The novel was filmed several times. The first film adaptation was made in Germany in 1915, with Nils Chrisander (1884 - 1947) as the Phantom of the Opera and Aud Egede - Nissen (1893 - 1974) as Christine Daaé. Many critics consider the Filming of 1925, by Carl Laemmles Studio Universal Pictures, as the most successful. The role of the phantom played here Lon Chaney. The same studio tried in 1943 with a sound film of Arthur Lubin to follow this success. The film used to a large extent the still existing scenes of the silent film. Claude Rains played the phantom. In 1960, a Spanish society turned a very free adaptation of the subject under the title El Fantasma de la Operetta. In 1962 the British production company Hammer Films focused on the horror genre. Another film adaptation was made in 1974 by 20th Century Fox, who moved the event to New York and changed the story very much. This film was released as The Phantom of the Paradise. The 1989 version, with Freddy - Krueger star Robert Englund in the title role, focused on the potential for violence of the phantom. On the other hand, in the same year as a German - French - Italian - American co-production, a TV - Secondary was created, which put the melodramatic love story in the foreground and waived television rights on Splatter effects. The phantom embodied Charles Dance. In 1998 the famous Italian Horrorfilm director, Dario Argento, starred with Julian Sands in the lead role of the fabric, but was not particularly successful at Kinokasse. Finally, in 2004, Joel Schumacher produced a film version that was inspired by the musical of Andrew Lloyd Webber. Here played Gerard Butler, the role of the Phantom. Originally there was already a filming based on the musical in the early 1990s, with the main actors of the premiere: Michael Crawford as the phantom and Sarah Brightman as Christine. Brightman was married to Lloyd Webber at the time, but shortly before the planned pre-production the marriage was broken and the filming was canceled.
Several researchers claim the character Christine Daaé was based upon the real - life Swedish - born opera star Christina Nilsson, also known as Kristina Nilsson or Christine Nilsson. This claim is unverified by any official source, but it is supported by several biographical similarities between Nilsson and Daaé. The most obvious is that Nilsson, like Daaé, was born in Sweden and trained in Paris.
The first actress to portray Christine Daaé was Aud Egede - Nissen in the 1916 German silent version by Ernst Matray, Das Gespenst im Opernhaus or Das Phantom der Oper.
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who plays in the movie strangers prey at night | The Strangers: Prey at Night - wikipedia
The Strangers: Prey at Night is a 2018 American slasher film directed by Johannes Roberts and starring Christina Hendricks, Martin Henderson, Bailee Madison and Lewis Pullman. A sequel to the 2008 film The Strangers, it is written by Bryan Bertino (who wrote and directed the first film) and Ben Ketai. Mike and his wife Cindy take their son and daughter on a road trip that becomes their worst nightmare. The family members soon find themselves in a desperate fight for survival when they arrive at a secluded mobile home park that 's mysteriously deserted -- until three masked psychopaths show up to satisfy their thirst for blood.
The film was released in the United States on March 9, 2018, and grossed $29 million worldwide. It received mixed reviews, with some critics considering it more entertaining than the original and appreciating its satire of horror films, while others noted it as inferior and called it cliché.
In a secluded trailer park in Salem, Arkansas, the three masked killers, The Walker family -- Dollface, Pin Up Girl, and the Man in the Mask -- arrive. Dollface kills a female occupant and then lies down in bed next to the woman 's sleeping husband.
Mike and his wife Cindy take a family trip with their children, Luke and Kinsey, to their aunt 's and uncle 's trailer park to spend time together before Kinsey leaves for boarding school. After arriving, they meet an unmasked Dollface. She asks if Tamara is home but is turned away by Cindy. Kinsey and Luke stumble upon a trailer with the door open. Inside, they find their aunt and uncle, the couple from the beginning of the film, brutally murdered.
Back at the family trailer, Dollface visits a second time and is yet again turned away. Troubled by the encounter, Mike and Cindy find the kids, who are in hysterics. Mike follows Luke to find the bodies. Cindy and Kinsey return to the trailer to find their cell phones destroyed and a masked Dollface inside. Cindy helps Kinsey escape before being stabbed to death by Dollface.
Mike and Luke find the bodies and listen to the voicemail that Cindy left for their uncle earlier, realizing that the killers had heard the message and were waiting for them to arrive. They find Kinsey missing and Cindy dead. They drive their minivan around, shouting for Kinsey, but one of the killers causes Mike to have a car accident. Finding himself pinned to his seat, Mike tells Luke to find his sister. After Luke leaves, the Man in the Mask kills Mike with an ice pick.
Kinsey is attacked twice and stabbed by Dollface before being rescued by Luke. Luke hides her under a porch and goes to the general store to use the phone but is attacked by Pin Up Girl. He overpowers her and stabs her to death. The Man in the Mask stabs Luke in the back and leaves him to die. Kinsey finds Luke and pulls him out of the pool before setting off to find help. A sheriff finds Kinsey but is promptly killed by Dollface. Kinsey uses the sheriff 's shotgun to shoot Dollface; she unmasks her, and as Dollface bleeds to death, she asks why they are attacking them. Dollface replies, "Why not? '' Kinsey then kills Dollface by shooting her in the head with the shotgun. The Man in the Mask arrives in his truck as Kinsey starts the sheriff 's SUV. She uses her lighter to ignite a gasoline leak and both vehicles explode.
The Man in the Mask survives and pursues her in his truck, now engulfed in flames. He exits the truck to attack her but falls to the ground. Kinsey flags down a mother and son in a pickup truck, but they attempt to flee when they see the Man in the Mask. Kinsey manages to climb into the bed of the truck, along with the Man in the Mask. Kinsey knocks him off of the truck by hitting him in the head with a baseball bat. The Man in the Mask is last seen lying in the road, seemingly dead.
Some time later, Luke is recovering in a hospital bed as Kinsey awakens from a nightmare. As she gets up to fill a cup of water, she hears a familiar knocking on the door.
This scene is on the DVD as a deleted scene in the Special Features section. As Kinsey gets up to fill her cup of water, she hears a knock on the door. When she opens it, she is greeted by an empty hallway. She hears the scrape of an ax coming toward her, hinting that the Man in the Mask is still alive. The lights in the hospital room go out and she screams.
Rogue Pictures ' producers announced that a sequel to The Strangers was in development in August 2008, tentatively titled The Strangers: Part II. In a 2009 listing published by Bloody Disgusting, it was reported that the script would be written by Bryan Bertino and the film directed by Laurent Briet. In 2010, the horror website Shock Till You Drop reported that Relativity Media put The Strangers: Part II on hold because they decided the film might not be in their interest, despite the fact that Universal Pictures was willing to distribute it. However, Rogue Pictures confirmed in January 2011 that the sequel was again in production, and was then scheduled to begin filming as early as April 2011; in a press release, Rogue revealed the plot would concern "a family of four who have been evicted from their home due to the economy, and are paid a visit by the same three strangers from the first film. ''
According to Liv Tyler, star of the original film, Part II was slated for release in 2014, but that did not occur. In 2015, The Wrap reported that the sequel was in production, and that Relativity Media and GK Films had scheduled the film for a December 2, 2016, release date, though it was later removed from the schedule.
Roberts said that while he was in Los Angeles, the producers of 47 Meters Down met him for dinner and asked if he could read a script called Prey At Night. He liked the script and wondered if he wanted to get involved in a sequel despite having released the first film years before but finally accepted and decided to add his personal touch.
In February 2017, it was announced that Johannes Roberts would be the sequel 's new director, and that filming would commence during the summer of the same year. In May 2017, Christina Hendricks, Bailee Madison, and Lewis Pullman were reported as the film 's stars, and production began in Los Angeles on May 30. In June 2017, it was announced Martin Henderson had also joined the cast.
Filming began in June 2017 in Covington, Kentucky, and concluded on July 10, 2017.
On October 12, 2017, Collider reported the film would be released on March 9, 2018, by Aviron Pictures. A teaser trailer for the film was released on November 16, 2017. The official trailer debuted on January 5, 2018.
In the United States and Canada, The Strangers: Prey at Night was released alongside The Hurricane Heist, Gringo and A Wrinkle in Time, and was projected to gross around $7 million from 2,464 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $4 million on its first day, including $610,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $10.4 million, finishing third at the box office behind Black Panther and A Wrinkle in Time.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 37 % based on 97 reviews, and an average rating of 4.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The Strangers: Prey at Night may appeal to fans of the original who 've been jonesing for a sequel, but its thin story and ironic embrace of genre tropes add up to a bloody step back. '' On Metacritic, which assigns normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C '' on an A+ to F scale, down from the "B -- '' given to the first film.
Bloody Disgusting gave the film a positive review, saying, "The Strangers: Prey At Night really takes The Strangers to the next level, and serves as a perfect introduction to The Strangers for new horror fans. You can go back and watch The Strangers and be just as happy for their previous relentless onslaughts ''. IGN also praised the film, writing that "Skillfully made, spooky, stylish, and featuring some quite good character work, The Strangers: Prey at Night stands much taller than the 2008 original. The central killers are plenty scary, and some of the images on display would make John Carpenter proud. '' Writing for / Film, Candice Frederick gave the film a 7 / 10, writing that "Though its characters may fumble and its winks to the first film may not be as slick as I 'd like them to be, Prey at Night does maintain the original commitment of presenting horror to the most mundane. It does n't just disrupt an innocent setting of a quiet suburb... It is that relentless seclusion, heightened by a haunting soundtrack of otherwise harmless songs. ''
Brian Douglas from The Hollywood Reporter praised the tone of the film, writing, "While the original Strangers was devoid of any sense of the 80s, instead opting for a kind of timeless modern quality, Roberts ' sequel boasts its stylistic debts, with everything from camera shots, and music choices culled from the 80s, forming an impressionistic collage of a time period that feels made for the big - screen. '' Staci Wilson writing for Dread Central also praised the film, writing "Aside from the quick setup introducing the targets, The Strangers: Prey at Night really is a nonstop thrill ride. I know it 's a cliché, but sometimes you 've just got to call it as you see it. I was breathless from start to finish. Kudos to Roberts on his best movie yet! He was wise to amp up the atmosphere with a kick - ass original score and flawless cinematography. ''
Glenn Kenny of The New York Times gave the film a mixed review and compared sequences of the film to Lucio Fulci 's Zombi and the slasher film The Mutilator, adding: "If you recognize those films, you might find yourself mildly diverted by this tawdry, occasionally effective shock - delivery device. Watching it with a demonstrative crowd in a Times Square theater proved to this former grindhouse devotee that sometimes you can go home again, at least momentarily. That said, the movie 's ludicrously drawn - out finale sapped the good will out of some of my fellow audience members. '' Kimber Myers of the Los Angeles Times also gave the film a mixed review and wrote that "... although the film is as slim and poorly balanced as a cheap knife, The Strangers: Prey at Night is a stylish 1980s throwback that packs plenty of terror into its short running time. This is n't a horror movie that will take up residence in your nightmares for weeks, but the sequel to the solid 2008 original The Strangers is nonetheless just as effective in the short term as its well - made counterparts ''. Owen Gleiberman, writing for Variety, described the film as "Friday the 13th with four victims and three Jasons... (it 's) shameless in its bluntly misanthropic family - of - lambs - to - the - slaughter violence, its blithe depravity that 's more fetishized than felt. It does n't take much, though -- as it did n't in the ' 80s -- to create a one - weekend horror hit. ''
The Guardian 's Benjamin Lee gave the film more of a negative review, rating the film 2 / 5 stars despite praising Hendricks ' performance, noting: "... it 's just difficult to really invest in what happens to any of them. Before long, characters are all making stock horror movie decisions, and there 's no amount of effective craftsmanship that can sell stupidity. Audience members will be too busy sighing at the screen to be scared. ''
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when did the red panda first become endangered | Red panda - wikipedia
A. f. fulgens F. Cuvier, 1825 A. f. styani Thomas, 1902
The red panda (Ailurus fulgens), also called the lesser panda, the red bear - cat, and the red cat - bear, is a mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwestern China. It has reddish - brown fur, a long, shaggy tail, and a waddling gait due to its shorter front legs; it is roughly the size of a domestic cat, though with a longer body and somewhat heavier. It is arboreal, feeds mainly on bamboo, but also eats eggs, birds, and insects. It is a solitary animal, mainly active from dusk to dawn, and is largely sedentary during the day.
The red panda has been classified as endangered by the IUCN, because its wild population is estimated at less than 10,000 mature individuals and continues to decline due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and inbreeding depression, although red pandas are protected by national laws in their range countries.
The red panda is the only living species of the genus Ailurus and the family Ailuridae. It has been previously placed in the raccoon and bear families, but the results of phylogenetic analysis provide strong support for its taxonomic classification in its own family, Ailuridae, which is part of the superfamily Musteloidea, along with the weasel, raccoon and skunk families. Two subspecies are recognized. It is not closely related to the giant panda, which is a basal ursid.
The head and body length of a red panda measures 50 to 64 cm (20 to 25 in), and its tail is 28 to 59 cm (11 to 23 in). Males weigh 3.7 to 6.2 kg (8.2 to 13.7 lb) and females 3 to 6.0 kg (6.6 to 13.2 lb). They have long, soft, reddish - brown fur on the upper parts, blackish fur on the lower parts, and a light face with tear markings and robust cranio - dental features. The light face has white badges similar to those of a raccoon, but each individual can have distinctive markings. Their roundish heads have medium - sized upright ears, black noses, and blackish eyes. Their long, bushy tails with six alternating transverse ochre rings provide balance and excellent camouflage against their habitat of moss - and lichen - covered trees. The legs are black and short with thick fur on the soles of the paws. This fur serves as thermal insulation on snow - covered or icy surfaces and conceals scent glands, which are also present on the anus.
The red panda is specialized as a bamboo feeder with strong, curved and sharp semi-retractile claws standing inward for grasping narrow tree branches, leaves, and fruit. Like the giant panda, it has a "false thumb '', which is an extension of the wrist bone. When descending a tree head - first, the red panda rotates its ankle to control its descent, one of the few climbing species to do so.
The red panda is endemic to the temperate forests of the Himalayas, and ranges from the foothills of western Nepal to China in the east. Its easternmost limit is the Qinling Mountains of the Shaanxi Province in China. Its range includes southern Tibet, Sikkim and Assam in India, Bhutan, the northern mountains of Burma, and in south - western China, in the Hengduan Mountains of Sichuan and the Gongshan Mountains in Yunnan. It may also live in south - west Tibet and northern Arunachal Pradesh, but this has not been documented. Locations with the highest density of red pandas include an area in the Himalayas that has been proposed as having been a refuge for a variety of endemic species in the Pleistocene. The distribution range of the red panda should be considered disjunct, rather than continuous. A disjunct population inhabits the Meghalaya Plateau of north - eastern India.
During a survey in the 1970s, signs of red pandas were found in Nepal 's Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. Their presence was confirmed in spring 2007 when four red pandas were sighted at elevations ranging from 3,220 to 3,610 m (10,560 to 11,840 ft). The species ' westernmost limit is in Rara National Park located farther west of the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve. Their presence was confirmed in 2008.
The red panda lives between 2,200 and 4,800 m (7,200 and 15,700 ft) altitude, inhabiting areas of moderate temperature between 10 and 25 ° C (50 and 77 ° F) with little annual change. It prefers mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests, especially with old trees and dense understories of bamboo.
The red panda population in Sichuan Province is larger and more stable than the Yunnan population, suggesting a southward expansion from Sichuan into Yunnan in the Holocene.
The red panda has become extirpated from the Chinese provinces of Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Qinghai.
Distribution of the red panda is disjointed, with two extant subspecies:
A. f. styani has been described by Thomas in 1902 based on one skull from a specimen collected in Sichuan. Pocock distinguished A. f. styani from A. f. fulgens by its longer winter coat and greater blackness of the pelage, bigger skull, more strongly curved forehead, and more robust teeth. His description is based on skulls and skins collected in Sichuan, Myitkyina close to the border of Yunnan, and Upper Burma.
Styan 's red panda is supposedly larger and darker in color than the Western member of the species, but with considerable variation in both subspecies, and some individuals may be brown or yellowish brown rather than red.
The Brahmaputra River is often considered the natural division between the two subspecies, where it makes a curve around the eastern end of the Himalayas, although some authors suggest A. f. fulgens extends farther eastward, into China.
The red panda is territorial; it is solitary except during mating season. The species is generally quiet except for some twittering, tweeting, and whistling communication sounds. It has been reported to be both nocturnal and crepuscular, sleeping on tree branches or in tree hollows during the day and increasing its activity in the late afternoon and early evening hours. It sleeps stretched out on a branch with legs dangling when it is hot, and curled up with its tail over the face when it is cold. This animal is very heat - sensitive, with an optimal "well - being '' temperature between 17 and 25 ° C (63 and 77 ° F), and can not tolerate temperatures over 25 ° C (77 ° F).
Shortly after waking, red pandas clean their fur somewhat like a cat would, licking their front paws and then rubbing their backs, torsos, and sides. They also rub their backs and bellies along the sides of trees or rocks. Then they patrol their territories, marking with urine and a weak musk - smelling secretion from their anal glands. They search for food running along the ground or through the trees. Red pandas may use their forepaws alternately to bring food to their mouths or place food directly into their mouths.
Predators of the red panda include the snow leopard, mustelids, and humans. If they feel threatened or sense danger, they may try to escape by climbing a rock column or tree. If they can no longer flee, they stand on their hind legs to make themselves appear larger and use the sharp claws on their front paws to defend themselves. A red panda, Futa, became a visitor attraction in Japan for his ability to stand upright for ten seconds at a time. (See also: facultative biped)
Red pandas are excellent climbers, and forage largely in trees. They eat mostly bamboo, and may eat small mammals, birds, eggs, flowers, and berries. In captivity, they were observed to eat birds, flowers, maple and mulberry leaves, and bark and fruits of maple, beech, and mulberry.
Like the giant panda, they can not digest cellulose, so they must consume a large volume of bamboo to survive. Their diets consist of about two - thirds bamboo, but they also eat mushrooms, roots, acorns, lichens, and grasses. Occasionally, they supplement their diets with fish and insects. They do little more than eat and sleep due to their low - calorie diets.
Bamboo shoots are more easily digested than leaves, exhibiting the highest digestibility in summer and autumn, intermediate digestibility in the spring, and lowest digestibility in the winter. These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo. Red pandas process bamboo poorly, especially the cellulose and cell wall components. This implies microbial digestion plays only a minor role in their digestive strategy. To survive on this poor - quality diet, they have to eat the high - quality sections of the bamboo plant, such as the tender leaves and shoots, in large quantities, over 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) of fresh leaves and 4 kg (8.8 lb) of fresh shoots daily. This food passes through the digestive tract fairly rapidly (about 2 -- 4 hr) so as to maximize daily nutrient intake. Red pandas can taste artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame, and are the only non primates known to be able to do so.
Red pandas are able to reproduce at around 18 months of age, and are fully mature at two to three years. Adults rarely interact in the wild except to mate. Both sexes may mate with more than one partner during the mating season from mid-January to early March. A few days before birth, females begin to collect material, such as brushwood, grass, and leaves, to build a nest, which is normally located in a hollow tree or a rock crevice. After a gestation period of 112 to 158 days, the female gives birth in mid-June to late July to one to four (usually 1 -- 2) blind and deaf cubs weighing 110 to 130 g (3.9 to 4.6 oz) each.
After birth, the mother cleans the cubs, and can then recognize each by its smell. At first, she spends 60 % to 90 % of her time with the cubs. After the first week, the mother starts spending more time outside the nest, returning every few hours to nurse and groom the cubs. She moves the young frequently among several nests, all of which she keeps clean. The cubs start to open their eyes at about 18 days of age. By about 90 days, they achieve full adult fur and coloring, and begin to venture out of the nest. They also start eating solid foods at this point, weaning at around six to eight months of age. The cubs stay with their mother until the next litter is born in the following summer. Males rarely help raise the young, and only if they live in pairs or in small groups.
A red panda 's average lifespan is between eight and 10 years, but individuals have been known to reach 15 years.
The primary threats to red pandas are direct harvest from the wild, live or dead, competition with domestic livestock resulting in habitat degradation, and deforestation resulting in habitat loss or fragmentation. The relative importance of these factors is different in each region, and is not well understood. For instance, in India, the biggest threat seems to be habitat loss followed by poaching, while in China, the biggest threat seems to be hunting and poaching. A 40 % decrease in red panda populations has been reported in China over the last 50 years, and populations in western Himalayan areas are considered to be lower.
Deforestation can inhibit the spread of red pandas and exacerbate the natural population subdivision by topography and ecology, leading to severe fragmentation of the remaining wild population. Fewer than 40 animals in four separate groups share resources with humans in Nepal 's Langtang National Park, where only 6 % of 1,710 km (660 sq mi) is preferred red panda habitat. Although direct competition for food with domestic livestock is not significant, livestock can depress bamboo growth by trampling.
Small groups of animals with little opportunity for exchange between them face the risk of inbreeding, decreased genetic diversity, and even extinction. In addition, clear - cutting for firewood or agriculture, including hillside terracing, removes old trees that provide maternal dens and decreases the ability of some species of bamboo to regenerate.
In south - west China, red pandas are hunted for their fur, especially for the highly valued bushy tails, from which hats are produced. In these areas, the fur is often used for local cultural ceremonies. In weddings, the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide. The "good - luck charm '' red panda - tail hats are also used by local newly - weds. This practice may be quite old, as the red panda seems to be depicted in a 13th - century Chinese pen - and - ink scroll showing a hunting scene. Little or no mention of the red panda is made in the culture and folklore of Nepal.
In the past, red pandas were captured and sold to zoos. Angela Glatston reported she had personally handled 350 red pandas in 17 years.
Due to CITES, this zoo harvest has decreased substantially in recent years, but poaching continues, and red pandas are often sold to private collectors at exorbitant prices. In some parts of Nepal and India, red pandas are kept as pets.
The red panda has a naturally low birth rate (usually one single or twin birth per year), and a high death rate in the wild.
The red panda is listed in CITES Appendix I. The species has been classified as endangered in the IUCN Red List since 2008 because the global population is estimated at about 10,000 individuals, with a decreasing population trend; only about half of the total area of potential habitat of 142,000 km (55,000 sq mi) is actually being used by the species. Due to their shy and secretive nature, and their largely nocturnal habits, observation of red pandas is difficult. Therefore, population figures in the wild are determined by population density estimates and not direct counts.
Worldwide population estimates range from fewer than 2,500 to between 16,000 and 20,000 individuals. In 1999, the total population in China was estimated at between 3,000 and 7,000 individuals. In 2001, the wild population in India was estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000 individuals. Estimates for Nepal indicate only a few hundred individuals. No records from Bhutan or Burma exist.
Reliable population numbers are hard to find, partly because other animals have been mistaken for the red panda. For instance, one report from Burma stated that red pandas were still fairly common in some areas; however, the accompanying photographic proof of the "red panda '' is in fact a species of civet.
The red panda is protected in all range countries, and hunting is illegal. Beyond this, conservation efforts are highly variable between countries:
A community - managed forest in Ilam District of eastern Nepal is home to 15 red pandas which generate household income through tourism activities, including homestays. Villagers in the high - altitude areas of Arunachal Pradesh have formed the Pangchen Red Panda Conservation Alliance comprising five villages with a community - conserved forest area of 200 km (77 sq mi) at an altitude of 2,500 m (8,200 ft) to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft).
The red panda is quite adaptable to living in captivity, and is common in zoos worldwide. By 1992, more than 300 births had occurred in captivity, and more than 300 individuals lived in 85 institutions worldwide. By 2001, 182 individuals were in North American zoos alone. As of 2006, the international studbook listed more than 800 individuals in zoos and parks around the world. Of these, 511 individuals of subspecies A. f. fulgens were kept in 173 institutions and 306 individuals of subspecies A. f. styani were kept in 81 institutions.
The international studbook is currently managed at the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands. In cooperation with the International Red Panda Management Group, they coordinate the Species Survival Plan in North America, the European Endangered Species Programme in Europe, and other captive - breeding programs in Australia, India, Japan, and China. In 2009, Sarah Glass, curator of red pandas and special exhibits at the Knoxville Zoo in Knoxville, Tennessee, was appointed as coordinator for the North American Red Panda Species Survival Plan. The Knoxville Zoo has the largest number of captive red panda births in the Western Hemisphere (101 as of August 2011). Only the Rotterdam Zoo has had more captive births worldwide.
The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park in Darjeeling, India, successfully released four captive - bred red pandas to the wild in August and November 2003.
The most often cited example of keeping red pandas as pets is the case of former Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi. Pandas were presented to her family as a gift, and they were then housed in "a special tree house ''.
The taxonomic classification of the red panda has been controversial since it was discovered. French zoologist Frédéric Cuvier initially described the red panda in 1825, and classified it as a close relative of the raccoon (Procyonidae), though he gave it the genus name Ailurus, (from Ancient Greek αἴλουρος, "cat ''), based on superficial similarities with domestic cats. The specific epithet is the Latin adjective fulgens ("shining '').
At various times, it has been placed in the Procyonidae, Ursidae, with Ailuropoda (giant panda) in the Ailuropodinae (until this family was moved into the Ursidae), and into its own family, the Ailuridae. This uncertainty comes from difficulty in determining whether certain characteristics of Ailurus are phylogenetically conservative or are derived and convergent with species of similar ecological habits.
Evidence based on the fossil record, serology, karyology, behavior, anatomy, and reproduction reflect closer affinities with Procyonidae than Ursidae. However, ecological and foraging specializations and distinct geographical distribution in relation to modern procyonids support classification in the separate family Ailuridae.
Recent molecular systematic DNA research also places the red panda into its own family, Ailuridae, a part of the broad superfamily Musteloidea that also includes the skunk, raccoon, and weasel families.
It is not a bear, nor closely related to the giant panda, nor a raccoon, nor a lineage of uncertain affinities. Rather it is a basal lineage of musteloid, with a long history of independence from its closest relatives (skunks, raccoons, and otters / weasels / badgers).
The two subspecies are A. f. fulgens and A. f. styani. However, the name Ailurus fulgens refulgens is sometimes incorrectly used for A. f. styani. This stems from a lapsus made by Henri Milne - Edwards in his 1874 paper "Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des mammifères comprenant des considérations sur la classification de ces animaux '', making A. f. refulgens a nomen nudum. The most recent edition of Mammal Species of the World still shows the subspecies as A. f. refulgens. This has been corrected in more recent works, including A guide to the Mammals of China and Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Volume 1: Carnivores.
The red panda is considered a living fossil and only distantly related to the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), as it is naturally more closely related to the other members of the superfamily Musteloidea to which it belongs. The common ancestor of both pandas (which also was an ancestor for all living bears; pinnipeds like seals and walruses; and members of the family Musteloidea like weasels and otters) can be traced back to the Early Tertiary period tens of millions of years ago, with a wide distribution across Eurasia.
Fossils of the extinct red panda Parailurus anglicus have been unearthed from China in the east to Britain in the west. In 1977, a single tooth of Parailurus was discovered in the Pliocene Ringold Formation of Washington. This first North American record is almost identical to European specimens and indicates the immigration of this species from Asia. In 2004, a tooth from a red panda species never before recorded in North America was discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in Tennessee. The tooth dates from 4.5 -- 7 million years ago. This species, described as Pristinailurus bristoli, indicates that a second, more primitive ailurine lineage inhabited North America during the Miocene. Cladistic analysis suggests that Parailurus and Ailurus are sister taxa. Additional fossils of Pristinailurus bristoli were discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in 2010 and in 2012. The frequency with which panda fossils are being found at Gray Fossil Site suggests the species played a large role in the overall ecosystem of the area.
The discovery in Spain of the postcranial remains of Simocyon batalleri, a Miocene relative to the red panda, supports a sister - group relationship between red pandas and bears. The discovery suggests the red panda 's "false thumb '' was an adaptation to arboreal locomotion -- independent of the giant panda 's adaptation to manipulate bamboo -- one of the most dramatic cases of convergent evolution among vertebrates.
The first known written record of the red panda occurs in a 13th - century Chinese scroll depicting a hunting scene between hunters and the red panda.
Major General Thomas Hardwicke 's 1821 presentation of an article titled "Description of a new Genus of the Class Mammalia, from the Himalaya Chain of Hills Between Nepaul and the Snowy Mountains '' at the Linnean Society in London is usually regarded as the moment the red panda became a bona fide species in Western science. Hardwicke proposed the name "wha '' and explained: "It is frequently discovered by its loud cry or call, resembling the word ' Wha ', often repeating the same: hence is derived one of the local names by which it is known. It is also called Chitwa. '' Hardwicke 's paper was not published until 1827, by which time Frédéric Cuvier had published his description and a figure. Hardwicke 's originally proposed taxonomic name was removed from the 1827 publication of his paper with his permission, and naming credit is now given to Cuvier.
Frédéric Cuvier had received the specimen he described from his brother 's stepson, Alfred Duvaucel, who had sent it "from the mountains north of India ''. He was the first to use both the binomial name Ailurus fulgens and the vernacular name panda in his description of the species published in 1825 in Histoire naturelle des mammifères. Ailurus is adopted from the ancient Greek word αἴλουρος (ailouros), meaning "cat ''. The specific epithet fulgens is Latin for "shining, bright ''. Panda is a Roman goddess of peace and travellers, who was called upon before starting a difficult journey. Whether this is the origin of the French vernacular name panda remains uncertain. Later publications claim the name was adopted from a Himalayan language.
In 1847, Hodgson described a red panda under the name Ailurus ochraceus, of which Pocock concluded it represents the same type as Ailurus fulgens, since the description of the two agree very closely. He subordinated both types to the Himalayan red panda subspecies Ailurus fulgens fulgens.
The red panda 's local names differ from place to place. The Lepcha call it sak nam. In Nepal, it is called bhalu biralo (bear - cat) and habre. The Sherpa people of Nepal and Sikkim call it ye niglva ponva and wah donka. The word wậː is Sunuwari meaning bear; in Tamang language, a small, red bear is called tāwām. In the Kanchenjunga region of eastern Nepal, the Limbus know red pandas as kaala (literally "dark '') because of their underside pelage; villagers of Tibetan origin call them hoptongar.
Additionally, Pocock lists the vernacular names ye and nigálya ponya (Nepal); thokya and thongwa (Limbu); oakdonga or wakdonka and woker (Bhotia); saknam sunam (Lepcha). Nigálya may originate from the Nepali word निङालो niṅālo or nĩgālo, a small bamboo, Arundinaria intermedia, but also refers to a kind of small leopard, or cat - bear. The word pónya may originate from the Nepali पञ्जा pajā ("claw '') or पौँजा paũjā ("paw ''). Nigálya pónya may translate to "bamboo claw / paw ''. Nigálya pónya, nyala ponga, and poonya are also said to mean "eater of bamboo ''. The name panda could originate from panjā.
In modern Chinese, the red panda is called xiăoxióngmāo (小 熊猫 / 小 熊貓, lesser or small panda), or 红 熊猫 / 紅 熊貓 (hóngxióngmāo, red panda). In contrast, the giant panda is called dàxióngmāo (大 熊猫 / 大 熊貓, giant or big panda), or simply xióngmāo (熊猫 / 熊貓, panda, literally bear - cat).
In English, the red panda is also called lesser panda (since it is smaller than the giant panda), though "red '' is more commonly used nowadays. As it was known in the West decades before the giant panda, initially it was the red panda that was simply called "panda ''. When distinction became necessary, the red panda was still considered the true panda and common panda.
Other English names used in the past include fire fox, fire cat, red cat, fox bear, bright panda, and Himalayan raccoon.
Many other languages also use "red '' or variations of "shining / gold '' or "lesser / small '' in their names for this species. For instance, червена панда in Bulgarian, panda roux in French, panda rojo in Spanish, and Roter Panda in German all mean "red panda ''. Since at least as far back as 1855, one of its French names has been panda éclatant (shining panda). In Finnish, it is called kultapanda (gold panda).
Variations of "lesser panda '' occur in French petit panda (small panda), German Kleiner Panda (small panda), Spanish panda menor (lesser panda), Dutch kleine panda (small panda), Russian малая панда (malaya panda, "small panda ''), Korean 애기 판다 (aeki panda, "baby panda ''), and Japanese レッサーパンダ (ressā panda, a transliteration of English "lesser panda '').
The red panda was recognized as the state animal of Sikkim in the early 1990s, and was the mascot of the Darjeeling Tea Festival.
In 2005, Babu, a male red panda at Birmingham Nature Centre in Birmingham, England, escaped and briefly became a media celebrity, before being recaptured. He was subsequently voted "Brummie of the Year '', the first animal to receive this honor. Rusty, a male red panda at the National Zoo in Washington, DC, similarly attracted media attention when he briefly escaped in 2013.
The name of the open - source Firefox web browser is said to have been derived from a nickname of the red panda: "fire fox ''.
An anthropomorphic red panda was featured as Master Shifu, the kungfu teacher, in the 2008 film Kung Fu Panda, and its sequels Kung Fu Panda 2 in 2011 and Kung Fu Panda 3 in 2016. The red panda Futa inspired the character of Pabu, the so - called "fire ferret '' animal companion (primarily of Bolin), in the U.S. animated TV series The Legend of Korra.
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the local group of galaxies to which our galaxy belongs is known as | Local Group - wikipedia
The Local Group is the galaxy group that includes the Milky Way. The Local Group comprises more than 54 galaxies, most of them dwarf galaxies. Between 1 billion and 1 trillion years from now, they will collide and form a single galaxy. Its gravitational center is located somewhere between the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. The Local Group has a diameter of 10 Mly (3.1 Mpc) (about 10 meters) and has a binary (dumbbell) distribution. The group itself is a part of the larger Virgo Supercluster, which may be a part of the Laniakea Supercluster.
The three largest members of the group (in decreasing order) are the Andromeda Galaxy, the Milky Way and the Triangulum Galaxy. The larger two of these spiral galaxies each have their own system of satellite galaxies.
The term "The Local Group '' was introduced by Edwin Hubble in Chapter VI of his 1936 book The Realm of the Nebulae. There, he described it as "a typical small group of nebulae which is isolated in the general field '' and delineated, by decreasing luminosity, its members to be M31, Milky Way, M33, Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud, M32, NGC 205, NGC 6822, NGC 185, IC 1613 and NGC 147. He also identified IC 10 as a possible part of Local Group.
By 2003, the number of known Local Group members had increased from his initial 12 to 36.
* It is uncertain whether it is a companion galaxy of the Andromeda Galaxy
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who is the movie john q dedicated to | John Q - wikipedia
John Q. is a 2002 American drama film starring Denzel Washington and directed by Nick Cassavetes. The film tells the story of John Quincy Archibald (Denzel Washington), a father and husband whose son is diagnosed with an enlarged heart and finds out he is unable to receive a transplant because HMO insurance will not cover it, before he decides to hold up the hospital and force them to do it.
The film co-stars Kimberly Elise, Robert Duvall, Anne Heche, James Woods and Ray Liotta. The film was shot in Toronto, Hamilton, Ontario, and Canmore, Alberta, although the story takes place in Chicago. Shooting took place for 60 days from August 8 to November 3, 2001.
A motorist is driving dangerously down a winding road, recklessly passing cars until she comes upon a slow moving Mack truck. As she attempts to pass, her car is clipped by a truck going in the opposite direction, then slammed full - force by the Mack, killing her.
Meanwhile, John Quincy Archibald and his wife Denise witness their young son Michael collapse at his baseball game and take Michael to the hospital. After a series of tests at the hospital, John is informed by Dr. Raymond Turner and Rebecca Payne, the hospital administrator, that his son has an enlarged heart and that he will die without a heart transplant. The procedure is very expensive: $250,000 (at a minimum), with a down payment of $75,000 (30 %) required to get Michael 's name on the organ recipient list. John tells them he is insured, but after looking through his policy, they tell him that because the company he works for dropped John from full - time to part - time, his health insurance has been changed, and the new policy does not cover the surgery, which leaves John and Denise to raise $75,000 on their own. The family tries to raise the money but are only able to come up with a third of the necessary payment. The hospital eventually tires of waiting and plans to release Michael, and an outraged, distraught Denise urges John to do something. Unwilling to let his son die, John walks into the hospital ER with a handgun, gathers eleven hostages, and sets demands: his son 's name on the recipient list as soon as possible or the hostages die. The hostage negotiator, Lt. Frank Grimes, stands down to let John cool off.
Meanwhile, John and the eleven hostages learn more about each other. They begin to understand John 's situation and support him a little as he ensures each of them receive the treatment they came to the emergency room for. One of them, Miriam, is pregnant, and her husband Steve is hoping that their first child is healthy. A young hostage, Julie, has a broken arm, and she and her boyfriend Mitch claim that a car crash caused it. Due to holes in their story, John and another hostage, Lester, conclude the two are lying and that Mitch beat up Julie. After a while, John agrees to release some hostages to have his son 's name added to the list an hour afterward. He releases Steve, Miriam, and a hostage named Rosa with her baby.
The Chicago Chief of Police, Gus Monroe, gives a SWAT unit permission to insert a sniper into the building via an air shaft. John is shot but ends up receiving only a minor wound, which is treated right away. After taking the shot, the sniper 's leg falls through the ceiling tiles. Outraged, John pulls him out of the air shaft and beats him up. Using the bound SWAT policeman as a human shield, he steps outside to the sight of dozens of policemen pointing weapons at him and a large, supportive crowd. John demands that his son be brought to the emergency room. The police agree to his demand in exchange for the SWAT sniper.
Once his son arrives, John reveals to the hostages his intention to commit suicide so his heart can be used to save his son. He persuades Dr. Turner to perform the operation, and two of his hostages bear witness to a will stating his last request. John says his last goodbyes to Michael and enters the operating room. He loads 1 bullet into the gun; his gun was never loaded and he never intended to kill any of the hostages. John pulls the trigger, but the safety is on. As he prepares to end his life a second time, his wife learns about an organ donor (the woman killed in the beginning of the film) who has been flown to the hospital for organ recovery. She runs to the emergency room and stops John from shooting himself, and John allows the hostages to go free. Michael is given the life - saving operation and, after watching the procedure with Denise, John is taken into police custody. Afterwards the entire ordeal becomes subject to a national debate about the quality and accessibility of insurance and healthcare. Three months later at his trial, all of the witnesses speak on his behalf. He is later acquitted of charges of attempted murder and armed criminal action but is found guilty of false imprisonment. It is never revealed what his sentence for the crime will be, but his lawyer is overheard and saying that no judge will give him "more than three to five (years) '' and that she will try to get it reduced to two.
In Blu - ray DVD commentary on the Deleted Scenes with Cassavetes and writer James Kearns, the main theme of the movie was said to be "about a miracle and John 's faith in God creating the miracle ''. They also mentioned how SWAT team advisors for the film related a similar true incident in Toronto where a man (Henry Masuka) took an ER hostage after it would not provide immediate service to his infant son on New Year 's Eve 1999. When he exited the ER he was shot and killed and found to be carrying an unloaded pellet gun. A character building scene at the beginning of the film was shot in Cambridge, ON at a manufacturing facility owned by Babcock & Wilcox. Washington is shown using a grinder as he stands over a tubesheet destined for a steam generator for a nuclear power generating facility.
During shots of the news coverage surrounding the hostage situation in the hospital, a cameo by then Senator Hillary Clinton occurs. Clinton has argued for healthcare reform, especially in cases such as the one depicted in the film.
The film opened in first place at the box office, taking $23,275,194 during its first weekend. It ended up with a total domestic gross of $71,026,631 and $102,244,770 worldwide.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 23 % based on the 131 reviews, with the site 's consensus reading, "Washington 's performance rises above the material, but John Q pounds the audience over the head with its message. '' Metacritic gives it a score of 30 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
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why is cupid the symbol of valentines day | Cupid - Wikipedia
In classical mythology, Cupid (Latin Cupīdō (kʊˈpiː. doː), meaning "desire '') is the god of desire, erotic love, attraction and affection. He is often portrayed as the son of the love goddess Venus and the war god Mars. He is also known in Latin as Amor ("Love ''). His Greek counterpart is Eros.
Although Eros is generally portrayed as a slender winged youth in Classical Greek art, during the Hellenistic period, he was increasingly portrayed as a chubby boy. During this time, his iconography acquired the bow and arrow that represent his source of power: a person, or even a deity, who is shot by Cupid 's arrow is filled with uncontrollable desire. In myths, Cupid is a minor character who serves mostly to set the plot in motion. He is a main character only in the tale of Cupid and Psyche, when wounded by his own weapons, he experiences the ordeal of love. Although other extended stories are not told about him, his tradition is rich in poetic themes and visual scenarios, such as "Love conquers all '' and the retaliatory punishment or torture of Cupid.
In art, Cupid often appears in multiples as the Amores, or amorini in the later terminology of art history, the equivalent of the Greek erotes. Cupids are a frequent motif of both Roman art and later Western art of the classical tradition. In the 15th century, the iconography of Cupid starts to become indistinguishable from the putto.
Cupid continued to be a popular figure in the Middle Ages, when under Christian influence he often had a dual nature as Heavenly and Earthly love. In the Renaissance, a renewed interest in classical philosophy endowed him with complex allegorical meanings. In contemporary popular culture, Cupid is shown drawing his bow to inspire romantic love, often as an icon of Valentine 's Day.
The Romans reinterpreted myths and concepts pertaining to the Greek Eros for Cupid in their own literature and art, and medieval and Renaissance mythographers conflate the two freely. In the Greek tradition, Eros had a dual, contradictory genealogy. He was among the primordial gods who came into existence asexually; after his generation, deities were begotten through male - female unions. In Hesiod 's Theogony, only Chaos and Gaia (Earth) are older. Before the existence of gender dichotomy, Eros functioned by causing entities to separate from themselves that which they already contained.
At the same time, the Eros who was pictured as a boy or slim youth was regarded as the child of a divine couple, the identity of whom varied by source. The influential Renaissance mythographer Natale Conti began his chapter on Cupid / Eros by declaring that the Greeks themselves were unsure about his parentage: Heaven and Earth, Ares and Aphrodite, Night and Ether, or Strife and Zephyr. The Greek travel writer Pausanias, he notes, contradicts himself by saying at one point that Eros welcomed Aphrodite into the world, and at another that Eros was the son of Aphrodite and the youngest of the gods.
In Latin literature, Cupid is usually treated as the son of Venus without reference to a father. Seneca says that Vulcan, as the husband of Venus, is the father of Cupid. Cicero, however, says that there were three Cupids, as well as three Venuses: the first Cupid was the son of Mercury and Diana, the second of Mercury and the second Venus, and the third of Mars and the third Venus. This last Cupid was the equivalent of Anteros, "Counter-Love, '' one of the Erotes, the gods who embody aspects of love. The multiple Cupids frolicking in art are the decorative manifestation of these proliferating loves and desires. During the English Renaissance, Christopher Marlowe wrote of "ten thousand Cupids ''; in Ben Jonson 's wedding masque Hymenaei, "a thousand several - coloured loves... hop about the nuptial room ''.
In the later classical tradition, Cupid is most often regarded as the son of Venus and Mars, whose love affair represented an allegory of Love and War. The duality between the primordial and the sexually conceived Eros accommodated philosophical concepts of Heavenly and Earthly Love even in the Christian era.
Cupid is winged, allegedly, because lovers are flighty and likely to change their minds, and boyish because love is irrational. His symbols are the arrow and torch, "because love wounds and inflames the heart. '' These attributes and their interpretation were established by late antiquity, as summarized by Isidore of Seville (d. 636 AD) in his Etymologiae. Cupid is also sometimes depicted blindfolded and described as blind, not so much in the sense of sightless -- since the sight of the beloved can be a spur to love -- as blinkered and arbitrary. As described by Shakespeare in A Midsummer Night 's Dream (1590s):
Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind And therefore is winged Cupid painted blind. Nor hath love 's mind of any judgement taste; Wings and no eyes figure unheedy haste. And therefore is love said to be a child Because in choice he is so oft beguiled.
In Botticelli 's Allegory of Spring (1482), also known by its Italian title La Primavera, Cupid is shown blindfolded while shooting his arrow, positioned above the central figure of Venus.
Particularly in ancient Roman art, cupids may also carry or be surrounded by fruits, animals, or attributes of the Seasons or the wine - god Dionysus, symbolizing the earth 's generative capacity.
Cupid carries two kinds of arrows, or darts, one with a sharp golden point, and the other with a blunt tip of lead. A person wounded by the golden arrow is filled with uncontrollable desire, but the one struck by the lead feels aversion and desires only to flee. The use of these arrows is described by the Latin poet Ovid in the first book of his Metamorphoses. When Apollo taunts Cupid as the lesser archer, Cupid shoots him with the golden arrow, but strikes the object of his desire, the nymph Daphne, with the lead. Trapped by Apollo 's unwanted advances, Daphne prays to her father, the river god Peneus, who turns her into a laurel, the tree sacred to Apollo. It is the first of several unsuccessful or tragic love affairs for Apollo.
A variation is found in The Kingis Quair, a 15th - century poem attributed to James I of Scotland, in which Cupid has three arrows: gold, for a gentle "smiting '' that is easily cured; the more compelling silver; and steel, for a love - wound that never heals.
In the tale of Cupid the honey thief, the child - god is stung by bees when he steals honey from their hive. He cries and runs to his mother Venus, complaining that so small a creature should n't cause such painful wounds. Venus laughs, and points out the poetic justice: he too is small, and yet delivers the sting of love.
The story was first told about Eros in the Idylls of Theocritus (3rd century BC). It was retold numerous times in both art and poetry during the Renaissance. The theme brought the Amoretti poetry cycle (1595) of Edmund Spenser to a conclusion, and furnished subject matter for at least twenty works by Lucas Cranach the Elder and his workshop. The German poet and classicist Karl Philipp Conz (1762 -- 1827) framed the tale as Schadenfreude ("taking pleasure in someone else 's pain '') in a poem by the same title. In a version by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, a writer of the German Enlightenment, the incident prompts Cupid to turn himself into a bee:
Through this sting was Amor made wiser. The untiring deceiver concocted another battle - plan: he lurked beneath the carnations and roses and when a maiden came to pick them, he flew out as a bee and stung her.
The image of Cupid as bee is part of a complex tradition of poetic imagery involving the flower of youth, the sting of love as a deflowering, and honey as a secretion of love.
In both ancient and later art, Cupid is often shown riding a dolphin. On ancient Roman sarcophagi, the image may represent the soul 's journey, originally associated with Dionysian religion. A mosaic from late Roman Britain shows a procession emerging from the mouth of the sea god Neptune, first dolphins and then sea birds, ascending to Cupid. One interpretation of this allegory is that Neptune represents the soul 's origin in the matter from which life was fashioned, with Cupid triumphing as the soul 's desired destiny.
In other contexts, Cupid with a dolphin recurs as a playful motif, as in garden statuary at Pompeii that shows a dolphin rescuing Cupid from an octopus, or Cupid holding a dolphin. The dolphin, often elaborated fantastically, might be constructed as a spout for a fountain. On a modern - era fountain in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, Italy, Cupid seems to be strangling a dolphin.
Dolphins were often portrayed in antiquity as friendly to humans, and the dolphin itself could represent affection. Pliny records a tale of a dolphin at Puteoli carrying a boy on its back across a lake to go to school each day; when the boy died, the dolphin grieved itself to death.
In erotic scenes from mythology, Cupid riding the dolphin may convey how swiftly love moves, or the Cupid astride a sea beast may be a reassuring presence for the wild ride of love. A dolphin - riding Cupid may attend scenes depicting the wedding of Neptune and Amphitrite or the Triumph of Neptune, also known as a marine thiasos.
To adapt myths for Christian use, medieval mythographers interpreted them morally. In this view, Cupid might be seen as a "demon of fornication ''. The innovative Theodulf of Orleans, who wrote during the reign of Charlemagne, reinterpreted Cupid as a seductive but malicious figure who exploits desire to draw people into an allegorical underworld of vice. To Theodulf, Cupid 's quiver symbolized his depraved mind, his bow trickery, his arrows poison, and his torch burning passion. It was appropriate to portray him naked, so as not to conceal his deception and evil.
Cupid sleeping became a symbol of absent or languishing love in Renaissance poetry and art, including a Sleeping Cupid (1496) by Michelangelo that is now lost. The ancient type was known at the time through descriptions in classical literature, and at least one extant example had been displayed in the sculpture garden of Lorenzo de ' Medici since 1488. In the 1st century AD, Pliny had described two marble versions of a Cupid (Eros), one at Thespiae and a nude at Parium, where it was the stained object of erotic fascination.
Michelangelo 's work was important in establishing the reputation of the young artist, who was only twenty at the time. At the request of his patron, he increased its value by deliberately making it look "antique '', thus creating "his most notorious fake ''. After the deception was acknowledged, the Cupid Sleeping was displayed as evidence of his virtuosity alongside an ancient marble, attributed to Praxiteles, of Cupid asleep on a lion skin.
In the poetry of Giambattista Marino (d. 1625), the image of Cupid or Amore sleeping represents the indolence of Love in the lap of Idleness. A madrigal by his literary rival Gaspare Murtola exhorted artists to paint the theme. A catalogue of works from antiquity collected by the Mattei family, patrons of Caravaggio, included sketches of sleeping cupids based on sculpture from the Temple of Venus Erycina in Rome. Caravaggio, whose works Murtola is known for describing, took up the challenge with his 1608 Sleeping Cupid, a disturbing depiction of an unhealthy, immobilized child with "jaundiced skin, flushed cheeks, bluish lips and ears, the emaciated chest and swollen belly, the wasted muscles and inflamed joints. '' The model is thought to have suffered from juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Caravaggio 's sleeping Cupid was reconceived in fresco by Giovanni da San Giovanni, and the subject recurred throughout Roman and Italian work of the period.
Earlier in his career, Caravaggio had challenged contemporary sensibilities with his "sexually provocative and anti-intellectual '' Victorious Love, also known as Love Conquers All (Amor Vincit Omnia), in which a brazenly naked Cupid tramples on emblems of culture and erudition representing music, architecture, warfare, and scholarship.
The motto comes from the Augustan poet Vergil, writing in the late 1st century BC. His collection of Eclogues concludes with what might be his most famous line:
Omnia vincit Amor: et nos cedamus Amori. Love conquers all, and so let us surrender ourselves to Love.
The theme was also expressed as the triumph of Cupid, as in the Triumphs of Petrarch.
The ancient Roman Cupid was a god who embodied desire, but he had no temples or religious practices independent of other Roman deities such as Venus, whom he often accompanies as a side figure in cult statues. A Cupid might appear among the several statuettes for private devotion in a household shrine, but there is no clear distinction between figures for veneration and those displayed as art or decoration. Roman temples often served a secondary purpose as art museums, and Cicero mentions a statue of "Cupid '' (Eros) by Praxiteles that was consecrated at a sacrarium and received religious veneration jointly with Hercules. An inscription from Cártama in Roman Spain records statues of Mars and Cupid among the public works of a wealthy female priest (sacerdos perpetua), and another list of benefactions by a procurator of Baetica includes statues of Venus and Cupid.
Cupid became more common in Roman art from the time of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. After the Battle of Actium, when Antony and Cleopatra were defeated, Cupid transferring the weapons of Mars to his mother Venus became a motif of Augustan imagery. In the Aeneid, the national epic of Rome by the poet Vergil, Cupid disguises himself as Iulus, the son of Aeneas who was in turn the son of Venus herself, and in this form he beguiles Queen Dido of Carthage to fall in love with the hero. She gives safe harbor to Aeneas and his band of refugees from Troy, only to be abandoned by him as he fulfills his destiny to found Rome. Iulus (also known as Ascanius) becomes the mythical founder of the Julian family from which Julius Caesar came. Augustus, Caesar 's heir, commemorated a beloved great - grandson who died as a child by having him portrayed as Cupid, dedicating one such statue at the Temple of Venus on the Capitoline Hill, and keeping one in his bedroom where he kissed it at night. A brother of this child became the emperor Claudius, whose mother Antonia appears in a surviving portrait - sculpture as Venus, with Cupid on her shoulder. The Augustus of Prima Porta is accompanied by a Cupid riding a dolphin. Cupids in multiples appeared on the friezes of the Temple of Venus Genetrix (Venus as "Begetting Mother ''), and influenced scenes of relief sculpture on other works such as sarcophagi, particularly those of children.
As a winged figure, Cupido shared some characteristics with the goddess Victoria. On coinage issued by Sulla the dictator, Cupid bears the palm branch, the most common attribute of Victory. "Desire '' in Roman culture was often attached to power as well as to erotic attraction. Roman historians criticize cupido gloriae, "desire for glory, '' and cupido imperii, "desire for ruling power ''. In Latin philosophical discourse, cupido is the equivalent of Greek pothos, a focus of reflections on the meaning and burden of desire. In depicting the "pious love '' (amor pius) of Nisus and Euryalus in the Aeneid, Vergil has Nisus wonder:
Is it the gods who put passion in men 's mind, Euryalus, or does each person 's fierce desire (cupido) become his own God?
In Lucretius ' physics of sex, cupido can represent human lust and an animal instinct to mate, but also the impulse of atoms to bond and form matter. An association of sex and violence is found in the erotic fascination for gladiators, who often had sexualized names such as Cupido.
Cupid was the enemy of chastity, and the poet Ovid opposes him to Diana, the virgin goddess of the hunt who likewise carries a bow but who hates Cupid 's passion - provoking arrows. Cupid is also at odds with Apollo, the archer - brother of Diana and patron of poetic inspiration whose love affairs almost always end disastrously. Ovid blames Cupid for causing him to write love poetry instead of the more respectable epic.
The story of Cupid and Psyche appears in Greek art as early as the 4th century BC, but the most extended literary source of the tale is the Latin novel Metamorphoses, also known as The Golden Ass, by Apuleius (2nd century AD). It concerns the overcoming of obstacles to the love between Psyche ("Soul '' or "Breath of Life '') and Cupid, and their ultimate union in marriage.
The fame of Psyche 's beauty threatens to eclipse that of Venus herself, and the love goddess sends Cupid to work her revenge. Cupid, however, becomes enamored of Psyche, and arranges for her to be taken to his palace. He visits her by night, warning her not to try to look upon him. Psyche 's envious sisters convince her that her lover must be a hideous monster, and she finally introduces a lamp into their chamber to see him. Startled by his beauty, she drips hot oil from the lamp and wakes him. He abandons her. She wanders the earth looking for him, and finally submits to the service of Venus, who tortures her. The goddess then sends Psyche on a series of quests. Each time she despairs, and each time she is given divine aid. On her final task, she is to retrieve a dose of Proserpina 's beauty from the underworld. She succeeds, but on the way back ca n't resist opening the box in the hope of benefitting from it herself, whereupon she falls into a torpid sleep. Cupid finds her in this state, and revives her by returning the sleep to the box. Cupid grants her immortality so the couple can be wed as equals.
The story 's Neoplatonic elements and allusions to mystery religions accommodate multiple interpretations, and it has been analyzed as an allegory and in light of folktale, Märchen or fairy tale, and myth. Often presented as an allegory of love overcoming death, the story was a frequent source of imagery for Roman sarcophagi and other extant art of antiquity. Since the rediscovery of Apuleius 's novel in the Renaissance, the reception of Cupid and Psyche in the classical tradition has been extensive. The story has been retold in poetry, drama, and opera, and depicted widely in painting, sculpture, and various media.
On gems and other surviving pieces, Cupid is usually shown amusing himself with adult play, sometimes driving a hoop, throwing darts, catching a butterfly, or flirting with a nymph. He is often depicted with his mother (in graphic arts, this is nearly always Venus), playing a horn. In other images, his mother is depicted scolding or even spanking him due to his mischievous nature. He is also shown wearing a helmet and carrying a buckler, perhaps in reference to Virgil 's Omnia vincit amor or as political satire on wars for love or love as war.
Lucas Cranach the Elder -- Venus with Cupid Stealing Honey
Venus och Amor by Frans Floris, Hallwyl Museum
Cupid the Honey Thief (1514) by Dürer
Cupid draws his bow as the river god Peneus averts his gaze in Apollo and Daphne (1625) by Poussin
Allegory with Venus, Mars, Cupid and Time (ca. 1625): in the unique interpretation of Guercino, winged Time points an accusing finger at baby Cupid, held in a net that evokes the snare in which Venus and Mars were caught by her betrayed husband Vulcan
Cupid Riding on a Dolphin (1630) by Erasmus Quellinus II
Cupid in a Tree (1795 / 1805) by Jean - Jacques - François Le Barbier
Omnia Vincit Amor (1809) by Benjamin West
Cupid on a sea monster (c. 1857) by William Adolphe Bouguereau,
A Valentine greeting card (1909)
References
Sources
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when does say yes to the dress film | Say Yes to the Dress - wikipedia
Say Yes to the Dress is an American reality television series on TLC which follows events at Kleinfeld Bridal in Manhattan. Kleinfeld Bridal recently expanded into the Canadian market by adding a store in Toronto. The series shows the progress of individual sales associates, managers, and fitters at the store, along with profiling brides as they search for the perfect wedding dress. Common themes include overwhelming advice of friends and family, the ability of the "perfect dress '' to help a bride overcome personal difficulty, struggle with weight and body image concerns, and the challenge of staying in budget, especially in the case of dresses by Kleinfeld 's exclusive designer, Pnina Tornai (one of the few designers ever mentioned by name in the show). Dresses sold on the show range from $1,300 to $40,000.
Mara Urshel is one of the co-owners of Kleinfeld. Earlier in her career in the retail industry, she served as senior vice president and general merchandise manager at Saks Fifth Avenue. She worked there for twenty years. After she left Saks, she was employed by Casual Corner and Geoffrey Beene Company in executive management positions. She then purchased the Kleinfeld Bridal store with Ronald Rothstein and Wayne Rogers on July 9, 1999.
Ronald (Ronnie) Rothstein is one of the co-owners of Kleinfeld. He was successful academically; he graduated from Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in 1964 and received his law degree from the University of Miami in 1968. He then became a member of the Florida Bar. In 1976, he started his own consumer products company named Oh Dawn, but after eight years, he sold Oh Dawn to an American Stock Exchange company. He did however stay on in an executive capacity for several more years. On July 9, 1999 he purchased the Kleinfeld Bridal store with Mara Urshel and Wayne Rogers.
Randy Fenoli is the Fashion Director for Kleinfeld. He was born in Mt. Vernon, Illinois, and grew up with a love of fashion. He began sewing dresses when he was only nine years old. When he got older, he branched out into the areas of make - up artistry, hair styling, and entertainment. He then enrolled with the New York 's Fashion Institute of Technology. Later, he was offered a job working for Vivian Dessy Diamond, of the Vivian Diamond company. He was then offered a job at Kleinfeld and has been there ever since.
Dorothy Silver is the Director of Sales and Merchandising for Kleinfeld. She began her career in New York as a floor manager at Bonwit Teller, but she has spent the majority of her twenty - five years in the retail industry at Kleinfeld. She works alongside Nicole Sacco and Joan Roberts.
Nicole Sacco is the Director of Fittings and Sales at Kleinfeld. She has worked there for thirteen years and has many responsibilities, primarily helping consultants with their clients, whether it 's finding a dress, closing the sale, or just making sure the client is happy. She works alongside Dorothy Silver and Joan Roberts.
Nitsa Glezelis is the Director of Alterations at Kleinfeld. She was born in Kos, Greece, and has been in the retail industry since she was twelve years old. She has worked at Kleinfeld for eighteen years. She works alongside Vera Skenderis.
Joan Roberts is the Director of Sales / Bridal Manager at Kleinfeld. Before coming to Kleinfeld, she had worked in the retail industry for twenty five years. She works alongside Nicole Sacco and Dorothy Silver.
Camille Coffey is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She was first introduced to Kleinfeld when she was shopping for a dress to wear to her son 's wedding. She applied for a job and has been working there ever since.
Vera Skenderis is the Alterations Manager at Kleinfeld. She was born in Athens, Greece. She has been working in the retail industry for thirty - four years. She works alongside Nitsa Glezelis.
Audrey Pisani is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She was born in Brooklyn and has worked in the retail industry for twenty years. Fifteen of those years has been spent working in bridal wear.
Keasha Rigsby is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She has been working in the retail industry for fifteen years. Six of those years has been spent working in bridal wear. She was first introduced to Kleinfeld when she was shopping for wedding dresses with her cousin. She met one of the co-owners, Ronnie Rothstein, applied for a job, and has been working there ever since. Keasha has not appeared on Say Yes to the Dress since the January 2011 season. She will be appearing on a new show entitled Keasha 's Perfect Dress on the Canadian Slice network. This show will follow Keasha as she opens a new bridal salon.
Debbie Asprea is one of the several bridal consultants at Kleinfeld. She has been working in the retail industry for eighteen years. She has been with Kleinfeld for fifteen of those eighteen years. She attributes her love of fashion to her father, who was a dress contractor.
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who plays the principal in 8 simple rules | Tag (game) - wikipedia
Tag (also known as it, tig and many other names) is a playground game that involves three or more players chasing other players in an attempt to "tag '' or touch them, usually with their hands. There are many variations; most forms have no teams, scores, or equipment. Usually when a person is tagged, the tagger says, "Tag, you 're it ''.
A group of players (two or more) decide who is going to be "it '', often using a counting - out game such as eeny, meeny, miny, moe. The player selected to be "it '' then chases the others, attempting to get close enough to "tag '' one of them (touching them with a hand) while the others try to escape. A tag makes the tagged player "it '' - in some variations, the previous "it '' is no longer "it '' and the game can continue indefinitely while in others, both players remain "it '' and the game ends when all players have become "it ''.
There are many variants which modify the rules for team play, or place restrictions on tagged players ' behavior. A simple variation makes tag an elimination game, so those tagged drop out of play. Some variants have a rule preventing a player from tagging the person who has just tagged them (known as "no tags - back '', "no returns '', or "ca n't tag your master '').
Players may be safe from being tagged under certain circumstances: if they are within a pre-determined area, off the ground, or when touching a particular structure. Traditional variants are Wood tag, Iron tag, and Stone tag, when a player is safe when touching the named material. This safe zone has been called a "gool '', "ghoul '', or "Dell '', probably a corruption of "goal ''. The term "gool '' was first recorded in print in Massachusetts in the 1870s, and is common in the northern states of the US. Variants include gould, goul, and ghoul, and alternatives include base and home. In the United Kingdom, the base is frequently known as "den ''. In much of Canada and parts of the northern United States, the state or home base of being immune from tagging is known as "times '' or "T. ''
Players may also make themselves safe from being tagged by the use of a truce term.
Tag and other chasing games have been banned in some schools in the United Kingdom and United States due to concerns about injuries, complaints from children that it can lead to harassment and bullying, and that there is an aspect to the game that possesses an unhealthily predatory element to its nature. In 2008, a 10 - year - old boy in Omaha, Nebraska died from brain injuries suffered from falling onto a metal pole while playing tag, and a school dinner lady in Dorset was left partially paralyzed after a 13 - year - old boy playing tag ran into her in 2004. Her claim for damage was rejected by three Court of Appeal judges, who ruled that the boy had not broken any school rules by playing the game.
A principal who banned tag in her school criticized the game for creating a "self - esteem issue '' in nominating one child as a victim, and noted that the oldest and biggest children usually dominated the game. A dislike of elimination games is another reason for banning tag. In some schools only supervised tag is allowed, sometimes with a type of tagging called butterfly tagging -- a light tap on the shoulders, arms or upper back.
The president of the US National Association for Sport and Physical Education said that "Tag games are not inherently bad... teachers must modify rules, select appropriate boundaries and equipment, and make sure pupils are safe. Teachers should emphasize tag games that develop self - improvement, participation, fair play, and cooperation. '' The UK Local Government Association encouraged the playing of tag in 2008, saying that children are overprotected ("wrapped in cotton wool '').
The game "British bulldogs '' (sometimes also called Bullrush, Cat and Mouse, Cats and Mice, Sharks and Minnows, Spiders and Flies, or Octopus) is mainly played in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and other Commonwealth countries. It is banned from many schools. One or two players start as the "bulldogs '', who stand in the middle of the play area, while the other players stand at one end of the area. The aim is to run from one end of the area to the other without being caught by the bulldogs. When a player is caught, they become a bulldog themselves. The winner is the last player "free ''.
This is a variant of Build Ups in which each person to be caught joins hands with "it, '' and the chain thus formed must chase the others as a pair. As more people are caught they too join hands with the "it '' players, forming a lengthening chain. This variation is also called Blob, or in some places, Gargon. Only those at the ends of the chain are able to catch someone, as they are the only ones with a free hand. A variant has chains of four splitting in two.
In this game, usually played by young children, the players sit in a circle facing inward. One player, the "picker '' or "fox '', walks around tapping or pointing to each player in turn, calling each of them a "duck '', until finally announcing one of his choosing to be the "goose ''. The goose then rises and runs around the circle in the opposite direction as the picker, attempting to return to their seat before the "picker '' can sit back down in the vacated spot. In Minnesota, this game is referred to as "Duck, duck, gray duck ''.
Also known as Stuck in the Mud, Scarecrow, Sticky - Glue, Zombie Tag, Ice - and - Water (in Asia) or Ice - and - Fire (in Malaysia), players who are tagged are "stuck in the mud '' or "frozen '' and must stand in place with their arms stretched out until they are unfrozen. An unstuck player can perform an action to unfreeze them, such as tagging them, crawling between their legs, or "flushing '' them by hitting their outstretched hand. the last person standing, for most games, is usually the next person who will be it. ("Toilet tag '').
Kiss chase, also referred to as Catch and Kiss, is a tag variant in which tagging is performed by kissing. All members of one gender are "it '' at once and chase players of the opposite sex until everyone is caught, then the roles are reversed. A variant is that the player chosen to be "it '' will, with assistance from players of the same gender, chase all members of the opposite sex and kiss one of them, who is then "it '' on behalf of the other gender.
Last tag was played in the early 20th century, when it was a way to say goodbye when leaving school for home. A player tags another and makes them "it '' before leaving on their way home. There is no tagging back. It was a point of honor not to be left with the last tag. If a player is unable to tag anyone by the end of the game, they became "it '' the next day.
Octopus tag is a mix between Red Rover and tag. "It, '' or "octopus, '' attempts to tag the other players. The playing field is known as the ocean. The players, or "fish, '' line up along one side of the ocean. When the Octopus calls out, "Come fishies come! '', they try to run to the other side without getting tagged. In a variation, once the fish run to the other side without getting tagged, the game pauses until the octopus starts it again. Upon getting tagged the fish become "seaweed '' and must freeze or sit where they were tagged, but they can wave their arms around and assist the Octopus in tagging other fish within their reach. The last fish to be tagged becomes the next Octopus. This game can also be played in the water and then it is called Sharks and Minnows.
Also known as budge, one player is it and tries to tag the other players. There are safe zones, such as circles, but their number is one fewer than the number of the other players. A player is not allowed to enter an occupied safe zone. If a player is tagged, that player becomes "it ''.
Cops and Robbers, sometimes called "Jail '', "Jail tag '', "Team tag '', "Chase '', "Police and Thief '', "Prisoner 's Base '', "Jailbreak '', "Release '' (in South Philly), "Releaseo '' or "Manhunt '', has players split into two teams: Cops and Robbers.
A.M. Burrage calls this version of the game "Smee '' in his 1931 ghost story of the same name. The cops, who are in pursuit of robbers (the team being chased), arrest the robbers by tagging and putting them in jail. Robbers can stage a jailbreak by tagging one of the prisoners without getting tagged themselves. The game ends if all the robbers are in jail. In a variant, the robbers have five minutes to hide before being hunted, and only one jailbreak may be allowed per robber.
Humans vs. Zombies is a survival game of tag, where "human '' players fight off increasingly large numbers of "zombies ''; if a human is "turned '' (i.e. tagged), then that player becomes a zombie in turn. At the game 's beginning, there are only one or two zombies; the zombies multiply by tagging humans, turning them into zombies after a period of one hour. Humans can defend themselves from zombies by using socks, marshmallows, Nerf Blasters or any other toys deemed safe and appropriate; if a zombie is hit by one of these methods of defense, they are stunned (not allowed to interact with the game in any way) for 15 seconds. The goal of the zombies is to turn all the humans; the humans, meanwhile, must outlast all the zombies.
Manhunt is a mixture of hide and seek and tag, often played during the night. One person is it, while the other players have to hide. Then, the person who is it tries to find and tag them. The game is over when all players are out. Manhunt is sometimes played with teams. In one variant there is a home base in which a player is safe. That version ends when all players who are not safe are out.
In Prisoner 's Base, each team starts in a chain, holding hands, with one end of the chain touching the base. The end two players on each team break from the chain and try to tag each other, taking them to their base if they do. The end pair progressively break from the chain and join the tagging. As with Cops and Robbers, prisoners can be freed by tagging them in the base. The game is thought to date back to the Renaissance period, and may be inspired by the act of bride kidnapping. A game of Prisoner 's Base was played by members of Lewis & Clark 's Corps of Discovery against a group of Nez Perce.
One player is chosen to be Mr Wolf and stands facing away from the other players at the opposite end of the playing field. All players except Mr Wolf chant in unison "What 's the time, Mr Wolf? '', and Mr Wolf will answer in one of two ways: Mr Wolf may call a time - usually an hour ending in "o'clock ''. The other players take that many steps towards Mr Wolf. They then ask the question again. Alternatively Mr Wolf may call "Dinner time! '', and turn and chase the other players back to their starting point. If Mr Wolf tags a player, that player becomes Mr Wolf for the next round.
In Ringolevio, there are two teams. In one version, one team goes off and hides. The other team counts to a number such as 30 and then goes looking for them. In another version, each team has its own "jail '', a park bench or other defendable area. The game goes on until all of one team is in jail. In many ways, Ringolevio is similar to Prisoner 's Base.
Some variants of tag use equipment such as balls, paintball guns, or even flashlights to replace tagging by hand.
Blind man 's bluff, also known as blind man 's bluff and Mr. Blind Man, is a version of tag in which one player, designated as "it '', is blindfolded and attempts to tag the other players, while the other players try to avoid them.
Research students developed a version of tag played using handheld WiFi - enabled computers with GPS.
Flashlight tag, also called "Army tag '', "Spotlight '', and "German Spotlight '', is played at night. Rather than physically tagging, the "it '' player tags by shining a flashlight beam on other players.
A traditional type of line tag, sometimes played in snow, is Fox and geese. The fox starts at the centre of a spoked wheel, and the geese flee from the fox along the spokes and around the wheel. Geese that are tagged become foxes. The intersections of the spokes with the wheel are safe zones.
One person is "it '' and a can is placed in an open space. The other players run off and hide, then it tries to find and tag each of them. Tagged players are sent to jail. Any player who has not been caught can kick the can, setting the other players free from jail.
Laser tag is similar to flashlight tag, but using special equipment to avoid the inevitable arguments that arise about whether one was actually tagged. Players carry guns that emit beams of light and wear electronic equipment that can detect the beams and register being hit. The equipment often has built - in scoring systems and various penalties for taking hits. Pay - per - game laser tag facilities are common in North America.
Muckle (sometimes called "muckle the man with the ball '', "kill - the - guy - with - the - ball '', "kill the carrier '', or "smear the queer '', among other names) is the reverse of regular tag; all of the other players chase "it ''. This player is denoted by carrying a ball (usually a football). When they are caught, they are tackled, or "muckled ''. Whoever retrieves the ball first or whoever attacks the one who is it then becomes it. Sometimes the last player arriving to tackle the former ball carrier is the next person to be it; in other variations the player with the ball throws the ball up in the air, where it is caught by another player who becomes it.
Paintball is a sport in which players use compressed air guns (called paintball markers) to tag other players with paint - filled pellets. Games are usually played on commercial fields with a strict set of safety and gameplay rules.
A tube sock is filled with a small amount of flour in the toe of the sock; the sock is then gripped by the leg hole and wielded as a flail. Striking a player with any part of the sock counts as a tag.
Spud is a tag variant that is best played in large, open areas. Players begin each round in a central location. "it '' then throws a ball high into the air. The other players run but must stop as soon as "it '' catches the ball and shouts "Spud! '' It may then take three large steps toward the player of his choosing before throwing the ball at that player. If the ball hits the target, that player becomes it, and the game starts over.
In South Asia, two sports are variants of tag, played at the team level, sometimes internationally. In Kabaddi, raiders cross a dividing line to try to tag defenders, while continuously chanting "kabbadi '' on one breath while over the line. It is included in the Asian Games and even has a world championship, being played throughout India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Iran, as well as in Indian communities in Canada, Great Britain, the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and the Netherlands. It was also demonstrated in 1936 Berlin Olympics. The other tag sport is called Kho Kho.
Tag or flag rugby is a non-contact variation in which each player wears a belt that has two velcro tags attached to it, or shorts with velcro patches. The mode of play is also similar to rugby league with attacking players attempting to dodge, evade and pass a rugby ball while defenders attempt to prevent them scoring by tagging - pulling a velcro attached tag from the ball carrier. However, the "tag '' in "tag rugby '' is derived from the "tags '' that the players wear and the children 's game of tag more closely resembles touch rugby whereby a touch replaces a tackle.
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where were most of the old westerns filmed | Western (genre) - wikipedia
The Western is a genre of various arts which tell stories set primarily in the later half of the 19th century in the American Old West, often centering on the life of a nomadic cowboy or gunfighter armed with a revolver and a rifle who rides a horse. Cowboys and gunslingers typically wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, cowboy boots and buckskins. Recurring characters include the aforementioned cowboys, Native Americans, bandits, lawmen, bounty hunters, outlaws, soldiers (especially mounted cavalry, such as buffalo soldiers), and settlers (farmers, ranchers, and townsfolk). The ambience is usually punctuated with a Western music score, including American and Mexican folk music such as country, Native American music, New Mexico music, and rancheras.
Westerns often stress the harshness of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape of deserts and mountains. Often, the vast landscape plays an important role, presenting a "... mythic vision of the plains and deserts of the American West ''. Specific settings include ranches, small frontier towns, saloons, railways and isolated military forts of the Wild West.
Common plots include:
Many Westerns use a stock plot of depicting a crime, then showing the pursuit of the wrongdoer, ending in revenge and retribution, which is often dispensed through a shootout or quick - draw duel.
The Western was the most popular Hollywood genre from the early 20th century to the 1960s. Western films first became well - attended in the 1930s. John Ford 's landmark Western adventure Stagecoach became one of the biggest hits in 1939 and it made John Wayne a mainstream screen star. Westerns were very popular throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Many of the most acclaimed Westerns were released during this time, including High Noon (1952), Shane (1953), The Searchers (1956), and The Wild Bunch (1969). Classic Westerns such as these have been the inspiration for various films about Western - type characters in contemporary settings, such as Junior Bonner (1972), set in the 1970s, and The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada (2005), set in the 21st century.
The Western genre sometimes portrays the conquest of the wilderness and the subordination of nature in the name of civilization or the confiscation of the territorial rights of the original, Native American, inhabitants of the frontier. The Western depicts a society organized around codes of honor and personal, direct or private justice -- "frontier justice '' -- dispensed by gunfights. These honor codes are often played out through depictions of feuds or individuals seeking personal revenge or retribution against someone who has wronged them (e.g., True Grit has revenge and retribution as its main themes). This Western depiction of personal justice contrasts sharply with justice systems organized around rationalistic, abstract law that exist in cities, in which social order is maintained predominately through relatively impersonal institutions such as courtrooms. The popular perception of the Western is a story that centers on the life of a semi-nomadic wanderer, usually a cowboy or a gunfighter. A showdown or duel at high noon featuring two or more gunfighters is a stereotypical scene in the popular conception of Westerns.
In some ways, such protagonists may be considered the literary descendants of the knight errant which stood at the center of earlier extensive genres such as the Arthurian Romances. Like the cowboy or gunfighter of the Western, the knight errant of the earlier European tales and poetry was wandering from place to place on his horse, fighting villains of various kinds and bound to no fixed social structures but only to his own innate code of honor. And like knights errant, the heroes of Westerns frequently rescue damsels in distress. Similarly, the wandering protagonists of Westerns share many characteristics with the ronin in modern Japanese culture.
The Western typically takes these elements and uses them to tell simple morality tales, although some notable examples (e.g. the later Westerns of John Ford or Clint Eastwood 's Unforgiven, about an old hired killer) are more morally ambiguous. Westerns often stress the harshness and isolation of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape. Western films generally have specific settings such as isolated ranches, Native American villages, or small frontier towns with a saloon. Often times, these settings appear deserted and without much structure. Apart from the wilderness, it is usually the saloon that emphasizes that this is the Wild West: it is the place to go for music (raucous piano playing), women (often prostitutes), gambling (draw poker or five card stud), drinking (beer or whiskey), brawling and shooting. In some Westerns, where civilization has arrived, the town has a church, a general store, a bank and a school; in others, where frontier rules still hold sway, it is, as Sergio Leone said, "where life has no value ''.
The American Film Institute defines Western films as those "set in the American West that (embody) the spirit, the struggle and the demise of the new frontier. '' The term Western, used to describe a narrative film genre, appears to have originated with a July 1912 article in Motion Picture World magazine. Most of the characteristics of Western films were part of 19th - century popular Western fiction and were firmly in place before film became a popular art form. Western films commonly feature protagonists such as cowboys, gunslingers, and bounty hunters, who are often depicted as semi-nomadic wanderers who wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, and buckskins, use revolvers or rifles as everyday tools of survival -- and as a means to settle disputes using "frontier justice ''. Protagonists ride between dusty towns and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds.
Western films were enormously popular in the silent film era (1894 - 1927). With the advent of sound in 1927 - 28, the major Hollywood studios rapidly abandoned Westerns, (https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/10/magazine/11schatz.html) leaving the genre to smaller studios and producers. These smaller organizations churned out countless low - budget features and serials in the 1930s. By the late 1930s, the Western film was widely regarded as a "pulp '' genre in Hollywood, but its popularity was dramatically revived in 1939 by major studio productions such as Dodge City starring Errol Flynn, Jesse James with Tyrone Power, Union Pacific with Joel McCrea, Destry Rides Again featuring James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich, and the release of John Ford 's landmark Western adventure Stagecoach, which became one of the biggest hits of the year. Released through United Artists, Stagecoach made John Wayne a mainstream screen star in the wake of a decade of headlining B westerns. Wayne had been introduced to the screen ten years earlier as the leading man in director Raoul Walsh 's widescreen The Big Trail, which failed at the box office, due in part to exhibitors ' inability to switch over to widescreen during the Depression. After the Western 's renewed commercial successes in the late 1930s, the popularity of the Western continued to rise until its peak in the 1950s, when the number of Western films produced outnumbered all other genres combined.
Western films often depict conflicts with Native Americans. While early Eurocentric Westerns frequently portray the "Injuns '' as dishonorable villains, the later and more culturally neutral Westerns gave Native Americans a more sympathetic treatment. Other recurring themes of Westerns include Western treks (e.g. The Big Trail) or perilous journeys (e.g. Stagecoach) or groups of bandits terrorising small towns such as in The Magnificent Seven. Or revisionist westerns like I Walk the Line (1970) depict sheriffs dueling.
Early Westerns were mostly filmed in the studio, just like other early Hollywood films, but when location shooting became more common from the 1930s, producers of Westerns used desolate corners of Arizona, California, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, Utah, or Wyoming. These settings gave filmmakers the ability to depict vast plains, looming mountains and epic canyons. Productions were also filmed on location at movie ranches.
Often, the vast landscape becomes more than a vivid backdrop; it becomes a character in the film. After the early 1950s, various wide screen formats such as Cinemascope (1953) and VistaVision used the expanded width of the screen to display spectacular Western landscapes. John Ford 's use of Monument Valley as an expressive landscape in his films from Stagecoach (1939) to Cheyenne Autumn (1965) "present us with a mythic vision of the plains and deserts of the American West, embodied most memorably in Monument Valley, with its buttes and mesas that tower above the men on horseback, whether they be settlers, soldiers, or Native Americans ''.
Author and screenwriter Frank Gruber described seven plots for Westerns:
Gruber said that good writers used dialogue and plot development to develop these basic plots into believable stories. Other subgenres include:
In the 1960s and 1970s, the Western was reinvented with the revisionist Western.
The Great Train Robbery (1903), Edwin S. Porter 's film starring Broncho Billy Anderson, is often cited as the first Western, though George N. Fenin and William K. Everson point out that the "Edison company had played with Western material for several years prior to The Great Train Robbery. '' Nonetheless, they concur that Porter 's film "set the pattern -- of crime, pursuit, and retribution -- for the Western film as a genre. '' The film 's popularity opened the door for Anderson to become the screen 's first cowboy star; he made several hundred Western film shorts. So popular was the genre that he soon faced competition from Tom Mix and William S. Hart.
The Golden Age of the Western is epitomized by the work of several directors, most prominent among them, John Ford (My Darling Clementine, The Horse Soldiers, The Searchers). Others include: Howard Hawks (Red River, Rio Bravo), Anthony Mann (Man of the West, The Man from Laramie), Budd Boetticher (Seven Men from Now), Delmer Daves (The Hanging Tree, 3: 10 to Yuma), John Sturges (The Magnificent Seven, Last Train from Gun Hill), and Robert Aldrich (Vera Cruz, Ulzana 's Raid).
Film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum refers to a makeshift 1960s and 1970s genre called the Acid Western, associated with Dennis Hopper, Jim McBride, and Rudy Wurlitzer, as well as films like Monte Hellman 's The Shooting (1966), Alejandro Jodorowsky 's bizarre experimental film El Topo (The Mole) (1970), and Robert Downey Sr. 's Greaser 's Palace (1972). The 1970 film El Topo is an allegorical cult Western and underground film about the eponymous character, a violent black - clad gunfighter, and his quest for enlightenment. The film is filled with bizarre characters and occurrences, use of maimed and dwarf performers, and heavy doses of Christian symbolism and Eastern philosophy. Some Spaghetti Westerns also crossed over into the Acid Western genre, such as Enzo G. Castellari 's mystical Keoma (1976), a Western reworking of Ingmar Bergman 's metaphysical The Seventh Seal (1957).
More recent Acid Westerns include Alex Cox 's film Walker (1987) and Jim Jarmusch 's film Dead Man (1995). Rosenbaum describes the Acid Western as "formulating a chilling, savage frontier poetry to justify its hallucinated agenda ''; ultimately, he says, the Acid Western expresses a counterculture sensibility to critique and replace capitalism with alternative forms of exchange.
Charro Westerns, often featuring musical stars as well as action, have been a standard feature of Mexican cinema since the 1930s. In the 1930s and 1940s, these were typically films about horsemen in rural Mexican society, displaying a set of cultural concerns very different from the Hollywood meta - narrative, but the overlap between ' charro ' movies and westerns became more apparent in the 1950s and 1960s.
This subgenre is imitative in style in order to mock, comment on, or trivialize the Western genre 's established traits, subjects, auteurs ' styles, or some other target by means of humorous, satiric, or ironic imitation or parody. A prime example of Comedy Western includes The Paleface (1948), which makes a satirical effort to "send - up Owen Wister 's novel The Virginian and all the cliches of the Western from the fearless hero to the final shootout on main street. The result was The Paleface (1948) which features a cowardly hero known as "Painless '' Peter Potter (Bob Hope), an inept dentist who often entertains the notion that he 's a crack sharpshooter and accomplished Indian fighter ".
Also known as Neo-Westerns, these films have contemporary U.S. settings, and they utilize Old West themes and motifs (a rebellious anti-hero, open plains and desert landscapes, and gunfights). For the most part, they still take place in the American West and reveal the progression of the Old West mentality into the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This subgenre often features Old West - type characters struggling with displacement in a "civilized '' world that rejects their outdated brand of justice.
Examples include John Sturges 's Bad Day at Black Rock (1955); Lonely Are the Brave, screenplay by Dalton Trumbo (1962), Hud, starring Paul Newman (1963); Robert Altman 's McCabe & Mrs. Miller (1971); The Getaway (1972); Junior Bonner (1972); Bring Me the Head of Alfredo Garcia (1974); Hearts of the West starring Jeff Bridges (1975); Alan J. Pakula 's Comes a Horseman (1978); J.W. Coop, directed / co-written by and starring Cliff Robertson; Robert Rodríguez 's El Mariachi (1992) and Once Upon a Time in Mexico (2003); John Sayles 's Lone Star (1996); Tommy Lee Jones 's The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada (2005); Ang Lee 's Brokeback Mountain (2005); Wim Wenders 's Do n't Come Knocking (2005); Joel and Ethan Coen 's No Country for Old Men (2007); the television show Justified (2010 -- 2015); Hell or High Water (2016) and Wind River (2017), both written by Taylor Sheridan; and the superhero film Logan (2017). Call of Juarez: The Cartel is an example of a Neo-Western video game. Likewise, the television series Breaking Bad, which takes place in modern times, features many examples of Western archetypes. According to creator Vince Gilligan, "After the first Breaking Bad episode, it started to dawn on me that we could be making a contemporary western. So you see scenes that are like gunfighters squaring off, like Clint Eastwood and Lee Van Cleef -- we have Walt and others like that. ''
The precursor to these was the radio series Tales of the Texas Rangers (1950 -- 1952), with Joel McCrea, a contemporary detective drama set in Texas, featuring many of the characteristics of traditional Westerns.
The 1971 film Zachariah starring John Rubinstein, Don Johnson and Pat Quinn was billed as the "first electric Western. '' The film featured multiple performing rock bands in an otherwise American West setting.
Zachariah featured appearances and music supplied by rock groups from the 1970s, including the James Gang and Country Joe and the Fish as "The Cracker Band. '' Fiddler Doug Kershaw had a musical cameo as does Elvin Jones as a gunslinging drummer named Job Cain.
The independent film Hate Horses starring Dominique Swain, Ron Thompson and Paul Dooley billed itself as the "second electric Western. ''
The epic western is a subgenre of the western that emphasizes the story of the American Old West on a grand scale. Many epic westerns are commonly set during a turbulent time, especially a war, as in Sergio Leone 's The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966), set during the American Civil War, or Sam Peckinpah 's The Wild Bunch (1969), set during the Mexican Revolution. One of the grandest films in this genre is Leone 's Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), which shows many operatic conflicts centered on control of a town while utilizing wide scale shots on Monument Valley locations against a broad running time. Other notable examples include The Iron Horse (1924), Duel in the Sun (1946), The Searchers (1956), Giant (1956), The Big Country (1958), Cimarron (1960), How the West Was Won (1962), Duck, You Sucker! (1971), Heaven 's Gate (1980), Dances with Wolves (1990), The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007), Django Unchained (2012) and The Revenant (2015).
Euro Westerns are Western genre films made in Western Europe. The term can sometimes, but not necessarily, include the Spaghetti Western subgenre (see below). One example of a Euro Western is the Anglo - Spanish film The Savage Guns (1961). Several Euro - Western films, nicknamed Sauerkraut Westerns because they were made in Germany and shot in Yugoslavia, were derived from stories by novelist Karl May and were film adaptations of May 's work. In the 2010s some new euro - westerns emerged like Kristian Levring 's The Salvation, Martin Koolhoven 's Brimstone and Andreas Prochaska 's The Dark Valley.
Fantasy Westerns mixed in fantasy settings and themes, and may include Fantasy mythology as background. Some famous examples are Stephen King 's The Stand and The Dark Tower series of novels, the Vertigo comics series Preacher, and Keiichi Sigsawa 's light novel series, Kino 's Journey, illustrated by Kouhaku Kuroboshi.
Florida Westerns, also known as Cracker Westerns, are set in Florida during the Second Seminole War. An example is Distant Drums (1951) starring Gary Cooper.
A developing subgenre, with roots in films such as Curse of the Undead (1959) and Billy the Kid vs. Dracula (1966), which depicts the legendary outlaw Billy the Kid fighting against the notorious vampire. Another example is The Ghoul Goes West, an unproduced Ed Wood film to star Bela Lugosi as Dracula in the Old West. Recent examples include the films Near Dark (1987) directed by Kathryn Bigelow which tells the story about a human falling in love with a vampire, From Dusk till Dawn (1996) by Robert Rodriguez deals with outlaws battling vampires across the border, Vampires (1998) by John Carpenter tells about a group of vampires and vampire hunters looking for an ancient relic in the west, Ravenous (1999), which deals with cannibalism at a remote US army outpost; The Burrowers (2008), about a band of trackers who are stalked by the titular creatures; and Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter (2012). Undead Nightmare (2010), an expansion to Red Dead Redemption (2010) is an example of a video game in this genre, telling the tale of a zombie outbreak in the Old West. Bone Tomahawk (2016) one of the most recent entries in the genre received wide critical acclaim for its chilling tale of cannibalism but, like many other movies in the genre, it was n't a commercial success.
The first Western films made in India - Mosagaalaku Mosagaadu (1970), made in Telugu, Mappusakshi (Malayalam), Ganga (1972), and Jakkamma (Tamil) - were based on Classic Westerns. Thazhvaram (1990), the Malayalam film directed by Bharathan and written by noted writer M.T. Vasudevan Nair, is perhaps the most resemblant of the Spaghetti Westerns in terms of production and cinematic techniques. Earlier Spaghetti Westerns laid the groundwork for such films as Adima Changala (1971) starring Prem Nazir, a hugely popular "zapata Spaghetti Western film in Malayalam, and Sholay (1975) Khote Sikkay (1973) and Thai Meethu Sathiyam (1978) are notable Curry Westerns. Kodama Simham (1990), a Telugu action film starring Chiranjeevi and Mohan Babu was one more addition to the Indo Western genre and fared well at the box office. It was also the first South Indian movie to be dubbed in English as Hunters of the Indian Treasure
Takkari Donga (2002), starring Telugu Maheshbabu, was applauded by critics but an average runner at box office. Quick Gun Murugun (2009), an Indian comedy film which spoofs Indian Western movies, is based on a character created for television promos at the time of the launch of the music network Channel (V) in 1994, which had cult following. Irumbukkottai Murattu Singam (2010), a Western adventure comedy film, based on cowboy movies and paying homages to the John Wayne, Clint Eastwood, and Jaishankar, was made in Tamil.
While many of these mash - ups (e.g., Billy Jack (1971) and its sequel The Trial of Billy Jack (1974)) are cheap exploitation films, others are more serious dramas such as the Kung Fu TV series, which ran from 1972 to 1975. Comedy examples include the Jackie Chan and Owen Wilson collaboration Shanghai Noon (2000). Further sub-divisions of this subgenre include Ninja Westerns and Samurai Westerns (incorporating samurai cinema themes), such as Red Sun (1971) with Charles Bronson and Toshiro Mifune.
The Meat pie Western (also Kangaroo Western) (a slang term which plays on the Italo - western moniker "Spaghetti Western '') is an American Western - style movie or TV series set in Australia, especially the Australian Outback or the Australian Bush. Films such as Rangle River (1936), Kangaroo (1952), the television series Whiplash (1961), Mad Dog Morgan (1976), The Man from Snowy River (1982), Five Mile Creek (1983 -- 85), Quigley Down Under (1991), and The Proposition (2005) are all representative of the genre. The term is used to differentiate more Americanized Australian films from those with a more historical basis, such as those about bushrangers.
The Northern genre is a subgenre of Westerns taking place in Alaska or Western Canada. Examples include several versions of the Rex Beach novel, The Spoilers (including 1930 's The Spoilers, with Gary Cooper, and 1942 's The Spoilers, with Marlene Dietrich, Randolph Scott and Wayne); The Far Country (1954) with James Stewart; North to Alaska (1960) with Wayne; Death Hunt (1981) with Charles Bronson; and The Grey Fox (1983) with Richard Farnsworth.
Osterns, also known as "Red Western '' s, are produced in Eastern Europe. They were popular in Communist Eastern European countries and were a particular favorite of Joseph Stalin, and usually portrayed the American Indians sympathetically, as oppressed people fighting for their rights, in contrast to American Westerns of the time, which frequently portrayed the Indians as villains. Osterns frequently featured Gypsies or Turkic people in the role of the Indians, due to the shortage of authentic Indians in Eastern Europe.
Gojko Mitić portrayed righteous, kind - hearted, and charming Indian chiefs (e.g., in Die Söhne der großen Bärin (1966) directed by Josef Mach). He became honorary chief of the Sioux tribe, when he visited the United States in the 1990s and the television crew accompanying him showed the tribe one of his films. American actor and singer Dean Reed, an expatriate who lived in East Germany, also starred in several Ostern films.
The most rare of the Western subgenres, pornographic Westerns use the Old West as a background for stories primarily focused on erotica. The three major examples of the porn Western film are Russ Meyer 's nudie - cutie Wild Gals of the Naked West (1962), and the hardcore A Dirty Western (1975) and Sweet Savage (1979). Sweet Savage starred Aldo Ray, a veteran actor who had appeared in traditional Westerns, in a non-sex role. Among videogames, Custer 's Revenge (1982) is an infamous example, considered to be one of the worst video games of all time.
After the early 1960s, many American filmmakers began to question and change many traditional elements of Westerns, and to make Revisionist Westerns that encouraged audiences to question the simple hero - versus - villain dualism and the morality of using violence to test one 's character or to prove oneself right. This is shown in Sam Peckinpah 's The Wild Bunch (1969). One major revision was the increasingly positive representation of Native Americans, who had been treated as "savages '' in earlier films. Examples of such revisionist Westerns include Ride the High Country (1962), Richard Harris ' A Man Called Horse (1970), Little Big Man (1970), Soldier Blue (1970), Man in the Wilderness (1971), The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), Dances with Wolves (1990) and Dead Man (1995). A few earlier Revisionist Westerns gave women more powerful roles, such as Westward the Women (1951) starring Robert Taylor. Another earlier work encompassed all these features, The Last Wagon (1956). In it, Richard Widmark played a white man raised by Comanches and persecuted by whites, with Felicia Farr and Susan Kohner playing young women forced into leadership roles.
The science fiction Western places science fiction elements within a traditional Western setting. Examples include Jesse James Meets Frankenstein 's Daughter (1965), The Valley of Gwangi (1969) featuring cowboys and dinosaurs. John Jakes 's "Six Gun Planet '' takes place on a future planet colonized by people consciously seeking to recreate the Old West (with cowboys riding robot horses...) (1). The movie Westworld (1973) and its sequel Futureworld (1976), Back to the Future Part III (1990), Wild Wild West (1999), Cowboys & Aliens (2011), and the TV series Westworld (2016, based on the movie). Fallout: New Vegas (2010) is an example of a video game that follows this format, with futuristic technology and genetic mutations placed among the western themes and desert sprawl of the Mojave Wasteland.
The Space Western or Space Frontier is a subgenre of science fiction which uses the themes and tropes of Westerns within science fiction stories. Subtle influences may include exploration of new, lawless frontiers, while more overt influences may feature literal cowboys in outer space who use ray guns and ride robotic horses. Examples include the American television series Brave Starr (which aired original episodes from September 1987 to February 1988) and Firefly (created by Joss Whedon in 2002), and the films Battle Beyond the Stars (1980), which is a remake of The Magnificent Seven; Outland (1981), which is a remake of High Noon; and Serenity (2005, based on the Firefly TV series). The classic western genre has also been a major influence on science fiction films such as the original Star Wars movie of 1977. Famously Gene Roddenberry pitched the concept of the TV show Star Trek as a Wagon Train to the stars.
During the 1960s and 1970s, a revival of the Western emerged in Italy with the "Spaghetti Westerns '' also known as "Italo - Westerns ''. The most famous of them is The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966). Many of these films are low - budget affairs, shot in locations (for example, the Spanish desert region of Almería) chosen for their inexpensive crew and production costs as well as their similarity to landscapes of the Southwestern United States. Spaghetti Westerns were characterized by the presence of more action and violence than the Hollywood Westerns. Also, the protagonists usually acted out of more selfish motives (money or revenge being the most common) than in the classical westerns. Some Spaghetti Westerns demythologized the American Western tradition, and some films from the genre are considered revisionist Westerns.
The Western films directed by Sergio Leone were felt by some to have a different tone than the Hollywood Westerns. Veteran American actors Charles Bronson, Lee Van Cleef and Clint Eastwood became famous by starring in Spaghetti Westerns, although the films also provided a showcase for other noted actors such as James Coburn, Henry Fonda, Rod Steiger, Klaus Kinski, and Jason Robards. Eastwood, previously the lead in the television series Rawhide, unexpectedly found himself catapulted into the forefront of the film industry by Leone 's A Fistful of Dollars.
The Weird Western subgenre blends elements of a classic Western with other elements. The Wild Wild West television series, television movies, and 1999 film adaptation blend the Western with steampunk. The Jonah Hex franchise also blends the Western with superhero elements. The film Western Religion (2015), by writer and director James O'Brien, introduces the devil into a traditional wild west setting. Old Man Logan (2008 - 2009) graphic novel combines the elements of superhero and post-apocalyptic fiction with western.
In the 1960s academic and critical attention to cinema as a legitimate art form emerged. With the increased attention, film theory was developed to attempt to understand the significance of film. From this environment emerged (in conjunction with the literary movement) an enclave of critical studies called genre studies. This was primarily a semantic and structuralist approach to understanding how similar films convey meaning.
One of the results of genre studies is that some have argued that "Westerns '' need not take place in the American West or even in the 19th century, as the codes can be found in other types of films. For example, a very typical Western plot is that an eastern lawman heads west, where he matches wits and trades bullets with a gang of outlaws and thugs, and is aided by a local lawman who is well - meaning but largely ineffective until a critical moment when he redeems himself by saving the hero 's life. This description can be used to describe any number of Westerns, but also other films such as Die Hard (itself a loose reworking of High Noon) and Akira Kurosawa 's Seven Samurai, which are frequently cited examples of films that do not take place in the American West but have many themes and characteristics common to Westerns. Likewise, films set in the American Old West may not necessarily be considered "Westerns. ''
Being period drama pieces, both the Western and samurai genre influenced each other in style and themes throughout the years. The Magnificent Seven was a remake of Akira Kurosawa 's film The Seven Samurai, and A Fistful of Dollars was a remake of Kurosawa 's Yojimbo, which itself was inspired by Red Harvest, an American detective novel by Dashiell Hammett. Kurosawa was influenced by American Westerns and was a fan of the genre, most especially John Ford.
Despite the Cold War, the Western was a strong influence on Eastern Bloc cinema, which had its own take on the genre, the so - called "Red Western '' or "Ostern ''. Generally these took two forms: either straight Westerns shot in the Eastern Bloc, or action films involving the Russian Revolution and civil war and the Basmachi rebellion.
An offshoot of the Western genre is the "post-apocalyptic '' Western, in which a future society, struggling to rebuild after a major catastrophe, is portrayed in a manner very similar to the 19th - century frontier. Examples include The Postman and the Mad Max series, and the computer game series Fallout. Many elements of space travel series and films borrow extensively from the conventions of the Western genre. This is particularly the case in the space Western subgenre of science fiction. Peter Hyams ' Outland transferred the plot of High Noon to Io, moon of Jupiter. Gene Roddenberry, the creator of the Star Trek series, pitched his show as "Wagon Train to the stars '' early on, but admitted later that this was more about getting it produced in a time that loved Western - themed TV series than about its actual content. The Book of Eli depicts the post apocalypse as a Western with large knives.
More recently, the space opera series Firefly used an explicitly Western theme for its portrayal of frontier worlds. Anime shows like Cowboy Bebop, Trigun and Outlaw Star have been similar mixes of science fiction and Western elements. The science fiction Western can be seen as a subgenre of either Westerns or science fiction. Elements of Western films can be found also in some films belonging essentially to other genres. For example, Kelly 's Heroes is a war film, but action and characters are Western - like. The British film Zulu set during the Anglo - Zulu War has sometimes been compared to a Western, even though it is set in South Africa.
The character played by Humphrey Bogart in film noir films such as Casablanca and To Have and Have Not -- an individual bound only by his own private code of honor -- has a lot in common with the classic Western hero. In turn, the Western, has also explored noir elements, as with the films Pursued and Sugar Creek.
In many of Robert A. Heinlein 's books, the settlement of other planets is depicted in ways explicitly modeled on American settlement of the West. For example, in his Tunnel in the Sky settlers set out to the planet "New Canaan '', via an interstellar teleporter portal across the galaxy, in Conestoga wagons, their captain sporting mustaches and a little goatee and riding a Palomino horse -- with Heinlein explaining that the colonists would need to survive on their own for some years, so horses are more practical than machines.
Stephen King 's The Dark Tower is a series of seven books that meshes themes of Westerns, high fantasy, science fiction and horror. The protagonist Roland Deschain is a gunslinger whose image and personality are largely inspired by the "Man with No Name '' from Sergio Leone 's films. In addition, the superhero fantasy genre has been described as having been derived from the cowboy hero, only powered up to omnipotence in a primarily urban setting. The Western genre has been parodied on a number of occasions, famous examples being Support Your Local Sheriff!, Cat Ballou, Mel Brooks 's Blazing Saddles, and Rustler 's Rhapsody.
George Lucas 's Star Wars films use many elements of a Western, and Lucas has said he intended for Star Wars to revitalize cinematic mythology, a part the Western once held. The Jedi, who take their name from Jidaigeki, are modeled after samurai, showing the influence of Kurosawa. The character Han Solo dressed like an archetypal gunslinger, and the Mos Eisley cantina is much like an Old West saloon.
Meanwhile, films such as The Big Lebowski, which plucked actor Sam Elliott out of the Old West and into a Los Angeles bowling alley, and Midnight Cowboy, about a Southern - boy - turned - gigolo in New York (who disappoints a client when he does n't measure up to Gary Cooper), transplanted Western themes into modern settings for both purposes of parody and homage.
Western fiction is a genre of literature set in the American Old West, most commonly between the years of 1860 and 1900. The first critically recognized Western was The Virginian (1902) by Owen Wister. "Classic Wild West Literature ''. Other well - known writers of Western fiction include Zane Grey, from the early 1900s, Ernest Haycox, Luke Short, and Louis L'Amour, from the mid 20th century. Many writers better known in other genres, such as Leigh Brackett, Elmore Leonard, and Larry McMurtry, have also written Western novels. The genre 's popularity peaked in the 1960s, due in part to the shuttering of many pulp magazines, the popularity of televised Westerns, and the rise of the spy novel. Readership began to drop off in the mid - to late 1970s and reached a new low in the 2000s. Most bookstores, outside of a few Western states, now only carry a small number of Western novels and short story collections.
Literary forms that share similar themes include stories of the American frontier, the gaucho literature of Argentina, and tales of the settlement of the Australian Outback.
Television Westerns are a subgenre of the Western. When television became popular in the late 1940s and 1950s, TV Westerns quickly became an audience favorite. Beginning with re-broadcasts of existing films, a number of movie cowboys had their own TV shows. As demand for the Western increased, new stories and stars were introduced. A number of long - running TV Westerns became classics in their own right, such as: The Lone Ranger (1949 - 1957), The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp (1955 - 1961), Gunsmoke (1955 - 1975), Maverick (1957 - 1962), Have Gun -- Will Travel (1957 - 1963), Wagon Train (1957 - 1965), Sugarfoot (1957 - 1961), The Rifleman (1958 - 1963), Rawhide (1959 - 1966), Bonanza (1959 - 1973), The Virginian (1962 - 1971), and The Big Valley (1965 - 1969). The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp was the first Western television series written for adults, premiering four days before Gunsmoke on September 6, 1955.
The peak year for television Westerns was 1959, with 26 such shows airing during primetime. At least six of them were connected in some extent to Wyatt Earp: The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, Bat Masterson, Tombstone Territory, Broken Arrow, Johnny Ringo, and Gunsmoke. Increasing costs of American television production weeded out most action half hour series in the early 1960s, and their replacement by hour - long television shows, increasingly in color. Traditional Westerns died out in the late 1960s as a result of network changes in demographic targeting along with pressure from parental television groups. Future entries in the genre would incorporate elements from other genera, such as crime drama and mystery whodunit elements. Western shows from the 1970s included Hec Ramsey, Kung Fu, Little House on the Prairie, and McCloud. In the 1990s and 2000s, hour - long Westerns and slickly packaged made - for - TV movie Westerns were introduced, such as: Lonesome Dove (1989) and Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman. As well, new elements were once again added to the Western formula, such as the Western - science fiction show Firefly, created by Joss Whedon in 2002. Deadwood was a critically acclaimed Western series which aired on HBO from 2004 through 2006.
A number of visual artists focused their work on representations of the American Old West. American West - oriented art is sometimes referred to as "Western Art '' by Americans. This relatively new category of art includes paintings, sculptures, and sometimes Native American crafts. Initially, subjects included exploration of the Western states and cowboy themes. Frederic Remington and Charles M. Russell are two artists who captured the "Wild West '' on canvas. Some art museums, such as the Buffalo Bill Center of the West in Wyoming and the Autry National Center in Los Angeles, feature American Western Art.
The popularity of Westerns extends beyond films, literature, television, and visual art to include numerous other media forms.
With anime and manga, the genre tends towards the Science fiction Western (e.g., Cowboy Bebop (1998 anime), Trigun (1995 - 2007 manga), and Outlaw Star (1996 - 1999 manga)). Although contemporary Westerns also appear, such as Kōya no Shōnen Isamu, a 1971 shōnen manga about a boy with a Japanese father and a Native American mother, or El Cazador de la Bruja, a 2007 anime television series set in modern - day Mexico. Part 7 of the manga series JoJo 's Bizarre Adventure is based in the American Western setting. The story follows racers in a transcontinental horse race, the "Steel Ball Run '' race.
Western comics have included serious entries (such as the classic comics of the late 1940s and early 1950s), cartoons, and parodies (such as Cocco Bill and Lucky Luke). In the 1990s and 2000s, Western comics leaned toward the Weird West subgenre, usually involving supernatural monsters, or Christian iconography as in Preacher. However, more traditional Western comics are found throughout this period (e.g., Jonah Hex and Loveless).
Western arcade games, computer games, role - playing games, and video games are often either straightforward Westerns or Western Horror hybrids. Some Western themed - computer games include The Oregon Trail (1971), Mad Dog McCree (1990), Sunset Riders (1991), Outlaws (1997), Red Dead Revolver (2004), Gun (2005), Call of Juarez (2007), Red Dead Redemption (2010), and Red Dead Redemption 2 (2018). Other video games adapt the Science fiction Western or Weird West subgenres such as Fallout (1997), Gunman Chronicles (2000), Darkwatch (2005), the Borderlands series (first released in 2009), Fallout: New Vegas (2010), and Hard West (2015).
Western radio dramas were very popular from the 1930s to the 1960s. Some popular shows include The Lone Ranger (first broadcast in 1933), The Cisco Kid (first broadcast in 1942), Dr. Sixgun (first broadcast in 1954), Have Gun -- Will Travel (first broadcast in 1958), and Gunsmoke (first broadcast in 1952).
Westerns have been showcased in short episodic web series. Examples include League of STEAM, Red Bird and Arkansas Traveler.
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how many high schools are in st mary's county maryland | St. Mary 's County Public schools - Wikipedia
St. Mary 's County Public Schools (SMCPS) is a school district that serves St. Mary 's County, Maryland, USA, at the confluence of the Potomac River, Patuxent River, and Chesapeake Bay. The area is a mixture of rural and suburban communities. Many of the families are employed by NAS Patuxent River, government contractors, St. Mary 's College of Maryland, county government, and others involved in the traditional agriculture and water related businesses. It has an approximate enrollment of almost 17,000 students. SMCPS operates 17 elementary schools, 4 middle schools, 4 high schools, an Alternative Learning Center, and a Vocational Training Center, serving students in Grades Pre-K through 12th grade. The school system is overseen by the Maryland State Department of Education.
The current Interim Superintendent of Schools is James Scott Smith, who assumed duties in August 2014, after the departure of the previous Superintendent, Dr. Michael J. Martirano, who accepted an offer to serve as the State Superintendent of Schools for the State of West Virginia.
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way to blue an introduction to nick drake | Way to Blue - wikipedia
Way to Blue is a 1994 compilation album featuring tracks by English singer / songwriter Nick Drake, taken from his original three albums plus "Time of No Reply ''. The album reached gold certificate in the U.K. on 30 September 1999 after selling 100,000 copies. In United States in the year 2000 sales have jumped to 67,916 units.
All songs by Nick Drake.
Nick Drake performs vocals and acoustic guitar on all songs and piano on "Pink Moon ''.
Also features (on various songs):
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where did the term blue collar and white collar originated | Blue - collar worker - wikipedia
In English - speaking countries, a blue - collar worker is a working class person who performs non-agricultural manual labour. Blue - collar work may involve skilled or unskilled manufacturing, mining, sanitation, custodial work, oil field work, construction, mechanic, maintenance, warehousing, firefighting, technical installation and many other types of physical work. Often something is physically being built or maintained.
In contrast, the white - collar worker typically performs work in an office environment and may involve sitting at a computer or desk. A third type of work is a service worker (pink collar) whose labour is related to customer interaction, entertainment, sales or other service - oriented work. Many occupations blend blue, white or pink industry categorizations.
Blue - collar work is often paid hourly wage - labor, although some professionals may be paid by the project or salaried. There is a wide range of payscales for such work depending upon field of specialty and experience.
The term blue - collar stems from the image of manual workers wearing blue denim or chambray shirts as part of their uniforms. Industrial and manual workers often wear durable canvas or cotton clothing that may be soiled during the course of their work. Navy and light blue colors conceal potential dirt or grease on the worker 's clothing, helping him or her to appear cleaner. For the same reason, blue is a popular color for boilersuits which protect a worker 's clothing. Some blue collar workers have uniforms with the name of the business and / or the individual 's name embroidered or printed on it.
Historically the popularity of the color blue among manual labourers contrasts with the popularity of white dress shirts worn by people in office environments. The blue collar / white collar color scheme has socio - economic class connotations. However, this distinction has become blurred with the increasing importance of skilled labour, and the relative increase in low - paying white - collar jobs.
The term blue collar was first used in reference to trades jobs in 1924, Alden, Iowa newspaper.
A higher level academic education is often not required for many blue - collar jobs. However, certain fields may require specialized training, licensing or certification as well as a high school diploma or GED.
With the information revolution, Western nations have moved towards a service and white collar economy. Many manufacturing jobs have been offshored to developing nations which pay their workers lower wages. This offshoring has pushed formerly agrarian nations to industrialized economies and concurrently decreased the number of blue - collar jobs in developed countries.
In the United States, blue collar and service occupations generally refer to jobs in precision production, craft, and repair occupations; machine operators and inspectors; transportation and moving occupations; handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers.
In the United States an area known as the Rust Belt comprising the Northeast and Midwest, including Western New York and Western Pennsylvania, has seen its once large manufacturing base shrink significantly. With the de-industrialization of these areas starting in the mid-1960s cities like Cleveland, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Buffalo, New York; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Erie, Pennsylvania; Youngstown, Ohio; Toledo, Ohio, Rochester, New York, and Saint Louis, Missouri, have experienced a steady decline of the blue - collar workforce and subsequent population decreases. Due to this economic osmosis, the rust belt has experienced high unemployment, poverty, and urban blight.
"Blue - collar '' can be used as an adjective to describe the environment of the blue - collar worker such as a "blue - collar '' neighborhood, restaurant, or bar.
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when did the roosevelt family come to america | Roosevelt family - wikipedia
The Roosevelt family is an American business and political family from New York whose members have included two United States Presidents, a First Lady, and various merchants, politicians, inventors, clergymen, artists, and socialites. Progeny of a mid-17th century Dutch immigrant to New Amsterdam, many members of the family became locally prominent in New York City business and politics and intermarried with prominent colonial families. Two distantly related branches of the family from Oyster Bay on Long Island and Hyde Park in Dutchess County rose to national political prominence with the elections of Presidents Theodore Roosevelt (1901 -- 1909) and his fifth cousin Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 -- 1945), whose wife, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, was Theodore 's niece.
The earliest known ancestor of the family was a man from the Netherlands named Claes van Rosenvelt. It has been suggested that he was related to the Van Roosevelts of Oud - Vossemeer, who were amt lords in the Tholen region of the Netherlands. While evidence suggests that Claes van Rosenvelt indeed came from the Tholen region where the Van Roosevelts were landowners, no records exist that prove that he is related to the noble family. It may simply be a coincidence, or Claes van Rosenvelt may have chosen the name purposefully because of its noble origins or to honor his local amt lord, as was common practice for peasants of the time.
Claes Maartenszen van Rosenvelt, the immigrant ancestor of the Roosevelt family, arrived in New Amsterdam (present day New York City) some time between 1638 and 1649. About the year 1652, he bought a farm from Lambert van Valckenburgh comprising 24 morgens (that is, 20.44 ha or 50.51 acres) in what is now Midtown Manhattan, including the present site of the Empire State Building. The property included approximately what is now the area between Lexington Avenue and Fifth Avenue bounded by 29th St. and 35th St.
Claes ' son Nicholas was the first to use the spelling Roosevelt and the first to have a political office, as an alderman. His children Johannes and Jacobus were, respectively, the progenitors of the Oyster Bay and Hyde Park branches of the family. By the late 19th century, the Hyde Park Roosevelts were generally associated with the Democratic Party and the Oyster Bay Roosevelts with the Republican Party. President Theodore Roosevelt, an Oyster Bay Roosevelt, was the uncle of Eleanor Roosevelt later wife of Franklin Roosevelt. Despite political differences that caused family members to actively campaign against each other, the two branches generally remained friendly. Franklin Roosevelt married Eleanor Roosevelt, Theodore 's niece and his own fifth cousin once removed.
In heraldry, canting arms are a visual or pictorial depiction of a surname, and were and still are a popular practice. It would be common to find roses, then, in the arms of many Roosevelt families, even unrelated ones (the name Rosenvelt means roses - field). Also, grassy mounds or fields of green would be a familiar attribute.
The Van Roosevelts of Oud - Vossemeer in Zeeland have a coat of arms that is divided horizontally, the top portion with a white chevron between three white roses, while the bottom half is gold with a red lion rampant. A traditional blazon suggested would be, Per fess vert a chevron between three roses argent and Or a lion rampant gules.
The coat of arms of the namesakes of the Dutch immigrant Claes van Rosenvelt, ancestor of the American political family that included Theodore and Franklin D. Roosevelt, were white with a rosebush with three rose flowers growing upon a grassy mound, and whose crest was of three ostrich feathers divided into red and white halves each. In heraldic terms this would be described as, Argent upon a grassy mound a rose bush proper bearing three roses gules barbed and seeded all proper, with a crest upon a torse argent and gules of Three ostrich plumes each per pale gules and argent. Franklin Roosevelt altered his arms to omit the rosebush and use in its place three crossed roses on their stems, changing the blazon of his shield to Three roses one in pale and two in saltire gules barbed seeded slipped and left proper.
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why is it unwise for columbia to focus on coffee production | Coffee production in Colombia - wikipedia
Coffee production in Colombia has a reputation as producing mild, well balanced coffee beans. Colombia 's average annual coffee production of 11.5 million bags is the third total highest in the world, after Brazil and Vietnam; though highest in terms of the arabica bean. The beans are exported to United States, Germany, France, Japan, and Italy. Most coffee is grown in the Colombian coffee growing axis region. In 2007, the European Union granted Colombian coffee a protected designation of origin status. In 2011 UNESCO declared the "Coffee Cultural Landscape '' of Colombia, a World Heritage site.
The coffee plant had spread to Colombia by 1790. The oldest written testimony of the presence of coffee in Colombia is attributed to a Jesuit priest, José Gumilla. In his book The Orinoco Illustrated (1730), he registered the presence of coffee in the mission of Saint Teresa of Tabajé, near where the Meta river empties into the Orinoco. Further testimony comes from the archbishop - viceroy Caballero y Gongora (1787) who registered the presence of the crop in the north east of the country near Giron (Santander) and Muzo (Boyaca) in a report that he provided to the Spanish authorities.
The first coffee crops were planted in the eastern part of the country. In 1808 the first commercial production was registered with 100 green coffee bags (60 kg each) that were exported from the port of Cucuta, near the border with Venezuela. A priest named Francisco Romero is attributed to have been very influential in the propagation of the crop in the northeast region of the country. After hearing the confession of the parishioners of the town of Salazar de la Palmas, he required as penance the cultivation of coffee. Coffee became established in the departments of Santander and North Santander, Cundinamarca, Antioquia, and the historic region of Caldas.
Despite these early developments, the consolidation of coffee as a Colombian export did not come about until the second half of the 19th century. The great expansion that the world economy underwent at that time allowed Colombian landowners to find attractive opportunities in international markets. Little by little, the United States became the most important consumer of coffee in the world, while Germany and France became the most important markets in Europe.
The then large Colombian landowners had already tried to exploit the new opportunities that the expansion of the international markets offered. Between 1850 and 1857 the country experienced a significant increase in tobacco and quinine exports, and thereafter leather and live cattle. These early efforts in the export of agricultural commodities turned out too fragile; they in fact were only reactionary attempts to find the greatest profitability from the high international prices of the time, rather than attempts to create a solid and diversified export platform. The production of these sectors went into period of decline when the respective bonanza of their international prices terminated, hence a true industrial consolidation was prevented.
With the fall of international prices, that registered the transition from the 19th to the 20th century, the profitability of the large estates plummeted. As if this was not enough, the Thousand Days War, which took place during the first years of the new century, also negatively influenced the important landowners, making it impossible for them to maintain their plantations in good conditions; this circumstance summed to the fact that these producers had incurred in large amounts of foreign debt in order to further develop their plantations, which finally ruined them. The coffee estates of Santander and North Santander entered into crisis and the estates of Cundinamarca and Antioquia stalled.
The crisis that affected the large estates brought with it one of the most significant changes of the Colombian coffee industry. Since 1875 the number of small coffee producers had begun to grow in Santander as well as in some regions of Antioquia and in the region referred to as Viejo or Old Caldas. In the first decades of the 20th century a new model to develop coffee exports based on the rural economy had already been consolidated, supported by internal migration and the colonization of new territories in the center and western regions of the country, principally in the departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Valle, and in the northern part of Tolima. Both the expansion of this new coffee model and the crisis that affected the large estates allowed the western regions of Colombia to take the lead in the development of the coffee industry in the country.
This transformation was very favorable for the owners of the small coffee estates that were entering the coffee market. The cultivation of coffee was a very attractive option for local farmers, as it offered the possibility of making permanent and intensive use of the land. Under this productive model of the traditional agriculture, based on the slash and burn method, the land remained unproductive for long periods of time. In contrast, coffee offered the possibility of having an intense agriculture, without major technical requirements and without sacrificing the cultivation of subsistence crops, thus generating the conditions for the expansion of a new coffee culture, dominated by small farms.
Although this new breed of coffee made of country farmers demonstrated a significant capacity to grow at the margin of current international prices, Colombia did not have a relatively important dynamism in the global market of this product. During the period between 1905 and 1935 the coffee industry in Colombia grew dynamically thanks to the vision and long term politics derived from the creation of the Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia (National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia) in 1927.
The union of local farmers and small producers around the Federation has permitted them to confront logistical and commercial difficulties that would not have been possible individually. With time and through the research made at Cenicafé, founded in 1938, and the Federation 's agricultural Extension Service, improved cultivation systems. More efficient spatial patterns were developed that permitted the differentiation of the product and supported its quality. Currently the Land of Coffee in Colombia includes all of the mountain ranges and other mountainous regions of the country, and generates income for over 500,000 coffee farming families.
Regional climate change associated with global warming has caused Colombian coffee production to decline since 2006 from 12 million 132 - pound bags, the standard measure, to 9 million bags in 2010. Average temperatures have risen 1 degree Celsius between 1980 and 2010, with average precipitation increasing 25 percent in the last few years, disrupting the specific climatic requirements of the Coffea arabica bean.
The coffee growing axis (Spanish: Eje Cafetero), also known as the coffee triangle (Spanish: Triángulo del Café) is a part of the Colombian Paisa region. There are three departments in the area: Caldas, Quindío and Risaralda. These departments are among the smallest departments in Colombia with a total combined area of 13873 km2 (5356 mi2), about 1.2 % of the Colombian territory. The combined population is 2,291,195 (2005 census). In 2011 UNESCO declared the region a World Heritage site.
The National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia is a non-profit business association, popularly known for its "Juan Valdez '' marketing campaign. The federation was founded in 1927 as a business cooperative that promotes the production and exportation of Colombian coffee. It currently represents more than 500,000 producers, most of whom are small family owned farms. The federation supports research and development in the production of coffee through grants to local universities and through federation sponsored research institutes. The federation also monitors production to ensure export quality standards are met. The Federation was founded with three objectives: 1) to protect the industry, 2) to study its problems, and 3) to further its interests. The Juan Valdez branding concept was developed in 1981 to distinguish 100 % Colombian coffee from coffee blended with beans from other countries. The trademark made its first TV appearance in 1983 featuring a country farmer carrying coffee on his mule.
Juan Valdez is a fictional character who has appeared in adverts for the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia since 1958, representing a Colombian coffee farmer. The adverts were designed by the Doyle Dane Bernbach ad agency, with the goal of distinguishing 100 % - Colombian coffee from coffee blended with beans from other countries. He typically appears alongside his mule Conchita, carrying sacks of harvested coffee beans. He has become an icon for Colombia as well as coffee in general, and Juan Valdez 's iconic appearance is frequently mimicked or parodied in television and other media.
A theme park based on Colombian coffee production was built in the Quindío area in 1995 by the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia and the Departmental Committee of Coffee Growers of Quindío. In 2009 the park received its 5 millionth visitor.
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when was the da vinci robot first used | Da Vinci Surgical system - wikipedia
The da Vinci Surgical System is a robotic surgical system made by the American company Intuitive Surgical. Approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2000, it is designed to facilitate complex surgery using a minimally invasive approach, and is controlled by a surgeon from a console. The system is commonly used for prostatectomies, and increasingly for cardiac valve repair and gynecologic surgical procedures. According to the manufacturer, the da Vinci System is called "da Vinci '' in part because Leonardo da Vinci 's "study of human anatomy eventually led to the design of the first known robot in history. ''
Da Vinci Surgical Systems operate in hospitals worldwide, with an estimated 200,000 surgeries conducted in 2012, most commonly for hysterectomies and prostate removals. As of September 30, 2016, there was an installed base of 3,803 units worldwide -- 2,501 in the United States, 644 in Europe, 476 in Asia, and 182 in the rest of the world. The "Si '' version of the system costs on average slightly under US $2 million, in addition to several hundred thousand dollars of annual maintenance fees. The da Vinci system has been criticised for its cost and for a number of issues with its surgical performance.
The da Vinci System consists of a surgeon 's console that is typically in the same room as the patient, and a patient - side cart with four interactive robotic arms controlled from the console. Three of the arms are for tools that hold objects, and can also act as scalpels, scissors, bovies, or unipolar or hi. The surgeon uses the console 's master controls to maneuver the patient - side cart 's three or four robotic arms (depending on the model). The instruments ' jointed - wrist design exceeds the natural range of motion of the human hand; motion scaling and tremor reduction further interpret and refine the surgeon 's hand movements. The da Vinci System always requires a human operator, and incorporates multiple redundant safety features designed to minimize opportunities for human error when compared with traditional approaches.
The da Vinci System has been designed to improve upon conventional laparoscopy, in which the surgeon operates while standing, using hand - held, long - shafted instruments, which have no wrists. With conventional laparoscopy, the surgeon must look up and away from the instruments, to a nearby 2D video monitor to see an image of the target anatomy. The surgeon must also rely on a patient - side assistant to position the camera correctly. In contrast, the da Vinci System 's design allows the surgeon to operate from a seated position at the console, with eyes and hands positioned in line with the instruments and using controls at the console to move the instruments and camera.
By providing surgeons with superior visualization, enhanced dexterity, greater precision and ergonomic comfort, the da Vinci Surgical System makes it possible for more surgeons to perform minimally invasive procedures involving complex dissection or reconstruction. For the patient, a da Vinci procedure can offer all the potential benefits of a minimally invasive procedure, including less pain, less blood loss and less need for blood transfusions. Moreover, the da Vinci System can enable a shorter hospital stay, a quicker recovery and faster return to normal daily activities.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cleared the da Vinci Surgical System in 2000 for adult and pediatric use in urologic surgical procedures, general laparoscopic surgical procedures, gynecologic laparoscopic surgical procedures, general non-cardiovascular thoracoscopic surgical procedures and thoracoscopically assisted cardiotomy procedures. The FDA also cleared the da Vinci System to be employed with adjunctive mediastinotomy to perform coronary anastomosis during cardiac revascularization.
The da Vinci System has been successfully used in the following procedures:
Although the general term "robotic surgery '' is often used to refer to the technology, this term can give the impression that the da Vinci System is performing the surgery autonomously. In contrast, the current da Vinci Surgical System can not -- in any manner -- function on its own, as it was not designed as an autonomous system and lacks decision making software. Instead, it relies on a human operator for all input; however, all operations -- including vision and motor functions - are performed through remote human - computer interaction, and thus with the appropriate weak AI software, the system could in principle perform partially or completely autonomously. The difficulty with creating an autonomous system of this kind is not trivial; a major obstacle is that surgery per se is not an engineered process -- a requirement for weak AI. The current system is designed merely to replicate seamlessly the movement of the surgeon 's hands with the tips of micro-instruments, not to make decisions or move without the surgeon 's direct input.
The possibility of long - distance operations depends on the patient having access to a da Vinci System, but technically the system could allow a doctor to perform telesurgery on a patient in another country. In 2001, Dr. Marescaux and a team from IRCAD used a combination of high - speed fiber - optic connection with an average delay of 155 ms with advanced asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and a Zeus telemanipulator to successfully perform the first transatlantic surgical procedure, covering the distance between New York and Strasbourg. The event was considered a milestone of global telesurgery, and was dubbed "Operation Lindbergh ''.
Critics of robotic surgery assert that it is difficult for users to learn and that it has not been shown to be more effective than traditional laparoscopic surgery. The da Vinci system uses proprietary software, which can not be modified by physicians, thereby limiting the freedom to modify the operation system. Furthermore, its $2 million cost places it beyond the reach of many institutions.
The manufacturer of the system, Intuitive Surgical, has been criticized for short - cutting FDA approval by a process known as "premarket notification, '' which claims the product is similar to already - approved products. Intuitive has also been accused of providing inadequate training, and encouraging health care providers to reduce the number of supervised procedures required before a doctor is allowed to use the system without supervision. There have also been claims of patient injuries caused by stray electrical currents released from inappropriate parts of the surgical tips used by the system. Intuitive counters that the same type of stray currents can occur in non-robotic laparoscopic procedures. A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that side effects and blood loss in robotically - performed hysterectomies are no better than those performed by traditional surgery, despite the significantly greater cost of the system. As of 2013, the FDA is investigating problems with the da Vinci robot, including deaths during surgeries that used the device; a number of related lawsuits are also underway.
From a social analysis, a disadvantage is the potential for this technology to dissolve the creative freedoms of the surgeon, once hailed by scholar Timothy Lenoir as one of the most professional individual autonomous occupations to exist. Lenoir claims that in the "heroic age of medicine, '' the surgeon was hailed as a hero for his intuitive knowledge of human anatomy and his well - crafted techniques in repairing vital body systems. Lenoir argues that the da Vinci 's 3D console and robotic arms create a mediating form of action called medialization, in which internal knowledge of images and routes within the body become external knowledge mapped into simplistic computer coding.
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what is the purpose of grounding electrical equipment | Ground (electricity) - wikipedia
In electrical engineering, ground or earth is the reference point in an electrical circuit from which voltages are measured, a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical connection to the earth.
Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons. In mains powered equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to ground so that if, due to any fault conditions, a "line '' supply voltage connection occurs to any such conductive parts, the current flow will then be such that any protective equipment installed for either overload or "leakage '' protection will operate and disconnect the line voltage. This is done to prevent harm resulting to the user from coming in contact with any such dangerous voltage in a situation where the user may, at the same time, also come in contact with an object at ground / earth potential. In electric power distribution systems, a protective earth (PE) conductor is an essential part of the safety provided by the earthing system.
Connection to ground also limits the build - up of static electricity when handling flammable products or electrostatic - sensitive devices. In some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor (see single - wire earth return).
For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a (reasonably) constant potential reference against which other potentials can be measured. An electrical ground system should have an appropriate current - carrying capability to serve as an adequate zero - voltage reference level. In electronic circuit theory, a "ground '' is usually idealized as an infinite source or sink for charge, which can absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential. Where a real ground connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero potential is no longer valid. Stray voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may create noise in signals or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard.
The use of the term ground (or earth) is so common in electrical and electronics applications that circuits in portable electronic devices such as cell phones and media players as well as circuits in vehicles may be spoken of as having a "ground '' connection without any actual connection to the Earth, despite "common '' being a more appropriate term for such a connection. This is usually a large conductor attached to one side of the power supply (such as the "ground plane '' on a printed circuit board) which serves as the common return path for current from many different components in the circuit.
Long - distance electromagnetic telegraph systems from 1820 onwards used two or more wires to carry the signal and return currents. It was then discovered, probably by the German scientist Carl August Steinheil in 1836 -- 1837, that the ground could be used as the return path to complete the circuit, making the return wire unnecessary. However, there were problems with this system, exemplified by the transcontinental telegraph line constructed in 1861 by the Western Union Company between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California. During dry weather, the ground connection often developed a high resistance, requiring water to be poured on the ground rod to enable the telegraph to work or phones to ring.
Later, when telephony began to replace telegraphy, it was found that the currents in the earth induced by power systems, electrical railways, other telephone and telegraph circuits, and natural sources including lightning caused unacceptable interference to the audio signals, and the two - wire or ' metallic circuit ' system was reintroduced around 1883.
An electrical connection to earth can be used as a reference potential for radio frequency signals for certain kinds of antennas. The part directly in contact with the earth - the "earth electrode '' - can be as simple as a metal rod or stake driven into the earth, or a connection to buried metal water piping (the pipe must be conductive). Because high frequency signals can flow to earth due to capacitative effects, capacitance to ground is an important factor in effectiveness of signal grounds. Because of this, a complex system of buried rods and wires can be effective. An ideal signal ground maintains a fixed potential (zero) regardless of how much electric current flows into ground or out of ground. Low impedance at the signal frequency of the electrode - to - earth connection determines its quality, and that quality is improved by increasing the surface area of the electrode in contact with the earth, increasing the depth to which it is driven, using several connected ground rods, increasing the moisture content of the soil, improving the conductive mineral content of the soil, and increasing the land area covered by the ground system.
Some types of transmitting antenna systems in the VLF, LF, MF and lower SW range must have a good ground to operate efficiently. For example, a vertical monopole antenna requires a ground plane that often consists of an interconnected network of wires running radially away from the base of the antenna for a distance about equal to the height of the antenna. Sometimes a counterpoise is used as a ground plane, supported above the ground.
Electrical power distribution systems are often connected to ground to limit the voltage that can appear on distribution circuits. A distribution system insulated from ground may attain a high potential due to transient voltages caused by arcing, static electricity, or accidental contact with higher potential circuits. A ground connection of the system dissipates such potentials and limits the rise in voltage of the grounded system.
In a mains electricity (AC power) wiring installation, the term ground conductor typically refers to three different conductors or conductor systems as listed below.
Equipment earthing conductors provide an electrical connection between the physical ground (earth) and the grounding / bonding system, which connects (bonds) the normally non-current - carrying metallic parts of equipment. According to the U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC), the reason for doing this is to limit the voltage imposed by lightning, line surges, and contact with higher voltage lines.
Equipment bonding conductors provide a low impedance path between normally non-current - carrying metallic parts of equipment and one of the conductors of that electrical system 's source. If any exposed metal part should become energized (fault), such as by a frayed or damaged conductor, it creates a short circuit, causing the overprotection device (circuit breaker or fuse) to open, clearing (disconnecting) the fault. It is important to note this action occurs regardless of whether there is a connection to the physical ground (earth); the earth itself has no role in this fault - clearing process since current must return to its source; however, the sources are very frequently connected to the physical ground (earth). (see Kirchhoff 's circuit laws). By bonding (interconnecting) all exposed non-current carrying metal objects together and to other metallic objects such as pipes or structural steel, they should remain near the same voltage potential, thus reducing the chance of a shock. This is especially important in bathrooms where one may be in contact with several different metallic systems such as supply and drain pipes and appliance frames. When a system needs to be connected to the physical ground (earth), the equipment bonding conductor also becomes the equipment earthing conductor (see above).
A grounding electrode conductor (GEC) is used to connect the system grounded ("neutral '') conductor, or the equipment to a grounding electrode, or a point on the grounding electrode system. This is called "system grounding '' and most electrical systems are required to be grounded. The U.S. NEC and the UK 's BS 7671 list systems that are required to be grounded. According to the NEC, the purpose of connecting an electrical system to the physical ground (earth) is to limit the voltage imposed by lightning events and contact with higher voltage lines, and also for voltage stabilization. In the past, water supply pipes were used as grounding electrodes, but due to the increased use of plastic pipes, which are poor conductors, the use of an actual grounding electrode is required. This type of ground applies to radio antennas and to lightning protection systems.
Permanently installed electrical equipment, unless not required to, has permanently connected grounding conductors. Portable electrical devices with metal cases may have them connected to earth ground by a pin on the attachment plug (see Domestic AC power plugs and sockets). The size of power grounding conductors is usually regulated by local or national wiring regulations.
In electricity supply systems, an earthing (grounding) system defines the electrical potential of the conductors relative to that of the Earth 's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system has implications for the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply. Regulations for earthing systems vary considerably between different countries.
A functional earth connection serves more than protecting against electrical shock, as such a connection may carry current during the normal operation of a device. Such devices include surge suppression, electromagnetic - compatibility filters, some types of antennas, and various measurement instruments. Generally the protective earth system is also used as a functional earth, though this requires care.
Distribution power systems may be solidly grounded, with one circuit conductor directly connected to an earth grounding electrode system. Alternatively, some amount of electrical impedance may be connected between the distribution system and ground, to limit the current that can flow to earth. The impedance may be a resistor, or an inductor (coil). In a high - impedance grounded system, the fault current is limited to a few amperes (exact values depend on the voltage class of the system); a low - impedance grounded system will permit several hundred amperes to flow on a fault. A large solidly grounded distribution system may have thousands of amperes of ground fault current.
In a polyphase AC system, an artificial neutral grounding system may be used. Although no phase conductor is directly connected to ground, a specially constructed transformer (a "zig zag '' transformer) blocks the power frequency current from flowing to earth, but allows any leakage or transient current to flow to ground.
Low - resistance grounding systems use a neutral grounding resistor (NGR) to limit the fault current to 25 A or greater. Low resistance grounding systems will have a time rating (say, 10 seconds) that indicates how long the resistor can carry the fault current before overheating. A ground fault protection relay must trip the breaker to protect the circuit before overheating of the resistor occurs.
High - resistance grounding (HRG) systems use an NGR to limit the fault current to 25 A or less. They have a continuous rating, and are designed to operate with a single - ground fault. This means that the system will not immediately trip on the first ground fault. If a second ground fault occurs, a ground fault protection relay must trip the breaker to protect the circuit. On an HRG system, a sensing resistor is used to continuously monitor system continuity. If an open - circuit is detected (e.g., due to a broken weld on the NGR), the monitoring device will sense voltage through the sensing resistor and trip the breaker. Without a sensing resistor, the system could continue to operate without ground protection (since an open circuit condition would mask the ground fault) and transient overvoltages could occur.
Where the danger of electric shock is high, special ungrounded power systems may be used to minimize possible leakage current to ground. Examples of such installations include patient care areas in hospitals, where medical equipment is directly connected to a patient and must not permit any power - line current to pass into the patient 's body. Medical systems include monitoring devices to warn of any increase of leakage current. On wet construction sites or in shipyards, isolation transformers may be provided so that a fault in a power tool or its cable does not expose users to shock hazard.
Circuits used to feed sensitive audio / video production equipment or measurement instruments may be fed from an isolated ungrounded technical power system to limit the injection of noise from the power system.
In single - wire earth return (SWER) AC electrical distribution systems, costs are saved by using just a single high voltage conductor for the power grid, while routing the AC return current through the earth. This system is mostly used in rural areas where large earth currents will not otherwise cause hazards.
Some high - voltage direct - current (HVDC) power transmission systems use the ground as second conductor. This is especially common in schemes with submarine cables, as sea water is a good conductor. Buried grounding electrodes are used to make the connection to the earth. The site of these electrodes must be chosen carefully to prevent electrochemical corrosion on underground structures.
A particular concern in design of electrical substations is earth potential rise. When very large fault currents are injected into the earth, the area around the point of injection may rise to a high potential with respect to distant points. This is due to the limited finite conductivity of the layers of soil in the earth. The gradient of the voltage (changing voltage within a distance) may be so high that two points on the ground may be at significantly different potentials, creating a hazard to anyone standing on the ground in the area. Pipes, rails, or communication wires entering a substation may see different ground potentials inside and outside the substation, creating a dangerous touch voltage.
Signal grounds serve as return paths for signals and power (at extra low voltages, less than about 50 V) within equipment, and on the signal interconnections between equipment. Many electronic designs feature a single return that acts as a reference for all signals. Power and signal grounds often get connected, usually through the metal case of the equipment. Designers of printed circuit boards must take care in the layout of electronic systems so that high - power or rapidly switching currents in one part of a system do not inject noise into low - level sensitive parts of a system due to some common impedance in the grounding traces of the layout.
Voltage is measured on an interval scale, which means that only differences can be measured. To measure the voltage of a single point, a reference point must be selected to measure against. This common reference point is called "ground '' and considered to have zero voltage. This signal ground may or may not be connected to a power ground. A system where the system ground is not connected to another circuit or to earth (though there may still be AC coupling) is often referred to as a floating ground or double - insulated.
Some devices require a connection to the mass of earth to function correctly, as distinct from any purely protective role. Such a connection is known as a functional earth - for example some long wavelength antenna structures require a functional earth connection, which generally should not be indiscriminately connected to the supply protective earth, as the introduction of transmitted radio frequencies into the electrical distribution network is both illegal and potentially dangerous. Because of this separation, a purely functional ground should not normally be relied upon to perform a protective function. To avoid accidents, such functional grounds are normally wired in white or cream cable, and not green or green / yellow.
In television stations, recording studios, and other installations where signal quality is critical, a special signal ground known as a "technical ground '' (or "technical earth '', "special earth '', and "audio earth '') is often installed, to prevent ground loops. This is basically the same thing as an AC power ground, but no general appliance ground wires are allowed any connection to it, as they may carry electrical interference. For example, only audio equipment is connected to the technical ground in a recording studio. In most cases, the studio 's metal equipment racks are all joined together with heavy copper cables (or flattened copper tubing or busbars) and similar connections are made to the technical ground. Great care is taken that no general chassis grounded appliances are placed on the racks, as a single AC ground connection to the technical ground will destroy its effectiveness. For particularly demanding applications, the main technical ground may consist of a heavy copper pipe, if necessary fitted by drilling through several concrete floors, such that all technical grounds may be connected by the shortest possible path to a grounding rod in the basement.
Lightning protection systems are designed to mitigate the effects of lightning through connection to extensive grounding systems that provide a large surface area connection to earth. The large area is required to dissipate the high current of a lightning strike without damaging the system conductors by excess heat. Since lightning strikes are pulses of energy with very high frequency components, grounding systems for lightning protection tend to use short straight runs of conductors to reduce the self - inductance and skin effect.
Strictly speaking, the terms grounding or earthing are meant to refer to an electrical connection to ground / earth. Bonding is the practice of intentionally electrically connecting metallic items not designed to carry electricity. This brings all the bonded items to the same electrical potential as a protection from electrical shock. The bonded items can then be connected to ground to bring them to earth potential.
In an electrical substation a ground (earth) mat is a mesh of conductive material installed at places where a person would stand to operate a switch or other apparatus; it is bonded to the local supporting metal structure and to the handle of the switchgear, so that the operator will not be exposed to a high differential voltage due to a fault in the substation.
In the vicinity of electrostatic sensitive devices, a ground (earth) mat or grounding (earthing) mat is used to ground static electricity generated by people and moving equipment. There are two types used in static control: Static Dissipative Mats, and Conductive Mats.
A static dissipative mat that rests on a conductive surface (commonly the case in military facilities) are typically made of 3 layers (3 - ply) with static dissipative vinyl layers surrounding a conductive substrate which is electrically attached to ground (earth). For commercial uses, static dissipative rubber mats are traditionally used that are made of 2 layers (2 - ply) with a tough solder resistant top static dissipative layer that makes them last longer than the vinyl mats, and a conductive rubber bottom. Conductive mats are made of carbon and used only on floors for the purpose of drawing static electricity to ground as quickly as possible. Normally conductive mats are made with cushioning for standing and are referred to as "anti-fatigue '' mats.
For a static dissipative mat to be reliably grounded it must be attached to a path to ground. Normally, both the mat and the wrist strap are connected to ground by using a common point ground system (CPGS).
In computer repair shops and electronics manufacturing workers must be grounded before working on devices sensitive to voltages capable of being generated by humans. For that reason static dissipative mats can be and are also used on production assembly floors as "floor runner '' along the assembly line to draw static generated by people walking up and down.
Isolation is a mechanism that defeats grounding. It is frequently used with low - power consumer devices, and when electronics engineers, hobbyists, or repairmen are working on circuits that would normally be operated using the power line voltage. Isolation can be accomplished by simply placing a "1: 1 wire ratio '' transformer with an equal number of turns between the device and the regular power service, but applies to any type of transformer using two or more coils electrically insulated from each other.
For an isolated device, touching a single powered conductor does not cause a severe shock, because there is no path back to the other conductor through the ground. However, shocks and electrocution may still occur if both poles of the transformer are contacted by bare skin. Previously it was suggested that repairmen "work with one hand behind their back '' to avoid touching two parts of the device under test at the same time, thereby preventing a circuit from crossing through the chest and interrupting cardiac rhythms / causing cardiac arrest.
Generally every AC power line transformer acts as an isolation transformer, and every step up or down has the potential to form an isolated circuit. However, this isolation would prevent failed devices from blowing fuses when shorted to their ground conductor. The isolation that could be created by each transformer is defeated by always having one leg of the transformers grounded, on both sides of the input and output transformer coils. Power lines also typically ground one specific wire at every pole, to ensure current equalization from pole to pole if a short to ground is occurring.
In the past, grounded appliances have been designed with internal isolation to a degree that allowed the simple disconnection of ground by cheater plugs without apparent problem (a dangerous practice, since the safety of the resulting floating equipment relies on the insulation in its power transformer). Modern appliances however often include power entry modules which are designed with deliberate capacitive coupling between the AC power lines and chassis, to suppress electromagnetic interference. This results in a significant leakage current from the power lines to ground. If the ground is disconnected by a cheater plug or by accident, the resulting leakage current can cause mild shocks, even without any fault in the equipment. Even small leakage currents are a significant concern in medical settings, as the accidental disconnection of ground can introduce these currents into sensitive parts of the human body. As a result, medical power supplies are designed to have low capacitance.
Class II appliances and power supplies (such as cell phone chargers) do not provide any ground connection, and are designed to isolate the output from input. Safety is ensured by double - insulation, so that two failures of insulation are required to cause a shock.
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who did emily maynard choose in her season | The Bachelorette (season 8) - wikipedia
The Bachelorette 8 is the eighth season of ABC reality television series The Bachelorette. The show premiered on May 14, 2012, featuring Emily Maynard dating 25 men. Maynard was chosen by Brad Womack in the fifteenth season of The Bachelor, but they split after the show.
Maynard is the second former Bachelor winner to star in The Bachelorette and she is one of the three Bachelor winners chosen in the lead of the series. Jen Schefft of season three was the first (and subsequently Rebecca "Becca '' Kufrin in the fourteenth season six years later).
This is the first season of The Bachelorette filmed in Maynard 's hometown of Charlotte, North Carolina, where she and her daughter Ricki Hendrick live (along with the child 's paternal grandfather; the child 's father died before she was born), rather than Los Angeles, marking this as the first time a show in The Bachelor franchise has taken place in the Southern United States and also the second time one has been filmed on the East Coast since New York City in season three.
Biographical information according to ABC official series site, which gives first names only, plus footnoted additions. Ages stated are at time of contest.
The cast includes race car driver Arie Luyendyk, Jr. and singer - songwriter David Homyk.
Michael Nance died on May 29, 2017. The official cause of his death was multiple drug toxicity, according to the Travis County Office of the Medical Examiner. His death was ruled as accidental.
Third place finalist Sean Lowe was featured in the seventeenth season of The Bachelor, over runner - up Arie Luyendyk, Jr. and The Bachelorette season 6 winner Roberto Martinez. Luyendyk would eventually be featured in the twenty - second season of The Bachelor.
Finalists Chris Bukowski, Kalon McMahon, and Tony Pieper returned in the third season of Bachelor Pad. Bukowski and his partner Sarah Newlon finished as the runners - up. McMahon was eliminated in week 6 with Lindzi Cox, finishing in 5th place. Pieper was eliminated at the beginning of week 7 with Blakeley Jones, finishing in 4th.
Bukowski crashed the tenth season of The Bachelorette on night one, but bachelorette Andi Dorfman decided she did n't want to meet him.
Bukowski and McMahon then returned on the first season of Bachelor in Paradise. Neither found love. Bukowski returned yet again for the fourth time on the second season of Bachelor in Paradise but quit the same week he came to paradise. He then announced that he would retire from the bachelor franchise and this would be his last appearance.
Outside of Bachelor Nation franchise, Lowe was later featured on the sixteenth season of Dancing with the Stars, he partnered with Peta Murgatroyd and finished in 6th.
Original airdate: May 14, 2012
Emily Maynard began her quest for love in her hometown of Charlotte. With 25 suitors, Maynard was charmed by a letter written by Doug 's 11 - year - old son. Memorable moments including Kalon 's arrival by helicopter, Travis 's carrying an ostrich egg and Jef 's skateboard throwing at the entrance of the mansion. At the rose ceremony, Maynard pared the field to nineteen. Doug received the first impression rose. Brent, David, Jackson, Jean - Paul, Lerone and Randy were sent home.
Original airdate: May 21, 2012
The nineteen remaining suitors moved into a mansion in Charlotte, North Carolina prior to the start of the second episode.
1 - on - 1: Ryan. The two went to Emily 's house to bake cookies for Ricki 's soccer team. "You do n't watch The Bachelor and think you 're going to be baking cookies on the first date, but I 'm willing to do most anything for Emily, '' Ryan said, and his easygoing attitude about the date impressed her. Back at the house, the boys speculated how soon they would be able to meet Emily 's daughter (he agreed to wait at Emily 's request), and whether or not she and Ryan would have chemistry. The two had dinner together, where Ryan talked about how he believed he needed to pursue a woman and step out of his comfort zone to win her heart, which worried Emily. She told Ryan she did not want him to see falling in love with her as a contest, and he agreed with her. Later they saw a concert by the country band Gloriana and danced to "(Kissed You) Good Night ''. He received a rose.
Group: Jef, Kalon, Alejandro, Alessandro, Tony, Chris, Charlie, Aaron, Kyle, Nathan, Michael, Stevie and John. The men performed a charity show with The Muppets for the Levine Children 's Hospital where they were chosen to either sing, dance or perform stand - up comedy. Tony confessed that he grew up with The Muppets and did a Kermit the Frog voice. Then during the after party Kalon and Stevie had an altercation. Charlie opened up to Emily about his speech difficulties resulting from a past accident. Emily gave Jef the group date rose.
1 - on - 1: Joe. The couple take a private airplane to West Virginia to a resort Emily remembered from her childhood called the Greenbrier and there was a love clock. Emily did not feel any chemistry with Joe. She did n't give him a rose, and he was sent home.
Rose Ceremony: Aaron and Kyle are sent home at the rose ceremony, and sixteen bachelors are left in the competition.
Original airdate: May 28, 2012
1 - on - 1: Chris. The couple scaled a building in downtown Charlotte. They then had a rooftop dinner that included a private concert by country singer Luke Bryan. Emily ended the date by giving Chris a rose.
Group: Charlie, Alejandro, Stevie, Alessandro, Sean, Ryan, John, Michael, Doug, Jef, Tony and Travis. The men were grilled on parenting by Emily 's friends, and they were put to the test by a bunch of rambunctious kids. During the interviews, Sean did shirtless push - ups for Emily 's friends, who took a liking to him. During the after party, Doug revealed that he was a foster child. Emily thought it was best for Tony to leave the competition before the date ended because he missed his son after playing with the children at the park which also had Doug miss his son. Emily gave Sean the group date rose.
1 - on - 1: Arie. The couple took a private airplane to Dollywood in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee for a tour of the park. Emily then met her idol, country singer Dolly Parton. Arie and Emily danced to a song that Dolly wrote for them, and Emily gave Arie a rose.
Rose Ceremony: During the cocktail party, Emily asked Alessandro to leave the competition after he called Emily and her daughter "a compromise ''. At the Rose ceremony, Stevie was the only bachelor sent home. Thirteen men remain to travel with Emily to their first international destination, Bermuda.
Original airdate: June 4, 2012
1 - on - 1: Doug. The other men joked with Doug about the potential outcome of his date, which caused tension to build among the bachelors. Emily hoped her date with Doug would resolve the bad blood between the men. The two went shopping around town in Bermuda, they wrote a postcard for Doug 's son, Austin, in response to the letter that Austin wrote to Emily before the season premiere. The pair walked through the Moon Gate together. Emily then gave Doug a rose.
Group: Charlie, Ryan, Chris, Jef, Sean, Arie, Travis, and Kalon. The bachelors were divided into two teams for a sailing competition. During the race, Jef injured his finger. The Yellow Team (Arie, Ryan, Jef, and Kalon) won the race. They got to have dinner with Emily, while the Red Team went home early. Charlie was upset that he could n't stay on the date, and he cried on the ride home. At dinner, Ryan made a toast to Emily, his "trophy wife, '' which disgusted Arie. Arie told Emily that the guys have been giving him a hard time since they caught him kissing Emily at last week 's cocktail party. Emily was disappointed with Jef for not kissing her during their alone time. Ryan told Emily that he was upset with her for kissing Arie in front of the other guys. Emily gave the group date rose to Jef, who confessed that he was beginning to fall for Emily.
2 - on - 1: John and Nathan. The guys thought that John would stay because he was older. Chris, one of the younger bachelors, was offended by the comments made by Doug. Emily, John, and Nathan jumped off cliffs together before having dinner in one of the nearby caves. After dinner, Emily felt a stronger connection with John and gave him the 2 - on - 1 rose. Nathan was subsequently sent home.
The Rose Ceremony: Emily spent her time during the cocktail hour talking to all of the men. Ryan remarked that if he were eliminated, he would want to be the next Bachelor. Doug and Chris had an argument about Doug 's earlier comments about his age. At the rose ceremony, Michael and Charlie were eliminated, leaving ten men to travel with Emily to London, England.
Original airdate: June 11, 2012
1 - on - 1: Sean. The pair took a private double - decker bus for a tour of London and kissed outside Buckingham Palace. Sean was asked to speak on the famous Speaker 's Corner, where he professed that he felt hopeful that he would find true love with Emily. They had a quiet picnic together, and Emily gave Sean a rose.
Group: Alejandro, Chris, Ryan, Doug, Kalon, Arie, Travis and John. Emily and the bachelors went to Stratford - upon - Avon, where they performed scenes from Romeo and Juliet. Kalon, Ryan, Alejandro and John played Romeo, while Arie and Doug had to play the female nurse role. Ryan kissed Emily twice during his scene with her. Afterward in a pub, Ryan gave Emily a turquoise necklace. Meanwhile, Kalon referred to Emily 's daughter, Ricki, as "baggage '', which infuriated the other bachelors and prompted Doug to tell Emily about it. Heartbroken, she sent Kalon home immediately, telling him to "get the f * * * out ''. The men were impressed with the way Emily handled the situation, but she was too upset to hand out the group date rose. She was upset that no one came to her sooner, and she was worried that the men did not have her best interests at heart. During the Men Tell All, she revealed she made a mistake for not giving out the rose and would have given it to Doug for telling her about the Kalon situation.
1 - on - 1: Jef. The two went to a traditional afternoon tea, where a housekeeper constantly corrected their etiquette. They escaped to a pub, where Jef told Emily that when Kalon made his comment about Ricki, he confronted him about it. Emily felt reassured that Jef had fought for her. The two then went for dessert in the London Eye, ending their date with their first kiss. Emily gave Jef a rose.
The Rose Ceremony: Emily was still angry with all of the men on the group date for not being more protective of her. She specifically confronted Arie, telling him how disappointed she was in him. At the rose ceremony, Arie and Alejandro were the last two men standing. Emily made Arie sweat it out until the end, but she gave him the final rose. Alejandro was eliminated, and the eight men left traveled with Emily to Croatia.
Original Airdate June 18, 2012
1 - on - 1: Travis. The pair went to Dubrovnik, Croatia where Emily asked Travis to stand on the city 's famed "balancing stone ''. According to an old legend, if a man can stand on the stone and take off his shirt or his jacket, he and his love will be together forever. Travis stood on the stone, but he did n't take his clothes off. At dinner, Travis opened up to Emily about his past engagement and his lack of dating since the break - up. In the end, Emily could n't see Travis as more than a friend. She did n't give him a rose, and Travis was eliminated.
Group: John, Doug, Chris, Jef, Arie and Sean. The boys and Emily went to a theater to watch the new Disney movie Brave. After the movie, the men were forced to wear kilts and compete in their own version of the "Highland Games '' from the movie. The three tasks were archery, caber toss and a two - on - one tug of war-esque game. All of the men excelled at the games except for Chris. Emily then awarded Chris the "Bravery Cup '', much to Sean 's dismay. At dinner, Sean, Jef, Arie and Chris were shown having alone time with Emily, all sharing kisses with her. Arie ended his alone time with Emily by pinning her against a wall and passionately kissing her. Still, Arie 's hopes of getting a rose were dashed when Emily gave the group date rose to Chris.
1 - on - 1: Ryan. The other men in the house were annoyed with Ryan 's pompous attitude. Emily and Ryan went on a road trip together, where they went fishing for oysters. After their fishing expedition, Ryan again called Emily his perfect "trophy wife ''. Emily was disturbed with the language that Ryan used to describe his future wife. When Ryan showed Emily his list of qualities that he looks for in his wife, Emily decided that she could not give Ryan a rose. Ryan tried to persuade Emily to let him stay, but she stuck to her guns, and Ryan was eliminated.
Arie snuck out of the guys ' hotel to where Emily was staying to visit her after her date with Ryan. He apologized for not protecting her more in London, and he promised that he would always have her back. Jokingly, Emily gave Arie the rose that was meant for Ryan as a secret way of assuring him of her feelings. After leaving, Arie confessed that he is in love with Emily.
Rose Ceremony: Emily openly voiced her concerns about her feelings for John and Doug. John pleasantly surprised Emily by opening up to her about his deceased grandparents, while Emily needed to coax Doug to even put his arm around her. Emily gave roses to Sean, Jef and Arie. With one rose left, Emily left the room to talk to Chris Harrison. When she returned, she told the men that she was unsure of herself, and she did n't want to miss out on a great relationship with any of them. Chris Harrison then re-entered the room with not one, but two more roses, meaning that all of the men were safe. Emily then gave the final two roses to John and Doug as she announced that the six of them would be traveling to Prague with her.
Original Airdate June 25, 2012
1 - on - 1: Arie. The pair took a tour of Prague with Emily as the tour guide. Emily was furious when she found out that Arie was in a relationship over ten years ago with a show producer, Cassie Lambert, who is one of Emily 's close friends. The three involved discussed the incident off - camera, where Emily apologized for overreacting and she and Arie continued their romance.
1 - on - 1: John. They took a boat ride, and they painted on the Lennon Wall. They then followed a Czech tradition by putting a padlock on a gate to give them eternal love, but Emily could n't help but notice the symbolism behind John 's difficulty with the lock. Regardless, they later had dinner in a dungeon. No 1 - on - 1 rose was given out; John had to wait until the rose ceremony to learn his fate.
Group: Chris, Sean, and Doug. Chris was upset that he did n't get a 1 - on - 1 date. Emily asked Doug to leave the competition in the middle of the date because she gave him too many chances to make his move, and she thought he needed to be home with his son. Chris thought he was going to get the group date rose, but Emily gave the rose to Sean instead.
1 - on - 1: Jef. The pair went to a puppet store, with Jef buying a third puppet for Ricki. They went to an old library and acted out their journey on the show with their puppets. After this, they laid on the floor and talked about their future together. No 1 - on - 1 rose was given out; Jef had to wait until the rose ceremony to learn his fate.
Rose Ceremony: Emily decided to cancel the cocktail party because she already had her mind made up. She gave the first two roses to Jef and Arie. With one rose left, Chris asked to speak with Emily where he pleaded his case to her. Upon their return to the ceremony, Emily gave Chris the final rose, forcing John to go home. Emily will now travel to meet the families of Sean, Arie, Jef and Chris.
Original Airdate July 2, 2012
Chris: Chris ' hometown date was first in Chicago, Illinois. Emily and Chris went to a Polish restaurant, and then met his parents and two sisters. Chris ' older sister was critical of Emily, but Chris ' dad told Emily that he knows his son feels strongly for her. Chris ' family treated Emily to traditional Polish song and dance. Chris ended the night by telling Emily that he loves her.
Jef: Jef 's hometown date took place at his family 's ranch near St. George, Utah. Jef took Emily for a ride on an ATV, and then they went clay pigeon shooting. Emily pretended to not know how to work a gun, but in reality, she took lessons at home in North Carolina. Jef 's parents were in South Carolina doing charity work. Therefore, Emily only met Jef 's siblings: his two older brothers, his two sisters and his sister - in - law. Jef 's brother was n't sure if Jef was ready to be a father to Ricki, but after seeing Jef with Emily, he grew to accept their relationship. Jef concluded his date by reading Emily a letter that he wrote to her on the plane ride home from Prague, ending the letter by telling her that he is hopelessly in love with her.
Arie: Emily met Arie for his hometown date at Phoenix International Raceway where she suited up and rode with Arie in his IndyCar. Emily never experienced IndyCar racing, but she was comfortable due to her past involvement with NASCAR. Arie told Emily that he knew they would have to win over his mother when they met his family. Emily met Arie 's parents, Arie, Sr. and Mieke, his younger twin brothers and his sister. Emily was uncomfortable when Arie 's mother began speaking to her son in Dutch. Arie apologized because he does n't like speaking Dutch in front of people who ca n't understand it. Emily spoke with Arie 's mother, who strongly approved of her son 's relationship. Arie told his father that he could n't wait to propose to Emily.
Sean: Emily 's last hometown date took place in Dallas, Texas with Sean. Emily met Sean 's family including his parents, his sister, his brother - in - law, former football player Andrew Shull and his niece and nephew. Emily fell in love with the atmosphere in which Sean lives, and she thought she could see her and Ricki living there. Sean played a joke on Emily by leading her to believe that he still lived at home in a room filled with stuffed animals. Emily was relieved to learn that it was a joke. As she rode away from Sean 's home, he chased her down the block to give her one last kiss goodbye.
Rose Ceremony: At the rose ceremony, Emily became emotional because she did n't want the families of the men to think that they did anything wrong. She gave roses to Arie, Jef and Sean, which meant that Chris was eliminated. He was shocked by her decision, and he was upset that she could n't give him a reason as to why she was sending him home. Chris left, angry and heartbroken, while Emily announced to the final three contenders that they would be spending their last week on the island of Curaçao.
Original Airdate July 9, 2012
Sean: Emily & Sean flew to a private island together. She wanted him to open up about how he felt about her, but he did n't really know how. Emily described their relationship as a slow - and - steady process that grows better with time. They go snorkeling and have dinner that night on a beach. Sean read her a letter that he wrote for Ricki and he also told her that he was falling in love with her. Emily offered him the overnight date card to spend more time with him, but he did not stay the night as it did n't line up with Emily 's beliefs and the example that she wanted to set for her daughter.
Jef: Emily & Jef spent the day on a boat. They also went paddle - surfing and cliff - jumping. Emily felt like they balanced each other well and Jef was comfortable with how their relationship was progressing. He also wondered about how he would fit in with Emily & Ricki 's life, as that was the one aspect of Emily 's life that he had n't been exposed to yet. Emily also asks him to stay on their date for a bit longer, although they do n't spend the night together, with both of them knowing that the fantasy suite would n't change a thing about their relationship.
Arie: Emily & Arie went swimming with dolphins in the middle of the ocean. They commented on the obvious physical attraction that they have towards one another. They also have dinner that night at Emily 's place. They attempt to learn more about one another and about each other 's daily lives. Emily mentioned that although she did want to offer Arie the overnight date card, she could n't because she did n't trust herself and escorted him out right after dinner.
Rose Ceremony: Sean is eliminated at the rose ceremony.
Original Airdate July 22, 2012
Jef and Arie start off meeting Emily 's family. This includes her parents, Dave and Suzy, as well as her older brother, Ernie, and his wife. Both men ask for Emily 's father 's permission for his blessing if either of them were to get engaged to Emily. Her family collectively approves both guys and are n't able to give her a clear preference, which was what she was looking for. Her mother advises her to wait on an engagement if she is n't completely ready, something that Emily takes to heart.
A few days later, Jef is the first one to have his last date with Emily. He tells Emily that he had kept Ricki in mind throughout the whole process and expresses interest in meeting her before the experience is over, as her daughter is the only part of her life that he did n't know. Emily agrees and decides to let Jef meet Ricki back at the hotel that the two were staying at. The three have a pool day, with Emily being impressed at how comfortable Ricki had become around Jef in such a short amount of time. During the dinner portion of their date, Jef gives Emily a book about Curaçao, so that the two would always remember their adventures on The Bachelorette together.
The next day, Emily meets up with Chris Harrison. She reveals that she has already picked Jef in her heart and does n't want to put Arie through an unnecessary final date. She gets emotional while thinking about how to tell Arie that he is n't the one. Meanwhile, Arie is confident in his relationship with Emily and fully plans on proposing to her at the end. He creates a love potion for her right before she comes to deliver the bad news. She sends a confused and upset Arie home while in tears.
At the final rose ceremony, Emily tells Jef that he was the only man left, having also been the only guy to meet her daughter and the only one to even receive a last date. She officially declares her love for him and as does he. Jef proposes to Emily and she says yes. The engaged couple are then joined by Ricki and the three walk off of the show hand - in - hand.
The "After the Final Rose '' episode aired on Sunday July 22, 2012. The episode was done live rather than pre-taped and it aired right after the season finale, this was the second time in the show, season three was the first. Former bachelorettes Ashley Hebert and her fiancé J.P. Rosenbaum, Ashley Spivey, DeAnna Pappas and former bachelor Michael Stagliano were present at the live event.
Arie, runner up, confronted Emily about his elimination. The viewers learned that after the show was finished taping, he had difficulty finding closure with the demise of his relationship with Emily. He took it upon himself to fly to her home town of Charlotte, N.C. to see her. When he arrived there, he regretted his decision because he thought it would be an intrusion into her life and her daughter 's life. Instead, he left his diary on her doorstep in hopes that it would clarify any doubts she had about his feelings toward her. Emily chose not to read the diary out of respect for him and Jef (her fiance). She returned the diary to him on the live portion of the show.
Next, Jef came onto the stage and he and Emily were introduced to the public for the first time as an engaged couple. Jef confirmed that their relationship had been progressing well and he had begun to form a bond with her daughter Ricki. Emily and Jef let the public know that they would be going to Africa later in the year to do some charity work with Jef 's company People Water, and they decided that Jef would move to Charlotte to be with Emily primarily because they did not think it would be a good idea to uproot Ricki from her life. The couple would live separately until the wedding. A wedding date had not yet been set.
On October 16, 2012, just months after their public engagement, the couple announced their breakup.
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who was the kid stick killed in daredevil | Stick (Comics) - wikipedia
Stick is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.
Stick first appeared in Daredevil # 176 and was created by Frank Miller.
The mysterious Stick is a blind sensei who trained Matt Murdock.
Stick has made it his mission to keep the Chaste pure and clean from any evil infection. He forbade another of his prominent students, Elektra Natchios, from remaining in their ranks because of her vengeful personality, in spite of her formidable progress.
Stick is quite punishing and arrogant with his charges. He encountered Wolverine in his feral state and brought him back to reasoning, in part because of continued battering from his bō and hard nosed advising.
Eventually, the Hand sought to wipe out Stick and the good warriors of the Chaste altogether. Stick thwarted an assassination attempt by four Hand operatives; he then summoned the other members of his order to New York City. With the assistance of his clan, Stick defeated Kirigi, the Hand 's most lethal ninja at the time. The Hand regrouped and attacked Stick and his band of warriors (Shaft, Stone, and Claw) that now included Daredevil and Daredevil 's former lover, Black Widow. The Hand had almost overpowered the small band of warriors, when Stick and Shaft resorted to an ancient technique that drained the life force from all ninja present. Unfortunately, the technique resulted in the explosion and deaths of Stick and his comrade as a result of the excess energy they had absorbed. Despite their losses and the escape of the superheroes, The Hand considered the destruction of their nemesis and leader of their enemy a victory and turned their attention to other schemes.
Years later, the Hand turned its attention to the leaderless Chaste, once again attempting to destroy them. This time they sought to prevent the Chaste 's members from locating the new - born child that would bear Stick 's reincarnated soul. The Hand severely crippled Stick 's soldiers, reducing their number to a handful of warriors. The few Chaste remaining traveled to New York, seeking the assistance of Daredevil who reluctantly aided his former mentor 's disciples. In Japan, the Hand attacked the Chaste and Daredevil relentlessly. Fighting alongside Daredevil, the Chaste barely managed to escape and safeguard their master 's reincarnated spirit.
As part of All - New, All - Different Marvel, the Collector resurrects Stick to compete for him in the third iteration of the Contest of Champions. During the fourth on - panel battle, Stick secretly allies with the Sentry of Earth - 1611, a reluctant member of the opposing team assembled by the Grandmaster. When their alliance is revealed, the two are vaporized by Punisher 2099 's Molecular Disintegrator. While experimenting with the Iso - Sphere, the Maestro unintentionally brings Stick back in the form of an elderly Rick Jones. In the final battle, Stick sheds his disguise, distracts the Maestro by resurrecting the Sentry and instructs Outlaw on how to use the Iso - Sphere to end the Contest of Champions. Stick is afterwards shown back on Earth, where he forms a new superhero team with Outlaw, Ares, Guillotine, and White Fox.
The Ultimate Marvel version of Stick is introduced in the 3rd volume of Mark Millar 's Ultimate Avengers as someone who trained along with Matt Murdock, Blade, Shaft, and Stone by their mentor Anthony. Stick is later seen training a 13 - year - old blind boy (Ray Connor) to be a new Daredevil after Murdock 's death in the NY Ultimatum wave. Stick has been training Ray for weeks and is about to graduate, but is later bitten and turned into a vampire. He later appears to be in the possession of the vampire Nerd - Hulk (an intelligent clone of Hulk) under orders of their leader Vampire X. After Anthony is killed by Nerd Hulk, Stick led Nerd Hulk 's uprising at the Triskelion. He and most vampires are later killed in Iran after being teleported there by Captain America using Perun 's hammer and then Blade impaling him in the chest with his sword.
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mosquito-transmitted roundworms cause a tropical disease called ____ | Tropical disease - wikipedia
Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. The diseases are less prevalent in temperate climates, due in part to the occurrence of a cold season, which controls the insect population by forcing hibernation. However, many were present in northern Europe and northern America in the 17th and 18th centuries before modern understanding of disease causation. The initial impetus for tropical medicine was to protect the health of colonialists, notably in India under the British Raj. Insects such as mosquitoes and flies are by far the most common disease carrier, or vector. These insects may carry a parasite, bacterium or virus that is infectious to humans and animals. Most often disease is transmitted by an insect "bite '', which causes transmission of the infectious agent through subcutaneous blood exchange. Vaccines are not available for most of the diseases listed here, and many do not have cures.
Human exploration of tropical rainforests, deforestation, rising immigration and increased international air travel and other tourism to tropical regions has led to an increased incidence of such diseases.
In 1975 the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) was established to focus on neglected infectious diseases which disproportionately affect poor and marginalized populations in developing regions of Africa, Asia, Central America and South America. It was established at the World Health Organization, which is the executing agency, and is co-sponsored by the United Nations Children 's Fund, United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank and the World Health Organization.
TDR 's vision is to foster an effective global research effort on infectious diseases of poverty in which disease endemic countries play a pivotal role. It has a dual mission of developing new tools and strategies against these diseases, and to develop the research and leadership capacity in the countries where the diseases occur. The TDR secretariat is based in Geneva, Switzerland, but the work is conducted throughout the world through many partners and funded grants.
Some examples of work include helping to develop new treatments for diseases, such as ivermectin for onchocerciasis (river blindness); showing how packaging can improve use of artemesinin - combination treatment (ACT) for malaria; demonstrating the effectiveness of bednets to prevent mosquito bites and malaria; and documenting how community - based and community - led programmes increases distribution of multiple treatments. TDR history
The current TDR disease portfolio includes the following entries:
Additional neglected tropical diseases include:
Some tropical diseases are very rare, but may occur in sudden epidemics, such as the Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Lassa fever and the Marburg virus. There are hundreds of different tropical diseases which are less known or rarer, but that, nonetheless, have importance for public health.
The so - called "exotic '' diseases in the tropics have long been noted both by travelers, explorers, etc., as well as by physicians. One obvious reason is that the hot climate present during all the year and the larger volume of rains directly affect the formation of breeding grounds, the larger number and variety of natural reservoirs and animal diseases that can be transmitted to humans (zoonosis), the largest number of possible insect vectors of diseases. It is possible also that higher temperatures may favor the replication of pathogenic agents both inside and outside biological organisms. Socio - economic factors may be also in operation, since most of the poorest nations of the world are in the tropics. Tropical countries like Brazil, which have improved their socio - economic situation and invested in hygiene, public health and the combat of transmissible diseases have achieved dramatic results in relation to the elimination or decrease of many endemic tropical diseases in their territory.
Climate change, global warming caused by the greenhouse effect, and the resulting increase in global temperatures, are possibly causing tropical diseases and vectors to spread to higher altitudes in mountainous regions, and to higher latitudes that were previously spared, such as the Southern United States, the Mediterranean area, etc. For example, in the Monteverde cloud forest of Costa Rica, global warming enabled Chytridiomycosis, a tropical disease, to flourish and thus force into decline amphibian populations of the Monteverde Harlequin frog. Here, global warming raised the heights of orographic cloud formation, and thus produced cloud cover that would facilitate optimum growth conditions for the implicated pathogen, B. dendrobatidis.
Some of the strategies for controlling tropical diseases include:
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who did the voiceover for thomas the tank engine | List of Thomas & Friends voice actors - wikipedia
Thomas & Friends (Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends until 2003) is a British children 's television series, first broadcast on the ITV network on 9 October 1984. It is based on The Railway Series of books by the Reverend Wilbert Awdry and his son, Christopher Awdry.
These books deal with the adventures of a group of anthropomorphised trains and road vehicles who live on the fictional Island of Sodor. The books were based on stories Wilbert told to entertain his son, Christopher during his recovery from measles. Many of the stories are based on events from Awdry 's personal experience.
Until 2008, all characters were silent, with the exception of the show 's narrator, who provided the voices of the characters for them. Voices were given to the characters following the switch to full CGI animation in 2009.
* Pierce Brosnan narrated the original cut of Series 12, but withdrew from the series, and his narrations left unreleased.
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peru is the size of what us state | Peru - wikipedia
Coordinates: 10 ° S 76 ° W / 10 ° S 76 ° W / - 10; - 76
Peru (/ pəˈruː / (listen); Spanish: Perú (peˈɾu); Quechua: Piruw Republika (phɪɾʊw); Aymara: Piruw Suyu (pɪɾʊw)), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú (help info)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is an extremely biodiverse country with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains vertically extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon Basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon river.
Peruvian territory was home to several ancient cultures, ranging from the Norte Chico civilization in the 32nd century BC, the oldest civilization in the Americas, to the Inca Empire, the largest and most sophisticated state in pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty that encompassed most of its South American colonies, with its capital in Lima. Peru formally proclaimed independence in 1821, and following the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar, and the decisive battle of Ayacucho, Peru secured independence in 1824. In the ensuing years, the country enjoyed relative economic and political stability, which ended shortly before the War of the Pacific with Chile. Throughout the 20th century, Peru endured armed territorial disputes, coups, social unrest, and internal conflicts, as well as periods of stability and economic upswing. Alberto Fujimori was elected to the presidency in 1990; his government was credited with economically stabilizing Peru and successfully ending the Shining Path insurgency, though he was widely accused of human rights violations and suppression of political dissent. Fujimori left the presidency in 2000 and was charged with human rights violations and imprisoned until his pardon by President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski in 2017.
The sovereign state of Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is classified as an emerging market with a high level of human development and an upper middle income level with a poverty rate around 19 percent. It is one of the region 's most prosperous economies with an average growth rate of 5.9 % and it has one of the world 's fastest industrial growth rates at an average of 9.6 %. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing; along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology. The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas, a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America 's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom and it has the third lowest homicide rate in South America; it is an active member of the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Alliance, the Trans - Pacific Partnership and the World Trade Organization; and is considered as a middle power.
Peru has a multiethnic population of 32 million, which includes Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua, Aymara or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.
The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans. Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú.
An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name Birú was that of a common Indian happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias de Ávila, and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.
The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after independence.
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Peru 's Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture.
The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious centre in Chavín de Huantar. After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century AD, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. The Mochica, who reached their apogee in the first millennium AD, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as loose confederation of cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru and southern Ecuador, the Chimu flourished from about 1150 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern - day Trujillo. In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present - day city of Ayacucho, developed large urban settlements and wide - ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 AD.
In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco. The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas. Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the great emperor Pachacuti. Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far - flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions '' or "The Four United Provinces. '' Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun. ''
Atahualpa (also Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half - brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima, which became known as "The City of Kings ''. The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin - off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572.
The indigenous population dramatically collapsed due to exploitation, socioeconomic change and epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at Potosí (present - day Bolivia) and Huancavelica, the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. Because of lack of available work force, African slaves were added to the labor population. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism, taking only a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition, making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations. In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.
By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty. The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II 's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the viceroyalty of Peru; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern - day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture. Two of the most important indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.
In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.
The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, the war of independence in North America and native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipating ideas among the criollo population in South America. However, the criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.
After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days, one of the greatest accomplishments in military history. Once in Chile he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port of Paracas under the command of general Jose de San Martin and Thomas Cochrane, who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October they took control of the town of Pisco. San Martin settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north blockading the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martin 's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however all negotiations proved unsuccessful.
The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named Jose de la Serna commander - in - chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion of San Martin. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. In order to avoid a military confrontation San Martin met the newly appointed viceroy, Jose de la Serna, and proposed to create a constitutional monarchy, a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city and on 12 July 1821 San Martin occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Alto Peru (Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. Jose de San Martin was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.
Simon Bolivar launched his campaign from the north liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822 Bolivar and San Martin gathered in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolivar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martin retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru giving him the power to organize the military.
With the help of Antonio José de Sucre they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Alto Peru. Alto Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.
From the 1840s to the 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla, through increased state revenues from guano exports. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in - fighting was again on the rise. Peru embarked on a railroad - building program that helped but also bankrupted the country.
In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on 5 April 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region. Two outstanding military leaders throughout the war were Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, in order to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms in order to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.
Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía. The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima, returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year - long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas department and its capital Leticia.
Later, in 1941, Peru became involved in the Ecuadorian -- Peruvian War, after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, Gen. Manuel A. Odría became president. Odría 's presidency was known as the Ochenio. Momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd - pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his régime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against Belaúnde. Alvarado 's regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development, but failed to gain widespread support. In 1975, General Francisco Morales - Bermúdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.
Peru engaged in a brief successful conflict with Ecuador in the Paquisha War as a result of territorial dispute between the two countries. After the country experienced chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the Inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. The per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru 's GDP dropped 20 % at which national reserves were a negative $900 million. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA, which caused great havoc throughout the country. Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from Sendero Luminoso and MRTA, and allegations of official corruption, Alberto Fujimori assumed presidency in 1990. Fujimori implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to drop from 7,650 % in 1990 to 139 % in 1991. Faced with opposition to his reform efforts, Fujimori dissolved Congress in the auto - golpe ("self - coup '') of 5 April 1992. He then revised the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state - owned companies, creation of an investment - friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Fujimori 's administration was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably the Sendero Luminoso, who carried out terrorist campaigns across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize the human rights violations committed in the last years of violence.
During early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War, but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self - imposed exile, avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.
Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth. In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict. A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006.
On 28 July 2006 former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning the 2006 elections. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations. In April 2009 former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by the Grupo Colina death squad during his government 's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s. On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected President. During his presidency, Prime Minister Ana Jara and her cabinet were successfully censured, which was the first time in 50 years that a cabinet had been forced to resign from the Peruvian legislature. In 2016, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected, though his government was short lived as he resigned in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president Martín Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings.
Peru is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is both head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can not serve consecutive terms. The President designates the Prime Minister and, on his or her advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers. The Congress of the Republic is unicameral with 130 members elected for five - year terms. Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President. The judiciary is nominally independent, though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues in modern day.
The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70. Congress is currently composed of Fuerza Popular (59 seats), Peruanos Por el Kambio (17 seats), Frente Amplio (10 seats), New Peru (10 seats), Alianza para el Progreso (9 seats), Acción Popular (5 seats) and APRA (5 seats) and 18 not grouped.
The law of Peru includes the constitution, and a number of codes and decrees.
Peruvian foreign relations have historically been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century. Recently, Peru disputed its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean. Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar served as UN Secretary General from 1981 to 1991. Former President Fujimori 's tainted re-election to a third term in June 2000 strained Peru 's relations with the United States and with many Latin American and European countries, but relations improved with the installation of an interim government in November 2000 and the inauguration of Alejandro Toledo in July 2001 after free and fair elections.
Peru is planning full integration into the Andean Free Trade Area. In addition, Peru is a standing member of APEC and the World Trade Organization, and is an active participant in negotiations toward a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA).
During the crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela, Peru participated in a leading role to help mediate the situation in Venezuela by being active within the Lima Group.
The Peruvian Armed Forces are the military services of Peru, comprising independent Army, Navy and Air Force components. Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. As a secondary mission they participate in economic and social development as well as in civil defense tasks. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander - in - Chief.
The National Police of Peru is often classified as a part of the armed forces. Although in fact it has a different organization and a wholly civil mission, its training and activities over more than two decades as an anti-terrorist force have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.
Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four - year terms. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property. The province of Lima is administered by a city council. The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the decentralization process and still influence local politics.
Several metropolitan areas are defined for Peru -- these overlap the district areas, and have limited authority. The largest of them, the Lima metropolitan area, is the seventh - largest metropolis in the Americas.
Peru covers 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.
The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán. The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country 's area is located within this region.
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow. Peru 's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.
The largest lake in Peru, Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America. The largest reservoirs, all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.
The combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (Humboldt and El Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. The coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches. In the mountain region, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes. The Peruvian Amazon is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.
Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic., and is one of the megadiverse countries. Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic), and 500 species of mammals and over 300 species of reptiles. The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma, jaguar and spectacled bear. The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano, an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass, flounder, anchovies, tuna, crustaceans, and shellfish, and is home to many sharks, sperm whales, and whales.
Peru also has an equally diverse flora. The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti, apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life. The Highlands above the tree - line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus, drought - resistant plants such as ichu, and the largest species of bromeliad -- the spectacular Puya raimondii.
The cloud - forest slopes of the Andes sustain moss, orchids, and bromeliads, and the Amazon rainforest is known for its variety of trees and canopy plants.
The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked by PPP), and the income level is classified as upper middle by the World Bank. Peru is, as of 2011, one of the world 's fastest - growing economies owing to the economic boom experienced during the 2000s. It has an above - average Human Development Index of. 74 which has seen steady improvement over the last 25 years. Historically, the country 's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments. Although they have provided substantial revenue, self - sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive. According to 2015 data, 19.3 % of its total population is poor, including 9 % that lives in extreme poverty. Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8 %, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014 it stands at 2.5 %. The unemployment rate has fallen steadily in recent years, and as of 2012 stands at 3.6 %.
Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968 -- 1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state - owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.
Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies. Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.
Services account for 53 % of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3 %), extractive industries (15 %), and taxes (9.7 %). Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption. Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on 12 April 2006. Peru 's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.
The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made important advances in the last two decades, including the increase of water coverage from 30 % to 85 % between 1980 and 2010. Sanitation coverage has also increased from 9 % to 37 % from 1985 to 2010 in rural areas. Advances have also been achieved concerning the disinfection of drinking water and in sewage treatment. Nevertheless, many challenges remain, such as:
Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest in the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5 -- 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.
Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there was gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Peru freed its black slaves in 1854. Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society, forming the largest population of Asians in Latin America after Brazil.
With about 31.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America. The demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6 % to 1.6 % between 1950 and 2000; with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050. According to the 1940 Peruvian census, Peru had a population at the time of 7 million residents.
As of 2007, 75.9 % lived in urban areas and 24.1 % in rural areas. Major cities include the Lima metropolitan area (home to over 9.8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census. There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.
According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru 's official languages are Spanish and Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages in areas where they predominate. Spanish is spoken by 84.1 % of the population and Quechua by 13 %, Aymara by 1.7 % while other languages make up the remaining 1.2 %.
Spanish is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin. Peru 's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous indigenous languages are spoken, including Asháninka, Bora, and Aguaruna.
Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit with a high degree of syncretism with indigenous traditions. As of the 2017 census, 76 % of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 14.1 % as Evangelical, 4.8 % as Protestant, Jewish, Mormon, and Jehovah 's Witness, and 5.1 % as nonreligious.
Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like Corpus Christi, Holy Week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Amerindian festivities from pre-Columbian remain widespread; Inti Raymi, an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.
The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral and patron saint.
Peru 's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9 % as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3 %) than in urban areas (96.3 %). Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.
Peru has a life expectancy of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from the World Bank.
Many of the Peruvian toponyms have indigenous sources. In the Andes communities of Áncash, Cusco and Puno Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish - based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized alphabets of these languages. According to Article 20 of Decreto Supremo No 004 - 2016 - MC (Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on July 22, 2016, adequate spellings of the toponyms in the normalized alphabets of the indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the namings used by the National Geographic Institute (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN) The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions, though it has also been influenced by various Asian, African, and other European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.
During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cusco School are representative. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.
Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma. The early 20th century 's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría and José María Arguedas. César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.
Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru 's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking. Peru 's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.
Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots. In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments. Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango. African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument. Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno.
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song i can't stand it no more | Where I Should Be - wikipedia
Where I Should Be is the sixth studio album by Peter Frampton, released in 1979.
In 1978 Peter Frampton appeared in the movie version of The Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band, alongside the Bee Gees. He played the role of Billy Shears. The movie was not received well, although it did give Frampton another Rolling Stone magazine cover appearance. The soundtrack was successful though, it reached # 5 in the album charts and went platinum. Frampton appears on the album, performing The Beatles tunes alongside people like George Burns. On July 21, 1978, Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band was released into theaters. In June 1978, Frampton suffered a near fatal car crash in the Bahamas, which left him with a concussion, muscle damage and broken bones. To make matters worse, he and his longtime girlfriend also ended their relationship. But in 1979, he released the album, which went gold and produced the hit "I Ca n't Stand It No More '', which reached # 14 in the singles charts. In addition to some good Frampton compositions and guitar solos ("Got My Feet Back on the Ground '', "Everything I Need '', and "She Do n't Reply '') The album 's other highlights include the two Isaac Hayes - David Porter covers, "May I Baby '' and "You Do n't Know Like I Know ''.
All tracks written by Peter Frampton, except where noted.
The line - up on this album was varied and did not consist solely of the previous Frampton band.
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who has won the most tag team titles | List of World Tag Team champions (WWE) - wikipedia
The World Tag Team Championship was a professional wrestling World Tag Team championship in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was unified with the WWE Tag Team Championship, which WWE recognized as the "Unified WWE Tag Team Championship ''. On August 16, 2010 the World Tag Team Championship was decommissioned in favor of continuing the lineage of the WWE Tag Team Championship.
Some reigns were held by champions using a ring name, while others used their real name. There have been a total of 113 recognized teams and 164 recognized individual champions, who have had a combined 176 official reigns. The first champions were Luke Graham and Tarzan Tyler and the final champions were The Hart Dynasty (David Hart Smith and Tyson Kidd).
The team with the most reigns is The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and D - Von) with eight. Edge has the most individual reigns with twelve. Two tag teams have held the titles for 365 or more days: Demolition, whose first reign set the record at 478 days and The Valiant Brothers. Demolition is also the team with the longest combined reign at 698 days, while Mr. Fuji has the longest combined reign as an individual at 932 days.
The following is a chronological list of teams that have been World Tag Team Champions by ring name.
During Demolition 's third reign, Crush was added to the team, and the three of them defended the titles under the Freebird Rule for approximately 90 days.
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how many times can u enter the nba draft | Eligibility for the NBA draft - wikipedia
The NBA draft is an annual event in which the 30 franchises in the National Basketball Association select new players for their teams. Eligibility rules for prospective players have changed several times during the history of the league. No player may sign with the NBA until they are 19 years or older. The rule has produced one - and - done players that play college basketball for one year before declaring for the draft.
In the earliest days of the NBA, three players entered the NBA without having played in college (although one of them did not enter the league until he was 39 years old). However, the league eventually established a rule that "a player could not make himself available '' for the draft until two years after his high school graduation.
The first major challenge to the NBA 's eligibility rules came from Spencer Haywood. He graduated from high school in 1968, at a time when college freshmen were not allowed to play varsity sports for NCAA member schools. He played three years at a Colorado junior college, followed by a season at the University of Detroit. After the 1970 -- 71 season, he left college for the NBA 's rival at the time, the ABA, which had no rule restricting college underclassmen from entering the league, and had a spectacularly successful rookie season with the Denver Rockets (the predecessor to today 's Denver Nuggets), being named the ABA 's Rookie of the Year and MVP. Near the end of the season, he turned 21; shortly after its end, he repudiated his contract with the Rockets, claiming he had been defrauded. Haywood then signed a contract with the now defunct Seattle SuperSonics, which put him and the Sonics on a collision course with the NBA, as he was only three years removed from his high school graduation.
The NBA threatened to disallow the contract and impose sanctions against the Sonics. Haywood responded by filing an antitrust suit against the league, seeking an injunction to prevent the NBA from disallowing the contract or punishing the Sonics. The case eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court, which issued a 7 -- 2 decision in Haywood 's favor in 1971.
After the decision, the NBA allowed players to leave college early as "hardship cases '', which essentially meant that the player had to prove financial hardship. This rule quickly developed into one that was observed in the breach, with Sport magazine writer Jackie Lapin commenting in the 1970s that "Almost anyone who has been any good at the game in the past decade would qualify (as a hardship case) -- with the probable exception of Bill Bradley, the banker 's son. ''
As a consequence of the aforementioned Haywood decision, and following soon after, three high schoolers chose to enter the professional ranks without ever enrolling in a college. The first was Moses Malone, who went to the ABA upon his high school graduation in 1974, almost immediately establishing himself as a star of the future. After the ABA -- NBA merger in 1976, his career continued on its upward trajectory, ultimately earning him three NBA MVP awards, four appearances on the All - NBA First Team, 12 consecutive NBA All - Star Game appearances, an NBA title, a place among the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History, and enshrinement in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. In 1975, Darryl Dawkins and Bill Willoughby both went to the NBA from high school. Dawkins had a solid 14 - year career in the NBA, while Willoughby was no more than a journeyman in eight NBA seasons.
These players were greatly outnumbered by college underclassmen who chose to leave early for the NBA. While underclass draftees are too numerous to list, it can be noted that among the aforementioned 50 Greatest Players, 10 (not including Malone) left college early for the NBA.
After Dawkins and Willoughby, no high school player went directly to the NBA for 20 years, although Lloyd Daniels and Shawn Kemp went to the NBA without having played college basketball (both had enrolled in college, but never played). That would change in 1995 with the arrival of future NBA MVP Kevin Garnett, who was selected fifth overall. The following year, another future MVP in Kobe Bryant and a future All - Star in Jermaine O'Neal were first - round picks out of high school. Most years after that saw at least one, and often more, high - schoolers drafted, most notably Tracy McGrady (1997), Kwame Brown (the first high - schooler to be the # 1 overall pick, in 2001), Amar'e Stoudemire (2002), LeBron James (# 1 in 2003), and Dwight Howard (# 1 in 2004).
However, the influx of high - schoolers caused considerable controversy. When the NBA and its players union negotiated a new Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) in 2005, NBA Commissioner David Stern publicly called for a higher age limit of 20, stating that he wanted the league 's scouts and general managers out of high school gyms and that too many young urban Americans incorrectly saw the NBA as a sure path to fame and financial security. Most of the players were opposed to an age limit; Jermaine O'Neal was perhaps the most strident critic, accusing the NBA of racism. Ultimately, the union reluctantly agreed to an age limit of 19, accepting it in exchange for tweaks to salary cap rules that were favorable to the players ' interests.
The current eligibility rules were established under the NBA 's 2005 collective bargaining agreement (CBA), which expired in 2011, resulting in a lockout. The previous CBA, approved in December 2011, made no changes to the draft rules, but called for the NBA and its players union to form a committee to discuss draft - related issues. In 2016, the NBA and NBA Players Association met to work on a new CBA, which both sides approved in December of that year. This most recent agreement started with the 2017 -- 18 season and will run through 2023 -- 24, with a mutual opt - out after 2022 -- 23. The basic rules that started in the 2006 draft are:
The "one year out of high school '' requirement is in addition to the age requirement. For example, although O.J. Mayo turned 19 in November 2006, six months before his high school graduation, he was not eligible until the 2008 draft, a year after his high school class graduated. Stern stated the rules were business - related and not a "social program '', citing the need to see players perform against higher competition before they are evaluated for valuable draft picks. The rule effectively mandated that players spend at least one year in college. High school players who would otherwise have jumped directly into the NBA were instead playing in college for the required year before leaving and entering the draft -- a phenomenon known as one and done. Some colleges have embraced this rule to their advantage, notably the University of Kentucky, among others. Many of their players have played the one mandatory year, leaving after their freshman season to enter the draft. The NBA G League (formerly Development League) is one alternative to college. Players can earn five - figure salaries, but the level of competition is possibly lower than in the Division I level in college. Some players, most notably Brandon Jennings, have also played overseas in lieu of college. However, in recent years, other players like Satnam Singh, Thon Maker, and Matur Maker have looked to enter the NBA draft while still being high schoolers by exploiting a loophole where they enter the draft as high school postgraduates.
Players whose 19th birthday falls during or before the calendar year of the draft, or at least one year removed from the graduation of their high school class, and who do not meet the criteria for "international '' players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:
Those who have reached the minimum eligibility age of 19 and meet the criteria for "international '' players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:
Players who are not automatically eligible but wish to be drafted must declare their eligibility no later than 60 days before the draft. After this date, "early entry '' players may attend NBA pre-draft camps and individual team workouts to show off their skills and obtain feedback regarding their draft positions. Under the CBA, a player may withdraw his name from consideration from the draft at any time before the final declaration date, which is 10 days before the draft. However, the NCAA adopted a rule that took effect in August 2009 that requires players at its member institutions to withdraw no later than May 8 to retain their college eligibility; the first draft affected by this rule was the 2010 draft. In 2011, the NCAA shortened its timeline for players to withdraw and retain eligibility to one day before the start of the spring signing period for men 's basketball, which occurs in April. The NCAA changed its withdrawal rule again in 2016, effective with that year 's draft; its withdrawal deadline is now in late May, specifically 10 days after the final day of the annual NBA Draft Combine.
A player who declares for the draft will lose his college eligibility, even if he is not drafted, if he signs with any agent. Before 2016, the NCAA only allowed a player to enter the draft once without losing eligibility, but current NCAA rules now allow players to declare for and withdraw from multiple drafts while retaining college eligibility. The CBA allows a player to withdraw twice.
The CBA defines "international players '' for draft purposes as those who meet all of the following criteria:
Note that this definition is very different from what the NBA uses in listing "international players '' on its team rosters. For that purpose, the league defines an "international player '' specifically as one born outside the 50 United States or the District of Columbia.
In the third annual High School Hoops magazine, the players weighed in on the subject of the new rules regarding draft eligibility. Many of them felt that it was unfair. Kansas State freshman Bill Walker, said (as a junior in high school), "I 'm against it. I do n't see why you have to be 19 to play a game of basketball when you can be 18 and go to war for our country and die. It 's ridiculous. '' Jerryd Bayless said "It 's not fair at all. If a tennis player can go pro at 13, I do n't understand why a basketball player ca n't go pro at 18. '' A possible number one pick out of high school, had the rule not been put in place, was Greg Oden (though he was still picked first in 2007). When asked about the agreement he said "It 's unfair, but it 's over with now, so there 's no reason to complain. '' In spite of the claims that the rule is unfair, Wayne Ellington of North Carolina, said that "... I also think it 's going to help the league a little bit. Some guys who come in, like from this year 's draft, it will help. '' Brandan Wright said that "It may hurt guys who need money, but it will help people grow and develop. ''
On the specific topic of Oden entering the draft, Jack Keefer, Oden 's high school coach at Lawrence North, Indiana, said, "I really think he thought he was going to college. He seems to be more at ease with himself right now. I think the stress came with worrying about the NBA. ''
While a lot of high school players just accept that this is just how it is, some object to this rule. They say that it puts excess stress on them because they start being recruited in their junior year of high school. If they have a bad season it could ruin their chances to get into college and therefore into the NBA. It can also be stressful picking a college to play at, which can be unneeded stress if a player decides to leave after only one year.
In March 2015, following a series of meetings that began at the 2014 men 's Final Four, the NBA, NCAA, and the trade association for college men 's coaches, the National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC), announced a plan that would give college underclassmen a better opportunity to make an informed decision about their NBA status than the then - current system. Under this plan:
The NCAA rule change was formally presented by the NCAA men 's basketball oversight committee on June 24, 2015, and was approved by the NCAA Division I council on January 13, 2016. The new rule, which took effect with the 2016 draft, specifically sets the new withdrawal date at 10 days after the end of the NBA draft combine. Additionally, players may declare for the draft multiple times without losing college eligibility, as long as they withdraw before the new deadline without hiring an agent or signing a professional basketball contract, and are now allowed to attend the draft combine and one tryout per year for each NBA team without losing college eligibility. However, it has been stated that current commissioner Adam Silver is working to change this rule and has been meeting with NCAA officials to make the changes for the betterment of the NBA and NCAA basketball players, teams, and coaches alike.
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what was the main reason for the civil war | Origins of the American Civil War - wikipedia
Historians debating the origins of the American Civil War focus on the reasons why seven Southern states declared their secession from the United States (the Union), why they united to form the Confederate States of America (simply known as the "Confederacy ''), and why the North refused to let them go. While most historians agree that conflicts over slavery caused the war, they disagree sharply regarding which kinds of conflict -- ideological, economic, political, or social -- were most important.
The primary catalyst for secession was slavery, most immediately the political battle over the right of Southerners to bring slavery into the west. Another factor for secession and the formation of the Confederacy, was white Southern nationalism. The primary reason for the North to reject secession was to preserve the Union, a cause based on American nationalism. Most of the debate is about the first question, as to why some southern states decided to secede.
Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 presidential election without being on the ballot in ten Southern states. His victory triggered declarations of secession by seven slave states of the Deep South, whose riverfront or coastal economies were all based on cotton cultivated using slave labor. They formed the Confederate States of America after Lincoln was elected, but before he took office. Nationalists (in the North and "Unionists '' in the South) refused to recognize the declarations of secession. No foreign country 's government ever recognized the Confederacy. The U.S. government under President James Buchanan refused to relinquish its forts that were in territory claimed by the Confederacy. The war itself began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces bombarded Fort Sumter, a major U.S. fortress in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.
As a panel of historians emphasized in 2011, "while slavery and its various and multifaceted discontents were the primary cause of disunion, it was disunion itself that sparked the war. '' Pulitzer Prize winning author David Potter wrote, "The problem for Americans who, in the age of Lincoln, wanted slaves to be free was not simply that southerners wanted the opposite, but that they themselves cherished a conflicting value: they wanted the Constitution, which protected slavery, to be honored, and the Union, which had fellowship with slaveholders, to be preserved. Thus they were committed to values that could not logically be reconciled. '' Other important factors were partisan politics, abolitionism, nullification vs secession, Southern nationalism, Northern nationalism, expansionism, economics and modernization in the Antebellum period.
The United States had become a nation of two distinct regions. The free states in New England, the Northeast, and the Midwest had a rapidly growing economy based on family farms, industry, mining, commerce and transportation, with a large and rapidly growing urban population. Their growth was fed by a high birth rate and large numbers of European immigrants, especially British, Irish and Germans. The South was dominated by a settled plantation system based on slavery; there was some rapid growth taking place in the Southwest (e.g., Texas), based on high birth rates and high migration from the Southeast; there was also immigration by Europeans, but in much smaller number. The heavily rural South had few cities of any size, and little manufacturing except in border areas such as St. Louis and Baltimore. Slave owners controlled politics and the economy, although about 75 % of white Southern families owned no slaves.
Overall, the Northern population was growing much more quickly than the Southern population, which made it increasingly difficult for the South to continue to influence the national government. By the time the 1860 election occurred, the heavily agricultural southern states as a group had fewer Electoral College votes than the rapidly industrializing northern states. Abraham Lincoln was able to win the 1860 Presidential election without even being on the ballot in ten Southern states. Southerners felt a loss of federal concern for Southern pro-slavery political demands, and their continued domination of the Federal government was threatened. This political calculus provided a very real basis for Southerners ' worry about the relative political decline of their region due to the North growing much faster in terms of population and industrial output.
In the interest of maintaining unity, politicians had mostly moderated opposition to slavery, resulting in numerous compromises such as the Missouri Compromise of 1820 under the presidency of James Monroe. After the Mexican -- American War of 1846 to 1848, the issue of slavery in the new territories led to the Compromise of 1850. While the compromise averted an immediate political crisis, it did not permanently resolve the issue of the Slave Power (the power of slaveholders to control the national government on the slavery issue). Part of the Compromise of 1850 was the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, which many Northerners found to be extremely offensive, and required that Northerners assist Southerners in reclaiming fugitive slaves.
Amid the emergence of increasingly virulent and hostile sectional ideologies in national politics, the collapse of the old Second Party System in the 1850s hampered politicians ' efforts to reach yet another compromise. The compromise that was reached (the 1854 Kansas -- Nebraska Act) outraged many Northerners, and led to the formation of the Republican Party, the first major party that was almost entirely Northern - based. The industrializing North and agrarian Midwest became committed to the economic ethos of free - labor industrial capitalism.
Arguments that slavery was undesirable for the nation had long existed, and early in U.S. history were made even by some prominent Southerners. After 1840, abolitionists denounced slavery as not only a social evil but a moral wrong. Activists in the new Republican Party, usually Northerners, had another view: they believed the Slave Power conspiracy was controlling the national government with the goal of extending slavery. Southern defenders of slavery, for their part, increasingly came to contend that black people benefited from slavery.
At the time of the American Revolution, the institution of slavery was firmly established in the American colonies. It was most important in the six southern states from Maryland to Georgia, but the total of a half million slaves were spread out through all of the colonies. In the South, 40 % of the population was made up of slaves, and as Americans moved into Kentucky and the rest of the southwest, one - sixth of the settlers were slaves. By the end of the war, the New England states provided most of the American ships that were used in the foreign slave trade while most of their customers were in Georgia and the Carolinas.
During this time many Americans found it difficult to reconcile slavery with their interpretation of Christianity and the lofty sentiments that flowed from the Declaration of Independence. A small antislavery movement, led by the Quakers, had some impact in the 1780s and by the late 1780s all of the states except for Georgia had placed some restrictions on their participation in slave trafficking. Still, no serious national political movement against slavery developed, largely due to the overriding concern over achieving national unity. When the Constitutional Convention met, slavery was the one issue "that left the least possibility of compromise, the one that would most pit morality against pragmatism. In the end, while many would take comfort in the fact that the word slavery never occurs in the Constitution, critics note that the three - fifths clause provided slaveholders with extra representatives in Congress, the requirement of the federal government to suppress domestic violence would dedicate national resources to defending against slave revolts, a twenty - year delay in banning the import of slaves allowed the South to fortify its labor needs, and the amendment process made the national abolition of slavery very unlikely in the foreseeable future.
With the outlawing of the African slave trade on January 1, 1808, many Americans felt that the slavery issue was resolved. Any national discussion that might have continued over slavery was drowned out by the years of trade embargoes, maritime competition with Great Britain and France, and, finally, the War of 1812. The one exception to this quiet regarding slavery was the New Englanders ' association of their frustration with the war with their resentment of the three - fifths clause that seemed to allow the South to dominate national politics.
During and in the aftermath of the American Revolution (1775 -- 1783), the northern states (north of the Mason -- Dixon line separating Pennsylvania from Maryland and Delaware) abolished slavery by 1804, although in some states existing slaves were not liberated immediately. In the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, Congress (still under the Articles of Confederation) barred slavery from the Midwestern territory north of the Ohio River, but when Congress organized the southern territories acquired through the Louisiana Purchase, the ban on slavery was omitted.
In 1819 Congressman James Tallmadge, Jr. of New York initiated an uproar in the South when he proposed two amendments to a bill admitting Missouri to the Union as a free state. The first barred slaves from being moved to Missouri, and the second would free all Missouri slaves born after admission to the Union at age 25. With the admission of Alabama as a slave state in 1819, the U.S. was equally divided with 11 slave states and 11 free states. The admission of the new state of Missouri as a slave state would give the slave states a majority in the Senate; the Tallmadge Amendment would give the free states a majority.
The Tallmadge amendments passed the House of Representatives but failed in the Senate when five Northern Senators voted with all the Southern senators. The question was now the admission of Missouri as a slave state, and many leaders shared Thomas Jefferson 's fear of a crisis over slavery -- a fear that Jefferson described as "a fire bell in the night ''. The crisis was solved by the Compromise of 1820, which admitted Maine to the Union as a free state at the same time that Missouri was admitted as a slave state. The Compromise also banned slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory north and west of the state of Missouri along the line of 36 -- 30. The Missouri Compromise quieted the issue until its limitations on slavery were repealed by the Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854.
In the South, the Missouri crisis reawakened old fears that a strong federal government could be a fatal threat to slavery. The Jeffersonian coalition that united southern planters and northern farmers, mechanics and artisans in opposition to the threat presented by the Federalist Party had started to dissolve after the War of 1812. It was not until the Missouri crisis that Americans became aware of the political possibilities of a sectional attack on slavery, and it was not until the mass politics of Andrew Jackson 's administration that this type of organization around this issue became practical.
The American System, advocated by Henry Clay in Congress and supported by many nationalist supporters of the War of 1812 such as John C. Calhoun, was a program for rapid economic modernization featuring protective tariffs, internal improvements at Federal expense, and a national bank. The purpose was to develop American industry and international commerce. Since iron, coal, and water power were mainly in the North, this tax plan was doomed to cause rancor in the South where economies were agriculture - based. Southerners claimed it demonstrated favoritism toward the North.
The nation suffered an economic downturn throughout the 1820s, and South Carolina was particularly affected. The highly protective Tariff of 1828 (called the "Tariff of Abominations '' by its detractors), designed to protect American industry by taxing imported manufactured goods, was enacted into law during the last year of the presidency of John Quincy Adams. Opposed in the South and parts of New England, the expectation of the tariff 's opponents was that with the election of Andrew Jackson the tariff would be significantly reduced.
By 1828 South Carolina state politics increasingly organized around the tariff issue. When the Jackson administration failed to take any actions to address their concerns, the most radical faction in the state began to advocate that the state declare the tariff null and void within South Carolina. In Washington, an open split on the issue occurred between Jackson and his vice-president John C. Calhoun, the most effective proponent of the constitutional theory of state nullification through his 1828 "South Carolina Exposition and Protest ''.
Congress enacted a new tariff in 1832, but it offered the state little relief, resulting in the most dangerous sectional crisis since the Union was formed. Some militant South Carolinians even hinted at withdrawing from the Union in response. The newly elected South Carolina legislature then quickly called for the election of delegates to a state convention. Once assembled, the convention voted to declare null and void the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 within the state. President Andrew Jackson responded firmly, declaring nullification an act of treason. He then took steps to strengthen federal forts in the state.
Violence seemed a real possibility early in 1833 as Jacksonians in Congress introduced a "Force Bill '' authorizing the President to use the Federal army and navy in order to enforce acts of Congress. No other state had come forward to support South Carolina, and the state itself was divided on willingness to continue the showdown with the Federal government. The crisis ended when Clay and Calhoun worked to devise a compromise tariff. Both sides later claimed victory. Calhoun and his supporters in South Carolina claimed a victory for nullification, insisting that it had forced the revision of the tariff. Jackson 's followers, however, saw the episode as a demonstration that no single state could assert its rights by independent action.
Calhoun, in turn, devoted his efforts to building up a sense of Southern solidarity so that when another standoff should come, the whole section might be prepared to act as a bloc in resisting the federal government. As early as 1830, in the midst of the crisis, Calhoun identified the right to own slaves -- the foundation of the plantation agricultural system -- as the chief southern minority right being threatened:
I consider the tariff act as the occasion, rather than the real cause of the present unhappy state of things. The truth can no longer be disguised, that the peculiar domestick (sic) institution of the Southern States and the consequent direction which that and her soil have given to her industry, has placed them in regard to taxation and appropriations in opposite relation to the majority of the Union, against the danger of which, if there be no protective power in the reserved rights of the states they must in the end be forced to rebel, or, submit to have their paramount interests sacrificed, their domestic institutions subordinated by Colonization and other schemes, and themselves and children reduced to wretchedness.
On May 1, 1833, Jackson wrote of this idea, "the tariff was only the pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question. ''
The issue appeared again after 1842 's Black Tariff. A period of relative free trade followed 1846 's Walker Tariff, which had been largely written by Southerners. Northern industrialists (and some in western Virginia) complained it was too low to encourage the growth of industry.
From 1831 to 1836 William Lloyd Garrison and the American Anti-Slavery Society (AA - SS) initiated a campaign to petition Congress in favor of ending slavery in the District of Columbia and all federal territories. Hundreds of thousands of petitions were sent with the number reaching a peak in 1835.
The House passed the Pinckney Resolutions on May 26, 1836. The first of these resolutions stated that Congress had no constitutional authority to interfere with slavery in the states and the second that it "ought not '' do so in the District of Columbia. The third resolution, known from the beginning as the "gag rule '', provided that:
All petitions, memorials, resolutions, propositions, or papers, relating in any way, or to any extent whatsoever, to the subject of slavery or the abolition of slavery, shall, without being either printed or referred, be laid on the table and that no further action whatever shall be had thereon.
The first two resolutions passed by votes of 182 to 9 and 132 to 45. The gag rule, supported by Northern and Southern Democrats as well as some Southern Whigs, was passed with a vote of 117 to 68.
Former President John Quincy Adams, who was elected to the House of Representatives in 1830, became an early and central figure in the opposition to the gag rules. He argued that they were a direct violation of the First Amendment right "to petition the Government for a redress of grievances ''. A majority of Northern Whigs joined the opposition. Rather than suppress anti-slavery petitions, however, the gag rules only served to offend Americans from Northern states, and dramatically increase the number of petitions.
Since the original gag was a resolution, not a standing House Rule, it had to be renewed every session and the Adams ' faction often gained the floor before the gag could be imposed. However in January 1840, the House of Representatives passed the Twenty - first Rule, which prohibited even the reception of anti-slavery petitions and was a standing House rule. Now the pro-petition forces focused on trying to revoke a standing rule. The Rule raised serious doubts about its constitutionality and had less support than the original Pinckney gag, passing only by 114 to 108. Throughout the gag period, Adams ' "superior talent in using and abusing parliamentary rules '' and skill in baiting his enemies into making mistakes, enabled him to evade the rule and debate the slavery issues. The gag rule was finally rescinded on December 3, 1844, by a strongly sectional vote of 108 to 80, all the Northern and four Southern Whigs voting for repeal, along with 55 of the 71 Northern Democrats.
There had been a continuing contest between the states and the national government over the power of the latter -- and over the loyalty of the citizenry -- almost since the founding of the republic. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, for example, had defied the Alien and Sedition Acts, and at the Hartford Convention, New England voiced its opposition to President James Madison and the War of 1812, and discussed secession from the Union.
Although a minority of free Southerners owned slaves, free Southerners of all classes nevertheless defended the institution of slavery -- threatened by the rise of free labor abolitionist movements in the Northern states -- as the cornerstone of their social order.
Per the 1860 census, the % of slaveholding families was as follow:
26 % in the 15 Slave states (AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, MO, NC, SC, TN, TX, VA)
16 % in the 4 Border states (DE, KY, MD, MO)
31 % in the 11 Confederate states (AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TN, TX, VA)
37 % in the 1st 7 Confederate states (AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, SC, TX)
25 % in the 2nd 4 Confederate states (AR, NC, TN, VA)
Mississippi was the highest at 49 % followed by South Carolina at 46 %
Based on a system of plantation slavery, the social structure of the South was far more stratified and patriarchal than that of the North. In 1850 there were around 350,000 slaveholders in a total free Southern population of about six million. Among slaveholders, the concentration of slave ownership was unevenly distributed. Perhaps around 7 percent of slaveholders owned roughly three - quarters of the slave population. The largest slaveholders, generally owners of large plantations, represented the top stratum of Southern society. They benefited from economies of scale and needed large numbers of slaves on big plantations to produce cotton, a highly profitable labor - intensive crop.
Per the 1860 Census, in the 15 Slave States, Slaveholders owning ≥ 30 Slaves which is 6.5 % of all Slaveholders, owned approx 1,540,000 Slaves which is 39 % of all Slaves. (PDF Pg 64 / 1860 Census pg 247)
In the 1850s, as large plantation owners outcompeted smaller farmers, more slaves were owned by fewer planters. Yet poor whites and small farmers generally accepted the political leadership of the planter elite. Several factors helped explain why slavery was not under serious threat of internal collapse from any move for democratic change initiated from the South. First, given the opening of new territories in the West for white settlement, many non-slaveowners also perceived a possibility that they, too, might own slaves at some point in their life.
Second, small free farmers in the South often embraced racism, making them unlikely agents for internal democratic reforms in the South. The principle of white supremacy, accepted by almost all white southerners of all classes, made slavery seem legitimate, natural, and essential for a civilized society. White racism in the South was sustained by official systems of repression such as the "slave codes '' and elaborate codes of speech, behavior, and social practices illustrating the subordination of blacks to whites. For example, the "slave patrols '' were among the institutions bringing together southern whites of all classes in support of the prevailing economic and racial order. Serving as slave "patrollers '' and "overseers '' offered white southerners positions of power and honor. Slave "patrollers '' and "overseers '' also won prestige in their communities. Policing and punishing blacks who transgressed the regimentation of slave society was a valued community service in the South, where the fear of free blacks threatening law and order figured heavily in the public discourse of the period.
Third, many small farmers with a few slaves and yeomen were linked to elite planters through the market economy. In many areas, small farmers depended on local planter elites for vital goods and services including (but not limited to) access to cotton gins, access to markets, access to feed and livestock, and even for loans (since the banking system was not well developed in the antebellum South). Southern tradesmen often depended on the richest planters for steady work. Such dependency effectively deterred many white non-slaveholders from engaging in any political activity that was not in the interest of the large slaveholders. Furthermore, whites of varying social class, including poor whites and "plain folk '' who worked outside or in the periphery of the market economy (and therefore lacked any real economic interest in the defense of slavery) might nonetheless be linked to elite planters through extensive kinship networks. Since inheritance in the South was often unequitable (and generally favored eldest sons), it was not uncommon for a poor white person to be perhaps the first cousin of the richest plantation owner of his county and to share the same militant support of slavery as his richer relatives. Finally, there was no secret ballot at the time anywhere in the United States -- this innovation did not become widespread in the U.S. until the 1880s. For a typical white Southerner, this meant that so much as casting a ballot against the wishes of the establishment meant running the risk of being socially ostracized.
Thus, by the 1850s, Southern slaveholders and non-slaveholders alike felt increasingly encircled psychologically and politically in the national political arena because of the rise of free soilism and abolitionism in the Northern states. Increasingly dependent on the North for manufactured goods, for commercial services, and for loans, and increasingly cut off from the flourishing agricultural regions of the Northwest, they faced the prospects of a growing free labor and abolitionist movement in the North.
Historian William C. Davis refutes the argument that Southern culture was different from that of Northern states or that it was a cause of the war, stating that "Socially and culturally the North and South were not much different. They prayed to the same deity, spoke the same language, shared the same ancestry, sang the same songs. National triumphs and catastrophes were shared by both. '' He stated that culture was not the cause of the war, but rather, slavery was: "For all the myths they would create to the contrary, the only significant and defining difference between them was slavery, where it existed and where it did not, for by 1804 it had virtually ceased to exist north of Maryland. Slavery demarked not just their labor and economic situations, but power itself in the new republic. ''
With the outcry over developments in Kansas strong in the North, defenders of slavery -- increasingly committed to a way of life that abolitionists and their sympathizers considered obsolete or immoral -- articulated a militant pro-slavery ideology that would lay the groundwork for secession upon the election of a Republican president. Southerners waged a vitriolic response to political change in the North. Slaveholding interests sought to uphold their constitutional rights in the territories and to maintain sufficient political strength to repulse "hostile '' and "ruinous '' legislation. Behind this shift was the growth of the cotton textile industry in the North and in Europe, which left slavery more important than ever to the Southern economy.
Southern spokesmen greatly exaggerated the power of abolitionists, looking especially at the great popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852), the novel and play by Harriet Beecher Stowe (whom Abraham Lincoln reputedly called "the little woman that started this great war ''). They saw a vast growing abolitionist movement after the success of The Liberator in 1831 by William Lloyd Garrison. The fear was a race war by blacks that would massacre whites especially in Black Belt counties where whites were a small minority.
The South reacted with an elaborate intellectual defense of slavery. J.D.B. DeBow of New Orleans established De Bow 's Review in 1846, which quickly grew to become the leading Southern magazine, warning about the dangers of depending on the North economically. De Bow 's Review also emerged as the leading voice for secession. The magazine emphasized the South 's economic inequality, relating it to the concentration of manufacturing, shipping, banking and international trade in the North. Searching for Biblical passages endorsing slavery and forming economic, sociological, historical and scientific arguments, slavery went from being a "necessary evil '' to a "positive good ''. Dr. John H. Van Evrie 's book Negroes and Negro slavery: The First an Inferior Race: The Latter Its Normal Condition -- setting out the arguments the title would suggest -- was an attempt to apply scientific support to the Southern arguments in favor of race - based slavery.
Latent sectional divisions suddenly activated derogatory sectional imagery which emerged into sectional ideologies. As industrial capitalism gained momentum in the North, Southern writers emphasized whatever aristocratic traits they valued (but often did not practice) in their own society: courtesy, grace, chivalry, the slow pace of life, orderly life and leisure. This supported their argument that slavery provided a more humane society than industrial labor. In his Cannibals All!, George Fitzhugh argued that the antagonism between labor and capital in a free society would result in "robber barons '' and "pauper slavery '', while in a slave society such antagonisms were avoided. He advocated enslaving Northern factory workers, for their own benefit. Abraham Lincoln, on the other hand, denounced such Southern insinuations that Northern wage earners were fatally fixed in that condition for life. To Free Soilers, the stereotype of the South was one of a diametrically opposite, static society in which the slave system maintained an entrenched anti-democratic aristocracy.
According to the historian James M. McPherson, exceptionalism applied not to the South but to the North after the North ended slavery and launched an industrial revolution that led to urbanization, which in turn led to increased education, which in its own turn gave ever - increasing strength to various reform movements but especially abolitionism. The fact that seven immigrants out of eight settled in the North (and the fact that most immigrants viewed slavery with disfavor), compounded by the fact that twice as many whites left the South for the North as vice versa, contributed to the South 's defensive - aggressive political behavior. The Charleston Mercury read that on the issue of slavery the North and South "are not only two Peoples, but they are rival, hostile Peoples. '' As De Bow 's Review said, "We are resisting revolution... We are not engaged in a Quixotic fight for the rights of man... We are conservative. ''
Allan Nevins argued that the Civil War was an "irrepressible '' conflict, adopting a phrase from Senator William H. Seward. Nevins synthesized contending accounts emphasizing moral, cultural, social, ideological, political, and economic issues. In doing so, he brought the historical discussion back to an emphasis on social and cultural factors. Nevins pointed out that the North and the South were rapidly becoming two different peoples, a point made also by historian Avery Craven. At the root of these cultural differences was the problem of slavery, but fundamental assumptions, tastes, and cultural aims of the regions were diverging in other ways as well. More specifically, the North was rapidly modernizing in a manner threatening to the South. Historian McPherson explains:
When secessionists protested in 1861 that they were acting to preserve traditional rights and values, they were correct. They fought to preserve their constitutional liberties against the perceived Northern threat to overthrow them. The South 's concept of republicanism had not changed in three - quarters of a century; the North 's had... The ascension to power of the Republican Party, with its ideology of competitive, egalitarian free - labor capitalism, was a signal to the South that the Northern majority had turned irrevocably towards this frightening, revolutionary future.
Harry L. Watson has synthesized research on antebellum southern social, economic, and political history. Self - sufficient yeomen, in Watson 's view, "collaborated in their own transformation '' by allowing promoters of a market economy to gain political influence. Resultant "doubts and frustrations '' provided fertile soil for the argument that southern rights and liberties were menaced by Black Republicanism.
J. Mills Thornton III, explained the viewpoint of the average white Alabamian. Thornton contends that Alabama was engulfed in a severe crisis long before 1860. Deeply held principles of freedom, equality, and autonomy, as expressed in Republican values appeared threatened, especially during the 1850s, by the relentless expansion of market relations and commercial agriculture. Alabamians were thus, he judged, prepared to believe the worst once Lincoln was elected.
Frederick Douglass
The politicians of the 1850s were acting in a society in which the traditional restraints that suppressed sectional conflict in the 1820s and 1850s -- the most important of which being the stability of the two - party system -- were being eroded as this rapid extension of democracy went forward in the North and South. It was an era when the mass political party galvanized voter participation to 80 % or 90 % turnout rates, and a time in which politics formed an essential component of American mass culture. Historians agree that political involvement was a larger concern to the average American in the 1850s than today. Politics was, in one of its functions, a form of mass entertainment, a spectacle with rallies, parades, and colorful personalities. Leading politicians, moreover, often served as a focus for popular interests, aspirations, and values.
Historian Allan Nevins, for instance, writes of political rallies in 1856 with turnouts of anywhere from twenty to fifty thousand men and women. Voter turnouts even ran as high as 84 % by 1860. An abundance of new parties emerged 1854 -- 56, including the Republicans, People 's party men, Anti-Nebraskans, Fusionists, Know - Nothings, Know - Somethings (anti-slavery nativists), Maine Lawites, Temperance men, Rum Democrats, Silver Gray Whigs, Hindus, Hard Shell Democrats, Soft Shells, Half Shells and Adopted Citizens. By 1858, they were mostly gone, and politics divided four ways. Republicans controlled most Northern states with a strong Democratic minority. The Democrats were split North and South and fielded two tickets in 1860. Southern non-Democrats tried different coalitions; most supported the Constitutional Union party in 1860.
Many Southern states held constitutional conventions in 1851 to consider the questions of nullification and secession. With the exception of South Carolina, whose convention election did not even offer the option of "no secession '' but rather "no secession without the collaboration of other states '', the Southern conventions were dominated by Unionists who voted down articles of secession.
Historians today generally agree that economic conflicts were not a major cause of the war. While an economic basis to the sectional crisis was popular among the "Progressive school '' of historians from the 1910s to the 1940s, few professional historians now subscribe to this explanation. According to economic historian Lee A. Craig, "In fact, numerous studies by economic historians over the past several decades reveal that economic conflict was not an inherent condition of North - South relations during the antebellum era and did not cause the Civil War. ''
When numerous groups tried at the last minute in 1860 -- 61 to find a compromise to avert war, they did not turn to economic policies. The three major attempts at compromise, the Crittenden Compromise, the Corwin Amendment and the Washington Peace Conference, addressed only the slavery - related issues of fugitive slave laws, personal liberty laws, slavery in the territories and interference with slavery within the existing slave states.
Historian James L. Huston emphasizes the role of slavery as an economic institution. In October 1860 William Lowndes Yancey, a leading advocate of secession, placed the value of Southern - held slaves at $2.8 billion. Huston writes:
Understanding the relations between wealth, slavery, and property rights in the South provides a powerful means of understanding southern political behavior leading to disunion. First, the size dimensions of slavery are important to comprehend, for slavery was a colossal institution. Second, the property rights argument was the ultimate defense of slavery, and white southerners and the proslavery radicals knew it. Third, the weak point in the protection of slavery by property rights was the federal government... Fourth, the intense need to preserve the sanctity of property rights in Africans led southern political leaders to demand the nationalization of slavery -- the condition under which slaveholders would always be protected in their property holdings.
The cotton gin greatly increased the efficiency with which cotton could be harvested, contributing to the consolidation of "King Cotton '' as the backbone of the economy of the Deep South, and to the entrenchment of the system of slave labor on which the cotton plantation economy depended. Any chance that the South would industrialize was over.
The tendency of monoculture cotton plantings to lead to soil exhaustion created a need for cotton planters to move their operations to new lands, and therefore to the westward expansion of slavery from the Eastern seaboard into new areas (e.g., Alabama, Mississippi, and beyond to East Texas).
The South, Midwest, and Northeast had quite different economic structures. They traded with each other and each became more prosperous by staying in the Union, a point many businessmen made in 1860 -- 61. However Charles A. Beard in the 1920s made a highly influential argument to the effect that these differences caused the war (rather than slavery or constitutional debates). He saw the industrial Northeast forming a coalition with the agrarian Midwest against the Plantation South. Critics challenged his image of a unified Northeast and said that the region was in fact highly diverse with many different competing economic interests. In 1860 -- 61, most business interests in the Northeast opposed war.
After 1950, only a few mainstream historians accepted the Beard interpretation, though it was accepted by libertarian economists. As Historian Kenneth Stampp -- who abandoned Beardianism after 1950, sums up the scholarly consensus: "Most historians... now see no compelling reason why the divergent economies of the North and South should have led to disunion and civil war; rather, they find stronger practical reasons why the sections, whose economies neatly complemented one another, should have found it advantageous to remain united. ''
Historian Eric Foner argued that a free - labor ideology dominated thinking in the North, which emphasized economic opportunity. By contrast, Southerners described free labor as "greasy mechanics, filthy operators, small - fisted farmers, and moonstruck theorists ''. They strongly opposed the homestead laws that were proposed to give free farms in the west, fearing the small farmers would oppose plantation slavery. Indeed, opposition to homestead laws was far more common in secessionist rhetoric than opposition to tariffs. Southerners such as Calhoun argued that slavery was "a positive good '', and that slaves were more civilized and morally and intellectually improved because of slavery.
Led by Mark Noll, a body of scholarship has highlighted the fact that the American debate over slavery became a shooting war in part because the two sides reached diametrically opposite conclusions based on reading the same authoritative source of guidance on moral questions: the King James Version of the Bible.
After the American Revolution and the disestablishment of government - sponsored churches, the U.S. experienced the Second Great Awakening, a massive Protestant revival. Without centralized church authorities, American Protestantism was heavily reliant on the Bible, which was read in the standard 19th - century Reformed hermeneutic of "common sense '', literal interpretation as if the Bible were speaking directly about the modern American situation instead of events that occurred in a much different context, millennia ago. By the mid-19th century this form of religion and Bible interpretation had become a dominant strand in American religious, moral and political discourse, almost serving as a de facto state religion.
The Bible, interpreted under these assumptions, seemed to clearly suggest that slavery was Biblically justified:
Protestant churches in the U.S., unable to agree on what God 's Word said about slavery, ended up with schisms between Northern and Southern branches: the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1844, the Baptists in 1845, and the Presbyterian Church in 1857. These splits presaged the subsequent split in the nation: "The churches played a major role in the dividing of the nation, and it is probably true that it was the splits in the churches which made a final split of the national inevitable. '' The conflict over how to interpret the Bible was central:
The result:
There were many causes of the Civil War, but the religious conflict, almost unimaginable in modern America, cut very deep at the time. Noll and others highlight the significance of the religion issue for the famous phrase in Lincoln 's second inaugural: "Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid against the other. ''
Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation and conquest. Of the states carved out of these territories by 1845, all had entered the union as slave states: Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida and Texas, as well as the southern portions of Alabama and Mississippi. And with the conquest of northern Mexico, including California, in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to the institution flourishing in these lands as well. Southerners also anticipated garnering slaves and slave states in Cuba and Central America. Northern free soil interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave soil. It was these territorial disputes that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided over.
The existence of slavery in the southern states was far less politically polarizing than the explosive question of the territorial expansion of the institution in the west. Moreover, Americans were informed by two well - established readings of the Constitution regarding human bondage: that the slave states had complete autonomy over the institution within their boundaries, and that the domestic slave trade -- trade among the states -- was immune to federal interference. The only feasible strategy available to attack slavery was to restrict its expansion into the new territories. Slaveholding interests fully grasped the danger that this strategy posed to them. Both the South and the North believed: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself. ''
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed to be sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. Two of the "conservative '' doctrines emphasized the written text and historical precedents of the founding document, while the other two doctrines developed arguments that transcended the Constitution.
One of the "conservative '' theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the historical designation of free and slave apportionments in territories should be become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded altogether in a territory at the discretion of Congress -- with one caveat: the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment must apply. In other words, Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Of the two doctrines that rejected federal authority, one was articulated by northern Democrat of Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas, and the other by southern Democrats Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi and Senator John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky.
Douglas devised the doctrine of territorial or "popular '' sovereignty, which declared that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery -- a purely local matter. Congress, having created the territory, was barred, according to Douglas, from exercising any authority in domestic matters. To do so would violate historic traditions of self - government, implicit in the US Constitution. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine.
The fourth in this quartet is the theory of state sovereignty ("states ' rights ''), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine '' after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the US Constitution -- and not merely as an argument for secession. The basic premise was that all authority regarding matters of slavery in the territories resided in each state. The role of the federal government was merely to enable the implementation of state laws when residents of the states entered the territories. Calhoun asserted that the federal government in the territories was only the agent of the several sovereign states, and hence incapable of forbidding the bringing into any territory of anything that was legal property in any state. State sovereignty, in other words, gave the laws of the slaveholding states extra-jurisdictional effect.
"States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L Krannawitter points out, "(T) he Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power. ''
By 1860, these four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the US Constitution.
Antislavery movements in the North gained momentum in the 1830s and 1840s, a period of rapid transformation of Northern society that inspired a social and political reformism. Many of the reformers of the period, including abolitionists, attempted in one way or another to transform the lifestyle and work habits of labor, helping workers respond to the new demands of an industrializing, capitalistic society.
Antislavery, like many other reform movements of the period, was influenced by the legacy of the Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival in the new country stressing the reform of individuals which was still relatively fresh in the American memory. Thus, while the reform spirit of the period was expressed by a variety of movements with often - conflicting political goals, most reform movements shared a common feature in their emphasis on the Great Awakening principle of transforming the human personality through discipline, order, and restraint.
"Abolitionist '' had several meanings at the time. The followers of William Lloyd Garrison, including Wendell Phillips and Frederick Douglass, demanded the "immediate abolition of slavery '', hence the name. A more pragmatic group of abolitionists, like Theodore Weld and Arthur Tappan, wanted immediate action, but that action might well be a program of gradual emancipation, with a long intermediate stage. "Antislavery men '', like John Quincy Adams, did what they could to limit slavery and end it where possible, but were not part of any abolitionist group. For example, in 1841 Adams represented the Amistad African slaves in the Supreme Court of the United States and argued that they should be set free. In the last years before the war, "antislavery '' could mean the Northern majority, like Abraham Lincoln, who opposed expansion of slavery or its influence, as by the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, or the Fugitive Slave Act. Many Southerners called all these abolitionists, without distinguishing them from the Garrisonians. James M. McPherson explains the abolitionists ' deep beliefs: "All people were equal in God 's sight; the souls of black folks were as valuable as those of whites; for one of God 's children to enslave another was a violation of the Higher Law, even if it was sanctioned by the Constitution. ''
Stressing the Yankee Protestant ideals of self - improvement, industry, and thrift, most abolitionists -- most notably William Lloyd Garrison -- condemned slavery as a lack of control over one 's own destiny and the fruits of one 's labor.
Wendell Phillips, one of the most ardent abolitionists, attacked the Slave Power and presaged disunion as early as 1845:
The experience of the fifty years... shows us the slaves trebling in numbers -- slaveholders monopolizing the offices and dictating the policy of the Government -- prostituting the strength and influence of the Nation to the support of slavery here and elsewhere -- trampling on the rights of the free States, and making the courts of the country their tools. To continue this disastrous alliance longer is madness.... Why prolong the experiment?
Abolitionists also attacked slavery as a threat to the freedom of white Americans. Defining freedom as more than a simple lack of restraint, antebellum reformers held that the truly free man was one who imposed restraints upon himself. Thus, for the anti-slavery reformers of the 1830s and 1840s, the promise of free labor and upward social mobility (opportunities for advancement, rights to own property, and to control one 's own labor), was central to the ideal of reforming individuals.
Controversy over the so - called Ostend Manifesto (which proposed the U.S. annexation of Cuba as a slave state) and the Fugitive Slave Act kept sectional tensions alive before the issue of slavery in the West could occupy the country 's politics in the mid-to - late 1850s.
Antislavery sentiment among some groups in the North intensified after the Compromise of 1850, when Southerners began appearing in Northern states to pursue fugitives or often to claim as slaves free African Americans who had resided there for years. Meanwhile, some abolitionists openly sought to prevent enforcement of the law. Violation of the Fugitive Slave Act was often open and organized. In Boston -- a city from which it was boasted that no fugitive had ever been returned -- Theodore Parker and other members of the city 's elite helped form mobs to prevent enforcement of the law as early as April 1851. A pattern of public resistance emerged in city after city, notably in Syracuse in 1851 (culminating in the Jerry Rescue incident late that year), and Boston again in 1854. But the issue did not lead to a crisis until revived by the same issue underlying the Missouri Compromise of 1820: slavery in the territories.
William Lloyd Garrison, a prominent abolitionist, was motivated by a belief in the growth of democracy. Because the Constitution had a three - fifths clause, a fugitive slave clause and a 20 - year extension of the Atlantic slave trade, Garrison once publicly burned a copy of the U.S. Constitution and called it "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell ''. In 1854, he said:
I am a believer in that portion of the Declaration of American Independence in which it is set forth, as among self - evident truths, "that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' Hence, I am an abolitionist. Hence, I can not but regard oppression in every form -- and most of all, that which turns a man into a thing -- with indignation and abhorrence.
Opposite opinions on slavery were expressed by Confederate Vice-President Alexander Stephens in his "Cornerstone Speech ''. Stephens said:
(Thomas Jefferson 's) ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error... Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its corner - stone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery -- subordination to the superior race -- is his natural and normal condition.
Opposition to the 1847 Wilmot Proviso helped to consolidate the "free - soil '' forces. In 1848 Radical New York Democrats known as Barnburners, members of the Liberty Party, and anti-slavery Whigs formed the Free - Soil Party. The party supported former President Martin Van Buren and Charles Francis Adams, Sr., for President and Vice President. The party opposed the expansion of slavery into territories where it had not yet existed, such as Oregon and the ceded Mexican territory. It had the effect of dividing the Democratic Party in the North, especially in areas of Yankee settlement
Eric Foner in Free soil, free labor, free men: The ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (1970) emphasized the importance of free labor ideology to Northern opponents of slavery, pointing out that the moral concerns of the abolitionists were not necessarily the dominant sentiments in the North. Many Northerners (including Lincoln) opposed slavery also because they feared that rich slave owners would buy up the best lands and block opportunity for free white farmers using family and hired labor. Free Soilers joined the Republican party in 1854, with their appeal to powerful demands in the North through a broader commitment to "free labor '' principles. Fear of the "Slave Power '' had a far greater appeal to Northern self - interest than did abolitionist arguments based on the plight of black slaves in the South.
Soon after the Mexican War started and long before negotiation of the new US - Mexico border, the question of slavery in the territories to be acquired polarized the Northern and Southern United States in the most bitter sectional conflict up to this time, which lasted for a deadlock of four years during which the Second Party System broke up, Mormon pioneers settled Utah, the California Gold Rush settled California, and New Mexico under a federal military government turned back Texas 's attempt to assert control over territory Texas claimed as far west as the Rio Grande. Eventually the Compromise of 1850 preserved the Union, but only for another decade. Proposals included:
States ' rights was an issue in the 19th century for those who felt that the federal government was superseded by the authority of the individual states and was in violation of the role intended for it by the Founding Fathers of the United States. Kenneth M. Stampp notes that each section used states ' rights arguments when convenient, and shifted positions when convenient. For example, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was enacted by southern representatives to use federal authority to suppress northern states ' rights. The constitution gave federal protection to slave property rights, and slaveholders demanded that this federal power should be strengthened and take precedence over northern state laws. Anti-slavery forces in northern legislatures had resisted this constitutional right in the form of state personal liberty laws that placed state laws above the federal mandate.
Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. noted that the states ' rights "never had any real vitality independent of underlying conditions of vast social, economic, or political significance. '' He further elaborated:
From the close of the nullification episode of 1832 -- 1833 to the outbreak of the Civil War, the agitation of state rights was intimately connected with a new issue of growing importance, the slavery question, and the principal form assumed by the doctrine was that of the right of secession. The pro-slavery forces sought refuge in the state rights position as a shield against federal interference with pro-slavery projects... As a natural consequence, anti-slavery legislatures in the North were led to lay great stress on the national character of the Union and the broad powers of the general government in dealing with slavery. Nevertheless, it is significant to note that when it served anti-slavery purposes better to lapse into state rights dialectic, northern legislatures did not hesitate to be inconsistent.
Echoing Schlesinger, Forrest McDonald wrote that "the dynamics of the tension between federal and state authority changed abruptly during the late 1840s '' as a result of the acquisition of territory in the Mexican War. McDonald states:
And then, as a by - product or offshoot of a war of conquest, slavery -- a subject that leading politicians had, with the exception of the gag rule controversy and Calhoun 's occasional outbursts, scrupulously kept out of partisan debate -- erupted as the dominant issue in that arena. So disruptive was the issue that it subjected the federal Union to the greatest strain the young republic had yet known.
In a February 1861 speech to the Virginian secession convention, Georgian Henry L. Benning stated the reasoning behind Georgia 's declaring secession from the Union:
What was the reason that induced... secession? This reason may be summed up in one single proposition. It was a conviction, a deep conviction... that a separation from the North - was the only thing that could prevent the abolition of... slavery.... unless there had been a separation from the North, slavery would be abolished in Georgia...
States ' rights theories gained strength from the awareness that the Northern population was growing much faster than the population of the South, so it was only a matter of time before the North controlled the federal government. Acting as a "conscious minority '', Southerners hoped that a strict, constructionist interpretation of the Constitution would limit federal power over the states, and that a defense of states ' rights against federal encroachments or even nullification or secession would save the South. Before 1860, most presidents were either Southern or pro-South. The North 's growing population would mean the election of pro-North presidents, and the addition of free - soil states would end Southern parity with the North in the Senate. As the historian Allan Nevins described Calhoun 's theory of states ' rights, "Governments, observed Calhoun, were formed to protect minorities, for majorities could take care of themselves ''.
Until the 1860 election, the South 's interests nationally were entrusted to the Democratic Party. In 1860, the Democratic Party split into Northern and Southern factions as the result of a "bitter debate in the Senate between Jefferson Davis and Stephen Douglas ''. The debate was over resolutions proposed by Davis "opposing popular sovereignty and supporting a federal slave code and states ' rights '' which carried over to the national convention in Charleston.
Jefferson Davis defined equality in terms of the equal rights of states, and opposed the declaration that all men are created equal. Jefferson Davis stated that a "disparaging discrimination '' and a fight for "liberty '' against "the tyranny of an unbridled majority '' gave the Confederate states a right to secede. In 1860, Congressman Laurence M. Keitt of South Carolina said, "The anti-slavery party contend that slavery is wrong in itself, and the Government is a consolidated national democracy. We of the South contend that slavery is right, and that this is a confederate Republic of sovereign States. ''
Stampp mentioned Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens ' A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States as an example of a Southern leader who said that slavery was the "cornerstone of the Confederacy '' when the war began and then later switched course in saying that the war was not about slavery but states ' rights after the Confederacy 's defeat. Stampp said that Stephens became one of the most ardent defenders of the Lost Cause.
Historian William C. Davis also mentioned inconsistencies in Southern states ' rights arguments. He explained the Confederate Constitution 's protection of slavery at the national level as follows:
To the old Union they had said that the Federal power had no authority to interfere with slavery issues in a state. To their new nation they would declare that the state had no power to interfere with a federal protection of slavery. Of all the many testimonials to the fact that slavery, and not states rights, really lay at the heart of their movement, this was the most eloquent of all.
W.C. Davis also stated that:
In fact, the state rights defense of secession in 1860 -- 1861 did not really appear in force until after 1865 as builders of the Lost Cause myth sought to distance themselves from slavery.
Southern historian Gordon Rhea wrote in 2011 that:
Tariffs appear nowhere in... sermons and speeches, and ' states ' rights ' are mentioned only in the context of the rights of states to... own other humans. The central message was to play on the fear of African barbarians... The preachers and politicians delivered on their promise. The Confederate States were established explicitly to preserve and expand the institution of slavery. Alexander Stephens, the Confederacy 's vice president, said so himself in 1861, in unambiguous terms.
The victory of the United States over Mexico resulted in the addition of large new territories conquered from Mexico. Controversy over whether these territories would be slave or free raised the risk of a war between slave and free states, and Northern support for the Wilmot Proviso, which would have banned slavery in the conquered territories, increased sectional tensions. The controversy was temporarily resolved by the Compromise of 1850, which allowed the territories of Utah and New Mexico to decide for or against slavery, but also allowed the admission of California as a free state, reduced the size of the slave state of Texas by adjusting the boundary, and ended the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in the District of Columbia. In return, the South got a stronger fugitive slave law than the version mentioned in the Constitution. The Fugitive Slave Law would reignite controversy over slavery.
The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 required that Northerners assist Southerners in reclaiming fugitive slaves, which many Northerners found to be extremely offensive. Anthony Burns was among the fugitive slaves captured and returned in chains to slavery as a result of the law. Harriett Beecher Stowe 's best selling novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin greatly increased opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law.
Most people thought the Compromise had ended the territorial issue, but Stephen A. Douglas reopened it in 1854, in the name of democracy. Douglas proposed the Kansas -- Nebraska Bill with the intention of opening up vast new high quality farm lands to settlement. As a Chicagoan, he was especially interested in the railroad connections from Chicago into Kansas and Nebraska, but that was not a controversial point. More importantly, Douglas firmly believed in democracy at the grass roots -- that actual settlers have the right to decide on slavery, not politicians from other states. His bill provided that popular sovereignty, through the territorial legislatures, should decide "all questions pertaining to slavery '', thus effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise. The ensuing public reaction against it created a firestorm of protest in the Northern states. It was seen as an effort to repeal the Missouri Compromise. However, the popular reaction in the first month after the bill 's introduction failed to foreshadow the gravity of the situation. As Northern papers initially ignored the story, Republican leaders lamented the lack of a popular response.
Eventually, the popular reaction did come, but the leaders had to spark it. Chase 's "Appeal of the Independent Democrats '' did much to arouse popular opinion. In New York, William H. Seward finally took it upon himself to organize a rally against the Nebraska bill, since none had arisen spontaneously. Press such as the National Era, the New York Tribune, and local free - soil journals, condemned the bill. The Lincoln -- Douglas debates of 1858 drew national attention to the issue of slavery expansion.
Convinced that Northern society was superior to that of the South, and increasingly persuaded of the South 's ambitions to extend slave power beyond its existing borders, Northerners were embracing a viewpoint that made conflict likely; however, conflict required the ascendancy of a political group to express the views of the North, such as the Republican Party. The Republican Party -- campaigning on the popular, emotional issue of "free soil '' in the frontier -- captured the White House after just six years of existence.
The Republican Party grew out of the controversy over the Kansas -- Nebraska legislation. Once the Northern reaction against the Kansas -- Nebraska Act took place, its leaders acted to advance another political reorganization. Henry Wilson declared the Whig Party dead and vowed to oppose any efforts to resurrect it. Horace Greeley 's Tribune called for the formation of a new Northern party, and Benjamin Wade, Chase, Charles Sumner, and others spoke out for the union of all opponents of the Nebraska Act. The Tribune 's Gamaliel Bailey was involved in calling a caucus of anti-slavery Whig and Democratic Party Congressmen in May.
Meeting in a Ripon, Wisconsin, Congregational Church on February 28, 1854, some thirty opponents of the Nebraska Act called for the organization of a new political party and suggested that "Republican '' would be the most appropriate name (to link their cause to the defunct Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson). These founders also took a leading role in the creation of the Republican Party in many northern states during the summer of 1854. While conservatives and many moderates were content merely to call for the restoration of the Missouri Compromise or a prohibition of slavery extension, radicals advocated repeal of the Fugitive Slave Laws and rapid abolition in existing states. The term "radical '' has also been applied to those who objected to the Compromise of 1850, which extended slavery in the territories.
But without the benefit of hindsight, the 1854 elections would seem to indicate the possible triumph of the Know - Nothing movement rather than anti-slavery, with the Catholic / immigrant question replacing slavery as the issue capable of mobilizing mass appeal. Know - Nothings, for instance, captured the mayoralty of Philadelphia with a majority of over 8,000 votes in 1854. Even after opening up immense discord with his Kansas -- Nebraska Act, Senator Douglas began speaking of the Know - Nothings, rather than the Republicans, as the principal danger to the Democratic Party.
When Republicans spoke of themselves as a party of "free labor '', they appealed to a rapidly growing, primarily middle class base of support, not permanent wage earners or the unemployed (the working class). When they extolled the virtues of free labor, they were merely reflecting the experiences of millions of men who had "made it '' and millions of others who had a realistic hope of doing so. Like the Tories in England, the Republicans in the United States would emerge as the nationalists, homogenizers, imperialists, and cosmopolitans.
Those who had not yet "made it '' included Irish immigrants, who made up a large growing proportion of Northern factory workers. Republicans often saw the Catholic working class as lacking the qualities of self - discipline, temperance, and sobriety essential for their vision of ordered liberty. Republicans insisted that there was a high correlation between education, religion, and hard work -- the values of the "Protestant work ethic '' -- and Republican votes. "Where free schools are regarded as a nuisance, where religion is least honored and lazy unthrift is the rule '', read an editorial of the pro-Republican Chicago Democratic Press after James Buchanan 's defeat of John C. Fremont in the 1856 presidential election, "there Buchanan has received his strongest support ''.
Ethno - religious, socio - economic, and cultural fault lines ran throughout American society, but were becoming increasingly sectional, pitting Yankee Protestants with a stake in the emerging industrial capitalism and American nationalism increasingly against those tied to Southern slave holding interests. For example, acclaimed historian Don E. Fehrenbacher, in his Prelude to Greatness, Lincoln in the 1850s, noticed how Illinois was a microcosm of the national political scene, pointing out voting patterns that bore striking correlations to regional patterns of settlement. Those areas settled from the South were staunchly Democratic, while those by New Englanders were staunchly Republican. In addition, a belt of border counties were known for their political moderation, and traditionally held the balance of power. Intertwined with religious, ethnic, regional, and class identities, the issues of free labor and free soil were thus easy to play on.
Events during the next two years in "Bleeding Kansas '' sustained the popular fervor originally aroused among some elements in the North by the Kansas -- Nebraska Act. Free - State settlers from the North were encouraged by press and pulpit and the powerful organs of abolitionist propaganda. Often they received financial help from such organizations as the Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Company. Those from the South often received financial contributions from the communities they left. Southerners sought to uphold their constitutional rights in the territories and to maintain sufficient political strength to repulse "hostile and ruinous legislation ''.
While the Great Plains were largely unfit for the cultivation of cotton, informed Southerners demanded that the West be open to slavery, often -- perhaps most often -- with minerals in mind. Brazil, for instance, was an example of the successful use of slave labor in mining. In the middle of the 18th century, diamond mining supplemented gold mining in Minas Gerais and accounted for a massive transfer of masters and slaves from Brazil 's northeastern sugar region. Southern leaders knew a good deal about this experience. It was even promoted in the pro-slavery DeBow 's Review as far back as 1848.
In Kansas around 1855, the slavery issue reached a condition of intolerable tension and violence. But this was in an area where an overwhelming proportion of settlers were merely land - hungry Westerners indifferent to the public issues. The majority of the inhabitants were not concerned with sectional tensions or the issue of slavery. Instead, the tension in Kansas began as a contention between rival claimants. During the first wave of settlement, no one held titles to the land, and settlers rushed to occupy newly open land fit for cultivation. While the tension and violence did emerge as a pattern pitting Yankee and Missourian settlers against each other, there is little evidence of any ideological divides on the questions of slavery. Instead, the Missouri claimants, thinking of Kansas as their own domain, regarded the Yankee squatters as invaders, while the Yankees accused the Missourians for grabbing the best land without honestly settling on it.
However, the 1855 -- 56 violence in "Bleeding Kansas '' did reach an ideological climax after John Brown -- regarded by followers as the instrument of God 's will to destroy slavery -- entered the melee. His assassination of five pro-slavery settlers (the so - called "Pottawatomie massacre '', during the night of May 24, 1856) resulted in some irregular, guerrilla - style strife. Aside from John Brown 's fervor, the strife in Kansas often involved only armed bands more interested in land claims or loot.
Frederick Douglass speaking of John Brown
Of greater importance than the civil strife in Kansas, however, was the reaction against it nationwide and in Congress. In both North and South, the belief was widespread that the aggressive designs of the other section were epitomized by (and responsible for) what was happening in Kansas. Consequently, "Bleeding Kansas '' emerged as a symbol of sectional controversy.
Indignant over the developments in Kansas, the Republicans -- the first entirely sectional major party in U.S. history -- entered their first presidential campaign with confidence. Their nominee, John C. Frémont, was a generally safe candidate for the new party. Although his nomination upset some of their Nativist Know - Nothing supporters (his mother was a Catholic), the nomination of the famed explorer of the Far West and ex-Senator from California with a short political record was an attempt to woo ex-Democrats. The other two Republican contenders, William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase, were seen as too radical.
Nevertheless, the campaign of 1856 was waged almost exclusively on the slavery issue -- pitted as a struggle between democracy and aristocracy -- focusing on the question of Kansas. The Republicans condemned the Kansas -- Nebraska Act and the expansion of slavery, but they advanced a program of internal improvements combining the idealism of anti-slavery with the economic aspirations of the North. The new party rapidly developed a powerful partisan culture, and energetic activists drove voters to the polls in unprecedented numbers. People reacted with fervor. Young Republicans organized the "Wide Awake '' clubs and chanted "Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, Frémont! '' With Southern Fire - Eaters and even some moderates uttering threats of secession if Frémont won, the Democratic candidate, Buchanan, benefited from apprehensions about the future of the Union.
Millard Fillmore, the candidate of the American Party (Know - Nothings) and the Silver Gray Whigs, said in a speech at Albany, New York, that the election of a Republican candidate would dissolve the Union. Abraham Lincoln replied on July 23 in a speech at Galena, Illinois; Carl Sandburg wrote that this speech probably resembled Lincoln 's Lost Speech: "This Government would be very weak, indeed, if a majority, with a disciplined army and navy, and a well - filled treasury, could not preserve itself, when attacked by an unarmed, undisciplined, unorganized minority. All this talk about the dissolution of the Union is humbug -- nothing but folly. We wo n't dissolve the Union, and you sha n't. ''
The Lecompton Constitution and Dred Scott v. Sanford (sic) (the Respondent 's name, Sandford, was misspelled in the reports) were both part of the Bleeding Kansas controversy over slavery as a result of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, which was Stephen Douglas ' attempt at replacing the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery in the Kansas and Nebraska territories with popular sovereignty, which meant that the people of a territory could vote either for or against slavery. The Lecompton Constitution, which would have allowed slavery in Kansas, was the result of massive vote fraud by the pro-slavery Border Ruffians. Douglas defeated the Lecompton Constitution because it was supported by the minority of pro-slavery people in Kansas, and Douglas believed in majority rule. Douglas hoped that both South and North would support popular sovereignty, but the opposite was true. Neither side trusted Douglas.
The Supreme Court decision of 1857 in Dred Scott v. Sandford added to the controversy. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney 's decision said that blacks were "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect '', and that slavery could spread into the territories even if the majority of people in the territories were anti-slavery. Lincoln warned that "the next Dred Scott decision '' could impose slavery on Northern states.
President James Buchanan decided to end the troubles in Kansas by urging Congress to admit Kansas as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution. Kansas voters, however, soundly rejected this constitution -- at least with a measure of widespread fraud on both sides -- by more than 10,000 votes. As Buchanan directed his presidential authority to this goal, he further angered the Republicans and alienated members of his own party. Prompting their break with the administration, the Douglasites saw this scheme as an attempt to pervert the principle of popular sovereignty on which the Kansas -- Nebraska Act was based. Nationwide, conservatives were incensed, feeling as though the principles of states ' rights had been violated. Even in the South, ex-Whigs and border states Know - Nothings -- most notably John Bell and John J. Crittenden (key figures in the event of sectional controversies) -- urged the Republicans to oppose the administration 's moves and take up the demand that the territories be given the power to accept or reject sovereignty.
As the schism in the Democratic party deepened, moderate Republicans argued that an alliance with anti-administration Democrats, especially Stephen Douglas, would be a key advantage in the 1860 elections. Some Republican observers saw the controversy over the Lecompton Constitution as an opportunity to peel off Democratic support in the border states, where Frémont picked up little support. After all, the border states had often gone for Whigs with a Northern base of support in the past without prompting threats of Southern withdrawal from the Union.
Among the proponents of this strategy was The New York Times, which called on the Republicans to downplay opposition to popular sovereignty in favor of a compromise policy calling for "no more slave states '' in order to quell sectional tensions. The Times maintained that for the Republicans to be competitive in the 1860 elections, they would need to broaden their base of support to include all voters who for one reason or another were upset with the Buchanan Administration.
Indeed, pressure was strong for an alliance that would unite the growing opposition to the Democratic Administration. But such an alliance was no novel idea; it would essentially entail transforming the Republicans into the national, conservative, Union party of the country. In effect, this would be a successor to the Whig party.
Republican leaders, however, staunchly opposed any attempts to modify the party position on slavery, appalled by what they considered a surrender of their principles when, for example, all the ninety - two Republican members of Congress voted for the Crittenden - Montgomery bill in 1858. Although this compromise measure blocked Kansas ' entry into the union as a slave state, the fact that it called for popular sovereignty, rather than outright opposition to the expansion of slavery, was troubling to the party leaders.
In the end, the Crittenden - Montgomery bill did not forge a grand anti-administration coalition of Republicans, ex-Whig Southerners in the border states, and Northern Democrats. Instead, the Democratic Party merely split along sectional lines. Anti-Lecompton Democrats complained that a new, pro-slavery test had been imposed upon the party. The Douglasites, however, refused to yield to administration pressure. Like the anti-Nebraska Democrats, who were now members of the Republican Party, the Douglasean insisted that they -- not the administration -- commanded the support of most northern Democrats.
Extremist sentiment in the South advanced dramatically as the Southern planter class perceived its hold on the executive, legislative, and judicial apparatus of the central government wane. It also grew increasingly difficult for Southern Democrats to manipulate power in many of the Northern states through their allies in the Democratic Party.
Historians have emphasized that the sense of honor was a central concern of upper - class white Southerners. The idea of being treated like a second - class citizen was anathema and could not be tolerated by an honorable southerner. The abolitionist position held that slavery was a negative or evil phenomenon that damaged the rights of white men and the prospects of republicanism. To the white South this rhetoric made Southerners second - class citizens because it trampled what they believed was their Constitutional right to take their chattel property anywhere.
On May 19 Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner gave a long speech in the Senate entitled "The Crime Against Kansas '', which condemned the Slave Power as the evil force behind the nation 's troubles. Sumner said the Southerners had committed a "crime against Kansas '', singling out Senator Andrew P. Butler of South Carolina:
Sumner famously cast the South Carolinian as having "chosen a mistress... who, though ugly to others, is always lovely to him; though polluted in the sight of the world, is chaste in his sight -- I mean the harlot, slavery! '' According to Hoffer (2010), "It is also important to note the sexual imagery that recurred throughout the oration, which was neither accidental nor without precedent. Abolitionists routinely accused slaveholders of maintaining slavery so that they could engage in forcible sexual relations with their slaves. '' Three days later, Sumner, working at his desk on the Senate floor, was beaten almost to death by Congressman Preston S. Brooks, Butler 's nephew. Sumner took years to recover; he became the martyr to the antislavery cause who said the episode proved the barbarism of slave society. Brooks was lauded as a hero upholding Southern honor. Although Representative Anson Burlingame managed to publicly embarrass Brooks in retaliation, the original episode further polarized North and South, strengthened the new Republican Party, and added a new element of violence on the floor of Congress.
Despite their significant loss in the election of 1856, Republican leaders realized that even though they appealed only to Northern voters, they need win only two more states, such as Pennsylvania and Illinois, to win the presidency in 1860.
As the Democrats were grappling with their own troubles, leaders in the Republican party fought to keep elected members focused on the issue of slavery in the West, which allowed them to mobilize popular support. Chase wrote Sumner that if the conservatives succeeded, it might be necessary to recreate the Free Soil Party. He was also particularly disturbed by the tendency of many Republicans to eschew moral attacks on slavery for political and economic arguments.
The controversy over slavery in the West was still not creating a fixation on the issue of slavery. Although the old restraints on the sectional tensions were being eroded with the rapid extension of mass politics and mass democracy in the North, the perpetuation of conflict over the issue of slavery in the West still required the efforts of radical Democrats in the South and radical Republicans in the North. They had to ensure that the sectional conflict would remain at the center of the political debate.
William Seward contemplated this potential in the 1840s, when the Democrats were the nation 's majority party, usually controlling Congress, the presidency, and many state offices. The country 's institutional structure and party system allowed slaveholders to prevail in more of the nation 's territories and to garner a great deal of influence over national policy. With growing popular discontent with the unwillingness of many Democratic leaders to take a stand against slavery, and growing consciousness of the party 's increasingly pro-Southern stance, Seward became convinced that the only way for the Whig Party to counteract the Democrats ' strong monopoly of the rhetoric of democracy and equality was for the Whigs to embrace anti-slavery as a party platform. Once again, to increasing numbers of Northerners, the Southern labor system was increasingly seen as contrary to the ideals of American democracy.
Republicans believed in the existence of "the Slave Power Conspiracy '', which had seized control of the federal government and was attempting to pervert the Constitution for its own purposes. The "Slave Power '' idea gave the Republicans the anti-aristocratic appeal with which men like Seward had long wished to be associated politically. By fusing older anti-slavery arguments with the idea that slavery posed a threat to Northern free labor and democratic values, it enabled the Republicans to tap into the egalitarian outlook which lay at the heart of Northern society.
In this sense, during the 1860 presidential campaign, Republican orators even cast "Honest Abe '' as an embodiment of these principles, repeatedly referring to him as "the child of labor '' and "son of the frontier '', who had proved how "honest industry and toil '' were rewarded in the North. Although Lincoln had been a Whig, the "Wide Awakes '' (members of the Republican clubs), used replicas of rails that he had split to remind voters of his humble origins.
In almost every northern state, organizers attempted to have a Republican Party or an anti-Nebraska fusion movement on ballots in 1854. In areas where the radical Republicans controlled the new organization, the comprehensive radical program became the party policy. Just as they helped organize the Republican Party in the summer of 1854, the radicals played an important role in the national organization of the party in 1856. Republican conventions in New York, Massachusetts, and Illinois adopted radical platforms. These radical platforms in such states as Wisconsin, Michigan, Maine, and Vermont usually called for the divorce of the government from slavery, the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Laws, and no more slave states, as did platforms in Pennsylvania, Minnesota, and Massachusetts when radical influence was high.
Conservatives at the Republican 1860 nominating convention in Chicago were able to block the nomination of William Seward, who had an earlier reputation as a radical (but by 1860 had been criticized by Horace Greeley as being too moderate). Other candidates had earlier joined or formed parties opposing the Whigs and had thereby made enemies of many delegates. Lincoln was selected on the third ballot. However, conservatives were unable to bring about the resurrection of "Whiggery ''. The convention 's resolutions regarding slavery were roughly the same as they had been in 1856, but the language appeared less radical. In the following months, even Republican conservatives like Thomas Ewing and Edward Baker embraced the platform language that "the normal condition of territories was freedom ''. All in all, the organizers had done an effective job of shaping the official policy of the Republican Party.
Southern slave holding interests now faced the prospects of a Republican President and the entry of new free states that would alter the nation 's balance of power between the sections. To many Southerners, the resounding defeat of the Lecompton Constitution foreshadowed the entry of more free states into the Union. Dating back to the Missouri Compromise, the Southern region desperately sought to maintain an equal balance of slave states and free states so as to be competitive in the Senate. Since the last slave state was admitted in 1845, five more free states had entered. The tradition of maintaining a balance between North and South was abandoned in favor of the addition of more free soil states.
The Lincoln - Douglas Debates were a series of seven debates in 1858 between Stephen Douglas, United States Senator from Illinois, and Abraham Lincoln, the Republican who sought to replace Douglas in the Senate. The debates were mainly about slavery. Douglas defended his Kansas -- Nebraska Act, which replaced the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory north and west of Missouri with popular sovereignty, which allowed residents of territories such as the Kansas to vote either for or against slavery. Douglas put Lincoln on the defensive by accusing him of being a Black Republican abolitionist, but Lincoln responded by asking Douglas to reconcile popular sovereignty with the Dred Scott decision. Douglas ' Freeport Doctrine was that residents of a territory could keep slavery out by refusing to pass a slave code and other laws needed to protect slavery. Douglas ' Freeport Doctrine, and the fact that he helped defeat the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, made Douglas unpopular in the South, which led to the 1860 split of the Democratic Party into Northern and Southern wings. The Democrats retained control of the Illinois legislature, and Douglas thus retained his seat in the U.S. Senate (at that time United States Senators were elected by the state legislatures, not by popular vote); however, Lincoln 's national profile was greatly raised, paving the way for his election as president of the United States two years later.
In The Rise of American Civilization (1927), Charles and Mary Beard argue that slavery was not so much a social or cultural institution as an economic one (a labor system). The Beards cited inherent conflicts between Northeastern finance, manufacturing, and commerce and Southern plantations, which competed to control the federal government so as to protect their own interests. According to the economic determinists of the era, both groups used arguments over slavery and states ' rights as a cover.
Recent historians have rejected the Beardian thesis. But their economic determinism has influenced subsequent historians in important ways. Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery (1974) by Robert William Fogel (who would win the 1993 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences) and Stanley L. Engerman, wrote that slavery was profitable and that the price of slaves would have continued to rise. Modernization theorists, such as Raimondo Luraghi, have argued that as the Industrial Revolution was expanding on a worldwide scale, the days of wrath were coming for a series of agrarian, pre-capitalistic, "backward '' societies throughout the world, from the Italian and American South to India. But most American historians point out the South was highly developed and on average about as prosperous as the North.
A few historians believe that the serious financial panic of 1857 and the economic difficulties leading up to it strengthened the Republican Party and heightened sectional tensions. Before the panic, strong economic growth was being achieved under relatively low tariffs. Hence much of the nation concentrated on growth and prosperity.
The iron and textile industries were facing acute, worsening trouble each year after 1850. By 1854, stocks of iron were accumulating in each world market. Iron prices fell, forcing many American iron mills to shut down.
Republicans urged western farmers and northern manufacturers to blame the depression on the domination of the low - tariff economic policies of southern - controlled Democratic administrations. However the depression revived suspicion of Northeastern banking interests in both the South and the West. Eastern demand for western farm products shifted the West closer to the North. As the "transportation revolution '' (canals and railroads) went forward, an increasingly large share and absolute amount of wheat, corn, and other staples of western producers -- once difficult to haul across the Appalachians -- went to markets in the Northeast. The depression emphasized the value of the western markets for eastern goods and homesteaders who would furnish markets and respectable profits.
Aside from the land issue, economic difficulties strengthened the Republican case for higher tariffs for industries in response to the depression. This issue was important in Pennsylvania and perhaps New Jersey.
Meanwhile, many Southerners grumbled over "radical '' notions of giving land away to farmers that would "abolitionize '' the area. While the ideology of Southern sectionalism was well - developed before the Panic of 1857 by figures like J.D.B. DeBow, the panic helped convince even more cotton barons that they had grown too reliant on Eastern financial interests.
Thomas Prentice Kettell, former editor of the Democratic Review, was another commentator popular in the South to enjoy a great degree of prominence between 1857 and 1860. Kettell gathered an array of statistics in his book on Southern Wealth and Northern Profits, to show that the South produced vast wealth, while the North, with its dependence on raw materials, siphoned off the wealth of the South. Arguing that sectional inequality resulted from the concentration of manufacturing in the North, and from the North 's supremacy in communications, transportation, finance, and international trade, his ideas paralleled old physiocratic doctrines that all profits of manufacturing and trade come out of the land. Political sociologists, such as Barrington Moore, have noted that these forms of romantic nostalgia tend to crop up whenever industrialization takes hold.
Such Southern hostility to the free farmers gave the North an opportunity for an alliance with Western farmers. After the political realignments of 1857 -- 58 -- manifested by the emerging strength of the Republican Party and their networks of local support nationwide -- almost every issue was entangled with the controversy over the expansion of slavery in the West. While questions of tariffs, banking policy, public land, and subsidies to railroads did not always unite all elements in the North and the Northwest against the interests of slaveholders in the South under the pre-1854 party system, they were translated in terms of sectional conflict -- with the expansion of slavery in the West involved.
As the depression strengthened the Republican Party, slave holding interests were becoming convinced that the North had aggressive and hostile designs on the Southern way of life. The South was thus increasingly fertile ground for secessionism.
The Republicans ' Whig - style personality - driven "hurrah '' campaign helped stir hysteria in the slave states upon the emergence of Lincoln and intensify divisive tendencies, while Southern "fire eaters '' gave credence to notions of the slave power conspiracy among Republican constituencies in the North and West. New Southern demands to re-open the African slave trade further fueled sectional tensions.
From the early 1840s until the outbreak of the Civil War, the cost of slaves had been rising steadily. Meanwhile, the price of cotton was experiencing market fluctuations typical of raw commodities. After the Panic of 1857, the price of cotton fell while the price of slaves continued its steep rise. At the 1858 Southern commercial convention, William L. Yancey of Alabama called for the reopening of the African slave trade. Only the delegates from the states of the Upper South, who profited from the domestic trade, opposed the reopening of the slave trade since they saw it as a potential form of competition. The convention in 1858 wound up voting to recommend the repeal of all laws against slave imports, despite some reservations.
On October 16, 1859, radical abolitionist John Brown led an attempt to start an armed slave revolt by seizing the U.S. Army arsenal at Harper 's Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia). Brown and twenty followers, both whites (including two of Brown 's sons) and blacks (three free blacks, one freedman, and one fugitive slave), planned to seize the armory and use weapons stored there to arm black slaves in order to spark a general uprising by the slave population.
Although the raiders were initially successful in cutting the telegraph line and capturing the armory, they allowed a passing train to continue on to Washington, D.C., where the authorities were alerted to the attack. By October 17 the raiders were surrounded in the armory by the militia and other locals. Robert E. Lee (then a Colonel in the U.S. Army) led a company of U.S. Marines in storming the armory on October 18. Ten of the raiders were killed, including both of Brown 's sons; Brown himself along with a half dozen of his followers were captured; four of the raiders escaped immediate capture. Six locals were killed and nine injured; the Marines suffered one dead and one injured. The local slave population failed to join in Brown 's attack.
Brown was subsequently hanged for treason (against the Commonwealth of Virginia), as were six of his followers. The raid became a cause célèbre in both the North and the South, with Brown vilified by Southerners as a bloodthirsty fanatic, but celebrated by many Northern abolitionists as a martyr to the cause of freedom.
Initially, William H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, and Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania, were the leading contenders for the Republican presidential nomination. But Abraham Lincoln, a former one - term House member who gained fame amid the Lincoln -- Douglas Debates of 1858, had fewer political opponents within the party and outmaneuvered the other contenders. On May 16, 1860, he received the Republican nomination at their convention in Chicago, Illinois.
The schism in the Democratic Party over the Lecompton Constitution and Douglas ' Freeport Doctrine caused Southern "fire - eaters '' to oppose front runner Stephen A. Douglas ' bid for the Democratic presidential nomination. Douglas defeated the proslavery Lecompton Constitution for Kansas because the majority of Kansans were antislavery, and Douglas ' popular sovereignty doctrine would allow the majority to vote slavery up or down as they chose. Douglas ' Freeport Doctrine alleged that the antislavery majority of Kansans could thwart the Dred Scott decision that allowed slavery by withholding legislation for a slave code and other laws needed to protect slavery. As a result, Southern extremists demanded a slave code for the territories, and used this issue to divide the northern and southern wings of the Democratic Party. Southerners left the party and in June nominated John C. Breckinridge, while Northern Democrats supported Douglas. As a result, the Southern planter class lost a considerable measure of sway in national politics. Because of the Democrats ' division, the Republican nominee faced a divided opposition. Adding to Lincoln 's advantage, ex-Whigs from the border states had earlier formed the Constitutional Union Party, nominating John C. Bell for President. Thus, party nominees waged regional campaigns. Douglas and Lincoln competed for Northern votes, while Bell, Douglas and Breckinridge competed for Southern votes.
Lincoln handily won the electoral votes:
Voting (on November 6, 1860) split sharply along sectional lines. Lincoln was elected by carrying the electoral votes of the North; he had a sweeping majority of 180 electoral votes. Given the vote count in each state, he would still have won the electoral college even if all three opponents had somehow been able to merge their tickets.
The Alabama extremist William Lowndes Yancey 's demand for a federal slave code for the territories split the Democratic Party between North and South, which made the election of Lincoln possible. Yancey tried to make his demand for a slave code moderate enough to get Southern support and yet extreme enough to enrage Northerners and split the party. He demanded that the party support a slave code for the territories if later necessary, so that the demand would be conditional enough to win Southern support. His tactic worked, and lower South delegates left the Democratic Convention at Institute Hall in Charleston, South Carolina and walked over to Military Hall. The South Carolina extremist Robert Barnwell Rhett hoped that the lower South would completely break with the Northern Democrats and attend a separate convention at Richmond, Virginia, but lower South delegates gave the national Democrats one last chance at unification by going to the convention at Baltimore, Maryland before the split became permanent. The end result was that John C. Breckinridge became the candidate of the Southern Democrats, and Stephen Douglas became the candidate of the Northern Democrats.
Yancey 's previous 1848 attempt at demanding a slave code for the territories was his Alabama Platform, which was in response to the Northern Wilmot Proviso attempt at banning slavery in territories conquered from Mexico. Justice Peter V. Daniel wrote a letter about the Proviso to former President Martin Van Buren: "It is that view of the case which pretends to an insulting exclusiveness or superiority on the one hand, and denounces a degrading inequality or inferiority on the other; which says in effect to the Southern man, ' Avaunt! you are not my equal, and hence are to be excluded as carrying a moral taint with you. ' Here is at once the extinction of all fraternity, of all sympathy, of all endurance even; the creation of animosity fierce, implacable, undying. '' Both the Alabama Platform and the Wilmot Proviso failed, but Yancey learned to be less overtly radical in order to get more support. Southerners thought they were merely demanding equality, in that they wanted Southern property in slaves to get the same (or more) protection as Northern forms of property.
With the emergence of the Republicans as the nation 's first major sectional party by the mid-1850s, politics became the stage on which sectional tensions were played out. Although much of the West -- the focal point of sectional tensions -- was unfit for cotton cultivation, Southern secessionists read the political fallout as a sign that their power in national politics was rapidly weakening. Before, the slave system had been buttressed to an extent by the Democratic Party, which was increasingly seen as representing a more pro-Southern position that unfairly permitted Southerners to prevail in the nation 's territories and to dominate national policy before the Civil War. But Democrats suffered a significant reverse in the electoral realignment of the mid-1850s. 1860 was a critical election that marked a stark change in existing patterns of party loyalties among groups of voters; Abraham Lincoln 's election was a watershed in the balance of power of competing national and parochial interests and affiliations.
Immediately after finding out the election results, a special South Carolina convention declared "that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the ' United States of America ' is hereby dissolved ''; by February six more cotton states would follow (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas), forming the Confederate States of America. In 1960, Lipset examined the secessionist vote in each Southern state in 1860 -- 61. In each state he divided the counties by the proportion of slaves, low, medium and high. He found that in the 181 high - slavery counties, the vote was 72 % for secession. In the 205 low - slavery counties, the vote was only 37 % for secession and in the 153 middle counties, the vote for secession was at 60 %. Both the outgoing Buchanan administration and the incoming Lincoln administration refused to recognize the legality of secession or the legitimacy of the Confederacy. After Lincoln called for troops, four border states (that lacked cotton) seceded (Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee). The Upper Southern States were in a dilemma, they wanted to retain their slaves but were afraid that if they joined with the lower southern states that were rebelling they would be caught in the middle of a conflict, and their states would be the battle ground. By staying in the Union the Upper Southern states felt that their slave rights would continue to be recognized by the Union.
The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited -- long after the war -- by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists. In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession brought up the tariff issue as a major issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley, they were generally writing for a foreign audience.
The tariff in effect prior to the enactment of the Morrill Tariff of 1861, had been written and approved by the South for the benefit of the South. Complaints came from the Northeast (especially Pennsylvania) and regarded the rates as too low. Some Southerners feared that eventually the North would grow so big that it would control Congress and could raise the tariff at will.
As for states ' rights, while a state 's right of revolution mentioned in the Declaration of Independence was based on the inalienable equal rights of man, secessionists believed in a modified version of states ' rights that was safe for slavery.
These issues were especially important in the lower South, where 47 percent of the population were slaves. The upper South, where 32 percent of the population were slaves, considered the Fort Sumter crisis -- especially Lincoln 's call for troops to march south to recapture it -- a cause for secession. The northernmost border slave states, where 13 percent of the population were slaves, did not secede.
When South Carolina seceded in December 1860, Major Robert Anderson, a pro-slavery, former slave - owner from Kentucky, remained loyal to the Union. He was the commanding officer of United States Army forces in Charleston, South Carolina -- the last remaining important Union post In the Deep South. Acting upon orders from the War Department to hold and defend the U.S. forts, he moved his small garrison from Fort Moultrie, which was indefensible, to the more modern, more defensible, Fort Sumter in the middle of Charleston Harbor. South Carolina leaders cried betrayal, while the North celebrated with enormous excitement at this show of defiance against secessionism. In February 1861 the Confederate States of America was formed and took charge. Jefferson Davis, the Confederate President, ordered the fort be captured. The artillery attack was commanded by Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard, who had been Anderson 's student at West Point. The attack began April 12, 1861, and continued until Anderson, badly outnumbered and outgunned, surrendered the fort on April 14. The battle began the American Civil War, as an overwhelming demand for war swept both the North and South, with only Kentucky attempting to remain neutral.
According to Adam Goodheart (2011), the modern meaning of the American flag was also forged in the defense of Fort Sumter. Thereafter, the flag was used throughout the North to symbolize American nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Abraham Lincoln 's rejection of the Crittenden Compromise, the failure to secure the ratification of the Corwin amendment in 1861, and the inability of the Washington Peace Conference of 1861 to provide an effective alternative to Crittenden and Corwin came together to prevent a compromise that is still debated by Civil War historians. Even as the war was going on, William Seward and James Buchanan were outlining a debate over the question of inevitability that would continue among historians.
Two competing explanations of the sectional tensions inflaming the nation emerged even before the war. The first was the "Needless War '' argument. Buchanan believed the sectional hostility to be the accidental, unnecessary work of self - interested or fanatical agitators. He also singled out the "fanaticism '' of the Republican Party. Seward, on the other hand, believed there to be an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces. Sheldon argues that, "Few scholars in the twenty - first century would call the Civil War ' needless, ' as the emancipation of 4 million slaves hinged on Union victory. ''
The "Irrepressible Conflict '' argument was the first to dominate historical discussion. In the first decades after the fighting, histories of the Civil War generally reflected the views of Northerners who had participated in the conflict. The war appeared to be a stark moral conflict in which the South was to blame, a conflict that arose as a result of the designs of slave power. Henry Wilson 's History of The Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (1872 -- 1877) is the foremost representative of this moral interpretation, which argued that Northerners had fought to preserve the union against the aggressive designs of "slave power ''. Later, in his seven - volume History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the Civil War, (1893 -- 1900), James Ford Rhodes identified slavery as the central -- and virtually only -- cause of the Civil War. The North and South had reached positions on the issue of slavery that were both irreconcilable and unalterable. The conflict had become inevitable.
But the idea that the war was avoidable became central among historians in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. Revisionist historians, led by James G. Randall (1881 -- 1953) at the University of Illinois and Avery Craven (1885 -- 1980) at the University of Chicago, saw in the social and economic systems of the South no differences so fundamental as to require a war. Historian Mark Neely explains their position:
Randall blamed the ineptitude of a "blundering generation '' of leaders. He also saw slavery as essentially a benign institution, crumbling in the presence of 19th century tendencies. Craven, the other leading revisionist, placed more emphasis on the issue of slavery than Randall but argued roughly the same points. In The Coming of the Civil War (1942), Craven argued that slave laborers were not much worse off than Northern workers, that the institution was already on the road to ultimate extinction, and that the war could have been averted by skillful and responsible leaders in the tradition of Congressional statesmen Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. Two of the key leaders in antebellum politics, Clay and Webster, in contrast to the 1850s generation of leaders, shared a predisposition to compromises marked by a passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.
But it is possible that the politicians of the 1850s were not inept. More recent studies have kept elements of the revisionist interpretation alive, emphasizing the role of political agitation (the efforts of Democratic politicians of the South and Republican politicians in the North to keep the sectional conflict at the center of the political debate). David Herbert Donald (1920 -- 2009), a student of Randall, argued in 1960 that the politicians of the 1850s were not unusually inept but that they were operating in a society in which traditional restraints were being eroded in the face of the rapid extension of democracy. The stability of the two - party system kept the union together, but would collapse in the 1850s, thus reinforcing, rather than suppressing, sectional conflict. The union, Donald said, died of democracy.
In December 1860, amid the secession crisis, president - elect Abraham Lincoln wrote a letter to Alexander Stephens, in which he summarized the cause of the crisis:
You think slavery is right and should be extended; while we think slavery is wrong and ought to be restricted. That I suppose is the rub. It certainly is the only substantial difference between us.
Several months later, on March 21, 1861, Alexander Stephens, now the Confederate Vice President, delivered his "Cornerstone Speech '' in Savannah, Georgia. In the speech, he states that slavery was the cause of the secession crisis, and outlines the principal differences between Confederate ideology and U.S. ideology:
The new (Confederate) Constitution has put at rest forever all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institutions -- African slavery as it exists among us -- the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution... (Jefferson 's) ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error... Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery -- subordination to the superior race -- is his natural and normal condition.
In July 1863, as decisive campaigns were fought at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, Republican senator Charles Sumner re-dedicated his speech The Barbarism of Slavery and said that desire to preserve slavery was the sole cause of the war:
(T) here are two apparent rudiments to this war. One is Slavery and the other is State Rights. But the latter is only a cover for the former. If Slavery were out of the way there would be no trouble from State Rights.
The war, then, is for Slavery, and nothing else. It is an insane attempt to vindicate by arms the lordship which had been already asserted in debate. With mad - cap audacity it seeks to install this Barbarism as the truest Civilization. Slavery is declared to be the "corner - stone '' of the new edifice.
Lincoln 's war goals were reactions to the war, as opposed to causes. Abraham Lincoln explained the nationalist goal as the preservation of the Union on August 22, 1862, one month before his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation:
I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be "the Union as it was. ''... My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that... I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft - expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.
On March 4, 1865, Lincoln said in his Second Inaugural Address that slavery was the cause of the War:
One - eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not distributed generally over the Union, but localized in the southern part of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for which the insurgents would rend the Union even by war, while the Government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial enlargement of it.
Most historians... now see no compelling reason why the divergent economies of the North and South should have led to disunion and civil war; rather, they find stronger practical reasons why the sections, whose economies neatly complemented one another, should have found it advantageous to remain united. Beard oversimplified the controversies relating to federal economic policy, for neither section unanimously supported or opposed measures such as the protective tariff, appropriations for internal improvements, or the creation of a national banking system... During the 1850s, Federal economic policy gave no substantial cause for southern disaffection, for policy was largely determined by pro-Southern Congresses and administrations. Finally, the characteristic posture of the conservative northeastern business community was far from anti-Southern. Most merchants, bankers, and manufacturers were outspoken in their hostility to antislavery agitation and eager for sectional compromise in order to maintain their profitable business connections with the South. The conclusion seems inescapable that if economic differences, real though they were, had been all that troubled relations between North and South, there would be no substantial basis for the idea of an irrepressible conflict.
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who is kyle's mom in american horror story | List of American Horror Story: Coven characters - wikipedia
American Horror Story: Coven is the third season of the FX horror anthology series American Horror Story. The season focuses on the oppression and marginalization of witches, who resides in present - day New Orleans, as they try to combat organized efforts to destroy them posed by shell corporations and a racially charged Voodoo tribe. But while the witches learn to harness their supernatural powers, they learn their biggest threat comes from within the coven in the form of a greedy Supreme Witch, who enlists the help of barbaric serial killers to locate the rising Supreme and kill her so she may remain in power forever.
Veteran cast members include Sarah Paulson, Taissa Farmiga, Jessica Lange, Evan Peters, Lily Rabe, Denis O'Hare, and Frances Conroy, while Emma Roberts and Kathy Bates made their debuts. Special guest stars who made appearances include Gabourey Sidibe, Angela Bassett, Danny Huston, and Patti LuPone. Recurring appearances by veteran cast members were made by Jamie Brewer, Alexandra Breckenridge, and Robin Bartlett.
Cordelia Foxx (portrayed by Sarah Paulson) is the "disappointing '' and infertile daughter of the current Supreme, Fiona Goode, and the practical headmistress of Miss Robichaux 's Academy. She is protective of her students, content with her role, and prefers to settle conflict in a peaceful manner, opposing her mother 's beliefs. However, Cordelia never backs down from doing what is best for the Coven and her students, even when that means attempting to murder her own mother, or committing self - mutilation. In "Fearful Pranks Ensue '', an unknown assailant throws sulphuric acid on her face when she is in a restaurant bathroom and Cordelia is blinded. As a result, Cordelia develops the gift of Second Sight, which enables her to receive visions of the past and future. This new power leads her to discover her husband Hank 's infidelity, as well as the other dark secrets of Coven members. Growing in confidence from this ability and her mother 's ever - weakening state, Cordelia begins to develop other powers and takes a more assertive leadership role when freed from her mother 's shadow. Cordelia is talented at mixing potions due to her proficiency and knowledge of botany and magical plants. Cordelia 's relationship with Fiona is complicated and contentious, and Cordelia considers Myrtle Snow, whom Cordelia calls "Auntie Myrtle '', her substitute mother and role model. Her personal hell is pathetically begging for her mother 's approval and being slapped for it on eternal loop. Cordelia assumes the title of Supreme after completing the 7 Wonders on the urging of Myrtle, the resulting surge of energy healing her wounded eyes. For her performance, Paulson was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie.
Zoe Benson (portrayed by Taissa Farmiga) is a shy, young girl who discovers she is a witch in "Bitchcraft '', when she accidentally kills her boyfriend Charlie by causing him to have a severe brain aneurysm and subsequently dying when they have sex for the first time. She is then sent to Miss Robichaux 's Academy by her mother, who knew of her family 's genetic affliction and is afraid of Zoe 's power. Zoe accompanies Madison Montgomery to a college party where she meets and falls in love at first sight with Kyle Spencer, a university student -- however, Kyle is murdered by Madison that same night. Obsessed and depressed with Kyle 's death, Zoe brings about his eventual resurrection. With Kyle 's support, Zoe quickly becomes a more assertive witch and a strong contender for the next Supreme, growing from the nervous, innocent and frightened young witch into a woman willing to kill for her sister witches and the Coven. Zoe often acts as a leader and is an influence on the other students, encouraging them to act as a united team -- though she frequently comes into conflict with Madison. Unlike the other students, she is also very proficient at casting spells. In "Burn, Witch. Burn! '', she demonstrates her power when she breaks a strong curse placed on the undead by voodoo priestess Marie Laveau. She also develops undefined intuitive abilities and several other powers. Her strong - willed naiveté often leads her into trouble, such as when she unwittingly revives the Axeman. Her personal version of hell is Kyle continuously breaking up with her and saying he no longer loves her.
Myrtle Snow (portrayed by Frances Conroy as old Myrtle, Michelle Page as young Myrtle) is the eccentric head of the Witches ' Council with shocking orange hair. Though she adores Fiona 's daughter Cordelia as her own, Myrtle holds a lifelong grudge against Fiona, whom she (correctly) believes murdered the previous Supreme while the two were together at school, and makes frequent attempts to denounce or overthrow her. Fiona, in turn, scape - goats, frames, and eventually (ineffectually) burns Myrtle at the stake. Myrtle is a graduate and former headmistress of Miss Robichaux 's Academy. Myrtle is a Guardian of Veracity in the Vernacular, which means she has the ability to know when the truth is being told and can detect lies. She can enchant others so they will utter nothing but the truth, and she is also seen using telekinesis, which is her favorite of the powers that she possesses. Myrtle also has the power of transmutation (teleportation) and uses it frequently, disappearing and reappearing throughout the Academy. Myrtle is a traveled gourmand who adores exquisite food, haute couture, jewelry, romance, and associating with fashion designers. Fiercely loyal to the Coven as a whole (though this does not stop her from gleefully murdering the remaining members of the Witches ' Council) and to Cordelia, Myrtle wants what is best for their future and believes Misty Day or Zoe to be the strongest candidates for future Supreme. Myrtle 's last word before her second and final death is "Balenciaga ''. For her performance, Conroy was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie.
Kyle Spencer (portrayed by Evan Peters) is a cheerful college student on a scholarship, and the leader of his fraternity. He falls in love with Zoe at first sight. The victim of extensive sexual abuse, Kyle worked hard to earn a scholarship and escape poverty for college, and Kyle 's dream was to become a civil engineer and ensure a catastrophe like Hurricane Katrina would never happen again. He is killed at the beginning of the season, when Madison flips over a bus he is riding in. He is later revived in the morgue using a spell cast by Zoe and Madison, after his severed head is attached to various body parts from other victims of the crash. He suffers severe drawbacks after his resurrection -- such as rarely being able to speak, suffering fits of murderous rage, and often being confused, as a child would be. Kyle enters into a menage - a-trois relationship with Zoe and Madison, and becomes the "guard dog '' of the Coven. Kyle chooses Zoe exclusively once he fully regains his mental abilities. Eventually, Kyle becomes the new butler of the Academy, taking over Spalding 's role.
Misty Day (portrayed by Lily Rabe) is a young witch who is not associated with a Coven of her own. She was discovered as a witch after being ostracized and burned alive by her Pentecostal community for exhibiting the extremely rare "gift of resurgence '' (the ability to fully resurrect the long dead, as opposed to the Seven Wonders ' vitalum vitalis, which merely balances life forces between the healthy witch performing it, and the ill / just dead receiver). Her death made the news and Misty was thought to be dead, but she mysteriously revived herself and spends her time alone walking through the swamps. She is a lonely woman who is obsessed with Stevie Nicks, believing her to be a kindred spirit and a white witch. Misty is kind, despises killing, and is desperate to find a place where she 'll belong as family, though she is reluctant at first to become the next Supreme everyone assumes she will be. She helps heal Kyle 's body after Zoe and Madison revive him with a spell, and also ends up using her healing powers to revive Myrtle Snow after Myrtle is burned at the stake. Her powers seem limited based on the amount of time the body has been dead, as observed in "The Axeman Cometh '', when she struggles to revive Madison, who had been dead for weeks. She has also shown minor abilities controlling animals, such as making the alligators attack the poachers and also calling animals away from Myrtle 's charred body. Misty has demonstrated telekinetic abilities and has also been observed manifesting in other areas at will, potentially demonstrating teleportation ability. Misty 's personal hell is a memory from her school days, where she revives a dead frog meant for dissection in order to save it, only to be forced to murder it herself as she screams and her classmates laugh at her, and then, when she revives it again, the murder and laughter repeat. Misty perishes when she can not escape her personal hell within the allotted time, her body reduced to ash in the physical world.
Madison Montgomery (portrayed by Emma Roberts) is a young Hollywood star who makes $7 million a picture. She finds out that she 's a witch after using her unknown Telekinesis to murder her director who annoyed and mistreated her. She had been in and out of rehab for many years and was the sole support of her parasitic family from a very young age. In "Bitchcraft '' after being drugged and gang raped by the frat boys who film the event, Madison uses her power to flip the frat boy bus in revenge, killing Kyle. She forges a bond with Zoe, who uses her power to kill the surviving ring leader. The two then revive Kyle amateurishly. Madison craves popularity and fashion and proves herself to be the next Supreme after setting the curtains on fire at new neighbour Luke Ramsey (Alexander Dreymon) house, displaying a new power in "The Replacements '' causing Fiona to kill Madison in the exact spot where Fiona killed Anna - Lee Leighton back in 1971 so that Fiona 's chances to stay the Supreme are more likely, regardless of her battle with cancer. She communicates with the girls using a ouija board and is hidden inside Spalding 's room. Misty revives her, but she can not feel any pain or sensation and after her resurrection due to the amount of time she was dead. She begins a love triangle with Kyle and Zoe and becomes more desperate for the throne. In the Seven Wonders, Madison refuses to revive a killed Zoe and fails to complete a challenge causing her to storm out, threatening to reveal the Coven 's secrets to the rest of the world. While packing to leave, Kyle chokes Madison to death for refusing to resurrect Zoe.
Spalding (portrayed by Denis O'Hare) is the butler of the Academy. He has been mute since 1971 when he cut off his own tongue to prevent the Witches ' Council from finding out the truth about Anna - Lee 's murder. He has been in unrequited love with Fiona for many years. Spalding is fond of tea parties and has an extensive doll collection that he plays with while dressing in a woman 's nightgown. He adds Madison 's body to his collection. He later is interrogated by Zoe, Nan and Queenie about Madison 's murder, claiming he was responsible, though Zoe is skeptical. Later, Zoe recites an incantation, enchanting Spalding 's tongue and returning it to his mouth. He admits that Fiona was responsible for murdering Madison, due to his tongue being enchanted to tell the truth, and Zoe stabs Spalding in the chest, killing him. After his death, he remains in the Academy as a ghost, and, along with LaLaurie, is responsible for the death of Marie Laveau. He then acts as a mentor to Kyle as the new butler, saying that they are "the help ''.
Delphine LaLaurie (portrayed by Kathy Bates) is based on the true - life New Orleans socialite from the 1830s, infamous for killing and torturing her slaves. To punish Delphine for disfiguring the houseboy, Bastien, the voodoo priestess Marie Laveau tricks Delphine into drinking a potion of eternal life and buries her alive. Delphine is re-discovered by Nan and a war rekindles between the voodoo tribe and the witches when Fiona digs Delphine up and houses her to use as a bargaining chip against Laveau. Delphine is immortal because of Marie Laveau 's potion and can not die. Delphine is a complex, dualistic character, at once pitiable and monstrous. Arrogant and proud, she 's also practical and willing to get her hands dirty. She truly loves her family, but is willing to torture them to keep them from disobeying her. In the Academy, Delphine is required to be Queenie 's slave and the two form a tentatively fond relationship. Queenie 's betrayal smashes Delphine 's trust and inclinations to attempt atonement for her racist ways, and Delphine again takes up her murderous hobbies when tempted. Delphine longs for death, but her personal hell is being locked in a cage in her torture attic, just out of reach of her daughters, and forced to watch her African - American enemy torture her children in front of her, without being able to help. For her performance, Bates was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television and the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film, and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie.
Fiona Goode (portrayed by Jessica Lange as adult Fiona, Riley Voelkel as teen Fiona) is the Supreme witch of her generation, the leader of the Salem witch descendants. She lives a glamorous life of luxury in Los Angeles. She returns to Miss Robichaux 's Academy after the murder of Misty Day with the intention of teaching the young witches to fight, and reconciling with her estranged daughter Cordelia. She yearns for eternal life and looks for any way to get it. Fiona, being the Supreme, embodies countless magical abilities including, but not limited to, telekinesis, pyrokinesis, vitalum vitalis, clairvoyance, concilium, descensum, resurgence, divination, and transmutation. As the Supreme, Fiona has mastered the Seven Wonders, seven magical abilities that signify a witch as the Supreme. Fiona grows terribly ill and develops terminal cancer due to a new Supreme rising within the Coven. She tries at all costs to regain her youth. At first, she attempts to obtain immortality by seeking it from an immortal voodoo priestess Marie Laveau. After failing miserably, she believes the only way to stay alive is to kill the emerging Supreme. She murders several of the students, but still continues to grow weaker. Fiona conspires with the Axeman and fakes her own death by implanting a false vision inside him, revealing that he murdered her. Fiona returns to the Academy to kill the new Supreme -- however, after realizing her daughter has taken her position, Fiona renounces her self - serving, murderous intentions and dies of her cancer. In her own personal hell, Fiona is bound to live in a shack with the Axeman for all eternity. For her performance, Lange was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series, the Satellite Award for Best Actress -- Miniseries or Television Film, the Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television, the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Miniseries or Television Film and won the Dorian Award for Best TV Performance of the Year -- Actress and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie.
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where are the homes that the property brothers renovate | Property Brothers - Wikipedia
Property Brothers is a Canadian reality television series produced by Cineflix, and is the original show in the Property Brothers franchise. The series features identical twin brothers Drew and Jonathan Scott. Drew is a real estate expert who scouts neglected houses and negotiates their purchases. His brother, Jonathan, is a licensed contractor who renovates houses. Together, the Property Brothers help families find, buy, and transform fixer - uppers into dream homes on a strict timeline and budget. The show airs in over 150 countries, including on the W Network in Canada and on HGTV in the United States.
Drew was offered a gig as a host of a real estate competition show that ultimately did n't materialize. Cineflix, however, wanted Drew for a show tentatively called My Dream Home, with the intention of finding a female co-host. When they learned he had a brother who was also in real estate, the production company asked the brothers to make a sizzle reel. Jonathan and Drew submitted a video of themselves making over their older brother 's living room. Six months went by before Cineflix responded favorably, and a week later they began filming a pilot for the show in Toronto. Originally, the network wanted Drew to work as the contractor because of his physique; however, when they realized that Jonathan was licensed, they switched the roles.
Cineflix searched for a distributor, and six months went by with no offers. But then, off the strength of the pilot, the W Network in Canada ordered a full season, while HGTV initially passed. When HGTV noted the show 's success in Canada, however, they chose to condense the existing episodes to 30 minutes and air them on a trial basis. After the show scored number - one ratings for its timeslot, the network picked the show up for distribution in the US.
Using the expertise of the Scott brothers, prospective homebuyers find a "fixer - upper '' and remodel it into their dream home while staying within their budget. The featured families and individuals are often working towards a deadline, like the birth of a child or a special occasion. Originally, each episode started with Drew showing potential homebuyers a house with everything on their wish list, only to later reveal that the house was outside of their reach financially. However, beginning with season 6 (10), Drew began to explain from the start that the home would exceed their budget, and should only serve as inspiration. In either scenario, Drew and Jonathan then highlight the advantages of purchasing an older home. Afterwards, Drew takes the buyers on a tour of homes that are significantly less ideal, but have renovation potential, and the buyers are asked to narrow their choices down to two. Jonathan then uses computer - generated imagery to illustrate his imagined vision for the home after significant renovations. The graphics are made by an outside company using Neezo Renders software at a cost of about $10,000 per episode. After the family makes a final decision, Drew leads them through the process of bidding on and purchasing a home. Once a purchase is made, Jonathan and his team begin renovations. After the initial demolition, the family is kept away from the site, and are brought back at the conclusion for the final reveal.
The show 's producers choose cities for filming based on a variety of factors including fan interest, proximity to a major airport, and diversity of architecture. As is typical of home improvement shows with an accelerated renovation format, three experienced crews work on the house in tandem to finish within the four to seven week timeline. The brothers hire local design, real estate, and construction companies in the cities where they film. Additionally, building permits are typically ready prior to construction, and the brothers ' projects take priority with their suppliers. The buyers own the property and pay for the remodeling, but the show is able to provide about $20,000 to $25,000 worth of cash and furnishings. The brothers do not charge for their services. The total budget presented is for the three or four rooms featured on the show; the rest of the renovations are done off - camera on a separate budget and timeline.
Persons interested in appearing on the show must come up with a shortlist of homes or a home they plan to buy, though Drew provides additional options, and reserves the right to reject their selection if the home is unsafe. Producers screen applicants for their ability to make quick decisions and their availability to film for at least eight weekdays during the project. Applicants must apply as a couple (whether they be spouses, partners, friends, or family). While financial requirements for prospective couples vary from season to season, the casting call for filming that will begin in March 2018 required applicants to have a budget of at least $90,000 with an additional contingent fund for unexpected expenses.
The brothers have maintained that their shows are not contrived or scripted. Homeowners are not provided with storylines or dialog, and unforeseen construction challenges are real. Additionally, the homebuyers work with real project budgets. However, the brothers concede that conversations may be re-shot and incidents may be reconstructed due to disruptions on set (e.g. a plane flying overhead), to highlight how protracted problems were resolved, or because the cameras did not capture the real - time shot.
The show started out in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Season 3 (3 and 5) of the show was filmed in Austin, Texas, for half of the year, and in Toronto for the rest. Part of the reason for the move was the fact that American audiences could n't relate to the higher market prices in Canada. The brothers returned to their hometown of Vancouver, British Columbia, to film in 2013. In 2014, the show filmed several episodes in Atlanta, Georgia, and in Toronto. Between 2015 and 2016 they filmed in Westchester County, New York. In 2017, they have been filming in Nashville, Tennessee, and in Toronto.
The show is broadcast in over 150 countries, and is dubbed in many languages. The voices of both brothers is provided by the same voice actor in Spanish.
Before going into real estate as a profession, the brothers tried acting, including minor roles in Breaker High, Smallville, and The X-Files. Drew aspired to be an actor, while Jonathan sought a career as an illusionist. In 1996, they bought their first house when they were 18 - year - old university students and, after renovations, sold it a year later for a $50,000 profit. Jonathan and Drew Scott then began working in the real estate and design fields to financially support themselves as entertainers. In 2004, they founded Scott Real Estate, Inc., a company that oversees the sale and construction of residential and commercial projects, with offices in Vancouver, Calgary, and Las Vegas. While their business did well, after ten years went by with little to no acting jobs Drew decided to return to acting full - time. In 2009, he was finally approached for what would become Property Brothers. At the show 's start, the twins had managed real estate holdings for 15 years.
Both brothers are licensed real estate agents (Drew is a licensed agent with Keller Williams Elite in British Columbia). Jonathan is also a licensed contractor.
The show quickly rose to number one and, as of 2017, Property Brothers remains HGTV 's highest rated show. The fifth season attracted more than 10 million US viewers on HGTV in the 25 -- 54 age demographic, and the series consistently ranked as a top five cable program among upscale women in the 25 -- 54 age group. In 2016, the show averaged 1.3 million viewers weekly.
Consumer Reports put it on its list of best home improvement shows, saying, "We all wish Drew and Jonathan were our big brothers -- and that they 'd help us find our dream home. ''
Property Brothers has won multiple awards. After being nominated in 2011, Drew and Jonathan won the 2012 Leo Award (the awards program for the British Columbia film and television industry) for "Best Host (s) in an Information or Lifestyle Series '' for Property Brothers. In 2012, they were nominated for a Rose d'Or award in the lifestyle show category. The show has been nominated for a Cablefax Award and for Outstanding Structured Reality Program at the 2015 Emmy Awards.
The program has had an impact on popular culture, and has been the subject of multiple jokes on Brooklyn 99, Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, and Saturday Night Live.
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what kind of water snakes are in illinois | List of snakes of Illinois - wikipedia
Snake species known to be found in the U.S. state of Illinois. Conservation concerns and listed statuses come from the Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board 's February 2011 Checklist of Endangered and Threatened Animals and Plants of Illinois and the Illinois Natural History Survey 's website.
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where do dark reactions occur in the chloroplast | Light - independent reactions - wikipedia
The light - independent reactions, or dark reactions, of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid - filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light - dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light - independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.
This process occurs only when light is available. Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime. They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves. This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean acid metabolism); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work. They are also known as dark reactions.
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde - 3 - P.
The Calvin cycle, Calvin -- Benson -- Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon - 14.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light - dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy - storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short - lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction '' is misleading), and also by products of the light - dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
Hexose (six - carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C O, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six - carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three - carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates '', namely, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P).
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO molecule is incorporated into one of two three - carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light - dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O instead of CO in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3 - PGA and 2 - phosphoglycolate, a 2 - carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine + CO. Serine can be converted back to 3 - phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3 - PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO, this process leads to loss of CO. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates -- corn, for example.
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products. '' They are regenerated and later used again in the Light - dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light - dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin / ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
The thioredoxin / ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde - 3 - P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - P phosphatase, fructose - 1, 6 - bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose - 1, 7 - bisphosphatase, and ribulose - 5 - phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it. Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.
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who gave the idea of indus water treaty | Indus waters treaty - wikipedia
The Indus Waters Treaty (English) or सिंधु जल संधि (Hindi) or "سندھ طاس معاہدہ '' (Urdu) is a water - distribution treaty between India and Pakistan, brokered by the World Bank (then the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by the first Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and then President of Pakistan Ayub Khan.
According to this agreement, control over the water flowing in three "eastern '' rivers of India -- the Beas, the Ravi and the Sutlej with the mean flow of 33 MAF -- was given to India, while control over the water flowing in three "western '' rivers of India -- the Indus, the Chenab and the Jhelum with the mean flow of 80 MAF -- was given to Pakistan. More controversial, however, were the provisions on how the waters were to be shared. Since Pakistan 's rivers receive more water flow from India, the treaty allowed India to use western rivers water for limited irrigation use and unrestricted use for power generation, domestic, industrial and non consumptive uses such as navigation, floating of property, fish culture, etc. while laying down precise regulations for India to build projects. The preamble of the treaty declares that the objectives of the treaty are recognizing rights & obligations of each country in settlement of water use from the Indus rivers system in a spirit of goodwill, friendship and cooperation contrary to the fears of Pakistan that India could potentially create droughts and famines in Pakistan, especially at times of war since substantial water inflows of the Indus basin rivers are from India.
Since the ratification of the treaty in 1960, India and Pakistan have not engaged in any water wars. Most disagreements and disputes have been settled via legal procedures, provided for within the framework of the treaty. The treaty is considered to be one of the most successful water sharing endeavours in the world today, even though analysts acknowledge the need to update certain technical specifications and expand the scope of the document to include climate change. As per the provisions in the treaty, India can use only 20 % of the total water carried by the Indus rivers system while Pakistan can use the remaining 80 %.
The Indus system of rivers comprises three western rivers -- the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab -- and three eastern rivers -- the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi. The treaty, under Article 5.1, envisages the sharing of waters of the rivers Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum and Chenab which join the Indus River on its left bank (eastern side) in Pakistan. According to this treaty, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, which constitute the eastern rivers, are allocated for exclusive use by India before they enter Pakistan. However, a transition period of 10 years was permitted in which India was bound to supply water to Pakistan from these rivers until Pakistan was able to build the canal system for utilization of waters of Jhelum, Chenab and the Indus itself, allocated to it under the treaty. Similarly, Pakistan has exclusive use of the western rivers Jhelum, Chenab and Indus. As Punjab was dependent on three eastern rivers too, India agreed to make fixed contribution of UK Pound Streling 62,060,000 / = (Pound Streling sixty two million and sixty thousand only) towards the cost of construction of new head - works and canal system for irrigation. India had to pay this amount in ten equal installments. allocated to it. The treaty resulted in partitioning of the rivers rather than sharing of their waters.
Both countries agreed to exchange data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty. For this purpose, treaty creates the Permanent Indus Commission, with a commissioner appointed by each country. It would follow the set procedure for adjudicating any future disputes arising over the allocation of waters. The Commission has survived three wars and provides an ongoing mechanism for consultation and conflict resolution through inspection, exchange of data and visits. The Commission is required to meet regularly to discuss potential disputes as well as cooperative arrangements for the development of the basin. Either party must notify the other of plans to construct any engineering works which would affect the other party and to provide data about such works. The annual inspections and exchange of data continue, unperturbed by tensions on the subcontinent. In cases of disagreement, Permanent Court of Arbitration or a neutral technical expert is called in for arbitration. Technical expert 's ruling was followed for clearing the Baglihar power plant and Permanent Court of Arbitration verdict was followed for clearing the Kishanganga Hydroelectric Plant.
The waters of the Indus basin begin in Tibet and the Himalayan mountains in the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. They flow from the hills through the states of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and Sindh, converging in Pakistan and emptying into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi. Where once there was only a narrow strip of irrigated land along these rivers, developments over the last century have created a large network of canals and storage facilities that provide water for more than 26 million acres (110,000 km), the largest irrigated area of any one river system in the world.
The partition of British India created a conflict over the plentiful waters of the Indus basin. The newly formed states were at odds over how to share and manage what was essentially a cohesive and unitary network of irrigation. Furthermore, the geography of partition was such that the source rivers of the Indus basin were in India. Pakistan felt its livelihood threatened by the prospect of Indian control over the tributaries that fed water into the Pakistani portion of the basin. Where India certainly had its own ambitions for the profitable development of the basin, Pakistan felt acutely threatened by a conflict over the main source of water for its cultivable land.
During the first years of partition, the waters of the Indus were apportioned by the Inter-Dominion Accord of May 4, 1948. This accord required India to release sufficient waters to the Pakistani regions of the basin in return for annual payments from the government of Pakistan. The accord was meant to meet immediate requirements and was followed by negotiations for a more permanent solution. However, neither side was willing to compromise their respective positions and negotiations reached a stalemate. From the Indian point of view, there was nothing that Pakistan could do to prevent India from any of the schemes to divert the flow of water in the rivers. Pakistan wanted to take the matter to the International Court of Justice, but India refused, arguing that the conflict required a bilateral resolution.
In this same year, David Lilienthal, formerly the chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority and of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, visited the region to write a series of articles for Collier 's magazine. Lilienthal had a keen interest in the subcontinent and was welcomed by the highest levels of both Indian and Pakistani governments. Although his visit was sponsored by Collier 's, Lilienthal was briefed by state department and executive branch officials, who hoped that Lilienthal could help bridge the gap between India and Pakistan and also gauge hostilities on the subcontinent. During the course of his visit, it became clear to Lilienthal that tensions between India and Pakistan were acute, but also unable to be erased with one sweeping gesture. He wrote in his journal:
India and Pakistan were on the verge of war over Kashmir. There seemed to be no possibility of negotiating this issue until tensions abated. One way to reduce hostility... would be to concentrate on other important issues where cooperation was possible. Progress in these areas would promote a sense of community between the two nations which might, in time, lead to a Kashmir settlement. Accordingly, I proposed that India and Pakistan work out a program jointly to develop and jointly to operate the Indus Basin river system, upon which both nations were dependent for irrigation water. With new dams and irrigation canals, the Indus and its tributaries could be made to yield the additional water each country needed for increased food production. In the article I had suggested that the World Bank might use its good offices to bring the parties to agreement, and help in the financing of an Indus Development program.
Lilienthal 's idea was well received by officials at the World Bank, and, subsequently, by the Indian and Pakistani governments. Eugene R. Black, then president of the World Bank, told Lilienthal that his proposal "makes good sense all round ''. Black wrote that the Bank was interested in the economic progress of the two countries and had been concerned that the Indus dispute could only be a serious handicap to this development. India 's previous objections to third party arbitration were remedied by the Bank 's insistence that it would not adjudicate the conflict but rather work as a conduit for agreement.
Black also made a distinction between the "functional '' and "political '' aspects of the Indus dispute. In his correspondence with Indian and Pakistan leaders, Black asserted that the Indus dispute could most realistically be solved if the functional aspects of disagreement were negotiated apart from political considerations. He envisioned a group that tackled the question of how best to utilize the waters of the Indus Basin, leaving aside questions of historic rights or allocations.
Black proposed a Working Party made up of Indian, Pakistani and World Bank engineers. The World Bank delegation would act as a consultative group, charged with offering suggestions and speeding dialogue. In his opening statement to the Working Party, Black spoke of why he was optimistic about the group 's success:
One aspect of Mr. Lilienthal 's proposal appealed to me from the first. I mean his insistence that the Indus problem is an engineering problem and should be dealt with by engineers. One of the strengths of the engineering profession is that, all over the world, engineers speak the same language and approach problems with common standards of judgment.
Black 's hopes for a quick resolution to the Indus dispute were premature. While the Bank had expected that the two sides would come to an agreement on the allocation of waters, neither India nor Pakistan seemed willing to compromise their positions. While Pakistan insisted on its historical right to waters of all the Indus tributaries and that half of West Punjab was under threat of desertification, the Indian side argued that the previous distribution of waters should not set future allocation. Instead, the Indian side set up a new basis of distribution, with the waters of the Western tributaries going to Pakistan and the Eastern tributaries to India. The substantive technical discussions that Black had hoped for were stymied by the political considerations he had expected to avoid.
The World Bank soon became frustrated with this lack of progress. What had originally been envisioned as a technical dispute that would quickly untangle itself started to seem intractable. India and Pakistan were unable to agree on the technical aspects of allocation, let alone the implementation of any agreed upon distribution of waters. Finally, in 1954, after nearly two years of negotiation, the World bank offered its own proposal, stepping beyond the limited role it had apportioned for itself and forcing the two sides to consider concrete plans for the future of the basin. The proposal offered India the three eastern tributaries of the basin and Pakistan the three western tributaries. Canals and storage dams were to be constructed to divert waters from the western rivers and replace the eastern river supply lost by Pakistan.
While the Indian side was amenable to the World Bank proposal, Pakistan found it unacceptable. The World Bank allocated the eastern rivers to India and the western rivers to Pakistan. This new distribution did not account for the historical usage of the Indus basin, or the fact that West Punjab 's Eastern districts could turn into desert, and repudiated Pakistan 's negotiating position. Where India had stood for a new system of allocation, Pakistan felt that its share of waters should be based on pre-partition distribution. The World Bank proposal was more in line with the Indian plan and this angered the Pakistani delegation. They threatened to withdraw from the Working Party, and negotiations verged on collapse.
However, neither side could afford the dissolution of talks. The Pakistani press met rumors of an end to negotiation with talk of increased hostilities; the government was ill - prepared to forego talks for a violent conflict with India and was forced to reconsider its position. India was also eager to settle the Indus issue; large development projects were put on hold by negotiations, and Indian leaders were eager to divert water for irrigation.
In December 1954, the two sides returned to the negotiating table. The World Bank proposal was transformed from a basis of settlement to a basis for negotiation and the talks continued, stop and go, for the next six years.
One of the last stumbling blocks to an agreement concerned financing for the construction of canals and storage facilities that would transfer water from the western rivers to Pakistan. This transfer was necessary to make up for the water Pakistan was giving up by ceding its rights to the eastern rivers. The World Bank initially planned for India to pay for these works, but India refused. The Bank responded with a plan for external financing. An Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement (Karachi, 19 September 1960); a treaty between Australia, Canada, West Germany, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IRDC) and Pakistan who agreed to provide a combination of funds and loans. This solution cleared the remaining stumbling blocks to agreement, and the Indus Waters Treaty was signed by the leaders of both countries on the same day in 1960. The grants and loans to Pakistan were extended in 1964 through a supplementary agreement.
Presently, the World Bank role in the treaty is limited to keep the dispute settlement process moving when a party / country is not cooperating to follow the arbitration procedure given in the treaty in case of a dispute.
From the rivers flowing in India, India got nearly 33 million acre feet (MAF) from eastern rivers whereas Pakistan got nearly 125 MAF from western rivers. However India can use the western river waters for irrigation up to 701,000 acres with new water storage capacity not exceeding 1.25 MAF and use the rivers for non run of river hydro power plants (excluding unlimited run of the river hydro projects) with storage not exceeding 1.6 MAF and nominal flood storage capacity of 0.75 MAF. These water allocations made to the Jammu and Kashmir state of India are meagre to meet its irrigation water requirements whereas the treaty permitted enough water to irrigate 80 % of the cultivated lands in the Indus river basin of Pakistan. The storage capacity permitted by the treaty for hydro power generation is less than the total annual silt that would accumulate in the reservoirs if the total hydro potential of the state was to be exploited fully. Pakistan is also losing additional benefits by not permitting moderate water storages in upstream J&K state whose water would be ultimately released to the Pakistan for its use and avoid few dams requirement in its territory. Ultimately, J&K state is bound to resort to costly de-silting of its reservoirs to keep them operational. Whereas Pakistan is planning to build multi purpose water reservoirs with massive storage for impounding multi year inflows such as 4,500 MW Diamer - Bhasha Dam, 3,600 MW Kalabagh Dam, 600 MW Akhori Dam, Dasu Dam, Bunji Dam, Thakot dam, Patan dam, etc. projects with huge population resettlement. In case of any dam break, downstream areas in Pakistan as well as Kutch region in India would face unprecedented water deluge or submergence as these dams are located in high seismically - active zones.
In 2003 J&K state assembly passed a unanimous resolution for the abrogation of the treaty and again in June 2016, the Jammu and Kashmir assembly demanded for revision of the Indus Water Treaty. The legislators feel that the treaty trampled upon the rights of the people and treats the state of Jammu and Kashmir as a non-entity.
The treaty has not considered Gujarat state in India as part of the Indus river basin. The Indus river is entering the Great Rann of Kutch area and feeding in to Kori Creek during floods. At the time of the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960, the Great Rann of Kutch area was disputed territory between the two nations which was later settled in the year 1968 by sharing total disputed area in 9: 1 ratio between India and Pakistan. Without taking consent from India, Pakistan has constructed Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) project passing through the Great Rann of Kutch area with the assistance from the world bank. LBOD 's purpose is to bypass the saline and polluted water which is not fit for agriculture use to reach sea via Rann of Kutch area without passing through its Indus delta. Water released by the LBOD is enhancing the flooding in India and contaminating the quality of water bodies which are source of water to salt farms spread over vast area. The LBOD water is planned to join the sea via disputed Sir Creek but LBOD water is entering Indian territory due to many breaches in its left bank caused by floods Gujarat state of India being the lower most riparian part of Indus basin, Pakistan is bound to provide all the details of engineering works taken up by Pakistan to India as per the provisions of the treaty and shall not proceed with the project works till the disagreements are settled by arbitration process.
In aftermath of the 2016 Uri attack, India reviewed the treaty and its provisions and proposed several changes.
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what is the full form of cop in police | Cop - wikipedia
Cop, Cops, COP, or COPS may refer to:
Labels
Groups
Albums
Songs and EPs
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is eminem's daughter in the movie 8 mile | 8 Mile (film) - wikipedia
8 Mile is a 2002 American musical drama film written by Scott Silver, directed by Curtis Hanson, and starring Eminem, Mekhi Phifer, Brittany Murphy, Michael Shannon, and Kim Basinger. The film is based loosely on Eminem 's actual upbringing, and follows white rapper B - Rabbit (Eminem) and his attempt to launch a career in a genre dominated by African - Americans. The title is derived from 8 Mile Road, the highway between the predominantly black city of Detroit and Wayne County and the predominantly White Oakland County and Macomb County suburbs. It was filmed mostly on location.
8 Mile was a critical and commercial success. Eminem won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Lose Yourself ''.
In the Fall of 1995 in Detroit, Jimmy "B - Rabbit '' Smith Jr. is a blue - collar worker from a poor family. He has moved back north of 8 Mile Road to the run - down trailer home in Warren, Michigan of his alcoholic mother Stephanie, his little sister Lily, and Stephanie 's abusive live - in boyfriend Greg. Although encouraged by his friends, Jimmy worries about his potential as a rapper. He falters during a rap battle one night at a local venue, the Shelter, and he leaves the stage humiliated.
Jimmy works at a car factory. When he asks for extra shifts, his supervisor laughs and dismisses his request on account of his habitual lateness. Jimmy befriends a woman named Alex. Over time, Jimmy begins to take more responsibility for the direction of his life. When he exhibits an improved attitude and performance at work, his supervisor grants him the extra shifts he requested.
Stephanie receives a notice evicting her and the family as she can not pay rent. Despite Stephanie 's best attempts to keep the eviction notice a secret, Greg finds out about it. A fight ensues between him and Jimmy, and Greg leaves Stephanie for good. Jimmy 's friendship with Wink, a radio DJ with ties to a record label promoter, becomes strained after he discovers that Wink does promotional work for Jimmy 's rivals, a rap group known as the "Leaders of the Free World. '' At one point, Jimmy and his friends get into a violent brawl with the Leaders, which is disrupted when Jimmy 's friend Cheddar Bob pulls out a gun and accidentally shoots himself in the leg; he survives but is confined to crutches.
At work one day when on lunch break, Jimmy witnesses a rap battle in which an employee insults a gay co-worker, Paul. Jimmy joins the battle and defends Paul. Alex is impressed by Jimmy 's actions; they have sex in the factory. Wink arranges for Jimmy to meet with producers at a recording studio, but Jimmy finds Wink and Alex engaging in intercourse. Enraged, Jimmy attacks Wink as Alex tries to break up their altercation. In retaliation, Wink and the Leaders of the Free World assault Jimmy outside his mother 's trailer. The leader of the gang, Papa Doc, holds Jimmy at gunpoint, threatening to kill him before being dissuaded by Wink.
Jimmy 's best friend and battle host, Future, pushes him to get revenge by competing against the Leaders of the Free World at the next rap battle. However, Jimmy 's late - night shift conflicts with the timing of the next battle tournament. A goodbye visit from Alex, who is moving to New York, changes his mind about competing, and Paul agrees to cover his shift at work as a favor while Jimmy goes to the battle.
In all rounds of the rap battle, Jimmy has to compete against one member of "the Leaders. '' After winning the first two rounds, he has to challenge Papa Doc. He wins by exposing his opponent 's weaknesses as well as his own. With nothing to say in rebuttal, Papa Doc hands the microphone back to Future, embarrassed. After being congratulated by Alex and his friends, Jimmy is offered a position by Future, hosting battles at The Shelter. Jimmy declines, saying he has to get back to work and to find success his own way.
Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture 8 Mile is the soundtrack to 8 Mile. Eminem features on five tracks from the album. It was released under the Shady / Interscope label and spawned Eminem 's first number 1 US single "Lose Yourself ''. The album debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 Albums Chart that year with over 702,000 copies sold and 507,000 sold in the second week also finishing the year as the fifth best - selling album of 2002 with US sales of 3.2 million, despite only two months of release. It also reached No. 1 on the UK Compilations Chart and the Australian ARIAnet Albums Chart. It also spawned a follow up soundtrack, More Music from 8 Mile, consisting of songs that appear in 8 Mile that were current singles during the film 's time setting of 1995. The album was also made in a clean edition removing most of the strong profanity and violent content.
8 Mile opened at No. 1 with $51,240,555 in its opening weekend, the then second highest opening for an R - rated movie in the U.S. The film would go on to gross $116,750,901 domestically, and $126,124,177 overseas for a total of $242,875,078 worldwide. The film 's final domestic gross would hold the film at No. 3 in Box Office Mojo 's "Pop Star Debuts '' list, behind Austin Powers in Goldmember (Beyoncé) and The Bodyguard (Whitney Houston).
The 8 Mile DVD, which was released on March 18, 2003, generated $75 million in sales and rentals in its first week, making it the biggest DVD debut ever for an R - rated movie and putting it in the all - time Top 10 for first week home video sales for a movie. A VHS version was also released on the same date.
8 Mile received positive reviews, with critics praising the music and Eminem 's performance. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports the film is "Certified Fresh '', with 76 % of 206 professional critics giving the film a positive review and a rating average of 7.0 out of 10. The site 's consensus is that "Even though the story is overly familiar, there 's enough here for an engaging ride. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has rating score of 77 based on 38 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews ''. CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave 8 Mile was B+ on an A+ to F scale, with the core under - 21 demographics giving it an A.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars. He said that we "are hardly started in 8 Mile, and already we see that this movie stands aside from routine debut films by pop stars '' and that it is "a faithful reflection of his myth ''. He said that Eminem, as an actor, is "convincing without being too electric '' and "survives the X-ray truth - telling of the movie camera '' In the At the Movies with Ebert and Roeper review, both Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film a thumbs up; Roeper said that Eminem has a "winning screen presence '' and "raw magic '' to him. He was happy with Rabbit 's "tender side '' presented through his relationship with the "adorable '' Greenfield as his sister, but felt that Basinger was "really miscast ''. Roeper said: "8 Mile probably wo n't win converts to rap, but it should thrill Eminem fans. ''
Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars. He said that 8 Mile "is a real movie, not a fast - buck package to exploit the fan base of a rap nonentity '' that "qualifies as a cinematic event by tapping into the roots of Eminem and the fury and feeling that inform his rap. '' He praised Hanson 's directing and the performances, and compared the final battle with Papa Doc to the fight between Rocky Balboa and Apollo Creed in Rocky.
8 Mile has been named in various year - end and all - time top lists:
In 2003, Eminem won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 75th Academy Awards, for his single "Lose Yourself '' from the soundtrack of 8 Mile. Thus he became the first hip hop artist ever to win an Academy Award. He was not present at the ceremony, but musician Luis Resto accepted the award. The film has been nominated for 32 awards, winning 11.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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why is saved by the bell out of order on netflix | List of Saved by the Bell episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the NBC teen sitcom, Saved by the Bell. The series premiered on August 20, 1989 and ended on May 22, 1993 with 86 episodes produced spanning four seasons. The number of episodes was increased for syndication, adding re-purposed episodes of Good Morning, Miss Bliss (excluding the pilot), the follow - up series Saved by the Bell: The College Years, and the TV movies Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style and Saved by the Bell: Wedding in Las Vegas (broken into four episodes each). The total number of syndicated episodes is 126, though the number aired varies by broadcaster. The storyline follows Zack Morris through junior high, high school and college, to his eventual marriage to Kelly Kapowski. The related series Saved by the Bell: The New Class maintains a separate storyline.
The actual order is confused by the fact that DVD sets are in a different order than the air dates (the DVDs are broken into 5 seasons instead of 4). Note: Episode numbers in parentheses represent the order in the original series before extra episodes were added for syndication.
On the first day of school, Miss Bliss (Hayley Mills) tries to help a student who she learns is having problems dealing with a situation involving his older brother dying. This episode was aired only once, is not included in syndication, and is the only episode in the franchise (outside of The New Class) to not feature characters Zack Morris or Screech Powers.
A dance contest at The Max hosted by Casey Kasem is set to be televised on NBC. Meanwhile, Jessie is self - conscious of her height.
When Screech is hit by lightning, he suddenly has the ability to see into the future, which Zack and Slater use to their advantage. Zack uses Screech 's power to place bets with Slater, including a bet that he would get an A on a history exam, but Screech 's power wears off before he can help Zack cheat.
Zack starts high school hoping to finally win his longtime crush, Kelly Kapowski, the prettiest cheerleader in school. However, A.C. Slater, a new transfer student, hits on her, resulting in a love triangle between Zack, Slater, and Kelly.
Zack and Slater break the school 's professional camera and hatch a plan to make quick money to pay for a replacement before Belding finds out. A tabloid is offering money for photos of real aliens, so they dress Screech up as an alien in order to fool the tabloid. A special agent with the government is more than convinced that Screech is an alien. Can Zack and the gang save Screech before he 's taken away to Washington?
Kelly leaves her infant brother Billy in the care of the gang while she gets her school picture taken. However, while they are babysitting, Kelly injures her arm, and the gang is left to care for baby Billy throughout the school day.
The gang find themselves in trouble when an obnoxious teacher bans them from the class field trip unless they pass a test. On the day of the test, the teacher does not show up, so Mr. Belding 's younger brother, Rod, takes over and offers to take the class on a special field trip. This makes him very popular, but Mr. Belding acts very coolly towards Rod and Zack accuses him of being jealous of his brother. However, on the evening when the class trip is due to leave, Rod 's true colors are revealed when Zack overhears that he has made other plans to spend the weekend with a stewardess. Mr. Belding breaks the disappointing news that Rod will not be taking everyone on the trip, but offers to step in and take them instead. While the gang is unaware of the truth, Zack tells Mr. Belding that he knows about Rod 's date and apologizes for being rude to him.
It is a bad day for couples as Zack and Kelly and Slater and Jessie respectively split up after a series of disagreements. Although neither party will be the first to apologize, they are miserable without each other. After Belding also has a tiff with his wife, the guys are left spending time with him while he 's kicked out of his house, making matters worse. Eventually Zack and Slater realize they must help Belding reconcile with his wife, while reconciling with Kelly and Jessie.
The gang joins Screech 's girlfriend Violet (Tori Spelling in one of her early roles) in the glee club in order to go to a competition in Hawaii. It seems that shy Violet is the only one with a voice, aside from Jessie (who caught Lisa 's flu and is unable to sing). After Screech makes a fool of himself in front of Violet 's parents, they forbid Screech to see her, and she quits the glee club.
Eric learns that Zack and Slater paid Lisa off to go out with him in order to get him into trouble for driving Mr. Belding 's car, and when Eric confronts Lisa about it, she is crushed -- because she actually fell in love with him. To get back at the guys, Eric has the auto mechanic class take the totaled car apart. When Jessie finds out, she confronts him about it and demands that he fix the car. When Eric refuses and gives her trouble by calling her a "chick, '' Jessie gives him a black eye for being a sexist and tells him that she wants him out of her life. To make amends, Eric puts Belding 's car back together himself so that Zack and Slater do not get into trouble, and apologizes. Regardless of what happened, Lisa tells Eric that she likes him and would like another date with him.
After a failed attempt to buy tickets to the U2 concert, Zack and the gang find $5,000 abandoned at the mall, but things do n't work out when the gang is chased by mobsters around the mall.
Casey Kasem tells the story of how Zack 's band, "The Zack Attack, '' got together and their rise to fame.
Slater 's ex-girlfriend comes to Bayside and Screech and Kelly 's love machine shows that she and Slater still have feelings for each other, much to the annoyance and devastation of Jessie.
Absent: Lark Voorhies as Lisa Turtle
The gang hurts their chances of winning the academic championship after causing a teacher 's strike so they can go on a ski trip.
The gang decides to make a video version of the annual high school yearbook, but Zack has other ideas and decides to use it as a money - making scheme to sell dating videos made from the video clips. However, Zack regrets his plan after Screech mistakenly includes Kelly on the video and she starts receiving calls from other guys.
The gang forgets Screech 's birthday and try to make it up to him by throwing him a late birthday party in Belding 's office.
The gang puts on a rap version of "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ''. However, when Jessie and Zack find out they have to kiss in the last scene, they start to wonder if they are more than friends, and question their feelings for each other (falling out with Kelly and Slater in the process). In the end, Jessie remains with Slater, while Zack rekindles his love for Kelly.
Screech is left to look after Slater 's chameleon when he goes away, but things soon go awry.
Ten years into the future (in 2003), the latest class finds a time capsule on video, so Belding plays it for them. They discover that it 's footage of Zack and the old gang with highlights of the ups and downs they went through (through clips from past episodes).
With graduation day approaching, Zack discovers he needs to gain one more credit to graduate. This results in Zack having to be in dance class and perform in the ballet to get his last credit. Meanwhile, Jessie is heartbroken when she learns another student is named valedictorian instead of her. However, she soon realizes how much valedictorian really means to Screech when Lisa wisely tells her that he puts others before him.
Kelly 's grandfather (Dean Jones), invites the kids to stay at his hotel in Hawaii. However, someone else is out to buy his land and build a hotel / resort complex, and the group has to save it.
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when was brazil established with its current name | History of Brazil - wikipedia
The history of Brazil starts with indigenous people in Brazil. Europeans arrived in Brazil at the opening of the 16th century. The first European to colonize what is now the Federative Republic of Brazil on the continent of South America was Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467 / 1468 - c. 1520) on April 22, 1500 under the sponsorship of the Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony and a part of the Portuguese Empire. The country expanded south along the coast and west along the Amazon and other inland rivers from the original 15 donatary captaincy colonies established on the northeast Atlantic coast east of the Tordesillas Line of 1494 (approximately the 46th meridian west) that divided the Portuguese domain to the east from the Spanish domain to the west. The country 's borders were only finalized in the early 20th century.
On September 7, 1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal and became Empire of Brazil. A military coup in 1889 established the First Brazilian Republic. The country has seen a dictatorship during Vargas Era (1930 -- 1934 and 1937 -- 1945) and a period of military rule (1964 -- 1985) under Brazilian military government.
When Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil, the region was inhabited by hundreds of different types of Jiquabu tribes, "the earliest going back at least 10,000 years in the highlands of Minas Gerais ''. The dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called "Indians '' (índios) by the Portuguese, is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere, radiocarbon - dated 8,000 years old, has been excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil, near Santarem, providing evidence to overturn the assumption that the tropical forest region was too poor in resources to have supported a complex prehistoric culture ". The current most widely accepted view of anthropologists, linguists and geneticists is that the early tribes were part of the first wave of migrant hunters who came into the Americas from Asia, either by land, across the Bering Strait, or by coastal sea routes along the Pacific, or both.
The Andes and the mountain ranges of northern South America created a rather sharp cultural boundary between the settled agrarian civilizations of the west coast and the semi-nomadic tribes of the east, who never developed written records or permanent monumental architecture. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500. Archaeological remains (mainly pottery) indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state - like federations.
At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes. The indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast and along the banks of major rivers.
Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should Christianize the natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had unknowingly brought diseases with them, against which many Natives were helpless due to lack of immunity. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands of indigenous people. The diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans.
Burial urn
Marajoara bowl
Marajoara vase
Funerary urn
Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó island at the mouth of the Amazon River. Archeologists have found sophisticated pottery in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, and elaborately painted and incised with representations of plants and animals. These provided the first evidence that a complex society had existed on Marajó. Evidence of mound building further suggests that well - populated, complex and sophisticated settlements developed on this island, as only such settlements were believed capable of such extended projects as major earthworks.
The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been disputed. Working in the 1950s in some of her earliest research, American Betty Meggers suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains.
In the 1980s, another American archeologist, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt, led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on the island itself.
The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population as large as 100,000 people. The Native Americans of the Amazon rainforest may have used their method of developing and working in Terra preta to make the land suitable for the large - scale agriculture needed to support large populations and complex social formations such as chiefdoms.
There are many theories regarding who was the first European to set foot on the land now called Brazil. Besides the widely accepted view of Cabral 's discovery, some say that it was Duarte Pacheco Pereira between November and December 1498 and some others say that it was first encountered by Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, a Spanish navigator who had accompanied Colombus in his first voyage of discovery to the Americas, having supposedly arrived in today 's Pernambuco region on 26 January 1500 but was unable to claim the land because of the Treaty of Tordesillas. In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered stone - using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi -- Guarani language family, and fought among themselves. After European arrival, the land 's major export was a type of tree the traders and colonists called pau - Brasil (Latin for wood red like an ember) or brazilwood from whence the country got its name, a large tree (Caesalpinia echinata) whose trunk yields a prized red dye, and which was nearly wiped out as a result of overexploitation.
Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil mainly due to the high profits gained through its commerce with India, China, and the East Indies. This lack of interest allowed traders, pirates, and privateers of several countries to poach profitable Brazilwood in lands claimed by Portugal, so the Portuguese Crown devised a system to effectively occupy Brazil, without paying the costs. Through the hereditary Captaincies system, Brazil was divided into strips of land that were donated to Portuguese noblemen, who were in turn responsible for the occupation and administration of the land and answered to the king. The system was a failure -- only four lots were successfully occupied Pernambuco, São Vicente (later called São Paulo), Captaincy of Ilhéus and Captaincy of Porto Seguro. The captaincies gradually reverted to the Crown and became provinces and eventually states of the country.
The Tamoyo Confederation (Confederação dos Tamoios in Portuguese language) was a military alliance of aboriginal chieftains of the sea coast ranging from what is today Santos to Rio de Janeiro, which occurred from 1554 to 1567.
The main reason for this rather unusual alliance between separate tribes was to react against slavery and wholesale murder and destruction wrought by the early Portuguese discoverers and colonisers of Brazil onto the Tupinambá people. In the Tupi language, "Tamuya '' means "elder '' or "grandfather ''. Cunhambebe was elected chief of the Confederation by his counterparts, and together with chiefs Pindobuçú, Koakira, Araraí and Aimberê, declared war on the Portuguese.
Starting in the sixteenth century, sugarcane grown on plantations called engenhos along the northeast coast (Brazil 's Nordeste) became the base of Brazilian economy and society, with the use of slaves on large plantations to make sugar for export to Europe. At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields. Portugal had pioneered the plantation system the Atlantic islands of Madeira and São Tomé, with forced labor, high capital inputs of machinery, slaves, and work animals. The extensive cultivation of sugar was for an export market, necessitating land that could be acquired with relatively little conflict from existing occupants. By 1570, Brazil 's sugar output rivaled that of the Atlantic islands. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Dutch seized productive areas of northeast Brazil, from 1630 -- 1654, and took over the plantations. When the Dutch were expelled from Brazil, following a strong push by Luso - Brazilians and their indigenous and Afro - Brazilian allies, the Dutch as well as the English and French set up sugar production on the plantation model of Brazil in the Caribbean. Increased production and competition meant that the price of sugar dropped, and Brazil 's market share dropped. Brazil 's recovery from the Dutch incursion was slow since warfare had taken its toll on sugar plantations. In Bahia, tobacco was cultivated for the African export market, with tobacco dipped in molasses (derived from sugar production) was traded for African slaves. Brazil 's settlement and economic development was largely on its lengthy coastline. The Dutch incursion had underlined the vulnerability of Brazil to foreigners, and the crown responded by building coastal forts and creating a marine patrol to protect the colony.
The initial exploration of Brazil 's interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the bandeirantes, who entered the jungle in search of gold and Native slaves. However colonists were unable to continually enslave Natives, and Portuguese sugar planters soon turned to import millions of slaves from Africa. Mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population through natural increase.
Still, Africans became a substantial section of Brazilian population, and long before the end of slavery (1888) they had begun to merge with the European Brazilian population through miscegenation.
During the first 150 years of the colonial period, attracted by the vast natural resources and untapped land, other European powers tried to establish colonies in several parts of Brazilian territory, in defiance of the papal bull (Inter caetera) and the Treaty of Tordesillas, which had divided the New World into two parts between Portugal and Spain. French colonists tried to settle in present - day Rio de Janeiro, from 1555 to 1567 (the so - called France Antarctique episode), and in present - day São Luís, from 1612 to 1614 (the so - called France Équinoxiale). Jesuits arrived early and established Sao Paulo, evangelising the natives. These native allies of the Jesuits assisted the Portuguese in driving out the French. The unsuccessful Dutch intrusion into Brazil was longer lasting and more troublesome to Portugal (Dutch Brazil). Dutch privateers began by plundering the coast: they sacked Bahia in 1604, and even temporarily captured the capital Salvador. From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in the Nordeste and controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe, without, however, penetrating the interior. But the colonists of the Dutch West India Company in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence in Recife of John Maurice of Nassau as governor. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch withdrew by 1654. Little French and Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remained of these failed attempts, but the Portuguese subsequently attempted to defend its coastline more vigorously.
Slave rebellions were frequent until the practice of slavery was abolished in 1888. The most famous of the revolts was led by Zumbi dos Palmares. The state he established, named the Quilombo dos Palmares, was a self - sustaining republic of Maroons escaped from the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, and was "a region perhaps the size of Portugal in the hinterland of Bahia ''. At its height, Palmares had a population of over 30,000.
Forced to defend against repeated attacks by Portuguese colonial power, the warriors of Palmares were expert in capoeira, a martial arts form developed in Brazil by African slaves in the 16th century.
An African known only as Zumbi was born free in Palmares in 1655 but was captured by the Portuguese and given to a missionary, Father António Melo when he was approximately 6 years old. Baptized Francisco, Zumbi was taught the sacraments, learned Portuguese and Latin, and helped with daily mass. Despite attempts to "civilize '' him, Zumbi escaped in 1670 and, at the age of 15, returned to his birthplace. Zumbi became known for his physical prowess and cunning in battle and was a respected military strategist by the time he was in his early twenties.
By 1678, the governor of the captaincy of Pernambuco, Pedro Almeida, weary of the longstanding conflict with Palmares, approached its leader Ganga Zumba with an olive branch. Almeida offered freedom for all runaway slaves if Palmares would submit to Portuguese authority, a proposal which Ganga Zumba favored. But Zumbi was distrustful of the Portuguese. Further, he refused to accept freedom for the people of Palmares while other Africans remained enslaved. He rejected Almeida 's overture and challenged Ganga Zumba 's leadership. Vowing to continue the resistance to Portuguese oppression, Zumbi became the new leader of Palmares.
Fifteen years after Zumbi assumed leadership of Palmares, Portuguese military commanders Domingos Jorge Velho and Vieira de Mello mounted an artillery assault on the quilombo. February 6, 1694, after 67 years of ceaseless conflict with the cafuzos, or Maroons, of Palmares, the Portuguese succeeded in destroying Cerca do Macaco, the republic 's central settlement. Palmares ' warriors were no match for the Portuguese artillery; the republic fell, and Zumbi was wounded. Though he survived and managed to elude the Portuguese, he was betrayed, captured almost two years later and beheaded on the spot November 20, 1695. The Portuguese transported Zumbi 's head to Recife, where it was displayed in the central praça as proof that, contrary to popular legend among African slaves, Zumbi was not immortal. It was also done as a warning of what would happen to others if they tried to be as brave as him. Remnants of the old quilombos continued to reside in the region for another hundred years.
The discovery of gold in the early eighteenth century was met with great enthusiasm by Portugal, which had an economy in disarray following years of wars against Spain and the Netherlands. A gold rush quickly ensued, with people from other parts of the colony and Portugal flooding the region in the first half of the eighteenth century. The large portion of the Brazilian inland where gold was extracted became known as the Minas Gerais (General Mines). Gold mining in this area became the main economic activity of colonial Brazil during the eighteenth century. In Portugal, the gold was mainly used to pay for industrialized goods (textiles, weapons) obtained from countries like England and, especially during the reign of King John V, to build Baroque monuments such as the Convent of Mafra.
Minas Gerais was the gold mining center of Brazil, during the 18th century. Slave labor was generally used for the workforce. The discovery of gold in the area caused a huge influx of European immigrants and the government decided to bring in bureaucrats from Portugal to control operations. They set up numerous bureaucracies, often with conflicting duties and jurisdictions. The officials generally proved unequal to the task of controlling this highly lucrative industry. Following Brazilian independence, the British pursued extensive economic activity in Brazil. In 1830, the Saint John d'El Rey Mining Company, controlled by the British, opened the largest gold mine in Latin America. The British brought in modern management techniques and engineering expertise. Located in Nova Lima, the mine produced ore for 125 years.
Diamond deposits were found near Vila do Príncipe, around the village of Tijuco in the 1720s, and a rush to extract the precious stones ensued, flooding the European market. The Portuguese crown intervened to control production in Diamantina, the Diamond District. A system of bids for the right to extract diamonds was established, but in 1771, it was abolished and the crown retained the monopoly.
Mining stimulated regional growth in southern Brazil, not just from extraction of gold and diamonds, but the stimulation of food production for local consumption. More importantly it stimulated commerce and the development of merchant communities in port cities. Nominally, the Portuguese controlled the trade to Brazil, banning the establishment productive capacity for goods produced in Portugal. In practice, Portugal was an entrepôt for the import and export of goods from elsewhere, which were then re-exported to Brazil. Direct trade with foreign nations was forbidden, but prior to the Dutch incursion, much of Brazil 's exports were carried in Dutch ships. After the American Revolution, U.S. ships called at Brazilian ports. When the Portuguese monarchy fled Iberia to Brazil in 1808 during the Napoleonic wars, one of the first acts of the monarch was to open Brazilian ports to foreign ships.
Brazil was one of only three modern states in the Americas to have its own indigenous monarchy (the other two were Mexico and Haiti) -- for a period of almost 90 years.
In 1808, the Portuguese court, fleeing from Napoleon 's invasion of Portugal during the Peninsular War in a large fleet escorted by British men - of - war, moved the government apparatus to its then - colony, Brazil, establishing themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro. From there the Portuguese king ruled his huge empire for 15 years, and there he would have remained for the rest of his life if it were not for the turmoil aroused in Portugal due, among other reasons, to his long stay in Brazil after the end of Napoleon 's reign.
In 1815 the king vested Brazil with the dignity of a united kingdom with Portugal and Algarves. In 1817 a revolt occurred in the province of Pernambuco. In two months it was suppressed.
When king João VI of Portugal left Brazil to return to Portugal in 1821, his elder son, Pedro, stayed in his stead as regent of Brazil. One year later, Pedro stated the reasons for the secession of Brazil from Portugal and led the Independence War, instituted a constitutional monarchy in Brazil assuming its head as Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.
Also known as "Dom Pedro I '', after his abdication in 1831 for political incompatibilities (displeased, both by the landed elites, who thought him too liberal and by the intellectuals, who felt he was not liberal enough), he left for Portugal leaving behind his five - year - old son as Emperor Pedro II, which left the country ruled by regents between 1831 and 1840. This period was beset by rebellions of various motivations, such as the Sabinada, the Ragamuffin War, the Malê Revolt, Cabanagem and Balaiada, among others. After this period, Pedro II was declared of age and assumed his full prerogatives. Pedro II started a more - or-less parliamentary reign which lasted until 1889, when he was ousted by a coup d'état which instituted the republic in Brazil.
Externally, apart from the Independence war, stood out decades of pressure from the United Kingdom for the country to end its participation in the Atlantic slave trade, and the wars fought in the region of La Plata river: the Cisplatine War (in 2nd half of the 1820s), the Platine War (in the 1850s), the Uruguayan War and the Paraguayan War (in the 1860s). This last war against Paraguay also was the bloodiest and most expensive in South American history, after which the country entered a period that continues to the present day, averse to external political and military interventions.
The coffee crop was introduced In 1720, and by 1850 Brazil was producing half of the world 's coffee. The state set up a marketing board to protect and encourage the industry.
The major export crop in the 19th century was coffee, grown on large - scale plantations in the São Paulo area. The Zona da Mata Mineira district grew 90 % of the coffee in Minas Gerais region during the 1880s and 70 % during the 1920s. Most of the workers were black men, including both slaves and free. Increasingly Italian, Spanish and Japanese immigrants provided the expanded labour force. While railway lines were built to haul the coffee beans to market, they also provided essential internal transportation for both freight and passengers, as well as providing work opportunities for a large skilled labour force. By the early 20th century, coffee accounted for 16 % of Brazil 's gross national product, and three quarters of its export earnings.
The growers and exporters played major roles in politics; however, historians debate whether or not they were the most powerful actors in the political system.
Before the 1960s, historians generally ignored the coffee industry. Coffee was not a major industry in the colonial period. In any one particular locality, the coffee industry flourished for a few decades and then moved on as the soil lost its fertility; therefore it was not deeply embedded in the history of any one locality. After independence, coffee plantations were associated with slavery, underdevelopment, and a political oligarchy, and not the modern development of state and society. Historians now recognize the importance of the industry, and there is a flourishing scholarly literature.
The rubber boom in the Amazon, 1880s -- 1920s, radically reshaped the Amazonian economy. For example, it turned the remote poor jungle village of Manaus into a rich, sophisticated, progressive urban center, with a cosmopolitan population that patronized the theater, literary societies, and luxury stores, and supported good schools. In general, key characteristics of the rubber boom included the dispersed plantations, and a durable form of organization, yet did not respond to Asian competition. The rubber boom had major long - term effects: the private estate became the usual form of land tenure; trading networks were built throughout the Amazon basin; barter became a major form of exchange; and native peoples often were displaced. The boom firmly established the influence of the state throughout the region. The boom ended abruptly in the 1920s, and income levels returned to the poverty levels of the 1870s. There were major negative effects on the fragile Amazonian environment.
Pedro II was deposed on November 15, 1889, by a Republican military coup led by General Deodoro da Fonseca, who became the country 's first de facto president through military ascension. The country 's name became the Republic of the United States of Brazil (which in 1967 was changed to Federative Republic of Brazil.). Two military presidents ruled through four years of dictatorship amid conflicts, among the military and political elites (two Naval revolts, followed by a Federalist revolt), and an economic crisis due the effects of the burst of a financial bubble, the encilhamento.
From 1889 to 1930, although the country was formally a constitutional democracy, the First Republican Constitution, created in 1891, established that women and the illiterate (then the majority of the population) were prevented from voting. Presidentialism was adopted as the form of government and the State was divided into three powers (Legislative, Executive and Judiciary) "harmonics and independents of each other ''. The presidential term was fixed at four years, and the elections became direct.
After 1894, the presidency of the republic was occupied by coffee farmers (oligarchies) from São Paulo and Minas Gerais, alternately. This policy was called política do café com leite ("coffee with milk '' policy). The elections for president and governors was ruled by the Política dos Governadores (Governor 's policy), in which they had mutual support to ensure the elections of some candidates. The exchanges of favors also happened among politicians and big landowners. They used the power to control the votes of population in return for favors (this was called coronelismo).
Between 1893 and 1926 several movements, civilians and military, shook the country. The military movements had their origins both in the lower officers ' corps of the Army and Navy (which, dissatisfied with the regime, called for democratic changes) while the civilian ones, such Canudos and Contestado War, were usually led by messianic leaders, without conventional political goals.
Internationally, the country would stick to a course of conduct that extended throughout the twentieth century: an almost isolationist policy, interspersed with sporadic automatic alignments with major western powers, its main economic partners, in moments of high turbulence. Standing out of this period: the resolution of the Acreanian 's Question, its tiny role in the World War I, of which highlights the mission accomplished by its Navy on anti-submarine warfare, and an effort to play a leading role in the League of Nations.
After 1930, the successive governments continued industrial and agriculture growth and development of the vast interior of Brazil. Getúlio Vargas led a military junta that had taken control in 1930 and would remain to rule from 1930 to 1945 with the backing of Brazilian military, especially the Army. In this period, he faced internally the Constitutionalist Revolt in 1932 and two separate coup d'état attempts: by Communists in 1935 and by local right - wing elements of the Brazilian Integralism movement in 1938.
The liberal revolution of 1930 overthrew the oligarchic coffee plantation owners and brought to power an urban middle class and business interests that promoted industrialization and modernization. Aggressive promotion of new industry turned around the economy by 1933. Brazil 's leaders in the 1920s and 1930s decided that Argentina 's implicit foreign policy goal was to isolate Portuguese - speaking Brazil from Spanish - speaking neighbors, thus facilitating the expansion of Argentine economic and political influence in South America. Even worse, was the fear that a more powerful Argentine Army would launch a surprise attack on the weaker Brazilian Army. To counter this threat, President Getúlio Vargas forged closer links with the United States. Meanwhile, Argentina moved in the opposite direction. During World War II, Brazil was a staunch ally of the United States and sent its military to Europe. The United States provided over $100 million in Lend - Lease grants, in return for free rent on air bases used to transport American soldiers and supplies across the Atlantic, and naval bases for anti-submarine operations. In sharp contrast, Argentina was officially neutral and at times favored Germany.
A democratic regime prevailed from 1945 -- 64. In the 1950s after Vargas ' second period (this time, democratically elected), the country experienced an economic boom during Juscelino Kubitschek 's years, during which the capital was moved from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília.
Externally, after a relative isolation during the first half of the 1930s due to the effects of the 1929 Crisis, in the second half of the 1930s there was a rapprochement with the fascist regimes of Italy and Germany. However, after the fascist coup attempt in 1938 and the naval blockade imposed on these two countries by the British navy from the beginning of World War II, in the decade of 1940 there was a return to the old foreign policy of the previous period.
During the early 1940s, Brazil joined the allied forces in the Battle of the Atlantic and the Italian Campaign; in the 1950s the country began its participation in the United Nations ' peacekeeping missions with Suez Canal in 1956 and in the beginning of the 1960s, during the presidency of Janio Quadros, its first attempts to break the automatic alignment (that had started in the 1940s) with the U.S.A.
The institutional crisis of succession for the presidency, triggered with the Quadros ' resignation, coupled with other factors, would lead to the military coup of 1964 and to the end of this period.
By the late 1950s and early 1960s, success of revolutionary warfare techniques against conventional armies in China, Indochina, Algeria, and Cuba led the conventional armies in the developed and underdeveloped worlds to concentrate on finding military and political strategies to fight domestic revolutionary warfare. This led to an adoption of what Stepan called, in 1973, "New Professionalism. '' The New Professionalism was formulated and propagated in Brazil through the Escola Superior de Guerra, which had been established in 1949. By 1963 New Professionalism had come to dominate the school, when it declared its primary mission to be preparing "civilians and the military to perform executive and advisory functions (Decreto Lei No. 53,080 December 4, 1963). '' This new attitude towards professionalism arose out of nowhere. Though its domination of the ESG was completed by 1963, it had begun to penetrate the college much earlier than that -- assisted by the United States and its policy of encouraging Latin American militaries to assume as their primary role in counter-guerrilla and counter-insurgency warfare programs, civic action and nation - building tasks.
By 1964, the military elite, unsatisfied with the delays, transfers, accommodations, and characteristics of the negotiation processes in democratic regimes, was eager to impose their development project. They saw a leftist revolution as a real possibility (through the paradigm of internal warfare doctrines of the new professionalism). Rising strike levels, the inflation rate, demands by the left for a broader political process, land reform, and the growing claims of the enlisted men were all seen as "evidence '' that Brazil was facing the serious possibility of a leftist internal insurgency.
By early 1964 important sections of the military had developed a consensus that intervention in the political process was necessary. Important civilian politicians, such as José de Magalhães Pinto, governor of Minas Gerais, and the United States government, likely aided in the development of this consensus. Though many in the right of the political spectrum claim the coup was "revolutionary, '' most historians agree that is not so, since there was no real transition of power; military dictatorship was the fastest way to implement economic policies in the country while suppressing growing popular discontent, and the coup was thus a way for Brazil 's already - ruling elite to secure its power.
At first, there was intense economic growth, due to economic reforms, but in the later years of the dictatorship, the reforms had left the economy in shambles, with soaring inequality and national debt, and thousands of Brazilians were deported, imprisoned, tortured, or murdered. Politically motivated deaths numbered in the hundreds, mostly related to the guerrilla - antiguerrilla warfare in the 1968 -- 73 period; official censorship also led many artists into exile.
Tancredo Neves was elected president in an indirect election in 1985 as the nation returned to civilian rule. He died before being sworn in, and the elected vice president, José Sarney, was sworn in as president in his place.
Fernando Collor de Mello was the first elected president by popular vote after the military regime in December 1989 defeating Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in a two - round presidential race and 35 million votes. Collor won in the state of São Paulo against many prominent political figures. The first democratically elected President of Brazil in 29 years, Collor spent much of the early years of his government battling hyper - inflation, which at times reached rates of 25 % per month.
Collor 's neoliberal program was also followed by his successor Fernando Henrique Cardoso who maintained free trade and privatization programs. Collor 's administration began the process of privatization of a number of government - owned enterprises such as Acesita, Embraer, Telebrás and Companhia Vale do Rio Doce. With the exception of Acesita, the privatizations were all completed during the term of Fernando Henrique Cardoso.
Following Collor 's impeachment, acting president, Itamar Franco, was sworn in as president. In elections held on October 3, 1994, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, his finance minister, defeated left - wing Lula da Silva again. He was elected president due to the success of the so - called Plano Real. Reelected in 1998, he guided Brazil through a wave of financial crises. In 2000, Cardoso ordered the declassifying of some military files concerning Operation Condor, a network of South American military dictatorships that kidnapped and assassinated political opponents.
Brazil 's most severe problem today is arguably its highly unequal distribution of wealth and income, one of the most extreme in the world. By the 1990s, more than one out of four Brazilians continued to survive on less than one dollar a day. These socio - economic contradictions helped elect Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of the Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT) in 2002.
In the few months before the election, investors were scared by Lula 's campaign platform for social change, and his past identification with labor unions and leftist ideology. As his victory became more certain, the Real devalued and Brazil 's investment risk rating plummeted (the causes of these events are disputed, since Cardoso left a very small foreign reserve). After taking office, however, Lula maintained Cardoso 's economic policies, warning that social reforms would take years and that Brazil had no alternative but to extend fiscal austerity policies. The Real and the nation 's risk rating soon recovered.
Lula, however, has given a substantial increase in the minimum wage (raising from R $200 to R $350 in four years). Lula also spearheaded legislation to drastically cut retirement benefits for public servants. His primary significant social initiative, on the other hand, was the Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) program, designed to give each Brazilian three meals a day.
In 2005 Lula 's government suffered a serious blow with several accusations of corruption and misuse of authority against his cabinet, forcing some of its members to resign. Most political analysts at the time were certain that Lula 's political career was doomed, but he managed to hold onto power, partly by highlighting the achievements of his term (e.g., reduction in poverty, unemployment and dependence on external resources, such as oil), and to distance himself from the scandal. Lula was re-elected President in the general elections of October 2006.
Having served two terms as president, Lula was forbidden by the Brazilian Constitution from standing again. In the 2010 presidential election, the PT candidate was Dilma Rousseff. Rousseff won and assumed office on January 1, 2011 as the country 's first female president.
Nationwide protests broke out in 2013 and 2014 primarily over public transport fares and government expenditures on the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Rousseff faced a conservative challenger for her re-election bid in the October 26, 2014, runoff, but managed to secure a re-election with just over 51 % of votes. Protests resumed in 2015 and 2016 in response to a corruption scandal and a recession that began in 2014, resulting in the impeachment of President Rousseff in August 2016. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro was the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics, making the city the first South American and Portuguese - speaking city to ever host the events, and the third time the Olympics were held in a Southern Hemisphere city.
Until recently Catholicism was overwhelmingly dominant. Rapid change in the 21st century has led to a growth in secularism (no religious affiliation). Just as dramatic is the sudden rise of evangelical Protestantism to over 22 % of the population. The 2010 census indicates that fewer than 65 % of Brazilians consider themselves Catholic, down from 90 % in 1970. The decline is associated with falling birth rates to one of Latin America 's lowest at 1.83 children per woman, which is below replacement levels. It has led Cardinal Cláudio Hummes to comment, "We wonder with anxiety: how long will Brazil remain a Catholic country? ''
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who plays caeser in planet of the apes | Rise of the Planet of the Apes - Wikipedia
Rise of the Planet of the Apes is a 2011 American science fiction film directed by Rupert Wyatt and starring James Franco, Freida Pinto, John Lithgow, Brian Cox, Tom Felton, David Oyelowo, and Andy Serkis. Written by Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver, it is 20th Century Fox 's reboot of the Planet of the Apes series, intended to act as an origin story for a new series of films. Its premise is similar to the fourth film in the original series, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes (1972), but it is not a direct remake of that film.
Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released on August 5, 2011, to critical and commercial success. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects. It was also nominated for five Saturn Awards including Best Director for Wyatt and Best Writing for Jaffa and Silver, winning Best Science Fiction Film, Best Supporting Actor for Serkis and Best Special Effects. Serkis 's performance as Caesar was widely acclaimed, earning him many nominations from associations which do not usually recognize performance capture as traditional acting.
A sequel to the film, Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, was released on July 11, 2014, and a third film, War for the Planet of the Apes, was released on July 14, 2017.
Will Rodman, a scientist at the San Francisco biotech company Gen - Sys, is testing the viral - based drug ALZ - 112 on chimpanzees to find a cure for Alzheimer 's disease. ALZ - 112 is given to a chimp named Bright Eyes, greatly increasing her intelligence. But then, during Will 's presentation for the drug, Bright Eyes is forced from her cage, goes on a rampage, and is shot to death. Will 's boss Steven Jacobs terminates the project and has the chimps slaughtered. However, Will 's assistant Robert Franklin discovers that the reason for Bright Eyes ' rampage was that she had recently given birth to an infant chimp. Will reluctantly agrees to take in the chimp, who is named Caesar. Will learns that Caesar has inherited his mother 's intelligence and decides to raise him. Three years later, Will introduces Caesar to the redwood forest at Muir Woods National Monument. Meanwhile, Will treats his dementia - suffering father Charles with ALZ - 112, which seems to restore his cognitive ability.
Five years later, when Caesar reaches adolescence and sees a dog on a leash like his own, he questions his identity and learns of his origins from Will. Meanwhile, Charles 's condition returns as he becomes resistant to ALZ - 112. Caesar injures an aggressive neighbor, Douglas Hunsiker, while defending a confused Charles from him. As a result, he is placed in a primate shelter where he is tormented by a chimp named Rocket and the chief guard, Dodge Landon, but also where he befriends an orangutan named Maurice who came from a circus. Caesar learns how to unlock his cage, gaining free access to the common area. With the assistance of a gorilla named Buck, he confronts the sanctuary 's alpha, Rocket and claims that position. Meanwhile, Jacobs clears development of a more powerful, gaseous version of the drug -- ALZ - 113 -- when Will tells him it can also improve intelligence. Will takes the drug home to try to save his father, but Charles declines further treatment and dies overnight.
After attempting to test the drug on a scarred bonobo test subject named Koba, Franklin becomes exposed to ALZ - 113 and becomes ill. Attempting to warn Will at his home, he sneezes blood onto Hunsiker and is later discovered dead. Will attempts to reclaim Caesar, but the chimp refuses to go home with him so he could look after the other apes. Instead, he escapes from the facility and returns to Will 's house, where he takes canisters of the ALZ - 113. Upon returning, Caesar releases the gas and allows it to enhance the intelligence of the other apes. When Dodge attempts to get him back into his cage, Caesar speaks for the first time, yelling "No! '' and gets in a fight which inadvertently leads to Dodge 's death. The apes flee the facility, release the remaining chimps from Gen - Sys, and free more apes from the San Francisco Zoo on the way.
A battle ensues as the ape army fights their way past a police blockade on the Golden Gate Bridge to escape into the redwood forest. Buck sacrifices himself to save Caesar by jumping into the helicopter in which Jacobs is riding. The helicopter crashes onto the bridge, trapping Jacobs in the wreckage. While Caesar ignores Jacobs ' pledges for help, Koba seizes his chance for revenge and sends Jacobs falling to his death in the bay below.
As the apes find their way into the forest, Will catches up to them in a stolen police car and warns Caesar that the humans will hunt them down, and begs him to return home. In response, Caesar hugs him and says that, "Caesar is home ''. Will, realizing that this is indeed their last goodbye, respects Caesar 's wishes. The apes embrace their new lifestyle in the forest.
In a mid-credits scene, an infected Hunsiker leaves his house for work as an airline pilot, arriving at San Francisco International Airport for his flight to Paris. His nose begins to drip blood onto the floor. A graphic similar to Plague Inc. traces the spread of the humanity - ravaging virus around the globe via international flight routes.
In 2006, screenwriter - producer Rick Jaffa was searching for a script idea. As Jaffa searched a newspaper articles clipping, one about pet chimpanzees that become troublesome to their owners and heartbroken for not adapting well to the human environment intrigued him. As Jaffa eventually realized it fit the Planet of the Apes series, he called his wife and screenwriting partner Amanda Silver to express his ideas of such a chimpanzee eventually starting the ape revolution, and then the couple started developing the character of Caesar. Jaffa indicated that "it 's a reinvention '' and if he had to pick between calling it a prequel or a reboot he would say it is a reboot: "It 's a different story of who Caesar is, and how he came to be. So it 's really kind of hard to put a label on it. We are hopefully rebooting it. '' He went on to say that "we tried really hard to create a story that would stand on its own and yet also pay homage and honor the movies that came before us. '' Jaffa and Silver then wrote a script and sold it to Fox, producers of the Apes franchise. The script added other elements which the couple had researched, such as genetic engineering. Several tributes to specific scenes, characters, and cast and crew from the previous Apes film series were added in the script. In particular, Caesar 's treatment at the primate sanctuary parallels Taylor 's treatment as a captive in the original film.
In a segment of a video blog post, director Rupert Wyatt commented on the originality of the plot: "This is part of the mythology and it should be seen as that. It 's not a continuation of the other films; it 's an original story. It does satisfy the people who enjoy those films. The point of this film is to achieve that and to bring that fan base into this film exactly like Batman Begins. '' In a 2009 interview, Wyatt said, "We 've incorporated elements from Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, in terms of how the apes begin to revolt, but this is primarily a prequel to the 1968 film... Caesar is a revolutionary figure who will be talked about by his fellow apes for centuries... This is just the first step in the evolution of the apes, and there 's a lot more stories to tell after this. I imagine the next film will be about the all - out war between the apes and humans. '' Mark Bomback did an uncredited rewrite of the script.
Filming began in July 2010 in Vancouver, British Columbia. Filming also happened in San Francisco, California (the primary setting of the film), and around Oahu, Hawaii, which doubled for the African jungle as the schedule and budget did not allow for location shooting in Africa.
As the apes in Rise were meant to be actual apes, the producers decided not to use actors in ape suits. After considering real apes, instead Weta Digital created the apes digitally in almost every case through performance capture. Advances in the technology allowed the use of performance capture in an exterior environment, affording the film - makers the freedom to shoot much of the film on location with other actors, as opposed to the confines of a soundstage. The main breakthrough was a camera that enabled viewing the motion capture dots in daylight, employed mostly for the Golden Gate Bridge battle. A maximum of six actors could have their movements captured, with larger ape crowds using fully digital animals animated using Weta 's move library. The Golden Gate Bridge set used both a physical set which was extended digitally, and a fully computer - generated model of the bridge that also included the ocean and nearby hills.
After shooting the actors playing humans interacting with others wearing the motion capture suits, a clean plate was shot with actors for extra reference. Actor - stuntman Terry Notary guided the actors on realistic ape movement, while Weta studied the chimps in the Wellington Zoo for reference. The digital apes also received detailed models with skeletons, muscles and nerve tissue layers for accurate animation. Cast models of apes ' heads and limbs helped the texture department replicate skin details such as wrinkles and pores. Given the difference between human and chimpanzee facial muscles, the animators tweaked the performance through a new facial muscle system adding dynamics, ballistics, and secondary motion. As the silent performance required expressive eyes, a new eye model was made to depict both greater accuracy in muscle movement in and around the eyes, and also tears, pupil dilation, and light refraction. While Andy Serkis was the primary performer for Caesar, as the effects team considered that at times "Andy overcame the character, '' other motion capture team actors were also used, especially Devyn Dalton, whose height matched that of a chimpanzee. Along with that, they used Notary to play Caesar in stunt - filled scenes such as the Golden Gate Bridge scene.
The score for the film was written by Patrick Doyle and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony conducted by James Shearman. The main concern was to have the music help progress the plot in the scenes without dialogue, for instance, conveying the emotions of Caesar 's relationships with Will and Charles. To turn the score into a "driving force that keeps audiences paying attention, '' Doyle employed an African - American chorus and focused on percussion and "low and deep '' orchestra sounds. Doyle collaborated closely with the sound department to make the music complement the sound effects, including writing a recurring theme based on their recording of a chimpanzee.
Rise of the Planet of the Apes was well - received by critics upon release. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81 % based on 258 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Led by Rupert Wyatt 's stylish direction, some impressive special effects, and a mesmerizing performance by Andy Serkis, Rise of the Planet of the Apes breathes unlikely new life into a long - running franchise. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 68 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and praised the role of Caesar and Andy Serkis by stating it was a "wonderfully executed character '' and "one never knows exactly where the human ends and the effects begin, but Serkis and / or Caesar gives the best performance in the movie. '' Giving the film 5 out of 5 stars, Joe Neumaier of Daily News labelled Rise of the Planet of the Apes as the summer 's best popcorn flick. Nick Pinkerton of The Village Voice wrote, "Caesar 's prison conversion to charismatic pan-ape revolutionist is near - silent filmmaking, with simple and precise images illustrating Caesar 's General - like divining of personalities and his organization of a group from chaos to order. '' Roger Moore of Orlando Sentinel wrote, "Audacious, violent and disquieting, "Rise of the Planet of the Apes '' is a summer sequel that 's better than it has any right to be. '' He gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars. Manohla Dargis of The New York Times praised the film by saying, "Precisely the kind of summer diversion that the studios have such a hard time making now. It 's good, canny - dumb fun. '' She also gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone noted that the film has mixed "twists lifted from 1972 's Conquest of the Planet of the Apes and 1999 's Deep Blue Sea ''.
Rise of the Planet of the Apes made its debut in the United States and Canada on roughly 5,400 screens within 3,648 theaters. It grossed $19,534,699 on opening day and $54,806,191 in its entire opening weekend, making it # 1 for that weekend as well as the fourth - highest - grossing August opening ever. The film held on to the # 1 spot in its second weekend, dropping 49.2 %, and grossing $27,832,307. Rise of the Planet of the Apes crossed the $150 million mark in the United States and Canada on its 26th day of release. Entertainment Weekly said that this was quite an accomplishment for the film since the month of August is a difficult time for films to make money.
The film ended its run at the box office on December 15, 2011, with a gross of $176,760,185 in the U.S. and Canada as well as $305,040,864 internationally, for a total of $481,801,049 worldwide.
Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released on Blu - ray Disc, DVD, and Digital Copy on December 13, 2011.
Regarding the story setting up possible sequels, director Rupert Wyatt commented: "I think we 're ending with certain questions, which is quite exciting. To me, I can think of all sorts of sequels to this film, but this is just the beginning. '' Screenwriter and producer Rick Jaffa also stated that Rise of the Planet of the Apes would feature several clues as to future sequels: "I hope that we 're building a platform for future films. We 're trying to plant a lot of the seeds for a lot of the things you are talking about in terms of the different apes and so forth. ''
On May 31, 2012, 20th Century Fox announced that the sequel would be named Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. Reports said that Wyatt was leaving the sequel due to his concern that a May 2014 release date would not give him enough time to properly make the film; he was replaced by Cloverfield director Matt Reeves. Jaffa and Silver returned as producers and to pen the screenplay, with rewrites from Scott Z. Burns and Mark Bomback.
Taking place ten years after Rise, Dawn follows Caesar 's growing nation of evolved apes. Andy Serkis, Terry Notary and Karin Konoval reprise their roles as Caesar, Rocket and Maurice. James Franco returned as Will Rodman in a "cameo via video ''. Dawn of the Planet of the Apes was released July 11, 2014.
On January 6, 2014, 20th Century Fox announced a third installment with Reeves returning to direct and co-write along with Bomback, with a planned July 2016 release. In January 2015, Fox delayed the release to July 14, 2017. On May 14, 2015, the title was given as War of the Planet of the Apes, later re-titled to War for the Planet of the Apes.
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what is the name of the level of local government directly | Top - level domain - wikipedia
A top - level domain (TLD) is one of the domains at the highest level in the hierarchical Domain Name System of the Internet. The top - level domain names are installed in the root zone of the name space. For all domains in lower levels, it is the last part of the domain name, that is, the last label of a fully qualified domain name. For example, in the domain name www.example.com, the top - level domain is com. Responsibility for management of most top - level domains is delegated to specific organizations by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which operates the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and is in charge of maintaining the DNS root zone.
IANA currently distinguishes the following groups of top - level domains:
Originally, the top - level domain space was organized into three main groups: Countries, Categories, and Multiorganizations. An additional temporary group consisted of only the initial DNS domain, arpa, and was intended for transitional purposes toward the stabilization of the domain name system.
As of 2015, IANA distinguishes the following groups of top - level domains:
Countries are designated in the Domain Name System by their two - letter ISO country code; there are exceptions, however (e.g.,. uk). This group of domains is therefore commonly known as country - code top - level domains (ccTLD). Since 2009, countries with non -- Latin - based scripts may apply for internationalized country code top - level domain names, which are displayed in end - user applications in their language - native script or alphabet, but use a Punycode - translated ASCII domain name in the Domain Name System.
Generic top - level domains (formerly Categories) initially consisted of gov, edu, com, mil, org, and net. More generic TLDs have been added, such as info.
The authoritative list of currently existing TLDs in the root zone is published at the IANA website at https://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/.
An internationalized country code top - level domain (IDN ccTLD) is a top - level domain with a specially encoded domain name that is displayed in an end user application, such as a web browser, in its language - native script or alphabet, such as the Arabic alphabet, or a non-alphabetic writing system, such as Chinese characters. IDN ccTLDs are an application of the internationalized domain name (IDN) system to top - level Internet domains assigned to countries, or independent geographic regions.
ICANN started to accept applications for IDN ccTLDs in November 2009, and installed the first set into the Domain Names System in May 2010. The first set was a group of Arabic names for the countries of Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. By May 2010, 21 countries had submitted applications to ICANN, representing 11 scripts.
The domain arpa was the first Internet top - level domain. It was intended to be used only temporarily, aiding in the transition of traditional ARPANET host names to the domain name system. However, after it had been used for reverse DNS lookup, it was found impractical to retire it, and is used today exclusively for Internet infrastructure purposes such as in-addr.arpa for IPv4 and ip6.arpa for IPv6 reverse DNS resolution, uri.arpa and urn.arpa for the Dynamic Delegation Discovery System, and e164.arpa for telephone number mapping based on NAPTR DNS records. For historical reasons, arpa is sometimes considered to be a generic top - level domain.
RFC 6761 reserves the following four top - level domain names to avoid confusion and conflict. Any such reserved usage of those TLDs should not occur in production networks that utilize the global domain name system:
RFC 6762 reserves the use of. local for link - local host names that can be resolved via the Multicast DNS name resolution protocol.
RFC 7686 reserves the use of. onion for the self - authenticating names of Tor hidden services. These names can only be resolved by a Tor client because of the use of onion routing to protect the anonymity of users.
In the late 1980s, InterNIC created the nato domain for use by NATO. NATO considered none of the then existing TLDs as adequately reflecting their status as an international organization. Soon after this addition, however, InterNIC also created the int TLD for the use by international organizations in general, and persuaded NATO to use the second level domain nato.int instead. The nato TLD, no longer used, was finally removed in July 1996.
Other historical TLDs are cs for Czechoslovakia (now using cz for Czech Republic and sk for Slovak Republic), dd for East Germany (using de after reunification of Germany), yu for SFR Yugoslavia (now using ba for Bosnia and Herzegovina, hr for Croatia, me for Montenegro, mk for Macedonia, rs for Serbia and si for Slovenia), and zr for Zaire (now cd for Democratic Republic of the Congo). In contrast to these, the TLD su has remained active despite the demise of the Soviet Union that it represents. ICANN 's ccNSO is working on a policy for retirement of ccTLDs that have been removed from ISO - 3166 under the chairmanship of Nigel Roberts.
Around late 2000, when ICANN discussed and finally introduced aero, biz, coop, info, museum, name, and pro TLDs, site owners argued that a similar TLD should be made available for adult and pornographic websites to settle the dispute of obscene content on the Internet and the responsibility of US service providers under the US Communications Decency Act of 1996. Several options were proposed including xxx, sex and adult. The. xxx domain went live in 2011.
An older proposal consisted of seven new gTLDs: arts, firm, info, nom, rec, shop, and web. Later biz, info, museum, and name covered most of these old proposals.
During the 32nd International Public ICANN Meeting in Paris in 2008, ICANN started a new process of TLD naming policy to take a "significant step forward on the introduction of new generic top - level domains. '' This program envisioned the availability of many new or already proposed domains, as well as a new application and implementation process. Observers believed that the new rules could result in hundreds of new gTLDs being registered. Proposed TLDs included free, music, shop, berlin, wien, nyc and istanbul
On 13 June 2012, ICANN announced nearly 2,000 applications for top - level domains, which began installation throughout 2013. Donuts Inc. invested $57 million in more than 300 applications while Famous Four Media applied for 61 new domains. The first seven -- bike, clothing, guru, holdings, plumbing, singles, and ventures -- were released in 2014.
ICANN 's slow progress in creating new generic top - level domains, and the high application costs associated with TLDs, contributed to the creation of alternate DNS roots with different sets of top - level domains. Such domains may be accessed by configuration of a computer with alternate or additional (forwarder) DNS servers or plugin modules for web browsers. Browser plugins detect alternate root domain requests and access an alternate domain name server for such requests.
Several networks, such as BITNET, CSNET, UUCP, existed that were in widespread use among computer professionals and academic users, but were not interoperable directly with the Internet and exchanged mail with the Internet via special email gateways. For relaying purposes on the gateways, messages associated with these networks were labeled with suffixes such as bitnet, oz, csnet, or uucp, but these domains did not exist as top - level domains in the public Domain Name System of the Internet.
Most of these networks have long since ceased to exist, and although UUCP still gets significant use in parts of the world where Internet infrastructure has not yet become well established, it subsequently transitioned to using Internet domain names, and pseudo-domains now largely survive as historical relics. One notable exception is the 2007 emergence of SWIFTNet Mail, which uses the swift pseudo-domain.
The anonymity network Tor formerly used the top - level pseudo-domain onion for Tor hidden services, which can only be reached with a Tor client because it uses the Tor onion routing protocol to reach the hidden service to protect the anonymity of users. However, the pseudo-domain became officially reserved in October 2015. i2p provides a similar hidden pseudo-domain,. i2p.
BT hubs use the top - level pseudo-domain home for local DNS resolution of routers, modems and gateways.
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song it's the sign of the times | Sign of the Times (Harry Styles song) - wikipedia
"Sign of the Times '' is the debut solo single by English singer and songwriter Harry Styles for his self - titled debut studio album. It is his first single outside of the boy band One Direction. Released on 7 April 2017, by Erskine and Columbia Records, it was written by Styles, Ryan Nasci, Mitch Rowland and its producers Jeff Bhasker, Tyler Johnson, and Alex Salibian. Musically, it was defined by critics as a multi-genre ballad, including pop rock, soft rock and glam rock. Its music video was released on 8 May.
Early rumours about Styles going on a solo career sparkled in 2015, when it was reported that Sony Music wanted Styles to release a solo album during One Direction 's hiatus. By the end of 2015, four new songs written and performed by Styles were registered on the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) online database, which was believed to be for his potential debut solo album at the time. Shortly after, Styles signed up with American agent Jeffrey Azoff and moved to Columbia Records. In September 2016, Styles was on the cover of Another Man, which led the media to expect a new album in the future.
In February 2017, chairman and CEO of Columbia Records, Rob Stringer, admitted that the album was close to finish and called it "authentic ''. A month later, it was reported that the album sounded like David Bowie and Queen, while also being revealed that he worked on the album with only one producer, Jeff Bhasker. It was also hinted that the lead single would be released in late April or early May and it sounded "like it would be a smash in any decade ''. In the same month, US radio host Elvis Duran accidentally revealed during his show that Styles ' debut single would be released on 7 April 2017. On 25 March, Styles teased the new single with a television ad during The Voice UK. On 31 March, the singer revealed through social media that his single is titled "Sign of the Times ''. On 7 April, the song premiered during Nick Grimshaw 's breakfast show on BBC Radio 1.
The song is a pop rock, soft rock, piano ballad. According to a Billboard writer, it "folds in psychedelic soul, indie rock and spacey pop ''. The "apocalyptic '' power ballad shows influences from 1970s British rock. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Styles stated, "The song is written from a point of view as if a mother was giving birth to a child and there 's a complication. The mother is told, ' The child is fine, but you 're not going to make it. ' The mother has five minutes to tell the child, ' Go forth and conquer. ' ''
According to the song credits provided by Styles ' label, the track was co-written by the song 's producer, Jeff Bhasker, as well as his frequent collaborators and track co-producers Alex Salibian and Tyler Johnson. Songwriters also include Mitch Rowland, Ryan Nasci and Styles himself. Rowland played guitar and drums, Nasci the bass and Bhasker the piano, keyboard and lap steel parts. The track was recorded at Village Studios in Los Angeles and Geejam Hotel Recording Studio in Port Antonio, Jamaica. The song was mixed by Mark "Spike '' Stent.
Directed by Woodkid, the song 's music video was released on 8 May. It features Styles singing in a meadow, and soaring in the skies, walking on water. It was described to be Styles "auditioning to be Marvel Comics next superhero or in a new biblical epic ''. It was filmed on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. The video 's stunt pilot, Will Banks, stated that Styles flew more than 1,550 feet high during the shoot. Banks also claimed that no green screen or CGI effects were employed during filming. A stunt double was used for some scenes.
Billboard 's Gil Kaufman wrote, "Every artist is an accumulation of their influences, and in (this song) they come fast and furious, as Styles appears to be both showing his range and making a clear effort to step boldly away from the manufactured, plastic pop of his past ''. Kaufman opined it "rakes in influences from Pink Floyd and David Bowie to Queen, Spacehog, Suede, Coldplay, The Beatles, Eric Carmen and Prince ''. Also for Billboard, Jason Lipshutz wrote it is "resolute, determined, wholly committed to its messaging and sound, radio trends be damned. Although it wears its influences on its sleeve (Bowie) nothing about this single bends toward someone else 's expectations ''. He concluded saying the song "sounds effortless, but to arrive without any incomplete features is an accomplishment in a music industry where pop artists are expected to produce new music at an unsustainable rate ''.
Tim Jonze of The Guardian described it as "a ballad, but not so much in the boyband style '' and compared the song to the music of American indie rock band The Walkmen. Jonze also addressed early rumors that the song would be influenced by the music of David Bowie, noting "If it is indeed Bowie-esque, then it 's the Bowie of Hunky Dory ''. Jamieson Cox in Pitchfork felt the "skyscraping Bowie ballad '' manages to sound like both fun. 's "We Are Young '' and Coldplay 's "The Scientist ''. NPR 's Ann Powers argued the song mirrors more closely "Britpop anthems '' like Blur 's "Tender '' or The Verve 's "Bittersweet Symphony '' "than anything Bowie released in his prime ''.
Writing for Rolling Stone, Brittany Spanos thought it "aligns much more with the Seventies - inspired pop - rock of One Direction 's more recent albums like Made in the A.M. ''. Anjali Raguraman from The Straits Times considered it the "strongest '' track on the album, saying "the conviction of his delivery is beyond his years ''.
In The Atlantic, Spencer Kornhaber wrote the song "continues with One Direction 's po - mo project of recycling classic - rock sounds as bubblegum. But he 's now embracing such sounds with more abandon, less chirpiness, some trend bucking, and the kind of uplifting lyrics that nod to planetary anxiety ''. Kornhaber described the song opens with ballad piano, "encroaching '' violins, and Styles "crooning in pain '', "but then there 's the bwang of a guitar and the song rockets into an arena - rock reverie that feels so, so familiar to anyone who remembers the ' 90s but also so, so foreign to today 's landscape ''.
In The Telegraph, Alice Vincent described it as a "swooning piano ballad with somewhat overdone production '' and opined, "it is also... a little boring. A big, blousy singalong which shows off Styles 's vocal prowess -- especially with an unexpected, slightly yelping falsetto bridge -- but is n't enormously fun ''. Since it was released on the 30th anniversary of Prince 's Sign o ' the Times, Spin 's Andy Cush commented, "it 's clear that this is Styles 's attempt to distinguish himself as an artist with real depth. But the music itself has almost nothing to do with Prince -- instead, think Oasis, Elton John at his most bombastic, ' 70s John Lennon ''. Cush noted it "has only those three chords, and it goes straight for cruising altitude with an onslaught of cymbals and guitar on the first chorus, expecting you to be moved without pausing to consider why ''.
Spin staff ranked it as the 13th best boy - band solo debut single. Billboard staff considered it the 5th best song of the first semester of 2017.
"Sign of the Times '' reached number one on the UK Singles Chart with a combined sales of 62,900 units. In its first week, it sold 39,000 downloads together with 3.5 million streams that give 23,472 equivalent units, pausing Ed Sheeran 's run of 13 weeks at the top of the chart with "Shape of You ''.
In the United States, the song debuted at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. In its first week, it sold 142,000 copies (topping Digital Songs), earned 16.5 million streams and 23 million airplay impressions.
Styles performed the song on 15 April 2017 episode of Saturday Night Live 's 42nd season. On 21 April, Styles appeared on the BBC 's The Graham Norton Show, for his first solo performance in his native UK. He also performed the song on The Late Late Show with James Corden. Styles performed the song on The Today Show on May 9. He also performed it at The Garage in London, England on 13 May and at the Troubadour in West Hollywood, California on 19 May. He performed it live on a French talk show, The Quotidien, on 26 April 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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where did keep calm chive on come from | Keep Calm and Carry On - Wikipedia
Keep Calm and Carry On is a motivational poster produced by the British government in 1939 in preparation for World War II. The poster was intended to raise the morale of the British public, threatened with widely predicted mass air attacks on major cities. Although 2.45 million copies were printed, and although the Blitz did in fact take place, the poster was hardly ever publicly displayed and was little known until a copy was rediscovered in 2000 at Barter Books, a bookshop in Alnwick. It has since been re-issued by a number of private companies, and has been used as the decorative theme for a range of products.
Evocative of the Victorian belief in British stoicism -- the "stiff upper lip '', self - discipline, fortitude, and remaining calm in adversity -- the poster has become recognised around the world. It was thought that only two original copies survived until a collection of approximately 15 was brought in to the Antiques Roadshow in 2012 by the daughter of an ex-Royal Observer Corps member.
The Keep Calm and Carry On poster was designed by the Ministry of Information during the period of 27 June to 6 July 1939. It was produced as part of a series of three "Home Publicity '' posters (the others read "Your Courage, Your Cheerfulness, Your Resolution Will Bring Us Victory '' and "Freedom Is in Peril / Defend It With All Your Might ''). Each poster showed the slogan under a representation of a "Tudor Crown '' (a symbol of the state). They were intended to be distributed to strengthen morale in the event of a wartime disaster, such as mass bombing of major cities using high explosives and poison gas, which was widely expected within hours of an outbreak of war.
A career civil servant named A.P. Waterfield came up with "Your Courage '' as "a rallying war - cry that will bring out the best in everyone of us and put us in an offensive mood at once ''. Others involved in the planning of the early posters included: John Hilton, Professor of Industrial Relations at Cambridge University, responsible overall as Director of Home Publicity; William Surrey Dane, managing director at Odhams Press; Gervas Huxley, former head of publicity for the Empire Marketing Board; William Codling, controller of HMSO; Harold Nicolson, MP (often misspelled as "Nicholson '' in paperwork); W.G.V. Vaughan, who became Director of the General Production Division (GPD); H.V. Rhodes, who later wrote an occasional paper on setting up a new government department; Ivison Macadam; "Mr Cruthley ''; and "Mr Francis ''. Ernest Wallcousins was the artist tasked with creating the poster designs.
Detailed planning for the posters had started in April 1939 and the eventual designs were prepared after meetings between officials from the Ministry of Information and HM Treasury on 26 June 1939 and between officials from the Ministry of Information and HMSO on 27 June 1939. Roughs of the poster were completed on 6 July 1939, and the final designs were agreed by the Home Secretary Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood on 4 August 1939. Printing began on 23 August 1939, the day that Nazi Germany and the USSR signed the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, and the posters were ready to be placed up within 24 hours of the outbreak of war.
Almost 2,500,000 copies of Keep Calm and Carry On were printed between 23 August 1939 and 3 September 1939 but the poster was not sanctioned for immediate public display. It was instead decided that copies of the poster should remain in "cold storage '' for use after serious air raids (with resources transferred to Your Courage and Freedom is in Peril). Copies of Keep Calm and Carry On were retained until April 1940, but stocks were then pulped as part of the wider Paper Salvage campaign. An October 1940 edition of the Yorkshire Post records the poster being hung in a shop in Leeds.
The remainder of the Ministry of Information publicity campaign was cancelled in October 1939 following criticism of its cost and impact. Many people claimed not to have seen the posters; while those who did see them regarded them as patronising and divisive. Design historian Susannah Walker regards the campaign as "a resounding failure '' and reflective of a misjudgement by upper - class civil servants of the mood of the people.
The typeface is often assumed to be Gill Sans, which is very close though not exact (see the terminals of the ' C ', for example). The lettering was probably hand - drawn by an unidentified designer.
In late May and early June 1941, 14,000,000 copies of a leaflet entitled "Beating the Invader '' were distributed with a message from Prime Minister Winston Churchill. The leaflet begins "If invasion comes... '' and exhorts the populace to "Stand Firm '' and "Carry On ''. The two phrases do not appear in one sentence, as they applied to different segments of the population depending on their circumstances, with those civilians finding themselves in areas of fighting ordered to stand firm (i.e., stay put) and those not in areas of fighting ordered to carry on (i.e., continue vital war work). Each mandate is identified as a "great order and duty '' should invasion come. The leaflet then lists 14 questions and answers on practical measures to be taken.
In 2000, Stuart Manley, co-owner with his wife Mary of Barter Books Ltd. in Alnwick, Northumberland, was sorting through a box of used books bought at auction when he uncovered one of the original "Keep Calm and Carry On '' posters. The couple framed it and hung it up by the cash register; it attracted so much interest that Manley began to produce and sell copies. Other companies followed suit, and the design rapidly began to be used as the theme for a wide range of products. Mary Manley later commented, "I did n't want it trivialised; but of course now it 's been trivialised beyond belief. ''
In early 2012, Barter Books debuted an informational short film, The Story of Keep Calm and Carry On, providing visual insight into the modernisation and commercialisation of the design and the phrase.
The poster has become an evocation of British stoicism: the "stiff upper lip '', self - discipline, fortitude and remaining calm in adversity. Susannah Walker comments that it is now seen "not only as a distillation of a crucial moment in Britishness, but also as an inspiring message from the past to the present in a time of crisis ''. She goes on to point out, however, that such an interpretation overlooks the circumstances of its production, and the relative failure of the campaign of which it formed a part.
In August 2011, it was reported that a UK - based company called Keep Calm and Carry On Ltd had registered the slogan as a community trade mark in the EU, CTM No: 009455619 and also in the United States No: 4066622. after failing to obtain registration of the slogan as a trademark in the United Kingdom. They issued a take - down request against a seller of Keep Calm and Carry On products. Questions have been raised as to whether the registration could be challenged, as the slogan had been widely used before registration and is not recognisable as indicating trade origin. An application has been submitted by British intellectual property advisor and UK trademarking service Trade Mark Direct, to cancel the registration on the grounds that the words are too widely used for one person to own the exclusive rights, but the request for cancellation was rejected and the trade mark is still protected in all EU countries. The company subsequently tried to register the slogan as its trademark in both the United States and Canada.
As the popularity of the poster in various media has grown, innumerable parodies, imitations and co-optations have also appeared, making it a notable meme. Messages range from the cute to the overtly political, typically with references to other aspects of popular culture. Examples have included "Now Panic and Freak Out '' (with an upside - down crown), "Get Excited and Make Things '' (with a crown incorporating spanners), "Keep Calm and Have a Cupcake '' (with a cupcake icon), "Do n't Panic and Fake a British Accent '', "Keep Spending and Carry On Shopping '', "Keep Calm and Call Batman '' (with the Batman logo), and "Keep Calm and Switch to Linux '' (with Tux). In March -- April 2012, the British pop - rock band McFly undertook a theatre tour entitled "The Keep Calm and Play Louder Tour '', promoted with a poster closely based on that of 1939. In late 2012 and early 2013, the "Save Lewisham Hospital '' campaign (a protest against proposed cuts in services at University Hospital Lewisham) made widespread use of a poster with the slogan "Do n't Keep Calm Get Angry and Save Lewisham A&E ''. The efforts of Naheed Nenshi, mayor of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, to encourage and motivate his citizens in the wake of the 2013 Alberta floods made him the subject of parody "Keep Calm and Nenshi On '' fundraising T - shirts.
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where can i see phantom of the opera | The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical) - wikipedia
The Phantom of the Opera is a musical with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Charles Hart and Richard Stilgoe. Lloyd Webber and Stilgoe also wrote the musical 's book together. Based on the French novel Le Fantôme de l'Opéra by Gaston Leroux, its central plot revolves around a beautiful soprano, Christine Daaé, who becomes the obsession of a mysterious, disfigured musical genius living in the subterranean labyrinth beneath the Opera Populaire.
The musical opened in London 's West End in 1986, and on Broadway in 1988. It won the 1986 Olivier Award and the 1988 Tony Award for Best Musical, and Michael Crawford (in the title role) won the Olivier and Tony Awards for Best Actor in a Musical. It is the longest running show in Broadway history by a wide margin, and celebrated its 10,000 th Broadway performance on 11 February 2012, the first production ever to do so. It is the second longest - running West End musical, after Les Misérables, and the third longest - running West End show overall, after The Mousetrap.
With total estimated worldwide gross receipts of over $ 5.6 billion and total Broadway gross of $845 million, Phantom was the most financially successful entertainment event until The Lion King surpassed it in 2014. By 2011, it had been seen by over 130 million people in 145 cities across 27 countries, and continues to play in London and New York.
In 1984, Lloyd Webber contacted Cameron Mackintosh, the co-producer of Cats and Song and Dance, to propose a new musical. He was aiming for a romantic piece, and suggested Gaston Leroux 's book The Phantom of the Opera as a basis. They screened both the 1925 Lon Chaney and the 1943 Claude Rains motion picture versions, but neither saw an effective way to make the leap from film to stage. Later, in New York, Lloyd Webber found a second - hand copy of the original, long - out - of - print Leroux novel, which supplied the necessary inspiration to develop a musical: "I was actually writing something else at the time, and I realised that the reason I was hung up was because I was trying to write a major romantic story, and I had been trying to do that ever since I started my career. Then with the Phantom, it was there! ''
Lloyd Webber first approached Jim Steinman to write the lyrics because of his "dark obsessive side '', but he declined in order to fulfill his commitments on a Bonnie Tyler album. Alan Jay Lerner was then recruited, but he became seriously ill after joining the project and was forced to withdraw; none of his contributions (mostly involving the song "Masquerade '') are credited in the show. Richard Stilgoe, the lyricist for Starlight Express, wrote most of the original lyrics for the production. Charles Hart, a young and then - relatively unknown lyricist, later rewrote many of the lyrics, along with original lyrics for "Think of Me ''. Some of Stilgoe 's original contributions are still present in the final version, however.
Inspired in part by an earlier musical version of the same story by Ken Hill, Lloyd Webber 's score is sometimes operatic in style but maintains the form and structure of a musical throughout. The full - fledged operatic passages are reserved principally for subsidiary characters such as Andre and Firmin, Carlotta, and Piangi. They are also used to provide the content of the fictional "operas '' that are taking place within the show itself, viz., Hannibal, Il Muto, and the Phantom 's masterwork, Don Juan Triumphant. "Here, Lloyd Webber pastiched various styles from the grand operas of Meyerbeer through to Mozart and even Gilbert and Sullivan. '' These pieces are often presented as musical fragments, interrupted by dialogue or action sequences in order to clearly define the musical 's "show within a show '' format. The musical extracts from the Phantom 's opera, "Don Juan Triumphant '', during the latter stages of the show, are dissonant and modern -- "suggesting, perhaps, that the Phantom is ahead of his time artistically ''.
Maria Björnson designed the sets and over 200 costumes, including the elaborate gowns in the "Masquerade '' sequence. Her set designs, including the chandelier, subterranean gondola, and sweeping staircase, earned her multiple awards. Hal Prince, director of Cabaret, Candide, Follies, and Lloyd Webber 's Evita, directed the production, while Gillian Lynne, associate director and choreographer of Cats, provided the integral musical staging and choreography.
A preview of the first act was staged at Sydmonton (Lloyd Webber 's home) in 1985, starring Colm Wilkinson (later the star of the Toronto production) as the Phantom, Sarah Brightman as Kristin (later Christine), and Clive Carter (later a member of the London cast) as Raoul. This very preliminary production used Richard Stilgoe 's original unaltered lyrics, and many songs sported names that were later changed, such as "What Has Time Done to Me '' ("Think of Me ''), and "Papers '' ("Notes ''). The Phantom 's original mask covered the entire face and remained in place throughout the performance, obscuring the actor 's vision and muffling his voice. Björnson designed the now - iconic half - mask to replace it, and the unmasking sequence was added. Clips of this preview performance were included on the DVD of the 2004 film production.
Phantom began previews at Her Majesty 's Theatre in London 's West End on 27 September 1986 under the direction of Hal Prince, then opened on 9 October. It was choreographed by Gillian Lynne and the sets were designed by Maria Björnson, with lighting by Andrew Bridge. Michael Crawford starred in the title role with Sarah Brightman as Christine and Steve Barton as Raoul. The production, still playing at Her Majesty 's, celebrated its 10,000 th performance on 23 October 2010, with Lloyd Webber and the original Phantom, Michael Crawford, in attendance. It is the second longest - running musical in West End (and world) history behind Les Misérables, and third overall behind The Mousetrap.
A 25th - anniversary stage performance was held in London on 1 and 2 October 2011 at the Royal Albert Hall and was screened live in cinemas worldwide. The production was produced by Cameron Mackintosh, directed by Laurence Connor, musical staging & choreography by Gillian Lynne, set design by Matt Kinley, costume design by Maria Björnson, lighting design by Patrick Woodroffe, and sound design by Mick Potter. The cast included Ramin Karimloo as the Phantom, Sierra Boggess as Christine, Hadley Fraser as Raoul, Wynne Evans as Piangi, Wendy Ferguson as Carlotta, Barry James as Monsieur Firmin, Gareth Snook as Monsieur Andre, Liz Robertson as Madame Giry, and Daisy Maywood as Meg Giry. Lloyd Webber and several original cast members, including Crawford and Brightman, were in attendance. A DVD and Blu - ray of the performance was released in February 2012, and it began airing in March 2012 on PBS 's "Great Performances '' television series.
In March 2012, a new production directed by Laurence Connor began a UK and Ireland tour to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the show, beginning at the Theatre Royal Plymouth and travelled to Manchester, Bristol, Dublin, Leeds, Edinburgh, Milton Keynes, Cardiff, and Southampton. John Owen - Jones and Earl Carpenter alternated as the Phantom with Katie Hall and Olivia Brereton as Christine and Simon Bailey as Raoul.
Phantom began Broadway previews at the Majestic Theatre on 9 January 1988 and opened on 26 January. Crawford, Brightman, and Barton reprised their respective roles from the West End. The production continues to play at the Majestic, where it became the first Broadway musical in history to surpass 10,000 performances on 11 February 2012. On 26 January 2013, the production celebrated its 25th anniversary with its 10,400 th performance. It is, by over 3,500 performances, the longest - running show in Broadway history. By November 2016, Phantom had been staged over 12,000 times over 28 years.
In 2013, the rights to perform "Phantom '' were released to non-professional groups. CLOC musical theatre staged the world amateur premiere in May 2013 at the National Theatre in Melbourne, Australia. In June 2013, Windmill Theatre Company staged the production at the Drum Theatre in Dandenong. Also in June 2013, Wellington Musical Theatre debuted the New Zealand premiere starring Chris Crowe and Barbara Graham.
In 1905 Paris, the Opéra Populaire hosts an auction of old theatrical props. Among the attendees is the Vicomte Raoul de Chagny, who purchases a papier - mâché music box and eyes it sadly, remarking how the details are "exactly as she said. '' The auctioneer presents "a chandelier in pieces '' as the next item up for bid, alluding to a connection with "the Phantom of the Opera ''. As the porters remove the drop cloth covering the fixture, it flickers to life and ascends to the ceiling as the auditorium 's former grandeur is restored ("Overture '').
It is now 1881 and the cast of a new production, Hannibal, are rehearsing onstage when they learn that new owners, Firmin and André, are taking over the Opéra Populaire. Carlotta, the Opéra 's resident soprano prima donna, begins to perform an aria for the new managers when a backdrop inexplicably falls from the flies, barely missing her and prompting anxious chorus girls to whisper, "He 's here! The Phantom of the Opera! ''. The managers try to downplay the incident, but Carlotta angrily insists that such things happen all the time and she storms out. Madame Giry, the Opéra 's ballet mistress, informs Firmin and André that Christine Daaé, a chorus girl and orphaned daughter of a prominent violinist, has been "well taught '' and can sing Carlotta 's role. With cancellation of the sold out show being their only other alternative, the managers reluctantly audition Christine and are surprised to discover that she is indeed up to the challenge. As Christine sings the aria during the evening performance, the Opéra 's new patron, Raoul, the Vicomte de Chagny, recognizes her as his childhood friend and playmate ("Think of Me '').
Backstage after her triumphant début, Christine confesses to her best friend Meg (Madame Giry 's daughter) that she knows her mysterious teacher only as an invisible "Angel of Music '' ("Angel of Music ''). Raoul pays a visit to Christine 's dressing room. The two reminisce about the "Angel of Music '' stories that her late father used to tell them and Christine confides that the Angel has visited her and taught her to sing ("Little Lotte ''). Raoul indulges what he assumes are fantasies and insists on taking Christine to dinner. When Raoul leaves to fetch his hat, Christine hears the jealous Phantom 's voice and she entreats him to reveal himself. The Phantom obliges by appearing as a ghostly, partially masked face in her mirror ("The Mirror / Angel of Music (Reprise) ''). Believing him to be the Angel of Music sent by her deceased father, Christine is irresistibly drawn through the mirror to the Phantom, who leads her down into the cellars of the Opéra house. The two then board a small boat and cross a subterranean lake to his secret lair ("The Phantom of the Opera ''). The Phantom explains that he has chosen Christine to sing his music and serenades her. When he reveals a mirror that reflects an image of her in a wedding dress, the figure in the mirror gestures to Christine and she faints. The Phantom then covers her tenderly with his cloak ("The Music of the Night '').
As the Phantom is composing music at his organ, Christine awakens to the sound of the monkey music box ("I Remember ''). Overcome with curiosity, she slips behind the Phantom, lifts his mask, and beholds his grotesquely disfigured face. The Phantom rails at her prying gesture, as Christine hides in fear. He then ruefully expresses his longing to look normal, and to be loved by her ("Stranger Than You Dreamt It ''). Moved by pity, Christine returns the Phantom 's mask to him and the Phantom shepherds her back above ground.
Meanwhile, Joseph Buquet, the Opéra 's chief stagehand, regales the chorus girls with tales of the "Opéra Ghost '' and his terrible Punjab lasso ("Magical Lasso ''). Madame Giry arrives and warns Buquet to exercise restraint or face the Phantom 's wrath. In the managers ' office, André and Firman read notes from the Phantom aloud and are interrupted by Raoul, who accuses them of sending him a note saying that he should make no attempt to see Christine again. Carlotta and Piangi then burst into the office, demanding to know who sent Carlotta a note saying that her days at the Opera Populaire are numbered. As André and Firmin try to calm the distressed Carlotta, Madame Giry delivers another note from the Phantom: he demands that Christine replace Carlotta in the new opera, Il Muto, lest they face a "disaster beyond imagination '' ("Notes... ''). Firmin and André dismiss the threat and assure an enraged Carlotta that she will remain their star ("Prima Donna '').
The première of Il Muto initially goes well, until the voice of the Phantom suddenly cuts through the performance, enraged that Box 5 was not kept empty for him. As Christine whispers that she knows the Phantom is near, Carlotta reminds her that her role is silent, calling her a "little toad ''. The Phantom states that it is Carlotta who is the toad and reduces Carlotta 's voice to a frog - like croak. Firmin quickly tries to calm the situation by telling the audience that Christine will take over the starring role, moving forward the ballet to keep the audience entertained. Suddenly, the corpse of Joseph Buquet drops from the rafters, hanging from the Punjab lasso. Firmin and André plead for calm as mayhem erupts and the Phantom 's diabolical laughter is heard throughout the auditorium ("Poor Fool, He Makes Me Laugh '').
In the ensuing chaos, Christine escapes with Raoul to the roof and tells him about her subterranean encounter with the Phantom ("Why Have You Brought Me Here? / Raoul, I 've Been There ''). Raoul is skeptical but promises to love and protect her, and Christine reciprocates his vow ("All I Ask of You ''). The heartbroken Phantom, having overheard their entire conversation, angrily vows revenge before returning to the auditorium and brings down the chandelier, nearly killing Christine. ("All I Ask of You (Reprise) '').
Six months later, in the midst of a masquerade ball, the Phantom makes his first appearance since the chandelier disaster, in costume as the Red Death. He announces that he has written an opera entitled Don Juan Triumphant and demands that it be produced immediately, with Christine (who is now secretly engaged to Raoul) in the lead role, and he warns of dire consequences if his demands are not met ("Masquerade / Why So Silent? ''). Noticing an engagement ring on a chain around Christine 's neck, the Phantom angrily pulls it from her and vanishes in a blinding flash of light. As the masquerade attendees scatter in fear, Raoul accosts Madame Giry and demands that she reveal what she knows about the Phantom. Giry reluctantly explains that the Phantom is actually a brilliant scholar, magician, architect, inventor, and composer who was born with a terrifyingly deformed face. Feared and reviled by society, he was cruelly exhibited in a cage as part of a travelling fair until he eventually escaped and disappeared. He has since taken refuge beneath the opera house, which has now become his home.
During rehearsals, Raoul -- tired of the tyranny with which the Phantom rules the Opera -- thinks to use the première of Don Juan Triumphant as a trap to capture the Phantom and put an end to his reign of terror once and for all. Carlotta falsely accuses Christine of being the mastermind and that it is her plan so she can be the star. Christine angrily defends herself, saying she is not the Phantom 's accomplice, but his victim. Raoul, knowing of the Phantom 's obsession with his fiancée, asserts that the Phantom will be sure to attend the opera 's première, and begs Christine to help him lure the Phantom into the trap ("Notes / Twisted Every Way ''). Torn between her love for Raoul and her fear of the Phantom, Christine visits her father 's grave, longing for his guidance but understanding that she must move on ("Wishing You Were Somehow Here Again ''). The Phantom appears atop the mausoleum, again under the guise of the Angel of Music ("Wandering Child ''), and sings to Christine. Christine, tired and heartbroken, once again accepts her "Angel '' as a friend, nearly succumbing to the Phantom 's influence, but Raoul arrives to both rescue her and confront The Phantom. The Phantom taunts Raoul, hurling fire balls at him until Christine begs Raoul to leave with her ("Bravo Monsieur ''). Furious, the Phantom declares war upon them both and causes flames to spring up around the mausoleum.
With armed policemen having secured the auditorium and watching for the Phantom, Don Juan Triumphant premieres with Christine and Piangi singing the lead roles. During Don Juan 's and Aminta 's duet, Christine comes to the sudden realization that she is singing not with Piangi, but with the Phantom himself ("The Point of No Return ''). Mimicking Raoul 's vow of devotion on the rooftop, the Phantom once again expresses love for Christine and forces his ring onto her finger; Christine rips off his mask, exposing his horrifically deformed face to the shocked audience. The opera house is plunged into chaos. Piangi 's garroted body is revealed backstage, the cast and audience fly into a state of panic, and the Phantom seizes Christine and flees the theatre. An angry mob, vowing vengeance for the murders of Buquet and Piangi, searches the theatre for the Phantom, while Madame Giry tells Raoul how to find the Phantom 's subterranean lair, and warns him to beware his magical lasso. ("Down Once More / Track Down This Murderer '').
In the lair, Christine is forced to don a wedding dress. Raoul finds the lair and attempts to persuade the Phantom to spare Christine, begging him to show compassion. The Phantom refuses, and captures Raoul with the Punjab lasso. The Phantom tells Christine that he will free Raoul if she agrees to stay with him forever, but if she refuses, Raoul will die. Christine, heartbroken, tells the Phantom that it is his soul that is deformed, not his face. As the Phantom and Raoul both plead to her, Christine mournfully wonders what kind of life the Phantom has known. She tells the Phantom that he is not alone and kisses him, showing him compassion for the first time in his life. The Phantom, having experienced kindness at last, understands that he can not compel Christine to love him, and sets them both free. Raoul hurries Christine out of the lair, but she returns alone to give the Phantom back his ring. The Phantom tells Christine he loves her, before she tearfully exits with Raoul. The weeping Phantom huddles on his throne and covers himself with his cloak. The mob, led by Meg, enters the lair. Meg pulls the Phantom 's cloak from the throne, finding only his mask on the seat. She lifts the mask up into the light and gazes at in wonder as the curtain falls.
The original casts of the major productions of The Phantom of the Opera:
† The role of Christine Daaé is double - cast in most professional productions. The secondary actress performs the role twice a week (on Broadway, Thursday evening and Saturday matinée).
‡ Three roles (The Phantom, Christine, and Carlotta) were double - cast in the original Las Vegas production, with the two actors in each pair singing alternate performances. Later, Las Vegas casting became identical to that in the Broadway production, with single casting for all characters except Christine.
There are several orchestrations:
The current Broadway orchestration is what is licensed by R&H Theatricals for amateur and professional productions. The only difference between the 29 - and 27 - piece orchestras is the lack of Violins VII & VIII in the 27 - piece orchestra.
The Broadway production originally used a 29 - piece pit orchestra:
Percussion is split between two books -- regular percussion and mallets
Cast recordings have been made of the London, Austrian, Dutch, German, Japanese, Swedish, Korean, Hungarian, Mexican, Polish, Russian and Canadian productions.
The recording of the 1986 original London cast, released by Polydor Records in 1987, was released in both a single CD Highlights From The Phantom of the Opera and a two CD Phantom of the Opera, both of which have been certified 4 × Platinum in the US and sold 4.97 million copies as of January 2017. "The Complete Recordings '' edition has sold 507,000 copies since 1991. Phantom was also certified 3 × Platinum in the UK. The Canadian cast recording went 2 × Platinum in Canada. In Switzerland, Phantom was certified 3 × Platinum and Highlights was certified 2 × Platinum. Recordings of the Vienna cast and the Hamburg cast produced by Jimmy Bowien were certified Gold and triple Platinum, respectively, in Germany. The original album recording has sold an alleged 24 million copies worldwide.
A live recording of The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall was released in the UK on 15 November 2011 and subsequently in the US and Canada on 7 February 2012, along with Blu - ray and DVD videos, and a collectors ' box set of the Royal Albert concert, the original cast recording, and the sequel, Love Never Dies.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1987 the heirs of Giacomo Puccini charged in a lawsuit that the climactic phrase in "Music of the Night '' closely resembled a similar phrase in the sequence "Quello che tacete '' from Puccini 's opera Girl of the Golden West. The litigation was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount.
In 1990 a Baltimore songwriter named Ray Repp filed a lawsuit alleging that the title song from Phantom was based on a song that he wrote in 1978 called "Till You ''. After eight years of litigation -- including an unsuccessful countersuit by Lloyd Webber claiming that "Till You '' was itself a plagiarism of "Close Every Door '' from Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat -- the jury found in Lloyd Webber 's favour.
Former Pink Floyd vocalist Roger Waters has repeatedly claimed in interviews that the signature descending / ascending half - tone chord progression from Phantom 's title song was plagiarised from the bass line of a track on the 1971 Pink Floyd album Meddle called "Echoes ''. He has never taken any legal action. "Life 's too long to bother with suing Andrew fucking Lloyd Webber, '' he said. "I think that might make me really gloomy. ''
Phantom has been translated into several languages and produced in over 28 countries on 6 continents. With only the exception of Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, New Zealand, Panama, Poland, Romania, and the 25th Anniversary UK and US Tours, these productions have all been "clones '', using the original staging, direction, sets, and costume concepts. Notable international productions include the following:
A film version, directed by Joel Schumacher and starring Gerard Butler as the Phantom, Emmy Rossum as Christine, Patrick Wilson as Raoul, Minnie Driver as Carlotta, and Miranda Richardson as Madame Giry, opened on 22 December 2004 in the US.
An edited production renamed Phantom: The Las Vegas Spectacular opened 24 June 2006 at The Venetian in Las Vegas, Nevada, in a theatre built specifically for the show to resemble the Opéra Garnier in Paris. The production ran 95 minutes with no intermission, and was directed and choreographed by Harold Prince and Gillian Lynne, with scenic designs by David Rockwell. The show featured updated technology and effects, including a re-engineered chandelier capable of reassembling in midair during the overture while the entire interior of the venue (not merely the stage) returned to its 1880s halcyon days. Almost 45 minutes ' worth of material was eliminated, such as the Don Juan Triumphant rehearsal. "Poor Fool, He Makes Me Laugh '' and "The Point of No Return '' were significantly shortened. Other changes resembled those in the 2004 film, such as staging the chandelier crash at the plot 's climax (during performance of "The Point of No Return '') rather than mid-story. The Las Vegas production closed on 2 September 2012.
In 2011 The Really Useful Group (copyright owners of Phantom) released certain rights to the play in celebration of its 25th anniversary. In March 2011 Reed - Custer High School in Braidwood, Illinois, became the first school to perform Phantom under the new rights. Later in 2011, Stanwell School in Penarth became the first school in the UK to perform the show.
The sequel to Phantom, written by Lloyd Webber, Ben Elton, Frederick Forsyth and Glenn Slater, is called Love Never Dies. It was loosely adapted from the 1999 novel The Phantom of Manhattan, by Forsyth. Set in 1907 (a decade after the conclusion of Phantom according to the production 's announcement, but actually 26 years later, as the original show was set in 1881), Christine is invited to perform at Phantasma, a new attraction at Coney Island, by an anonymous impresario. With her husband, Raoul, and son, Gustave, in tow she journeys to Brooklyn, unaware that it is the Phantom who has arranged her appearance at the popular beach resort.
The original production was directed by Jack O'Brien and choreographed by Jerry Mitchell with set and costume designs by Bob Crowley, and opened at the Adelphi Theatre in the West End on 9 March 2010. Though it ran for over 17 months and closed on 27 August 2011, the production received mixed reviews. A scheduled Broadway opening in November 2010 was postponed until Spring 2011 and later cancelled. A revamped Australian production, starring Ben Lewis and Anna O'Byrne, opened 21 May 2011 at the Regent Theatre in Melbourne to more favourable notices. After the Melbourne run ended on 12 December 2011 the production moved to the Capitol Theatre in Sydney where it played from January to April 2012.
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why is the cuban and puerto rican flag similar | Flag of Puerto Rico - wikipedia
The flag of Puerto Rico represents and symbolizes the island of Puerto Rico and its people.
The origins of the current flag of Puerto Rico, adopted by the commonwealth of Puerto Rico in 1952, can be traced to 1868, when the first Puerto Rican flag, "The Revolutionary Flag of Lares '', was conceived by Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances and embroidered by Mariana "Brazos de Oro '' Bracetti. This flag was used in the short - lived Puerto Rican revolt against Spanish rule in the island, known as "El Grito de Lares ''.
Juan de Mata Terreforte, an exiled veteran of "El Grito de Lares '' and Vice-President of the Cuban Revolutionary Committee, in New York City, adopted the flag of Lares as the flag of Puerto Rico until 1895, when the current design, modeled after the Cuban flag, was unveiled and adopted by the 59 Puerto Rican exiles of the Cuban Revolutionary committee. The new flag, which consisted of five equal horizontal bands of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bears a large, white, five - pointed star in the center, was first flown in Puerto Rico on March 24, 1897, during the "Intentona de Yauco '' revolt. The use and display of the Puerto Rican flag was outlawed and the only flags permitted to be flown in Puerto Rico were the Spanish flag (1492 to 1898) and the flag of the United States (1898 to 1952).
In 1952, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico adopted the 1895 flag design as its official standard. The color of the triangle that was used by the administration of Luis Muñoz Marín was the dark blue. In 1995, the government of Puerto Rico issued a regulation regarding the use of the Puerto Rican flag titled: "Reglamento sobre el Uso en Puerto Rico de la Bandera del Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico '', in which the government specifies the colors to be used but does not specify any official color tones or shades. Therefore, it is not uncommon to see the flag of Puerto Rico with different shades of blue displayed in the island. Several Puerto Rican flags, with darker shades than sky blue were aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery during its flight into outer space on March 15, 2009.
The introduction of a flag in Puerto Rico can be traced to when Christopher Columbus landed on the island 's shore and with the flag appointed to him by the Spanish Crown claimed the island, which he named "San Juan Bautista '', in the name of Spain. Columbus wrote in his logbook that on October 12, 1492, he used the Royal Flag, and that his captains used two flags which the Admiral carried in all the ships as ensign, each white with a green cross in the middle and an ' F ' and ' Y ', both green and crowned with golden, open royal crowns, for Ferdinand II of Aragon and Ysabel (Isabel I). The conquistadores under the command of Juan Ponce de León proceeded to conquer and settle the island. They carried as their military standard the "Spanish Expedition Flag ''. After the island was conquered and colonized, the flag of Spain was used in Puerto Rico, same as it was used in all of its other colonies.
Once the Spanish armed forces established themselves on the island they began the construction of military fortifications such as La Fortaleza, Fort San Felipe del Morro, Fort San Cristóbal and San Gerónimo. The Spanish Army designed the "Cross of Burgundy Flag '' and adopted it as their standard. This flag flew wherever there was a Spanish military installation.
The independence movement in Puerto Rico gained momentum with the liberation successes of Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín in South America. In 1868, local independence leader Ramón Emeterio Betances urged Mariana Bracetti to knit a revolutionary flag using the flag of the Dominican Republic as an example, promoting the then popular ideal of uniting the three caribbean islands into an Antillean Confederation. The materials for the flag were provided by Eduvigis Beauchamp Sterling, named Treasurer of the revolution by Betances. The flag was divided in the middle by a white Latin cross, the two lower corners were red and the two upper corners were blue with a white star in the upper left blue corner. According to Puerto Rican poet Luis Lloréns Torres the white cross on it stands for the yearning for homeland redemption; the red squares, the blood poured by the heroes of the rebellion and the white star in the blue solitude square, stands for liberty and freedom. The "Revolutionary Flag of Lares '' was used in the short - lived rebellion against Spain in what became known as El Grito de Lares (The Cry of Lares). The flag was proclaimed the national flag of the "Republic of Puerto Rico '' by Francisco Ramírez Medina, who was sworn in as Puerto Rico 's first president, and placed on the high altar of the Catholic Church of Lares, thus becoming the first Puerto Rican Flag. The original Lares flag was taken by a Spanish army officer as a war prize. Many years later it was returned and transferred to the Puerto Rican people. It is now exhibited in the University of Puerto Rico 's Museum.
In 1873, following the abdication of Amadeo I of Spain and with Spain 's change from Kingdom to Republic, the Spanish government issued a new colonial flag for Puerto Rico. The new flag, which was used until 1873, resembled the flag of Spain, with the difference that it had the coat of arms of Puerto Rico in the middle. Spain 's flag once more flew over Puerto Rico with the restoration of the Spanish kingdom in 1874, until 1898 the year that the island became a possession of the United States under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1898) in the aftermath of the Spanish -- American War.
Juan de Mata Terreforte, a leader of the Grito de Lares revolt who fought alongside Manuel Rojas, was exiled to New York City. He joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee and was named its Vice-President. Terreforte and the members of the Revolutionary committee adopted the Flag of Lares as their standard. In 1892, the Committee was presented with the design of the current flag of Puerto Rico. The new flag 's design has been attributed to various Puerto Ricans who were members of the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City.
Some sources document Francisco Gonzalo Marín with presenting a Puerto Rican flag prototype in 1895 for adoption by the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City. Marín has since been credited by some with the flag 's design. There is a letter written by Juan de Mata Terreforte which gives credit to Marin. The original contents of the letter in Spanish are the following:
Which translated in English states the following:
According to other accounts on June 12, 1892, disputed by scholar Armando Martí, Antonio Vélez Alvarado was at his apartment at 219 Twenty - Third Street in Manhattan, when he stared at a Cuban flag for a few minutes, and then took a look at the blank wall in which it was being displayed. Vélez suddenly perceived an optical illusion, in which he perceived the image of the Cuban flag with the colors in the flag 's triangle and stripes inverted. Almost immediately he visited a nearby merchant, Domingo Peraza, from whom he bought some crepe paper to build a crude prototype. He later displayed his prototype in a dinner meeting at his neighbor 's house, where the owner, Micaela Dalmau vda. de Carreras, had invited José Martí as a guest. Martí was pleasantly impressed by the prototype, and made note of it in a newspaper article published in the Cuban revolutionary newspaper Patria, published on July 2 of that year. Acceptance of the prototype was slow in coming, but grew with time. Francisco Gonzalo Marín, who decided to have a proper flag sewn based on the prototype, presented the new flag 's design in New York 's "Chimney Corner Hall '' a gathering place of independence advocates two years later. The Puerto Rican Flag (with the light blue triangle) soon came to symbolize the ideals of the Puerto Rican independence movement.
In a letter written by Maria Manuela (Mima) Besosa, the daughter of the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee member Manuel Besosa, she stated that she sewed the flag. This created a belief that her father could have been its designer. In her letter she described the flag as one which consists of five stripes that alternate from red to white. Three of the stripes are red, and the other two are white. To the left of the flag is a light blue triangle that houses one white five - pointed star. Each part of this flag has its own meaning. The three red stripes represent the blood from the brave warriors. The two white stripes represent the victory and peace that they would have after gaining independence. The white star represented the island of Puerto Rico. The blue represents the sky and blue coastal waters. The triangle represents the three branches of government. Finally, it is also believed by some that it was Lola Rodríguez de Tió who suggested that Puerto Ricans use the Cuban flag with its colors reversed as the model for their own standard. The color of the Cuban flag 's blue stripes, however, were a darker shade of blue, according to Professor Martí.
Even though the local newspaper "El Imparcial '' on January 17, 1948, stated that Vélez Alvarado was the "Prócer Que Creó Bandera Patria '' (The Father of the Puerto Rican Flag) it may never be known who really designed the current flag, however what is known is that on December 22, 1895, the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee officially adopted the design which represents the current flag. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas visited the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City to plan an uprising in Yauco. He returned to Puerto Rico with a Puerto Rican flag and on March 24, 1897, a group of men, led by Fidel Vélez, carried the Puerto Rican flag and attacked the barracks of Spanish Civil Guard of the town Yauco during the revolt against Spanish rule which became known as the "Intentona de Yauco '' (Attempted Coup of Yauco). The revolt, which was the second and last major attempt against the Spaniards in the island, was the first time that the flag of Puerto Rico was used on Puerto Rican soil.
From December 10, 1898 (the date of the annexation of Puerto Rico by the United States) up until 1952, it was considered a felony to display the Puerto Rican flag in public; the only flag permitted to be flown on the island was the flag of the United States. However, the Puerto Rican flag was often used in the political assemblies of the pro-independence Liberal Party of Puerto Rico and in defiance by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. In 1932, the Nationalist Party used the flag as its emblem during the elections and in their parades. The Puerto Rico legislature presided by then President of the Puerto Rican Senate Luis Muñoz Marín, passed a bill on May 21, 1948, known as Law 53, making it illegal to display the Puerto Rico Flag, sing a Puerto Rican patriotic song and talk of independence for the islands of Puerto Rico. On June 10, 1948, the United States - appointed Governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, a member of the ruling Popular Democratic Party (PDP), signed the bill which became known as the "Ley de la Mordaza '' (Gag Law). Later that same year Puerto Ricans were permitted to elect a governor and they elected Luis Muñoz Marín. During the Jayuya Uprising of 1950 against United States rule, members of the Nationalist party placed the Puerto Rican flag on top of the town hall; the flag was later taken down by a soldier.
In 1952, Governor Luis Muñoz Marín and his administration adopted the Puerto Rican flag which was originally designed in 1892, and proclaimed it the official flag of Puerto Rico. The official adaptation of the flag has been interpreted by some as a ploy by Muñoz Marin to neutralize the independence movement in his own party. There were some differences between the original flag of 1892 and the one of 1952 and the meaning of the colors was officially changed. Now the white bars stood for the republican form of government, rather than representing the victory and peace that Puerto Ricans were supposed to have after gaining independence. The sky - blue of the triangle in the original flag was changed to dark blue, resembling that of the flag of the United States, to keep it distanced from its revolutionary roots. For nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos, having the flag represent the government was a desecration, while the independence party accused the government of "corrupting beloved symbols ''. In 1995, the government of Puerto Rico began to use the sky - blue version once more. The government of Puerto Rico issued a regulation in regard to the use of the Puerto Rican flag titled: "Reglamento sobre el Uso en Puerto Rico de la Bandera del Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico; Reglamento Núm. 5282. '' (Regulations in regard to the use in Puerto Rico of the flag of Commonwealth of Puerto Rico; Regulation No. 5282). In the regulation 's "Artículo 2: Definiciones '' and "Artículo 2: Descripción y simbolismo '' (Article 2: Description and Article 2: Description and symbolism) the government specifies the colors to be used but does not specify any official color tones or shades and as such it is not unusual to see the flag with either tone of blue flown in official settings in Puerto Rico.
Among the many occasions in which the flag has been used as a symbol of pride was when the flag arrived in South Korea during the Korean War. On August 13, 1952, while the men of Puerto Rico 's 65th Infantry Regiment (United States) were being attacked by enemy forces on Hill 346, the regiment unfurled the Puerto Rican Flag for the first time in history in a foreign combat zone. During the ceremony Regimental Chaplain Daniel Wilson stated the following:
The Commanding Officer Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila was quoted as saying:
On various occasions the flag has been used as a symbol of defiance and protest. In the 1954 attack of the United States House of Representatives in a protest against United States rule of the island, Nationalist leader Lolita Lebrón shouted "¡ Viva Puerto Rico Libre! '' ("Long live a Free Puerto Rico! '') and unfurled the flag of Puerto Rico. On November 5, 2000, Alberto De Jesus Mercado, better known as Tito Kayak, and five other Vieques activists stepped onto the top deck of the Statue of Liberty in New York City, then placed a Puerto Rican flag, with the triangle darker than the light - blue version on the statue 's crown, reenacting an earlier protest in the 1970s asking for the release of Puerto Rican prisoners, this time in protest of the United States Navy usage of the island of Vieques as a bombing range.
On March 15, 2009, several Puerto Rican flags were aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery during its flight into outer space. Joseph M. Acaba, the first astronaut of Puerto Rican descent, who is assigned to the crew of STS - 119 as a Mission Specialist Educator, carried on his person the flag as a symbol of his Puerto Rican heritage. Acaba presented Governor Luis Fortuño and Secretary of State Kenneth McClintock with two of the flags during his visit in June 2009. The two flags ' triangles had a darker blue hue.
The flag is also the subject of the song "Que Bonita Bandera '' (What a beautiful flag) written in 1968 and made popular by Puerto Rican folksinger Florencio "Ramito '' Morales Ramos. Astronaut Acaba, requested that the crew be awakened on March 19, 2009 (Day 5), with the Puerto Rico folklore song, sung by Jose Gonzalez and Banda Criolla, during their space flight.
In the 1950s Puerto Rico contacted Norway 's Foreign Ministry in an attempt to have Norwegian shipping company Norled stop using a flag that has a significant likeness to Puerto Rico 's flag. Norway has not legally challenged the shipping company 's position, that their flag is older than Puerto Rico 's. The shipping company 's flag is still in use, as of 2014.
Some of the flags which have at one time or another flown over Puerto Rican soil prior to Puerto Rico becoming a United States Territory:
Flag of Province of Puerto Rico (1873 -- 1898)
Lares revolutionary flag of 1868
Spanish -- American War flag: flag of the Batallón Provisional No. 3 de Puerto Rico (3rd Provisional Battalion of Puerto Rico).
Flag of Spain (1873 -- 1874) First Spanish Republic.
Original Puerto Rican flag design of 1895
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who plays andis dad in liv and maddie | List of Liv and Maddie characters - wikipedia
Liv and Maddie, titled Liv and Maddie: Cali Style for the fourth season, is an American comedy television series created by John D. Beck and Ron Hart that aired on Disney Channel from July 19, 2013 to March 24, 2017. The series stars Dove Cameron, Joey Bragg, Tenzing Norgay Trainor, Kali Rocha, Benjamin King, and Lauren Lindsey Donzis.
A significant feature of the series is that Dove Cameron plays dual roles, one being Liv, an actress who has returned to her home after starring on a popular television series in Hollywood for four years, and the other one being Maddie, Liv 's identical twin who remained behind. Another significant feature of the series are documentary - style cutaways where characters speak to the viewers to explain their opinions on various situations in each episode.
Olivia "Liv '' Rooney (Dove Cameron) is one of a pair of identical twins of the Rooney family. She is the eldest child of the family and older sister to Joey and Parker. Liv left the family for four years, beginning at the age of 11, to star in a popular television program, Sing It Loud!, to which she continually refers. During her time on that show, Liv was living with her Aunt Dena. Liv is a sophomore at Ridgewood High. When Liv and Maddie celebrate their sweet sixteen in "Sweet 16 - a-Rooney '', Karen states that Liv, who was born at 11: 56 PM, is six minutes older than Maddie, who was technically born a day later. Liv 's siblings affectionately call her "Hollywood ''. In "Skate - a-Rooney '', it is referenced that in - between seasons of Sing It Loud!, Liv filmed a movie called The Skateboard Bandit. In "Brain - a-Rooney '', Liv shows that she is smarter than people think she is by helping Joey and Artie win the Brain Olympics. It is shown that Liv shares the personality quirks of her mother, Karen, as seen in "Shoe - a-Rooney '', when the pair reveals their affinity for shoes.
At the end of the first season, Liv began production on Space Werewolves, a film adaptation of a fictional graphic novel series of the same name. Liv stars as Tristan Lycanth in the film adaptation after being able to fully master all the traits of the wolf with the help of writer / wolf girl Emmy "Fangs '' Wulfert. Although the protagonist of the story was originally a boy in the graphic novels, Liv was picked for the role because of her acting career on Sing It Loud! and the role of Tristan was changed from a boy to a girl.
In the episode "Voltage - a-Rooney '', Liv starts starring in a TV series adaption of the comic series Voltage that was mentioned in "Continued - a-Rooney ''. She portrays a cheerleader named Tess who was struck by lightning and becomes the superhero SkyVolt.
In the episode "Californi - a-Rooney '', Liv and Maddie have a falling out at the time when Maddie goes to live with Aunt Dena after being accepted to the same college that Willow is at. After the two of them reconcile, Liv is persuaded by Maddie to stay with her.
In the episode "Linda and Heather - a-Rooney '', the effects of Liv leaving Voltage to be with Maddie caused her to have a hard time finding another role. She does get a guest role on "Linda and Heather '' which she nearly causes to stop production until she and Parker come up with a plan to keep it from ending. By the end of the episode, Liv is told that they want her to reprise her character for the sequel to Sing It Loud! called Sing It Louder!!
The back of Emmy Buckner 's head is used to help create the character of Liv. She is Dove Cameron 's look - alike double.
Madison "Maddie '' Rooney (Dove Cameron) is Liv 's identical twin sister and the second eldest child of the Rooney family. Like Liv, she is older sister to Joey and Parker, as well as a sophomore at Ridgewood High. She is captain of the girls ' basketball team of Ridgewood High and is equally diligent to her team captain duties as her studies. Her main love interest is Diggie, captain of Ridgewood High 's boys ' basketball team. But because of his constant moving, they break up. Her new love interest is Liv 's co-star in Voltage, Josh. Her catchphrase is "Bam! What?! '', a phrase she came up with once at age 11 when she was telling Karen that she beat the boys at basketball. She is sometimes called Mads by Diggie and Willow, such as in "Slump - a-Rooney '' and "Shoe - a-Rooney ''. In "Sleep - a-Rooney '', it was revealed that Maddie 's full first name is "Madison ''. It is shown that Maddie shares the personality quirks of her father, Pete, as seen in "Dump - a-Rooney '', when the pair shows their competitive side while preparing for a two - on - two basketball tournament. In "Shoe - a-Rooney '', Maddie becomes addicted to a comfortable pair of high heel shoes that she borrowed from Liv. When the addiction becomes problematic, Liv, Willow, Diggie, and Stains stage an intervention which ends with Liv dropping the shoes into a woodchipper.
In "Space - Werewolf - a-Rooney '', Maddie injures her leg and is unable to play basketball. In "Pottery - a-Rooney '', Maddie tries taking up the new hobby of pottery; however, it does not work out and she ends up going back to basketball. In "Helgaween - a-Rooney '', Karen uses hypnotherapy to try to get Maddie over her fear of using her injured knee to shoot a three - pointer, but Maddie instead has a nightmare that she and Liv have a triplet named Helga. Maddie temporarily becomes the new sensei for Parker 's karate class in "Match - a-Rooney ''. In "Muffler - a-Rooney '', Maddie recovers from her knee injury and successfully plays basketball again.
The back of Shelby Wulfert 's head is used to help create the character of Maddie. She is Dove Cameron 's look - alike double.
Joseph Gilligan "Joey '' Rooney (Joey Bragg) is the middle child of the Rooney family. He is the middle brother to Liv and Maddie and older brother to Parker. Joey is a student at Ridgewood High. Parker affectionately calls him "munch ''. Although close in age to his older twin sisters, only a school year younger as a freshman, Joey is perceived as immature and awkward, but also somewhat of a brainiac. Joey has a close relationship with his younger brother, Parker, especially in pranking or being manipulative, but with Liv and Maddie 's assistance, there is hope for growth. He is bitter rivals with Artie, one of his classmates. In "Helgaween - a-Rooney '', Joey and Parker want to see a haunted house magic show and use a magic amulet to clone themselves so they can sneak out for the night, but later the clones try to cook and eat the parents. In the same episode, Karen tries her hypnotherapy on Joey to make him feel ready to take on the world, but all Joey can say is "Ooey, ooey, ooey! '' Around near the end of season 3 and into Liv and Maddie Cali Style he realized that he was starting to develop a crush on Willow and they start dating then they officially become boyfriend and girlfriend.
Parker Rooney (Tenzing Norgay Trainor) is the youngest child of the Rooney family. He is 13 years old and a sixth - grader at an undisclosed school. However, he attends Joey 's robotics club at Liv and Maddie 's school twice a week. Parker is an intelligent and clever child with growing "playground buzz '' who does karate and is somewhat manipulative. Parker even created his own set of tunnels which run to different parts of the house, Ridgewood High, and other locations. He is not a troublesome child, but somewhat of a trickster, as shown in "Fa - La - La - a-Rooney '', when he swindles money from Joey in order to purchase an expensive toy he suspects no one would give him. In "Kathy Kan - a-Rooney '', one of Parker 's dojo buddies, Splat, caught Parker watching Linda and Heather, a show about two girls who are besties. It is eventually revealed that his other dojo buddies, including Splat, watch the show as well. Both Splat and Reggie go to Parker 's house and they all watch the show together and enjoy it. In "Gift - a-Rooney '', it was revealed Parker has an embarrassing middle name, which is skipped over by Parker 's cutaway when Karen says it due to how much Parker hates it.
Around the end of "Californi - a-Rooney '', Parker 's tunnels collapsed due to Joey 's bad move to preserve them, causing the entire family to move in with Aunt Dena as revealed in the final fourth - wall cutaway. When Parker plans to recreate his tunnels, the rest of the Rooneys shout "No tunnels! '' This causes Parker to make plans to take his projects to the sky.
Karen Rooney (Kali Rocha) is the wife of Pete, the mother of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker, and the older sister of Dena Rooney. She is the school psychologist for Ridgewood High and later the vice principal as of the second season. Karen often ineptly uses her knowledge of family psychology at home, sometimes forming family meetings and sharing her "punching pillows ''. In "Sweet 16 - a-Rooney '', it is revealed that Karen had kept a secret that the twins were born on opposite sides of midnight and technically have separate birthdays, with Maddie being born six minutes and one day after Liv. In "BFF - a-Rooney '', it was revealed that she chomps on ice when she is nervous. She has also demonstrated a tendency for blatant manipulation, compulsive hoarding, as shown in "Brain - a-Rooney '', when she refuses to sell stuff that used to belong to members of the family, such as a box of toothbrushes that they have used, and "Rate - a-Rooney '', when she refuses to get rid of unnecessary house decorations. In "Helgaween - a-Rooney '', it was revealed that both Maddie and Joey have been hypnotized by Karen. In "California - A-Rooney '', Karen has nastily taken over Parker 's tunnels, which collapse (along with the house) when Joey cleans out Karen 's belongings, one of which was holding the entire house up.
Pete Rooney (Benjamin King) is married to Karen and is the father of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker. He is the gym teacher at Ridgewood High and coach of the girls ' basketball team. Pete enjoys bringing competition into the home, often wearing his whistle and pushing Maddie to improve her basketball ability. Pete shows typical father characteristics, such as his misunderstandings of his daughters ' emotional development. He shares his sons ' creative mentality and becomes overprotective whenever Liv and Maddie have love interests. He also can disagree with Karen frequently, such as in "Rate - a-Rooney '', when he wants to get rid of useless house decorations of which Karen can not let go. In "Ridgewood - a-Rooney '', he becomes the coach of a college team in Beloit which Maddie later decides to attend in "Dream - a-Rooney ''. As a result of Pete 's new job in "Coach - a-Rooney '', he was succeeded in the coaching of the girls ' basketball team by Mrs. Snodgrass.
In "Sorta Sisters - a-Rooney '', Pete is no longer a series regular and is said to be overseeing the rebuilding of the Rooney home while continuing his job in Beloit.
Ruby (Lauren Lindsey Donzis) is the cousin of the Rooney children and the daughter of Dena who resides in California. She is younger than Parker and plans to follow in Liv 's footsteps by becoming an actress herself. She joins the series as a series regular in the fourth season.
Digbert "Diggie '' Smalls (Ryan McCartan) is Maddie 's main love interest. He is the captain of the boys ' basketball team of Ridgewood High and is perceived as confident and strong. Diggie affectionately calls Maddie simply as "Rooney '', though in "Twin - a-Rooney '', he calls her "Rooney classic '' to distinguish her from Liv. In "Move - a-Rooney '', Diggie finally expresses his feelings toward Maddie after she tells him they are moving. Diggie is also seen as a mentor for Joey when it comes to anything related to being "cool ''. Diggie was also the manager of the local frozen yogurt shop. In the second season, he left Wisconsin to go to the nation of "Tundrabania '' after Maddie injured her knee. In "Gift - a-Rooney '', he makes his first physical appearance since the first season for his and Maddie 's "meet - a-versary '', courtesy of Liv. In "Flugelball - a-Rooney '', he returns from Tundrabania only to break up with Maddie after he thinks she does not support his decision to go to Australia. It is revealed that he still has feelings for Maddie in "Video - a-Rooney ''.
In "Frame - a-Rooney '', it is revealed that Diggie is Artie 's older brother when Diggie is annoyed with Artie 's habits.
In "Champ - a-Rooney '', Diggie decides he wants to get back together with Maddie. In "Continued - a-Rooney '', he and Maddie officially break up.
In "Scoop - a-Rooney '', Diggie returns where he tells Maddie about him seeing a picture of Maddie with Josh, making Diggie jealous with the fact that Maddie has moved on and has a new boyfriend -- that being Josh. In "Choose - A-Rooney '', Diggie and Maddie get back together.
Winifred "Willow '' Cruz (Jessica Marie Garcia) is Maddie 's best friend and teammate. She plays center and often exclaims that she "does n't go down! '' She and Maddie share a special high - five. Willow 's only weakness is her obsessive crush on Joey, as seen in "Slump - a-Rooney '', when she misdirects a love note to be from him. Later in the series, Willow competes in the Battle of the Bands with Liv, Andie, and Holden, where she plays drums. They win the battle and continue to perform as a band. Around the end of season 3 and into Liv and Maddie Cali Style she and Joey are officially boyfriend and girlfriend.
Astrid "Stains '' Stanislowski (Bridget Shergalis) is a teammate and friend of Maddie 's. She is a petite girl with a hearty appetite. She gets her name because her clothing gets inadvertently dirty in each episode she appears in. She has a recurring tendency to rub the side of her nose with her thumb whenever she gets involved in a scheme, as seen in "Team - a-Rooney '', when the team rallies against Principal Fickman, in "Sweet 16 - a-Rooney '', when she helps plan a surprise party for Maddie, and in "Shoe - a-Rooney '', when she has to take over for Maddie in a game because Maddie was too busy obsessing with her new shoes. She also has a habit of ending each sentence with "man '', even when referring to Maddie and her other teammates.
Artie Smalls (Jimmy Bellinger) is a classmate and proclaimed nemesis of Joey 's. They are often competitive in proving who is smarter than the other, with Joey usually falling short, but they have worked together before, as shown in "Brain - a-Rooney '' and "BFF - a-Rooney ''. Artie has some unnamed student followers who serve as his "minions ''.
In "Moms - a-Rooney '', it is revealed that Artie has a crush on Joey 's famous sister Liv. He is also a sci - fi fanatic, showing up at a promotional event for Space Werewolves. In "Frame - a-Rooney '', it was revealed that Artie is Diggie 's brother. In the episode "Match - a-Rooney '' Liv turns down Artie 's invitation to the Sadie Hawkins dance and was originally Willow 's date but then Liv decided to ask Artie herself to take Willow 's place to be his date so she can be Joey 's date. In the episode "Voice - a-Rooney '' it revealed that he has a kitten that he named after Liv and he thanked Joey for taking care of her when she got lost.
Ocean (Cozi Zuehlsdorff) is Liv 's first friend from school who first appeared in "Steal - a-Rooney '', when Maddie organized for Ocean to befriend Liv since Liv felt that people only liked her because she is famous. Later, Liv realizes that the whole friendship was a setup by Maddie and she temporarily gets upset. Over time, however, Liv later realizes that Ocean likes her genuinely and they become good friends. Ocean is of a bohemian - style family, lives on a sunflower farm, and has limited use of technology, thus not knowing of Liv 's former television career before befriending her. Ocean loves the environment, school and learning. She and Liv take a German language course together.
Evan (Carter Hastings) is one of Parker 's "dojo buddies '' and a close friend. Evan is an underhandedly polite child, whose mother (an unseen character) is perceived as mildly overprotective. A year younger than Parker, the pair tends to get into difficult situations, with Parker often protecting Evan, as seen in "Slump - a-Rooney '', when Parker helps Evan stand up to his mother. Evan also helped Karen "reprogram '' Parker in "Shoe - a-Rooney '', when Parker tried to avoid having to do chores by pretending to be incapable.
Reggie (Herbie Jackson) is one of Parker 's dojo buddies and also his best friend. He takes karate classes with Parker and Splat and is often seen at the Rooney house. He refers to Parker as "Doctor P '' and is often up for Parker 's schemes. He assists Parker in creating a skin cream for Karen in exchange for baloney in "Gift - a-Rooney ''. At the end of the episode, Karen tells Reggie Parker 's middle name as Parker 's punishment for creating a skin cream that grew long hair on her elbows and swelled up her feet.
Reggie and Parker love the show "Linda and Heather '' and are often seen watching it together singing the theme song for the show. "Boom chicken soup! '', Reggie and Parker say together several times. Reggie 's parents are never seen and Reggie is often in the Rooney household doing experiments with "Doctor P ''.
Andie Bustamante (Victoria Moroles) is a friend Liv makes in the second season. She first appeared in "Upcycle - a-Rooney ''. She plays the bass in a band that includes Liv, Willow, and Holden. In "Prom - a-Rooney '', Andie is seen to like Holden and asks him to the prom. A few episodes later they are seen dating. In "Triangle - a-Rooney '', Holden breaks up with Andie and asks out Liv, but she denies because of her friendship with Andie. In "SPARF - a-Rooney '', Liv helps Andie get over her breakup. She later shows interest in Dump Truck in "Cowbell - a-Rooney '', and it was mentioned in "Ridgewood - a-Rooney '' that he gave her his leather jacket.
Marion "Dump Truck '' Truckberg (Shak Ghacha) is a misbehaving student at Ridgewood High who Parker meets in detention. In his first appearance in "Detention - a-Rooney '', Dump Truck tells Parker to do his cleaning for him, but gains a newfound respect for Parker and becomes his friend after seeing him scrape gum off all the desks in school nicknaming him "Gumball Machine ''. In "Flugelball - a-Rooney '', it is revealed that Dump Truck can not ride a bike, but Parker teaches him how to by the end of the episode.
Holden (Jordan Fisher) is Liv 's main love interest. His first appearance was in "Neighbors - a-Rooney '', where he has just come back from boarding school. At first Liv dislikes him because when they were younger he stole her Goodbye Puppy pen, but later in the episode he confesses that he only took her pen because he had a childhood crush on her. By the end of the episode, Liv develops strong romantic feelings towards him. However, in "Prom - a-Rooney '', Holden goes to the prom with Liv 's friend Andie and they begin a relationship that lasts for the remaining episodes of the second season. In "Band - a-Rooney '', Holden, Liv, Andie, and Willow start a band together called The Dream.
In "Triangle - a-Rooney '', Holden begins to realize his true feelings toward Liv after he sees that he and Andie are n't right for each other. During the episode, Holden and Liv come close to sharing their first kiss after singing a duet of True Love together, but are interrupted and caught by Willow. Holden finally figures out his feelings for Liv and breaks up with Andie, but ends up breaking up with her on live television. At the end of the episode, Holden admits his feelings and asks out Liv and although Liv admits her feelings for him in return, she denies his request to start a relationship because of her friendship with Andie. However, Liv and Holden are shown to still harbor deep feelings for each other. Eventually in "Coach - a-Rooney '', Liv and Holden finally became a romantic couple after Andie assured Liv that she no longer possessed any romantic feelings for him. Liv and Holden broke up in "Scoop - a-Rooney ''.
Alex (Brianne Ashleigh Tju) is an emotionless science wiz student who is one of Joey 's love interests and is also admired by Parker. She is also seen in Liv 's song "What a Girl Is ''.
Aubrey (Audrey Whitby) is a female student who is the latest member of the Weekly Intergalactic Council meeting that is attended by Joey and Artie. Aubrey first appeared in "Neighbors - a-Rooney '', where she recommends a cute robot character for a cameo in the upcoming movie The Revengers II: Age of Fultron (a parody of Avengers: Age of Ultron) and later befriends Joey becoming one of Joey 's love interests.
In "Dream - a-Rooney '', Aubrey wanted Liv in her SkyVolt costume to handle the recent cafeteria food crisis. Liv 's schedule in "Voltage '' at the time when the Dream is asked to get back together causes the rest of the band to enlist Aubrey to cover for Liv. After some in - group disputes is solved, the Dream performs at Karen 's event with Aubrey assisting them on tambourine.
Principal Fickman (Larry Miller) is the principal of Ridgewood High. He is close to his mother and somewhat stern when it comes to school related matters, as seen in "Team - a-Rooney '', when he had cut the girls ' basketball team 's budget.
Mrs. Kneebauer (Tara Karsian) is the superintendent of Ridgewood High who was first seen in "Kathy Kan - a-Rooney '' interviewing Karen for the role of vice-principal. In "Detention - a-Rooney '', Superintendent Kneebauer gave Parker detention for ripping off her top skirt as his way of getting out of an event that Karen wanted to partake with him. She oversaw the detention class where Parker, Dump Truck, and some students played a suspended chair prank on her while she slept. Superintendent Kneebauer informed Karen of this action. In "Frame - a-Rooney '', Superintendent Kneebauer replaced the porcupine mascot with a butter mascot which ended up getting vandalized with the Rooney family being suspects. Maddie found evidence that Artie was responsible which led to him and his minions getting punished by Superintendent Kneebauer and the Porcupine Mascot being reinstated.
Johnny Nimbus (Kurt Long) is the local television weatherman who is often selected to host various events around town. Johnny is known to mispredict the weather.
In "Secret - Admirer - a-Rooney '', it is revealed that Johnny is dating Gemma. In "Choose - a-Rooney '', Johnny Nimbus and Gemma get married.
Lacey (Miranda May) is a basketball teammate of Maddie 's. Her favorite animal is the starfish. She often starts to talk and then get off - topic.
Mrs. Snodgrass (Miriam Flynn) is a strict woman and expert basketball player who has taught sixth grade back when Liv, Maddie, Willow, Stains and Cruz were her students. Mrs. Snodgrass is known to punish her students by having them sit in front of one part of the whiteboard while revealing a thought bubble that lists what they have done wrong.
In "Repeat - a-Rooney '', Liv had to repeat the sixth grade in Mrs. Snodgrass ' class in order to officially pass it. Liv and Parker 's group had done a rap version of one of William Shakespeare 's plays which impressed Mrs. Snodgrass enough to pass Liv.
In "Coach - a-Rooney '', Karen Rooney hired Mrs. Snodgrass to be the new basketball coach while Pete is coaching at a college. She was shown to have skills in basketball that even surpassed Maddie 's skills.
Gemma (Chloé Wepper) is the television director of Voltage. Liv considers her as the cooler version of Joey.
In "Secret - Admirer - a-Rooney '', it is revealed that Gemma is dating Johnny Nimbus. In "Choose - a-Rooney '', Gemma is married to Johnny Nimbus.
Josh Wilcox (Lucas Adams) is a recurring character in the third season. He was Liv Rooney 's co-star in Voltage from California, where he played Tess ' love interest, Garrison, until "Skyvolt - a-Rooney '', when Liv quits the show, allowing Josh to become the new Skyvolt. In "Cowbell - a-Rooney '', Liv tries to help Josh become more active and creates a Pilates arena in her backyard. Josh later develops a crush on Maddie after he goes against her in the Cowbell competition, but instead ends up instantly falling in love with her, he almost kisses her in "Secret - Admirer - a-Rooney '', and they start dating in "Vive - la - Rooney '' They finally go on their first date in "Home Run - a-Rooney '', and Josh reveals one of the things he likes about Maddie -- her competitive side.
In "Scoop - a-Rooney '', just as Maddie and Josh 's relationship was growing, Maddie was mistaken for Liv when she and Josh were mistaken by Nancy O'Dell to be dating each other. Later, Diggie had returned upon seeing the photos of Maddie with Josh, and Maddie and Josh break up in "Choose - a-Rooney '' after Diggie sings how he feels about Maddie. Josh still loves Maddie, which is stated in "Friend - a-Rooney '', causing him to lose his confidence and almost completely stop breathing.
Josh returns in the season 4 episode "Ex-A - Rooney '', where he and Maddie manage to rekindle their friendship.
Val Wishart (Chloe East) is a girl in season 4 who goes to BOOMS and is Parker 's love interest. In "Stand - Up - A-Rooney '' Val and Parker goes to prom school and then to the Chemistry Challenge.
Bernard (Dwight Howard) is Joey 's short - lived personal trainer who appears in "Dump - a-Rooney ''. He is apparently good at basketball and Maddie decides to pair with him instead of Pete in the two - on - two tournament. Pete feels pushed aside and pairs with Diggie instead. Maddie, in turn, feels betrayed and apologizes to her father. Bernard eventually partners up with Diggie and the pair wins the tournament.
Skippy Ramirez (Allen Alvarado) is Joey 's childhood friend who re-emerged as a professional skateboarder called "The Masked Shredder ''. The pair is suddenly classmates at Ridgewood High and was once in charge of guarding the school mascot Paulie the Porcupine.
Emmy "Fangs '' Wulfert (Laura Marano) is a teenage "wolf girl '' who was raised by wolves ever since she wandered away from her camp when she was little. She penned a book about her experience and still has some of her wolf traits like rolling around in the dirt, marking her territory, traveling in a dog cage when being flown out to locations because it was cheaper to fly this way for Fangs, getting used to how new people smell, eating meat off the ground, and howling enough to cause every dog in the area to howl. Fangs ' appearance has her with dirty skin, dirty and ripped clothes, dirty and messy hair, fake claws on her fingers, and is always barefoot.
In "Howl - a-Rooney '', she is invited to Stevens Point by Liv in an effort to teach her how to act like a wolf in preparation for Liv 's audition for Space Werewolves. She eventually helps Liv master her howling by competing for the role of Tristan Lycanth.
Fangs ' real name is a hybrid combination of Emmy Buckner and Shelby Wulfert, the acting doubles who play Liv and Maddie, respectively.
Q - Pop (Kel Mitchell) is a hip - hop dance instructor who appears in "Howl - a-Rooney ''. In the episode, Maddie and Diggie decide to try more adventurous things and choose to take up hip - hop dancing. When Joey expresses his own interest, Maddie tells him to take the class instead. Maddie soon feels left out and the three take the lessons together.
South Salamanca (Raquel Castro) is Liv 's co-star from Sing It Loud! on whom Parker has a crush. She appears in "BFF - a-Rooney '' and "SPARF - a-Rooney '' in which she is invited to Stevens Point by Liv for a short visit to meet Liv 's family and friends. At the party, Maddie tells Diggie to be kind to her, but mistakes Diggie and South 's friendliness for flirting. South later apologizes.
Kylie Kramer (Anne Winters) is a troublesome student and classmate of Liv 's who appears in "Steal - a-Rooney ''. When Maddie tells Liv to start befriending other students, Ocean is pushed upon her, but Liv tries to embrace her wild side by befriending Kylie. Maddie follows the pair as they skip school at the mall, but gets caught mistakenly as Liv who was presumed to have stolen sunglasses which were actually stolen by Kylie.
Chambers (Samm Levine) is the manager of the Happy Carrot juice bar. He appears in "Steal - a-Rooney '', where Joey gets a job at the juice bar in an effort to help pay the bill for his new cell phone. Joey becomes so engrossed in the phone, that Chambers eventually fires him, citing the endangerment of the customers.
Skyler (Gabrielle Elyse) is Joey 's one - time crush who appears in "Kang - a-Rooney ''. During Ridgewood High 's Screamfest, Maddie tells Joey to try talking to girls in costume to heighten his self - esteem when he talks to girls on a regular day. Inadvertently, he unwittingly begins flirting with Liv instead.
Miller White (Connor Weil) is Liv 's ex-boyfriend from Hollywood who appears in "Skate - a-Rooney '', where he comes to Stevens Point to attend a competition. When he discovers that Liv is a guest judge, he breaks up with her in an effort to not skew the votes, but in an attempt to get back together, he inadvertently talks to Maddie who eventually cuts off his signature ponytail.
Jenny Keene (Ella Anderson) is a young girl who won a contest to sing with Liv at the Stevens Point Holiday Spectacular. She appears in "Fa - La - La - a-Rooney ''. Prior to their performance, the pair would rehearse together and Liv taught her how to embrace the limelight. Eventually, Liv feels she is being out - shined by the seven - year - old, and the pair struggles to share the stage. In the episode, Liv and Jenny sing a duet of Up on the House Top by Benjamin Hanby.
Bree (Dorie Barton) is the actress who portrayed Liv 's mother on Sing It Loud! who appears in "Moms - a-Rooney ''. When Liv discovers that she was not invited to Maddie and Karen 's mother -- daughter weekend held by Steven 's Point 's historical society, she calls Bree and the pair joins them. Bree appears to be "too Hollywood '' and runs away when she finds Liv 's legs covered with leeches, allowing Karen to remove the leeches from her.
Amy Becker (Marla Maples) is Pete 's high school girlfriend who appears in "BFF - a-Rooney ''. While attending Pete 's high school reunion, Karen meets Amy for the first time and feels that Pete settled on marrying her instead of his former flame. Eventually, Karen apologizes for her actions.
Vic DeFazerelli (Garry Marshall) is a three - time Oscar - winning director who appears in "Space - Werewolf - a-Rooney ''. He was hired to direct Liv in the Space Werewolves movie at a nearby studio in Wisconsin rather than Hollywood.
Fahim Anwar appears as himself and is the original director of the Space Werewolves movie.
Kathy Kan (Piper Curda) is a Korean pop star who comes to Wisconsin to study Liv to prepare for the Korean version of Sing It Loud!. She appears in "Kathy Kan - a-Rooney '', where she quickly becomes good friends with Liv and they get along well. Kathy presumably goes back to Korea at the end of the episode.
Mr. Clodfelter (Kevin James) is Maddie 's Home Economics teacher who appears in "Cook - a-Rooney ''. When Maddie is failing Home Economics, she has to make it up for her grades. Mr. Clodfelter states that she can raise her grades if he can beat his top student Artie in a cooking competition. In the end, Mr. Clodfelter passes Maddie where she created a "Snackatorium ''. In the final scene, Mr. Clodfelter is shown to pretend to have his own cooking show when not teaching his classes. He is nearly caught by Liv and Maddie when Maddie wanted to show Liv the "Snackatorium ''. Due to Mr. Clodfelter having already eaten it, he and Liv show the imaginary viewers how to make it.
Craig "Krahgg '' (Cameron Boyce) is Liv and Maddie 's cousin who appears in "Prom - a-Rooney ''. He was invited by Karen to the Ridgewood High prom because Maddie did not have anyone with whom to go to the prom. He is an illusionist who operates under the name "Krahgg the Insidious ''. Every magic trick he does fails epically.
Andy Grammer performs at the annual Stevens Point music festival in "SPARF - a-Rooney ''.
Grandma Janice (Patty Duke) is the twin sister of Hilary, the mother of Karen, the mother - in - law of Pete, and the grandmother of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker. She appeared in "Grandma - a-Rooney '' where she has Hillary pose as her as she was running late. In her youth, Janice was a part of the U.S. Olympics Women 's Diving Team. Another portion of Janice 's life has her working as a globetrotting nature photographer where she has a lot of photographs of rhinoceroses. When Janice later encountered Joey in Willow 's clutches during the viewing of a comet, Janice quoted that what Willow is doing to him is how she had met the man who became his grandfather. The dual role was actress Patty Duke 's final TV appearance before she died in 2016. Grandma Janice 's picture is displayed in Aunt Dena 's living room.
Great Aunt Hilary (Patty Duke) is the twin sister of Janice, the aunt of Karen, the aunt - in - law of Pete, and the great aunt of Liv, Maddie, Joey, and Parker. She appeared in "Grandma - a-Rooney '' where she posed as Janice who was running late.
Nancy O'Dell appears as herself and interviews Liv in "Scoop - a-Rooney '', where she even asks if Liv is dating someone. She later mistakes Maddie for Liv when she sees her with Josh.
Mr. Bustamante (Erik Estrada) is the father of Andie who appears in "Friend - a-Rooney ''.
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where do the cody's live animal kingdom | Animal Kingdom (TV series) - wikipedia
Animal Kingdom is an American drama television series developed by Jonathan Lisco. It is based on the 2010 Australian film of the same name by David Michôd, who is executive producer for the series, alongside Liz Watts who also produced the movie. The series follows a 17 - year - old boy, who, after the death of his mother, moves in with his estranged relatives, the Codys, a criminal family clan governed by matriarch Smurf. Ellen Barkin portrays the leading role of Janine "Smurf '' Cody, played by Jacki Weaver in the 2010 film.
Animal Kingdom debuted on TNT on June 14, 2016, and was renewed for a second season on July 6, 2016, of thirteen episodes that premiered on May 30, 2017. On July 27, 2017, TNT renewed the series for a third season that debuted on May 29, 2018. On July 2, 2018, TNT renewed the series for a fourth season.
TNT ordered the pilot of Animal Kingdom in May 2015, with Barkin and Speedman the first to be cast in July 2015 as matriarch Smurf and her adopted son Baz, respectively. In August, Cole and Weary were added as J and Deran, with Hatosy and Robson soon cast as the remaining Cody brothers Pope and Craig. Alonso was later announced as Baz 's wife Catherine, and Molly Gordon as J 's girlfriend Nicky.
The project was picked up to series with a 10 - episode order in December 2015. The show debuted on June 14, 2016, and on July 6, 2016 TNT renewed it for a 13 - episode second season. On July 27 TNT announced it would be renewing Animal Kingdom for a third season, which premiered on May 29, 2018. The season three premiere was aired after a game on TNT beginning 12: 30 / 11: 30 central the day before the premiere. On July 2, 2018, TNT renewed the series for a fourth season.
The first season of Animal Kingdom has received positive reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 74 % based on 31 reviews. The consensus is: "Bolstered by Ellen Barkin 's acting prowess, Animal Kingdom is a darkly intriguing, although occasionally predictable, twisted family drama. '' On Metacritic, the series has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In Canada the show is broadcast on Bravo (Canada). In the UK, it is available on Amazon Prime, In Australia, it is available on Netflix
The first season was released in DVD and Blu - ray formats on April 28, 2017. Each set contains behind - the - scenes featurettes and deleted scenes. The home media is distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment.
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when was the last time us wasn't in the world cup | United States men 's national Soccer team - Wikipedia
The United States men 's national soccer team, often referred to as the USMNT, represents the United States in international soccer. It is controlled by the United States Soccer Federation and competes in CONCACAF (the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football). The team has appeared in ten FIFA World Cups, including the inaugural edition, where they achieved their best result by reaching the semi-finals, placing third in modern rankings. The U.S. would go on to participate in the 1934 and 1950 World Cups, winning in a 1 -- 0 upset over England in the latter. After the 1950 World Cup, the U.S. did not qualify for the World Cup again until 1990.
The U.S. hosted the 1994 World Cup, where they advanced to the round of sixteen and lost to Brazil. The team qualified for five consecutive World Cups after 1990, becoming one of the tournament 's regular competitors and often advancing to the round of sixteen. The U.S. reached the quarter - finals of the 2002 World Cup, where they lost to Germany. Another notable result came during the 2009 Confederations Cup, where they eliminated top - ranked Spain in the semi-finals before losing to Brazil in the final, their only appearance in a FIFA men 's competition final. The team missed the 2018 World Cup after being eliminated in continental qualifying, ending the streak of consecutive World Cups at seven.
The U.S. also competes in continental tournaments, including the CONCACAF Gold Cup and Copa América. The U.S. has hosted fourteen editions of the Gold Cup, winning six, and has achieved a fourth - place finish in two Copa Américas, including the 2016 edition that they hosted. The team 's head coaching position is currently vacant, with most recent coach Bruce Arena having resigned in October 2017.
The first U.S. national soccer team was constituted in 1885, when it played Canada in the first international match held outside the United Kingdom. Canada defeated the U.S. 1 -- 0 in Newark, New Jersey. The U.S. had its revenge the following year when it beat Canada 1 -- 0, also in Newark, although neither match was officially recognized. The U.S. earned both silver and bronze medals in men 's soccer at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Olympics through Christian Brothers College and St. Rose Parish, though the tournament is declared official only by the IOC (FIFA does n't endorse tournaments held before 1908). The U.S. played its first official international match under the auspices of U.S. Soccer on August 20, 1916, against Sweden in Stockholm, where the U.S. won 3 -- 2.
The U.S. fielded a team in the 1930 World Cup in Uruguay, the first ever World Cup to be played. The U.S. began group play by beating Belgium 3 -- 0. The U.S. then earned a 3 -- 0 victory over Paraguay, with FIFA crediting Bert Patenaude with two of the goals. In November 2006, FIFA announced that it had accepted evidence that Patenaude scored all three goals against Paraguay, and was thus the first person to score a hat trick in a World Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. lost to Argentina 6 -- 1. There was no third place game. However, using the overall tournament records in 1986, FIFA credited the U.S. with a third - place finish ahead of fellow semi-finalist Yugoslavia. This remains the U.S. team 's best World Cup result, and is the highest finish of any team from outside of South America and Europe.
The U.S. qualified for the 1934 World Cup by defeating Mexico 4 -- 2 in Italy a few days before the finals started. In a straight knock - out format, the team first played host Italy and lost 7 -- 1, eliminating the U.S. from the tournament. At the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, the U.S. again lost to Italy in the first round and were eliminated, although this time with a score of 1 - 0.
The 1950 World Cup in Brazil was the next World Cup appearance for the U.S. as it withdrew in 1938 and the tournament was n't held again until 1950. The U.S. lost its first match 3 -- 1 against Spain, but then won 1 -- 0 against England at Independência Stadium in Belo Horizonte. Striker Joe Gaetjens was the goal scorer. Called "The Miracle on Grass '', the result is considered one of the greatest upsets in the history of the World Cup. Months before the World Cup, England had beaten an all - star "rest of Europe '' side 6 -- 1 in an exhibition match. In their third game of the tournament, a 5 - 2 defeat by Chile saw the U.S. eliminated from the tournament. It would be four decades before the U.S. would make another appearance in the World Cup finals.
The national team spent the mid-to - late 20th century near complete irrelevance in both the international game and the domestic sporting scene. For the World Cup qualifications, there was only one berth for CONCACAF during this period until 1982. The emergence of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s raised hopes that the U.S. national team would soon improve and become a global force. However such hopes were not realized and by the 1980s the U.S. Soccer Federation found itself in serious financial struggles, with the national team playing only two matches from 1981 to 1983. U.S. Soccer targeted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 1986 World Cup as means of rebuilding the national team and its fan base. The International Olympic Committee declared that teams from outside Europe and South America could field full senior teams, including professionals (until then, the amateur - only rule had heavily favored socialist countries from Eastern Europe whose players were professionals in all but name), that had never played in a World Cup. U.S. Soccer rearranged its Olympic roster, cutting many collegiate players and replacing them with professionals. The U.S. had a very strong showing at the tournament, beating Costa Rica, tying Egypt, losing only to favorite Italy and finishing 1 -- 1 -- 1 but did n't make the second round, losing to Egypt on a tiebraker (both had three points).
To provide a more stable national team program and renew interest in the NASL, U.S. Soccer entered the national team into the NASL league schedule for the 1983 season as Team America. This team lacked the continuity and regularity of training that conventional clubs enjoy, and many players were unwilling to play for the national team instead of their own clubs when conflicts arose. Team America finished the season at the bottom of the league, with U.S. Soccer canceling the experiment and withdrawing the national team from the NASL after one season. By the end of 1984, the NASL had folded, leaving the U.S. without a single professional - level outdoor soccer league.
The U.S. bid to host the 1986 World Cup after Colombia withdrew from contention due to economic concerns, but FIFA selected Mexico to host the tournament. In the last game of CONCACAF qualifying for the 1986 World Cup, the U.S. needed only a tie against Costa Rica to reach the final qualification group against Honduras and Canada. U.S. Soccer scheduled the game to be played in Torrance, California, an area with many Costa Rican expatriates, and marketed the game almost exclusively to the Costa Rican community. Costa Rica won the match 1 -- 0, and kept the U.S. from reaching its fourth World Cup finals.
In 1988, U.S. Soccer attempted to re-implement its national - team - as - club concept, offering contracts to players to train with the national program full - time while occasionally loaning them to club teams as a revenue source for the federation. This brought many key veterans back into the program and allowed the team to begin playing more matches which, combined with an influx of talent from new youth clubs and leagues established across the nation in the wake of the NASL 's popularity, allowed the national team to end the 1980s with optimism and higher hopes of qualifying for the 1990 World Cup than had existed for previous tournaments.
In 1988, FIFA named the U.S. as the host of the 1994 World Cup (success of the 1984 Summer Olympics played the major role), but it did so under significant international criticism because of the perceived weakness of the national team and the lack of a professional outdoor league. This criticism diminished somewhat when a 1 -- 0 win against Trinidad and Tobago, the U.S. 's first road win in nearly two years, in the last match of the 1989 CONCACAF Championship, earned the U.S. its first World Cup appearance in 40 years.
The team was managed by Bob Gansler in preparation for the 1990 World Cup in Italy, with two of the team 's more experienced players, Rick Davis and Hugo Perez, recovering from serious injuries and unavailable for selection. Rather than fill out his team with veteran professionals from American indoor soccer leagues as suggested by some, Gansler chose to select many younger players with better conditioning for the outdoor game, including some amateurs playing for college teams. The U.S. entered the tournament as massive underdogs and suffered defeats in all three of its group games to Czechoslovakia, Italy, and Austria.
In a historic match, in 1993 U.S. Cup, U.S. beat England by 2 -- 0.
After qualifying automatically as the host of the 1994 World Cup under Bora Milutinović, the U.S. opened its tournament schedule with a 1 -- 1 tie against Switzerland in the Pontiac Silverdome in the suburbs of Detroit, the first World Cup game played indoors. In its second game, the U.S. faced Colombia, then ranked fourth in the world, at the Rose Bowl. Aided by an own goal from Andrés Escobar, the U.S. won 2 -- 1. Escobar was later murdered in his home country, possibly in retaliation for this mistake. Despite a 1 -- 0 loss to Romania in its final group game, the U.S. made it past the initial round for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 1 -- 0 to the eventual champion Brazil. Despite this success, the team fired Bora in 1995, reportedly because he was not interested in administrative duties.
In a 1995 friendly, the U.S. came back from 3 -- 0 to win 4 -- 3 against Saudi Arabia, the biggest comeback in the team 's history.
In the 1998 World Cup in France, the team lost all three group matches, 2 -- 0 to Germany, 2 -- 1 to Iran, and 1 -- 0 to Yugoslavia, finishing dead last in the field of 32. Head coach Steve Sampson received much of the blame for the performance as a result of abruptly cutting team captain John Harkes, whom Sampson had named "Captain for Life '' shortly before, as well as several other players who were instrumental to the qualifying effort, from the squad. Thomas Dooley became the Captain at that point. It emerged in February 2010 that Sampson removed Harkes from the team due to Harkes allegedly having an affair with teammate Eric Wynalda 's wife.
In the 2002 World Cup under Bruce Arena, the U.S. reached the quarterfinals, its best finish in a World Cup since 1930. The team advanced in the group stage with a 1 -- 1 -- 1 record. The team started with a 3 -- 2 upset win over Portugal, followed by a 1 -- 1 tie with co-host and eventual semi-finalist, South Korea. The third and final match was lost 1 -- 3 to Poland, but the team still got to the round of 16 when South Korea defeated Portugal. This set the stage for a face - off with continental rivals Mexico, the first time they met in a World Cup. The U.S. won the game 2 -- 0. Brian McBride opened the scoring, and Landon Donovan scored the second goal. That victory advanced the team to the quarterfinals, where it met Germany. The team lost 1 -- 0 after being denied a penalty when Torsten Frings handled the ball to prevent a Gregg Berhalter goal. All of the U.S. games in the 2002 World Cup were played in South Korea and all their victories came wearing the white kit while their only defeats came while wearing the blue kit.
In the 2006 World Cup, after finishing top of the CONCACAF qualification tournament, the U.S. was drawn into Group E along with the Czech Republic, Italy, and Ghana. The United States opened its tournament with a 3 -- 0 loss to the Czech Republic. The team then tied 1 -- 1 against Italy, who went on to win the World Cup. The U.S. was then knocked out of the tournament when beaten 2 -- 1 by Ghana in its final group match, with Clint Dempsey scoring the U.S. 's only goal in the tournament -- the goal against Italy had been an own goal by Italian defender Cristian Zaccardo. Following the tournament, Arena 's contract was not renewed. After the national team remained dormant for the rest of 2006 while negotiating with various coaches, the federation hired former Chicago Fire, MetroStars and Chivas USA manager Bob Bradley in early 2007.
Bradley began his competitive career with the national team with the 2007 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States beat Mexico 2 -- 1, which qualified it for the 2009 Confederations Cup.
The U.S. had a notable performance at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. defeated Spain 2 -- 0. At the time, Spain was atop the FIFA World Rankings and was on a run of 35 games undefeated. With the win, the United States advanced to its first - ever final in a men 's FIFA tournament. The team lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil after leading 2 -- 0 at half time.
The United States then hosted the 2009 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States was beaten by Mexico 5 -- 0. This defeat broke the U.S. team 's 58 - match home unbeaten streak against CONCACAF opponents, and was the first home loss to Mexico since 1999.
In the Fourth round of the 2010 World Cup qualification, the U.S. began by beating Mexico 2 -- 0. The February 2009 loss extended Mexico 's losing streak against America on U.S. soil to 11 matches. Jozy Altidore became the youngest U.S. player to score a hat - trick, in a 3 -- 0 victory over Trinidad and Tobago. Near the end of the summer of 2009, the United States lost 2 -- 1 to Mexico at Estadio Azteca. On October 10, the U.S. secured qualification to the 2010 World Cup with a 3 -- 2 win over Honduras. Four days later, the U.S. finished in first place in the group with a 2 -- 2 tie against Costa Rica.
In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the U.S. team were drawn in Group C against England, Slovenia and Algeria. After drawing against England (1 -- 1) and Slovenia (2 -- 2), the U.S. defeated Algeria 1 - 0 with a Landon Donovan stoppage time goal. The U.S. won its group for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. was eliminated by Ghana, 2 -- 1. On FIFA 's ranking of World Cup teams the U.S. finished in 12th place out of the 32 - team field.
The U.S. again hosted the Gold Cup in 2011. The U.S. advanced past the group stage, then defeated Jamaica 2 -- 0 in the quarterfinals and Panama 1 -- 0 in the semifinals before losing Mexico 4 -- 2 in the final. Later in the summer, Bob Bradley was relieved of his duties and former German national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann was hired as head coach.
The U.S. had some success in friendlies in 2012 and 2013. The U.S. team won 1 -- 0 in Italy on February 29, 2012, the team 's first ever win over Italy. On June 2, 2013, the U.S. played a friendly against Germany at a sold out RFK Stadium in Washington D.C., with the U.S. winning 4 -- 3. In July 2013, the U.S. hosted the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup where it went undefeated in the group stage and won with a 1 -- 0 victory over Panama in the final, with Landon Donovan winning the tournament 's golden ball award.
A 4 -- 3 victory over Bosnia in an international friendly match in Sarajevo represented the 12th straight win for the USMNT, the longest winning streak for any team in the world at that time. The 12 game winning streak ended September 6, 2013, when the U.S. lost to Costa Rica 3 -- 1 in San Jose. In 2013 the national team played the final round of qualification, and by defeating Mexico in September, the U.S. clinched a spot in the 2014 World Cup.
For the 2014 World Cup, the U.S. was drawn into Group G, along with Ghana, Germany, and Portugal. The U.S. took revenge on the Ghanaians, winning 2 -- 1. They tied their second group game against Portugal 2 -- 2. In the final game of the group stage, the U.S. fell to Germany 1 -- 0, but moved on to the knockout stage on goal difference. This was the first time that the team made two consecutive trips to the knockout stage of the FIFA World Cup. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 2 -- 1 to Belgium in extra time, despite goalkeeper Tim Howard making a World Cup record 15 saves during the match.
The national team 's next tournament under Klinsmann was the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup. The U.S. were eliminated by Jamaica 2 -- 1 in the semifinals, before losing to Panama on penalties in the third place match. The fourth - place finish was the worst Gold Cup performance by the national team since 2000, and the first time the team failed to make the tournament final since 2003. In the 2015 CONCACAF Cup playoff to determine the region 's entry to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, the U.S. were defeated 3 -- 2 by Mexico at the Rose Bowl. In the summer of 2016, the U.S. played as hosts of Copa América Centenario. The U.S. topped Group A on goal difference against Colombia. The U.S. beat Ecuador 2 -- 1 in the quarter - finals, but then fell to Argentina 4 -- 0 and lost to Colombia again 1 -- 0 in the third place match. They finished fourth at the Copa América, tying their best finish ever in 1995.
Following consecutive losses to Mexico and Costa Rica in the opening games of the final round of qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Klinsmann was removed as national team coach and technical director and replaced by previous U.S. manager Bruce Arena. World Cup qualification resumed on March 24, where Arena and his team had a record 6 -- 0 win over Honduras. Four days later, the team traveled to Panama City, drawing Panama 1 -- 1. After beating Trinidad and Tobago 2 -- 0, the U.S. got their third ever result in World Cup Qualification at the Estadio Azteca when they drew 1 -- 1 against Mexico. In July 2017, the U.S. won their sixth CONCACAF Gold Cup with a 2 -- 1 win over Jamaica in the final. After losing 2 - 1 to Trinidad and Tobago on October 10, 2017, the U.S. failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, missing the tournament for the first time since 1986. On October 13, 2017, Bruce Arena resigned.
ESPN and Fox Sports 1 evenly split the English language rights for U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. Univision Deportes has the Spanish language rights to all U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. These agreements do not apply to FIFA World Cup away qualifiers, whose rights are distributed by the host country. Therefore, these matches can often be found on other networks such as beIN Sports and Telemundo.
Since their first unofficial game against Canada, the most common U.S. uniform has been white tops with blue shorts. In 1950, the U.S. adopted a Peru - styled diagonal stripe or "sash '' across the shirt. The stripe has been on third uniforms for 2003, 2004, and 2006, as well as the 2010 home, road and third uniforms. An additional color scheme based on the U.S. flag has been occasionally used (most prominently in the 1994 World Cup and 2012 -- 13 qualifiers as well the 1983 Team America franchise of the North American Soccer League) comprising a shirt with red and white stripes with blue shorts.
Adidas provided the uniforms for the United States from 1985 until 1994. Since 1995, Nike has been the uniform supplier.
The teams of Mexico and the United States are widely considered as the two major powers of CONCACAF. Matches between the two nations often attract much media attention, public interest and comment in both countries. Although the first match was played in 1934, their rivalry was not considered major until the 1980s, when the teams began to frequently compete in CONCACAF cups. On August 15, 2012, the United States defeated Mexico at Estadio Azteca in the first victory for the U.S. against Mexico on Mexican soil in 75 years. Ever since their first meeting in 1934, the two teams have met 65 times, with Mexico leading the overall series 33 -- 18 -- 14 (W -- L -- T), outscoring the U.S. 131 -- 75. However, since the 1990s, the tide began to change due to a rapid growth of soccer in the United States. During this decade, Mexico continued to hold an edge over their arch - rivals but since the 2000s the series has favored the U.S. 13 -- 6 -- 5 (W -- L -- T).
In recent years, the United States has begun to develop a rivalry with Costa Rica, the second strongest team in CONCACAF, behind Mexico.
There have been two main supporter groups backing the United States men 's national soccer team, Sam 's Army and The American Outlaws. Sam 's Army started shortly after the 1994 World Cup in the United States and were active through 2014. Sam 's Army members wore red to matches and sung or chanted throughout the match. They often brought huge American flags and other banners to the game.
The American Outlaws was started in Lincoln, Nebraska in 2007 as a local supporters ' group. The group 's membership attempted to address a lack of consistency from game to game in supporter organization and social events on match days. To achieve this goal the American Outlaws became a nationwide, non-profit, supporters ' group. Some American Outlaws members wear American flag bandanas over their faces and commonly wear soccer supporter scarves. Some branches of the American Outlaws have their own scarves specific to their branch.
The United States does not have a dedicated national stadium like other national teams; instead, the team has played their home matches at 107 venues in 27 states and the District of Columbia. Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, located in the national capital of Washington, D.C., has hosted 24 matches, the most of any stadium. The state of California has hosted 109 matches, the most of any state, and the Los Angeles metropolitan area has hosted 73 matches at several venues in and around the city of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum hosted 20 matches from 1965 to 2000, but fell out of use due to its age. The Rose Bowl, a 92,000 - seat venue in Pasadena, has hosted 17 national team matches, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympics Gold Medal Match.
For all past and present players who have appeared for the national team, see United States men 's national team players.
The following 20 players were named to the squad for the friendly against Portugal on November 14, 2017. Caps and goals are updated as of November 14, 2017 after the match against Portugal.
The following players have also been called up to the United States squad within the last twelve months.
Notes:
The following is a list of match results from the previous 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
For all past match results of the national team, see single - season articles and the team 's results page.
The U.S. regularly competes at the FIFA World Cup, the CONCACAF Gold Cup, and the Summer Olympics. The U.S. has also played in the FIFA Confederations Cup, Copa América by invitation, as well as several minor tournaments.
The best result for the United States in a World Cup came in 1930 when they reached the semifinals. The best result in the modern era is the 2002 World Cup, when the U.S. reached the quarterfinals. The worst result in the modern era was a first round elimination in 1990, 1998, and 2006.
In the Confederations Cup, the United States finished in third place in both 1992 and 1999, and were runner - up in 2009. The United States appeared in their first intercontinental tournament final at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the United States upset top ranked Spain 2 -- 0, to advance to the final. In the final, the United States lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil.
The U.S. men 's soccer team have played in the Summer Olympics since 1924. From that tournament to 1976, only amateur players were allowed on Olympic teams per Olympic rules. The Olympics became a full international tournament in 1984 after the IOC allowed full national teams from outside FIFA CONMEBOL & UEFA confederations. Since then the U.S. national team results have dramatically improved. Ever since 1992 the men 's Olympic event has been age - restricted, under 23 plus three overage players, and participation has been by the United States men 's national under - 23 soccer team.
In regional competitions, the United States has won the CONCACAF Gold Cup six times, with their most recent title in 2017. Their best ever finish at the Copa América was fourth - place at the 1995 and 2016 editions.
CONCACAF Championship 1963 -- 1989, CONCACAF Gold Cup 1991 -- present
South American Championship 1916 -- 1967, Copa América 1975 -- present
Major competitions
Minor competitions
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the evangelical religion which spread after the second great awakening | Second Great Awakening - wikipedia
The Second Great Awakening was a Protestant religious revival during the early 19th century in the United States. The movement began around 1790, gained momentum by 1800 and, after 1820, membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1850s. The Second Great Awakening reflected Romanticism characterized by enthusiasm, emotion, and an appeal to the super-natural. It rejected the skeptical rationalism and deism of the Enlightenment.
The revivals enrolled millions of new members in existing evangelical denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. Many converts believed that the Awakening heralded a new millennial age. The Second Great Awakening stimulated the establishment of many reform movements designed to remedy the evils of society before the anticipated Second Coming of Jesus Christ.
Historians named the Second Great Awakening in the context of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s and of the Third Great Awakening of the late 1850s to early 1900s. These revivals were part of a much larger Romantic religious movement that was sweeping across Europe at the time, mainly throughout England, Scotland, and Germany.
Like the First Great Awakening a half century earlier, the Second reflected Romanticism characterized by enthusiasm, emotion, and an appeal to the super-natural. It rejected the skepticism, deism, and rationalism left over from the Enlightenment. At about the same time, similar movements flourished in Europe. Pietism was sweeping German countries. Evangelicalism was waxing strong in England.
The Second Great Awakening occurred in several episodes and over different denominations; however, the revivals were very similar. As the most effective form of evangelizing during this period, revival meetings cut across geographical boundaries, and the movement quickly spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee and southern Ohio. Each denomination had assets that allowed it to thrive on the frontier. The Methodists had an efficient organization that depended on itinerant ministers, known as circuit riders, who sought out people in remote frontier locations. The circuit riders came from among the common people, which helped them establish rapport with the frontier families they hoped to convert.
Postmillennialism theology dominated American Protestantism in the first half of the 19th century. Postmillennialists believed that Christ will return to earth after the "millennium '', which could entail either a literal 1,000 years or a figurative "long period '' of peace and happiness. Christians thus had a duty to purify society in preparation for that return. This duty extended beyond American borders to include Christian Restorationism. George Fredrickson argues that Postmillennial theology "was an impetus to the promotion of Progressive reforms, as historians have frequently pointed out. '' During the Second Great Awakening of the 1830s, some diviners expected the millennium to arrive in a few years. By the 1840s, however, the great day had receded to the distant future, and postmillennialism became a more passive religious dimension of the wider middle - class pursuit of reform and progress.
In the early nineteenth century, western New York State was called the "burned - over district '' because of the highly publicized revivals that crisscrossed the region. Charles Finney, a leading revivalist active in the area, coined the term. Linda K. Pritchard uses statistical data to show that compared to the rest of New York State, the Ohio River Valley in the lower Midwest, and the country as a whole, the religiosity of the Burned - over District was typical rather than exceptional.
On the American Frontier, evangelical denominations sent missionary preachers and exhorters out to the people in the backcountry, which supported the growth of membership among Methodists and Baptists. Revivalists ' techniques were based on the camp meeting, with its Scottish Presbyterian roots. Most of the Scots - Irish immigrants before the American Revolutionary War settled in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and down the spine of the Appalachian Mountains.
These denominations were based on an interpretation of man 's spiritual equality before God, which led them to recruit members and preachers from a wide range of classes and all races. Baptists and Methodist revivals were successful in some parts of the Tidewater in the South, where an increasing number of common planters, plain folk, and slaves were converted.
In the newly settled frontier regions, the revival was implemented through camp meetings. These often provided the first encounter for some settlers with organized religion, and they were important as social venues. The camp meeting was a religious service of several days ' length with preachers. Settlers in thinly populated areas gathered at the camp meeting for fellowship as well as worship. The sheer exhilaration of participating in a religious revival with crowds of hundreds and perhaps thousands of people inspired the dancing, shouting, and singing associated with these events. The revivals followed an arc of great emotional power, with an emphasis of the individual 's sins and need to turn to Christ, restored by a sense of personal salvation. Upon their return home, most converts joined or created small local churches, which grew rapidly. The Second Great Awakening marked a religious transition in society in America. Many Americans from the Calvinist sect emphasized man 's inability to save themselves and that their only way to be saved was from grace from God.
The Revival of 1800 in Logan County, Kentucky, began as a traditional Presbyterian sacramental occasion. The first informal camp meeting began there in June, when people began camping on the grounds of the Red River Meeting House. Subsequent meetings followed at the nearby Gasper River and Muddy River congregations, all three under the ministry of James McGready. One year later, an even larger sacrament occasion was held at Cane Ridge, Kentucky under Barton Stone, attracting perhaps as many as 20,000 people. Numerous Presbyterian, Baptist and Methodist ministers participated in the services. Thanks to such leaders as Barton W. Stone (1772 -- 1844) and Alexander Campbell (1788 -- 1866), the camp meeting revival became a major mode of church expansion for the Methodists and Baptists.
The Cumberland Presbyterian Church emerged in Kentucky. Cane Ridge was also instrumental in fostering what became known as the Restoration Movement. This was made up of non-denominational churches committed to what they saw as the original, fundamental Christianity of the New Testament. They were committed to individuals ' achieving a personal relationship with Christ. Churches with roots in this movement include the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada
The Methodist circuit riders and local Baptist preachers made enormous gains; to a lesser extent the Presbyterians gained members, particularly with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in sparsely settled areas. As a result, the numerical strength of the Baptists and Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period -- the Anglicans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists. Among the new denominations that grew from the religious ferment of the Second Great Awakening are the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Seventh - day Adventist Church, and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada. The converts during the Second Great Awakening were predominantly female. A 1932 source estimated at least three female converts to every two male converts between 1798 and 1826. Young people (those under 25) also converted in greater numbers, and were the first to convert.
The Advent Movement emerged in the 1830s and 1840s in North America, and was preached by ministers such as William Miller, whose followers became known as Millerites. The name refers to belief in the soon Second Advent of Jesus (popularly known as the Second coming) and resulted in several major religious denominations, including Seventh - day Adventists and Advent Christians.
Though its roots are in the First Great Awakening and earlier, a re-emphasis on Wesleyan teachings on sanctification emerged during the Second Great Awakening, leading to a distinction between Mainline Methodism and Holiness churches.
The idea of restoring a "primitive '' form of Christianity grew in popularity in the U.S. after the American Revolution. This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity without an elaborate hierarchy contributed to the development of many groups during the Second Great Awakening, including the Mormons, Baptists and Shakers. Several factors made the restoration sentiment particularly appealing during this time period:
The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced by, the Second Great Awakening. While the leaders of one of the two primary groups making up this movement, Thomas Campbell and Alexander Campbell, resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the revivals contributed to the development of the other major branch, led by Barton W. Stone. The Southern phase of the Awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone 's reform movement '' and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.
Efforts to apply Christian teaching to the resolution of social problems presaged the Social Gospel of the late 19th century. Converts were taught that to achieve salvation they needed not just to repent personal sin but also work for the moral perfection of society, which meant eradicating sin in all its forms. Thus, evangelical converts were leading figures in a variety of 19th century reform movements.
Congregationalists set up missionary societies to evangelize the western territory of the northern tier. Members of these groups acted as apostles for the faith, and also as educators and exponents of northeastern urban culture. The Second Great Awakening served as an "organizing process '' that created "a religious and educational infrastructure '' across the western frontier that encompassed social networks, a religious journalism that provided mass communication, and church - related colleges. Publication and education societies promoted Christian education; most notable among them was the American Bible Society, founded in 1816. Women made up a large part of these voluntary societies. The Female Missionary Society and the Maternal Association, both active in Utica, NY, were highly organized and financially sophisticated women 's organizations responsible for many of the evangelical converts of the New York frontier.
There were also societies that broadened their focus from traditional religious concerns to larger societal ones. These organizations were primarily sponsored by affluent women. They did not stem entirely from the Second Great Awakening, but the revivalist doctrine and the expectation that one 's conversion would lead to personal action accelerated the role of women 's social benevolence work. Social activism influenced abolition groups and supporters of the Temperance movement. They began efforts to reform prisons and care for the handicapped and mentally ill. They believed in the perfectibility of people and were highly moralistic in their endeavors.
Baptists and Methodists in the South preached to slaveholders and slaves alike. Conversions and congregations started with the First Great Awakening, resulting in Baptist and Methodist preachers being authorized among slaves and free African Americans more than a decade before 1800. "Black Harry '' Hosier, an illiterate freedman who drove Francis Asbury on his circuits, proved to be able to memorize large passages of the Bible verbatim and became a cross-over success, as popular among white audiences as the black ones Asbury had originally intended for him to minister. His sermon at Thomas Chapel in Chapeltown, Delaware, in 1784 was the first to be delivered by a black preacher directly to a white congregation.
Despite being called the "greatest orator in America '' by Benjamin Rush and one of the best in the world by Bishop Thomas Coke, Hosier was repeatedly passed over for ordination and permitted no vote during his attendance at the Christmas Conference that formally established American Methodism. Richard Allen, the other black attendee, was ordained by the Methodists in 1799, but his congregation of free African Americans in Philadelphia left the church there because of its discrimination. They founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) in Philadelphia. After first submitting to oversight by the established Methodist bishops, several AME congregations finally left to form the first independent African - American denomination in the United States in 1816. Soon after, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion) was founded as another denomination in New York City.
Early Baptist congregations were formed by slaves and free African Americans in South Carolina and Virginia. Especially in the Baptist Church, African Americans were welcomed as members and as preachers. By the early 19th century, independent African American congregations numbered in the several hundred in some cities of the South, such as Charleston, South Carolina, and Richmond and Petersburg, Virginia. With the growth in congregations and churches, Baptist associations formed in Virginia, for instance, as well as Kentucky and other states.
The revival also inspired slaves to demand freedom. In 1800, out of African American revival meetings in Virginia, a plan for slave rebellion was devised by Gabriel Prosser, although the rebellion was discovered and crushed before it started. Despite white attempts to control independent African American congregations, especially after the Nat Turner Uprising of 1831, a number of African American congregations managed to maintain their separation as independent congregations in Baptist associations. State legislatures passed laws requiring them always to have a white man present at their worship meetings.
Women, who made up the majority of converts during the Awakening, played a crucial role in its development and focus. It is not clear why women converted in larger numbers than men. Various scholarly theories attribute the discrepancy to a reaction to the perceived sinfulness of youthful frivolity, an inherent greater sense of religiosity in women, a communal reaction to economic insecurity, or an assertion of the self in the face of patriarchal rule. Husbands, especially in the South, sometimes disapproved of their wives ' conversion, forcing women to choose between submission to God or their spouses. Church membership and religious activity gave women peer support and place for meaningful activity outside the home, providing many women with communal identity and shared experiences.
Despite the predominance of women in the movement, they were not formally indoctrinated or given leading ministerial positions. However, women took other public roles; for example, relaying testimonials about their conversion experience, or assisting sinners (both male and female) through the conversion process. Leaders such as Charles Finney saw women 's public prayer as a crucial aspect in preparing a community for revival and improving their efficacy in conversion. Women also took crucial roles in the conversion and religious upbringing of children. During the period of revival, mothers were seen as the moral and spiritual foundation of the family, and were thus tasked with instructing children in matters of religion and ethics.
The greatest change in women 's roles stemmed from participation in newly formalized missionary and reform societies. Women 's prayer groups were an early and socially acceptable form of women 's organization. Through their positions in these organizations, women gained influence outside of the private sphere.
Changing demographics of gender also affected religious doctrine. In an effort to give sermons that would resonate with the congregation, ministers stressed Christ 's humility and forgiveness, in what the historian Barbara Welter calls a "feminization '' of Christianity.
Revivals and perfectionist hopes of improving individuals and society continued to increase from 1840 to 1865 across all major denominations, especially in urban areas. Evangelists often directly addressed issues such as slavery, greed, and poverty, laying the groundwork for later reform movements. The influence of the Awakening continued in the form of more secular movements. In the midst of shifts in theology and church polity, American Christians began progressive movements to reform society during this period. Known commonly as antebellum reform, this phenomenon included reforms in against the consumption of alcohol, for women 's rights and abolition of slavery, and a multitude of other issues faced by society.
The religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening was echoed by the new political enthusiasm of the Second Party System. More active participation in politics by more segments of the population brought religious and moral issues into the political sphere. The spirit of evangelical humanitarian reforms was carried on in the antebellum Whig party.
Historians stress the understanding common among participants of reform as being a part of God 's plan. As a result, local churches saw their roles in society in purifying the world through the individuals to whom they could bring salvation, and through changes in the law and the creation of institutions. Interest in transforming the world was applied to mainstream political action, as temperance activists, antislavery advocates, and proponents of other variations of reform sought to implement their beliefs into national politics. While Protestant religion had previously played an important role on the American political scene, the Second Great Awakening strengthened the role it would play.
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how many times have the redskins made it to the superbowl | Washington Redskins - wikipedia
National Football League (1932 -- present)
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League championships (5)
Conference championships (5)
Division championships (14)
The Washington Redskins are a professional American football team based in the Washington metropolitan area. The Redskins compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team plays its home games at FedExField in Landover, Maryland; its headquarters and training facility are at Inova Sports Performance Center at Redskins Park in Ashburn, Virginia, and the Redskins Complex in Richmond, Virginia, respectively. The Redskins have played more than 1,000 games since 1932, and are one of only five franchises in the NFL to record over 600 regular season and postseason wins, reaching that mark in 2015. The Redskins have won five NFL Championships (two pre-1966 merger announcement, and three Super Bowls). The franchise has captured 14 NFL divisional titles and six NFL conference championships. The Redskins were the first team in the NFL with an official marching band, and also the first team to have a fight song, "Hail to the Redskins ''.
The team began play as the Boston Braves in 1932, based in Boston, before relocating to Washington, D.C., in 1937. The Redskins won the 1937 and 1942 Championship games, as well as Super Bowls XVII, XXII, and XXVI. They also played in, and lost, the 1936, 1940, 1943, and 1945 Championship games, as well as Super Bowls VII and XVIII. They have made 24 postseason appearances, and have an overall postseason record of 23 -- 18. The Redskins ' three Super Bowl wins are tied with the Oakland Raiders and Denver Broncos, behind the Pittsburgh Steelers (six), San Francisco 49ers, Dallas Cowboys, and New England Patriots (five each), and the Green Bay Packers and New York Giants (four each).
All of the Redskins ' league titles were attained during two 10 - year spans. From 1936 to 1945, the Redskins went to the NFL Championship six times, winning two of them. The second period lasted between 1982 and 1991 where the Redskins appeared in the postseason seven times, captured four Conference titles, and won three Super Bowls out of four appearances. The Redskins have also experienced failure in their history. The most notable period of general failure was from 1946 to 1970, during which the Redskins posted only four winning seasons and did not have a single postseason appearance. During this period, the Redskins went without a single winning season during the years 1956 -- 1968. In 1961, the franchise posted their worst regular season record with a 1 -- 12 -- 1 showing. Since their last Super Bowl victory following the end of the 1991 season, the Redskins have only won the NFC East three times, made five postseason appearances, and had nine seasons with a winning record.
According to Forbes, the Redskins are the fifth most valuable franchise in the NFL, and are the eleventh most valuable sports club in the world as of 2017, valued at approximately $2.95 billion. They also set the NFL record for single - season attendance in 2007, and have the top ten single - season attendance totals in the NFL.
The team originated as the Boston Braves, based in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1932, under the ownership of George Preston Marshall. At the time the team played in Braves Field, home of the Boston Braves baseball team in the National League. The following year, the club moved to Fenway Park, home of the American League 's Boston Red Sox, whereupon owners changed the team 's name to the Boston Redskins. To round out the change, Marshall hired William "Lone Star '' Dietz, who was thought to be part Sioux, as the team 's head coach. However, Boston was n't much of a football town at the time and the team had difficulty drawing fans.
The Redskins relocated south from New England after five years to the national capital of Washington, D.C. in 1937. In their early years in Washington, the Redskins shared baseball 's Griffith Stadium with the first Washington Senators baseball team of the American League. The Redskins played and won their first game in Washington, D.C. on September 16, 1937, a victory against the Giants, 13 -- 3. On December 5, 1937, they earned their first division title in Washington against the Giants, 49 -- 14, for the Eastern Championship. The team then proceeded to win their first league championship, the 1937 NFL Championship Game, on December 12, 1937, against the Chicago Bears, their first year in their new city of D.C. The Redskins then met the Bears again in the 1940 NFL Championship Game on December 8, 1940. The result, 73 -- 0 in favor of the Bears, is still the worst one - sided loss in NFL history. The other big loss for the Redskins that season occurred during a coin - tossing ceremony prior to a game against the Giants. After calling the coin toss and shaking hands with the opposing team captain, Turk Edwards attempted to pivot around to head back to his sideline. However, his cleats caught in the grass and his knee gave way, injuring him and bringing his season and career to an unusual end.
In what became an early rivalry in the NFL, the Redskins and Bears met two more times in the NFL Championship Game. The third time was during the 1942 NFL Championship Game on December 13, 1942, where the Redskins won their second championship, 14 -- 6. The final time the two met was the 1943 NFL Championship Game on December 26, 1943, during which the Bears won, 41 -- 21. The most notable accomplishment achieved during the Redskins ' 1943 season was Sammy Baugh leading the NFL in passing, punting, and interceptions.
The Redskins played in the NFL Championship one more time before a quarter - century drought that did not end until the 1972 season. With former Olympic gold medalist Dudley DeGroot as their new head coach, the Redskins went 8 -- 2 during the 1945 season. One of the most impressive performances came from Sammy Baugh, who had a completion percentage of. 703. They ended the season by losing to the Cleveland Rams in the 1945 NFL Championship Game on December 16, 1945, 15 -- 14. The one - point margin of victory came under scrutiny because of a safety that occurred early in the game. In the first quarter, the Redskins had the ball at their own 5 - yard line. Dropping back into the end zone, quarterback Sammy Baugh threw to an open receiver, but the ball hit the goal post (which at the time was on the goal line instead of at the back of the end zone) and bounced back to the ground in the end zone. Under the rules at the time, this was ruled as a safety and thus gave the Rams a 2 -- 0 lead. It was that safety that proved to be the margin of victory. Owner Marshall was so mad at the outcome that he became a major force in passing the following major rule change after the season: A forward pass that strikes the goal posts is automatically ruled incomplete. This later became known as the "Baugh / Marshall Rule ''.
The team 's early success endeared it to the fans of Washington, D.C. However, after 1945, the Redskins began a slow decline that they did not end until a playoff appearance in the 1971 season. The Redskins had four different head coaches from 1946 to 1951, including former players Turk Edwards and Dick Todd as well as John Whelchel and Herman Ball, and none were successful. But this did not stop George Preston Marshall from trying to make the Redskins the most successful franchise in the league. His first major alteration happened on June 14, 1950, when it was announced that American Oil Company planned to televise all Redskins games, making Washington the first NFL team to have an entire season of televised games. His next major change came in February 1952, when he hired former Green Bay Packers coach Earl "Curly '' Lambeau. But, after two seasons, Marshall fired Lambeau following the Redskins loss in their exhibition opener to the Los Angeles Rams and hired Joe Kuharich. In 1955, Kuharich led the Redskins to their first winning season in ten years and was named both Sporting News Coach of the Year and UPI NFL Coach of the Year.
In 1961, the Redskins moved into their new stadium called D.C. Stadium (changed to Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium in 1969). The first game in new D.C. Stadium occurred on October 1, 1961, in front of 37,767 fans. However, the Redskins failed to hold a 21 -- 7 lead and lost to the New York Giants 24 -- 21. That same year, Bill McPeak became the head coach and had a record of 21 -- 46 -- 3 over five seasons. During his tenure, he helped draft future stars: wide receiver Charley Taylor, tight end Jerry Smith, safety Paul Krause, center Len Hauss, and linebacker Chris Hanburger. He also helped pull off two important trades, gaining quarterback Sonny Jurgensen from the Philadelphia Eagles and linebacker Sam Huff from the New York Giants.
One reason for the team 's struggles was disarray in the front office. Marshall began a mental decline in 1962, and the team 's other stockholders found it difficult to make decisions without their boss. Marshall died on August 9, 1969, and Edward Bennett Williams, a minority stockholder who was a Washington resident and one of America 's most esteemed attorneys, was chosen to run the franchise while the majority stockholder, Jack Kent Cooke, lived in Los Angeles and ran his basketball team, the Los Angeles Lakers. In 1966 Otto Graham was hired as the new head coach. Graham coached the Redskins between 1966 and 1968, but whatever magic he had as an NFL player disappeared on the sidelines as the team recorded a mark of 17 -- 22 -- 3 during that time period. After resigning the Redskins ' post in favor of Vince Lombardi, Graham returned as athletic director of the Coast Guard Academy before retiring at the end of 1984.
In 1969, the Redskins hired Vince Lombardi -- who gained fame coaching with the Green Bay Packers -- to be their new head coach. Lombardi led the team to a 7 -- 5 -- 2 record, their best since 1955, but died of cancer on the eve of the 1970 season. Assistant coach Bill Austin was chosen to replace Lombardi during 1970, and he finished with a record of 6 -- 8.
During most of this unsuccessful period, Marshall continually refused to integrate the team, despite pressure from The Washington Post and the federal government. On March 24, 1961, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall warned Marshall to hire black players or face federal retribution. For the first time in history, the federal government had attempted to desegregate a professional sports team. The Redskins were under the threat of civil rights legal action by the Kennedy administration, which would have prevented a segregated team from playing at the new D.C. Stadium, as it was owned by the U.S. Department of the Interior and thus was federal government property.
In 1962, they became the final professional American football franchise to integrate. First, the Redskins drafted Ernie Davis, the first black player to win the Heisman Trophy. They also took black fullback Ron Hatcher in the eighth round, a player from Michigan State who became the first black American football player to sign a contract with the Redskins. But, in mid-December, Marshall announced that on the day of the NFL draft he had traded the rights to Davis to the Cleveland Browns, who wanted Davis to join the league 's leading rusher, Jim Brown, in their backfield. Davis was traded to the Browns for running back Bobby Mitchell (who became a wide receiver in Washington) and 1962 first - round draft choice Leroy Jackson. The move was made under unfortunate circumstances -- as it turned out that Davis had leukemia, and died without ever playing a down in professional football. The Redskins ended the 1962 season with their best record in five years: 5 -- 7 -- 2. Mitchell led the league with 11 touchdowns, and caught 72 passes and was selected to the Pro Bowl. In time, Mitchell would be joined by black stars like receiver Charley Taylor, running back Larry Brown, defensive back Brig Owens, and guard John Nisby from the Pittsburgh Steelers.
After the death of Lombardi and Austin 's unsuccessful 1970 season, Williams signed former Los Angeles Rams head coach George Allen as head coach on January 6, 1971. Partial to seasoned veterans instead of highly touted young players, Allen 's teams became known as the Over-the - Hill Gang. That season, the Redskins made the playoffs for the first time since 1945 with a 9 -- 4 -- 1 mark with Redskins first year head coach George Allen winning the 1971 NFL Coach of the Year Award, the second of his career, winning his first Coach of the Year Award in 1967 as the head coach of the Rams. However, they lost in the Divisional Playoffs to the San Francisco 49ers, 24 -- 20. The following season, the Redskins hosted their first post-season game in Washington since 1942, where they beat the Green Bay Packers 16 -- 3 in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. The Redskins reached the NFC Championship Game, and in a much anticipated match - up against the archrival Dallas Cowboys, the Redskins would not disappoint. The Redskins placekicker Curt Knight kicked an 18 - yard field goal in the second quarter to get the scoring underway, then Redskins quarterback Billy Kilmer connected with Redskins wide receiver Charley Taylor on a 15 - yard touchdown pass and Washington had a 10 -- 3 lead at halftime. In the fourth quarter, Kilmer again went to Taylor, this time for a 45 - yard touchdown. Knight added three more field goals that period and The Over-The - Hill - Gang defense allowed only a second - quarter field goal. The final score was Washington 26, Dallas 3. After defeating the Dallas Cowboys to win the NFC Championship, the Redskins went on to lose to the undefeated Miami Dolphins 14 -- 7 in Super Bowl VII. Redskins running back Larry Brown would be named the 1972 NFL 's Most Valuable Player.
The Redskins again made the playoffs in 1973, 1974, and 1976, only to lose all three times in the first round. After his Redskins failed to make the playoffs in 1977 despite posting a 9 -- 5 record, Allen was fired and was replaced by new head coach Jack Pardee, a star linebacker under Allen in Los Angeles and Washington. In his first year, his team started 6 -- 0 but then lost 8 of the last 10 games. Then in the offseason, Redskins majority owner Jack Kent Cooke moved from Los Angeles to Virginia and took over the team 's day - by - day operations from Edward Bennett Williams.
The Redskins chose well during the 1979 NFL Draft, where they drafted future stars Don Warren and Monte Coleman. They opened the 1979 season 6 -- 2 and were 10 -- 5 heading into the season finale at Texas Stadium, against whom a win would assure a playoff spot and a possible NFC East title. Washington led 34 -- 28 with time running out, but quarterback Roger Staubach then led the Cowboys in a fourth - quarter comeback with two touchdown passes. The 35 -- 34 loss knocked the 10 -- 6 Redskins out of playoff contention. Pardee 's quick success with the team did not go unnoticed, however, and he was named Associated Press Coach of the Year and UPI NFC Coach of the Year. Pardee 's tenure did not last long though, for he was fired after posting a 6 -- 10 record in 1980. He did, however, draft Art Monk in the first - round.
On January 13, 1981, owner Jack Kent Cooke signed the offensive coordinator of the San Diego Chargers, Joe Gibbs, as their head coach. Also during the off - season, the Redskins acquired Mark May, Russ Grimm, and Dexter Manley in the 1981 NFL Draft, all of whom became significant contributors to the team for the next few years. After starting the 1981 season 0 -- 5, the Redskins won eight out of their next 11 games and finished the season 8 -- 8. Starting on September 21, 1982, the NFL faced a 57 - day long players ' strike, which reduced the 1982 season from a 16 - game schedule to a nine - game schedule. Because of the shortened season, the NFL adopted a special 16 - team playoff tournament, in which eight teams from each conference were seeded 1 -- 8 based on their regular season records. After the strike was settled, the Redskins dominated, winning six out of the seven remaining games to make the playoffs for the first time since 1976.
On January 15, 1983, during the second round of the playoffs against the Minnesota Vikings, John Riggins rushed for a Redskins playoff record 185 yards, leading Washington to a 21 -- 7 win and a place in the NFC Championship Game against Dallas. Jan. 22, 1983, NFC Championship Game at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, prior to the game the stadium physically shook as a capacity crowd of 54,000 chanted "We Want Dallas! '' The game is best remembered for the quarterback hit by Redskins defensive end Dexter Manley that knocked Cowboys ' quarterback Danny White out for the rest of the game and sent him into the locker room shortly before halftime, and Redskins defensive tackle Darryl Grant 's interception which he returned for a 10 - yard touchdown off one of Cowboys ' backup quarterback Gary Hogeboom 's passes which was tipped by Dexter Manley to score the decisive points. John Riggins rushed for 140 yards and two touchdowns on 36 carries and the Redskins went on to defeat the Cowboys ' by a score of 31 -- 17. The Redskins ' first Super Bowl win, and their first NFL Championship in 40 years, was in Super Bowl XVII, where the Redskins defeated the Miami Dolphins 27 -- 17 on January 30, 1983. Riggins provided the game 's signature play when, on 4th and inches, with the Redskins down 17 -- 13, the coaches called "70 Chip '', a play designed for short yardage. Riggins instead gained 43 yards (39 m) by running through would - be tackler Don McNeal and getting the go - ahead touchdown. The Redskins ended up winning by a 27 -- 17 score with John Riggins winning the Super Bowl MVP.
After the 1982 season Redskins placekicker Mark Moseley was the first and only placekicker in NFL history to be named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player; Moseley made 20 of 21 field goals attempted in 1982. Redskins head coach Joe Gibbs also won his first NFL Coach of the Year Award in 1982 which was the first of his back to back NFL Coach of the Year Awards, his second coming in the 1983 NFL season.
The 1983 season marked the rookie debut of cornerback Darrell Green, selected in the 1983 NFL Draft along with Charles Mann, Green would go on to play his entire 20 - year NFL career for the Redskins. On October 1, 1983, the Redskins lost to the Green Bay Packers 48 -- 47 in the highest scoring Monday night football game in history, in which both teams combine for more than 1,000 yards (910 m) of total offense. Then during the regular - season finale on December 17, 1983, Moseley set an NFL scoring record with 161 points while Riggins ' total of 144 points was second. This marked the first time since 1951 that the top two scorers in a season played on the same team. They dominated the NFL with a 14 - win season which included scoring a then NFL record 541 points, many of which came from Riggins, who scored 24 touchdowns. Redskins quarterback Joe Theismann would also be named the 1983 NFL 's Most Valuable Player finishing the season with a career - high in both yards passing 3,714 yds., and touchdown passes thrown, 29 Td 's while throwing only 11 interceptions. In the postseason, the Redskins beat the Los Angeles Rams 51 -- 7. The next week, Washington beat the San Francisco 49ers 24 -- 21 in the NFC Championship Game. It was their final win of the season because two weeks later, the Raiders beat the Redskins 38 -- 9 in Super Bowl XVIII.
The Redskins finished the 1984 season with an 11 -- 5 record, and won the NFC East for the third consecutive season. However, they lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Chicago Bears, 23 -- 19. On November 18, 1985, while playing against the Giants, Theismann broke his leg during a sack by Lawrence Taylor. The compound fracture forced him to retire after a 12 - year career, during which he became the Redskins ' all - time leader in pass attempts and completions. The Redskins finished 3rd in the NFC East behind the Cowboys and missed the wild card to the Giants by virtue of tiebreakers.
The 1986 offseason 's major highlight occurred during the 1986 NFL Draft, when the Redskins picked up future Super Bowl MVP Mark Rypien in the sixth round, also the Redskins defensive end Dexter Manley set a franchise single season record when he recorded 18.5 sacks while earning 1st Team All - Pro honors and being selected to the Pro bowl. In 1986 season, the road to the playoffs was even harder, with the Redskins making the postseason as a wild - card team despite having a regular season record of 12 -- 4. They won the Wild Card playoff against the Rams, and then again in the Divisional playoffs against the Bears. This game was Gibbs 70th career, which made him the winningest head coach in Redskins history. The season ended next week, however, when the Redskins lost to the eventual Super Bowl XXI Champion Giants 17 -- 0 in the NFC Championship game.
The 1987 season began with a 24 - day players ' strike, reducing the 16 - game season to 15. The games for weeks 4 -- 6 were won with all replacement players. The Redskins have the distinction of being the only team with no players crossing the picket line. Those three victories are often credited with getting the team into the playoffs and the basis for the 2000 movie The Replacements. The Redskins won their second championship in Super Bowl XXII on January 31, 1988, in San Diego, California. The Redskins routed the Denver Broncos 42 -- 10 after starting the game in a 10 -- 0 deficit, the largest come - from - behind victory in Super Bowl history, which was tied by the New Orleans Saints in Super Bowl XLIV and the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XLIX. This game is more famous for the stellar performance by quarterback Doug Williams who passed for four touchdowns in the second quarter en route to becoming the first black quarterback to lead his team to a Super Bowl victory while also winning the games Super Bowl MVP award. Rookie running back Timmy Smith had a great performance as well, running for a Super Bowl record 204 yards (187 m).
1988 started off with a boom and the club had a 5 -- 3 record at mid-season, but a 2nd half swoon saw them miss the playoffs with a 7 -- 9 record.
The 1989 Redskins finished with a 10 -- 6 record but missed the playoffs. That season is best remembered for the Redskins prolific wide receiver trio nicknamed "The Posse '' consisting of wide receivers Art Monk, Gary Clark, and Ricky Sanders who became the first trio of wide receivers in NFL history to post 1,000 - plus yards in the same season. Also, in a week 14 victory against the San Diego Chargers, Redskins head coach Joe Gibbs achieved career victory no. 100.
The Redskins returned to the playoffs in 1990 as a wild card team, lost in the Divisional playoffs to the 49ers, 28 -- 10.
The 1991 season started with a franchise - record 11 straight victories. Also during the season, "The Hogs '', under the coaching of Redskins offensive line coach Joe Bugel, allowed a league low and franchise record nine sacks -- the third lowest total in NFL history. The 1991 Redskins offense also dominated under the brilliant coaching of offensive minded head football coach Joe Gibbs scoring 485 points which was the most by any team in the 1991 NFL season. The 1991 Redskins defense was also dominant under the coaching of defensive coordinator and guru Richie Petitbon, giving up only 224 total points which was second best of any team in the NFL in 1991, while also not allowing a single point to opponents in 3 of the 16 games played that season. After posting a 14 -- 2 record, the Redskins made and dominated the playoffs, beating the Falcons and Lions by a combined score of 64 -- 17. On January 26, 1992, the Redskins won Super Bowl XXVI by defeating the Buffalo Bills 37 -- 24 with Mark Rypien winning the games Super Bowl MVP award. After the Super Bowl, the Redskins set another franchise record by sending eight players to the Pro Bowl. The 1991 Washington Redskins are widely considered one of the best teams in NFL history.
The Redskins success in 1992 culminated in a trip to the playoffs as a wild card team, but they lost in the Divisional playoffs to the 49ers, 20 -- 13. The most impressive feat during the season occurred on October 12, 1992, when Art Monk became the NFL 's all - time leading pass receiver against the Denver Broncos on Monday Night Football by catching his 820th career reception. The era ended on March 5, 1993, when Joe Gibbs retired after 12 years of coaching with the Redskins. In what proved to be a temporary retirement, Gibbs pursued an interest in NASCAR by founding Joe Gibbs Racing.
After the end of Gibbs ' first tenure, the Redskins hired former Redskins player Richie Petitbon for the 1993 season. However, his first and only year as head coach, the Redskins finished with a record of 4 -- 12. Petitbon was fired at the end of the season and on February 2, 1994, Norv Turner was hired as head coach after being the offensive coordinator of the Dallas Cowboys. 1994 was even worse as they finished 3 -- 13, their worst season in over 30 years. Their sole bright spot that year came on October 9, 1994, linebacker Monte Coleman played in his 206th career game with the Redskins, which broke Art Monk 's team record for games played (Coleman retired at season 's end with 216 games played). They improved to 6 -- 10 in 1995 where they were able to get a season sweep on the eventual Super Bowl XXX Champions the Dallas Cowboys. On March 13, 1996, Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke, Maryland Governor Parris Glendening, and Prince George 's County Executive Wayne K. Curry signed a contract that paved the way for the immediate start of construction for the new home of the Redskins (now FedExField). The 1996 season saw Washington post their first winning record in 4 years by finishing 9 -- 7. On December 22, 1996, the Redskins played their final game at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, a victory over the Dallas Cowboys 37 -- 10, and finished their tenure at the stadium with a 173 -- 102 -- 3 record, including 11 -- 1 in the playoffs.
On April 6, 1997, Redskins owner Jack Kent Cooke died of congestive heart failure at the age of 84. In his will, Cooke left the Redskins to the Jack Kent Cooke Foundation, with instructions that the foundation sell the team. His estate, headed by son John Kent Cooke, took over ownership of the Redskins and at his memorial service, John Kent Cooke announced that the new stadium in Landover, Maryland would be named Jack Kent Cooke Stadium. On September 14, 1997, the Redskins played in their new stadium for the first time, and beat the Arizona Cardinals, 19 -- 13 in overtime. On November 23, 1997, they played the New York Giants and the result was a 7 -- 7 tie, the Redskins first tie game since the 1971 season. They would finish 1997 8 -- 7 -- 1 and would miss the playoffs for a fifth season in a row. One bright spot during the season, however, occurred on December 13, 1997, when Darrell Green played in his 217th career game as a Redskin, breaking Monte Coleman 's record for games played.
The 1998 season started with a seven - game losing streak, and the Redskins finished with a 6 -- 10 record.
After two seasons, John Kent Cooke was unable to raise sufficient funds to permanently purchase the Redskins, and on May 25, 1999, Daniel Snyder gained unanimous approval (31 -- 0) from league owners and bought the franchise for $800 million, a deal that was the most expensive team - purchasing deal in sporting history. One of his first acts as team owner occurred on November 21, 1999, when he sold the naming - rights to Jack Kent Cooke Stadium to the highest bidder, Federal Express, who renamed the stadium FedExField.
In Snyder 's first season as owner, the Redskins went 10 -- 6, including a four - game winning streak early in the season, and made it to the playoffs for the first time in Norv Turner 's career (and the first time for the Redskins since 1992) in the final game of the season (on January 2, 2000 against the Dolphins). Running back Stephen Davis rushed for a then club - record 1,405 yards and quarterback Brad Johnson completed a then club - record 316 passes and threw for more than 4,000 yards in regular play that season. They then beat the Detroit Lions in the first round of the playoffs, but lost to the Buccaneers, 14 -- 13.
The 2000 season started with the selection of future Pro Bowler Chris Samuels and the tumultuous LaVar Arrington in the 2000 NFL Draft and included five consecutive wins in the first half of the season. However, they ended up going 7 -- 6, and on December 4, 2000, Norv Turner was fired as head coach. Terry Robiskie was named interim coach to finish out the season, which ended with an 8 -- 8 record. During the final game of the season on December 24, 2000, Larry Centers became the NFL 's all - time leader in catches by a running back with 685 receptions.
On January 3, 2001, the Redskins hired former Browns and Chiefs head coach Marty Schottenheimer as head coach. The 2001 season began with a loss to the San Diego Chargers, 30 -- 3, two days before the September 11, 2001, attacks. On September 13, 2001, the Redskins announced the establishment of the Redskins Relief Fund to help families of the victims of the attack at the Pentagon. During the course of the season, the Redskins raised more than $700,000. They finished the season with an 8 -- 8 record and Schottenheimer was fired after the final game. Snyder later said in a 2013 interview on the firing of Schottenheimer, "I like Marty and still do to this day, we are good friends, he 'd still be here if he did n't want to do it all. He was insistent on doing it all, that was something that I do n't think works, one guy ca n't do everything, he was a machine on that front. He would n't drop the personnel side and give us a chance at more of a team energy. ''
On January 14, 2002, Snyder hired University of Florida coach Steve Spurrier, the Redskins ' fifth new head coach in 10 years. They finished with a 7 -- 9 record, their first losing season since 1998. A bittersweet moment during the season occurred on December 29, 2002, when Darrell Green concluded his 20th and final season as the Redskins defeated the Cowboys 20 -- 14 at FedExField. During his 20 seasons, he set a NFL record for consecutive seasons with at least one interception (19) and a Redskins team record for regular season games played (295) and started (258).
The Redskins finished the 2003 season with a 5 -- 11 record, their worst since 1994. The one bright note of the season was on December 7, 2003, when defensive end Bruce Smith sacked Giants quarterback Jesse Palmer in the fourth quarter. With his 199th career sack, broke Reggie White 's all - time NFL mark (Smith finished the season with 200 career sacks). After two mediocre years, Spurrier resigned after the 2003 season with three years left on his contract.
For the 2004 season, Snyder successfully lured former coach Joe Gibbs away from NASCAR to return as head coach and team president. His employment came with a promise of decreased intervention in football operations from Snyder. Snyder also expanded FedExField to a league - high capacity of 91,665 seats. Gibbs ' return to the franchise did not pay instant dividends as the Redskins finished the 2004 season with a record of 6 -- 10.
Despite an impressive defense, the team struggled offensively. Quarterback Mark Brunell -- an off - season acquisition from the Jacksonville Jaguars -- struggled in his first season, and was replaced midway through the season by backup Patrick Ramsey. On the other hand, some of Gibbs ' other new signings, such as cornerback Shawn Springs and linebacker Marcus Washington, did very well. The Redskins also picked Sean Taylor from University of Miami during the draft in Gibbs ' first season.
The beginning of the 2005 season started with three wins, including a Monday Night Football game on September 19, 2005, against the Dallas Cowboys. Dallas led 13 -- 0 with less than four minutes left when Brunell threw a 39 - yard (36 m) touchdown pass to Moss on a fourth - down play. Then, with 2: 44 left, Brunell connected with Moss again on a 70 - yard (64 m) touchdown pass and Nick Novak kicked the game - winning extra point. It was the Redskins ' first victory at Texas Stadium since 1995. They then fell into a slump, losing six of the next eight games which included three straight losses in November, and their playoffs chances looked bleak.
However, the Redskins then went on to record five consecutive victories at the end of the season, which concluded with the Redskins winning three games in a row against division rivals. On December 18, 2005, they beat Cowboys, 35 -- 7, which marked the first time since 1995 that the Redskins were able to sweep the season series with Dallas. The Redskins then avenged the earlier loss to the Giants with a 35 -- 20 victory in their last regular - season home game. They finished out the season against the Philadelphia Eagles on January 1, 2006, where they won with a 31 -- 20, with Taylor returning a fumble 39 yards (36 m) for a touchdown to seal the victory. The win clinched their first playoff berth since 1999. The game also culminated impressive season performances by individuals. Portis set a team mark for most rushing yards in a single season with 1,516 yards (1,386 m), and Moss set a team record for most receiving yards in a single season with 1,483 yards (1,356 m), breaking Bobby Mitchell 's previous record set in 1963. Also, Chris Cooley 's 71 receptions broke Jerry Smith 's season record for a Redskins tight end.
Finishing the season 10 -- 6, they qualified for the playoffs as a wild card team. Their first game was against the NFC South Champion Buccaneers on January 7, 2006. The Redskins won 17 -- 10, after taking an early 14 -- 0 lead, which they thought they lost until replay showed that a touchdown, which would have tied the game, was an incomplete pass. In that game, the Redskins broke the record for fewest offensive yards (120) gained in a playoff victory, with one of their two touchdowns being from a defensive run after a fumble recovery. The following weekend, they played the Seahawks, who defeated the Redskins 20 -- 10, ending their hopes of reaching their first NFC Championship Game since 1991.
The first major move of the 2006 off - season was the hiring of Kansas City Chiefs ' offensive coordinator Al Saunders as Associate Head Coach, Offense. Gibbs also added former Buffalo Bills defensive coordinator Jerry Gray to his staff as Secondary / Cornerbacks coach and lost quarterbacks coach Bill Musgrave to the Falcons. The Redskins also picked up future starters Rocky McIntosh, Anthony Montgomery, Reed Doughty, and Kedric Golston in the 2006 NFL Draft.
After winning only three of the first nine games of the 2006 season, Gibbs benched quarterback Brunell for former first - round draft pick Jason Campbell. After losing his first game as a starter to Tampa Bay, Campbell got his first NFL victory against the Carolina Panthers, bringing the Redskins out of a three - game losing streak. The highlight of the season happened on November 5, 2006, and concluded with one of the most exciting endings in the history of the Cowboys -- Redskins rivalry. Tied 19 -- 19, Troy Vincent blocked a last - second field goal attempt by Dallas that would have given them the win. Sean Taylor picked up the ball and ran 30 yards (27 m), breaking tackles along the way. It was thought that the game would then go in overtime, however because of a defensive 15 - yard (14 m) face mask penalty, the Redskins would get a field goal chance with no time on the clock. Novak kicked a 47 - yard (43 m) field goal, giving Washington a 22 -- 19 victory.
They finished the year with a 5 -- 11 record, which resulted in them being last in the NFC East, and the only team in the division to fail to make the playoffs. This marked the second losing season of Joe Gibbs ' second term as head coach with the Redskins, compared to the one losing season he had in his first 12 - year tenure as head coach. Despite the failures of the 2006 season, including free agent disasters Adam Archuleta and Brandon Lloyd, the year did see improvement in running back Ladell Betts and Campbell as quarterback.
The 2007 Washington Redskins season was the team 's 75th season, and saw the team achieve a record of 9 -- 7 and a playoff appearance. This was an improvement over the 2006 season in which they went 5 -- 11 and finished last in the NFC East.
The Redskins began the 2007 season by "winning ugly '' starting the season off 2 -- 0. The Redskins kept winning and losing close games, the only exception to this a 34 -- 3 rout of the Detroit Lions. The Redskins continued to win ugly and lose ugly to be 5 -- 3 at the halfway mark. However, the Redskins would begin to collapse. The Washington Redskins lost their next three games to fall to 5 -- 6. On Monday, November 26, 2007, Redskins superstar, Sean Taylor was shot by intruders early in the morning in his Miami home. The next morning, Sean Taylor died from severe blood loss. The heartbreak continued for the Washington Redskins, taking a 9 -- 2 halftime lead against the Buffalo Bills, and eventually a 16 -- 5 lead. However, the Bills cut the lead to 16 -- 14, and got into position with just 8 seconds remaining to win the game. In an attempt to ice the kicker, head coach Joe Gibbs called timeout. However, he attempted to re-ice him, and called timeout again, which drew an unsportsmanlike conduct penalty, reducing the field goal from 51 yards to 36, and Bills kicker Rian Lindell nailed it with ease. Following the heartbreaking loss, the Redskins attended Sean Taylor 's funeral two days later, with a game to play on Thursday night against the Chicago Bears. The bad news continued, as quarterback Jason Campbell went down for the season with a knee injury. Following this, unlikely hero and backup quarterback Todd Collins led the Redskins to the victory, keeping their playoff hopes alive. Things continued to turn in the right direction behind Collins, who led the Redskins to a 22 -- 10 victory on Sunday Night Football over the New York Giants and routs of the Minnesota Vikings and rival Dallas Cowboys in the final two weeks to propel the Redskins to 9 -- 7 and the final playoff spot in the NFL playoffs.
The Washington Redskins trailed 13 -- 0 entering the 4th quarter to the Seattle Seahawks in the Wild Card Playoffs, but rallied back to take a 14 -- 13 lead, but Redskins kicker Shaun Suisham missed a field goal later in the game, and the Seahawks scored on the next drive and converted the two - point conversion. To close the game, Todd Collins threw two interceptions, each returned for touchdowns, and the Redskins fell 35 -- 14.
The Washington Redskins looked to return to the playoffs in 2008 but did not succeed, finishing 8 -- 8. After Joe Gibbs announced his retirement, Jim Zorn was hired as head coach, and brought in a West Coast Offense.
The season started about as well as it could have, as the Washington Redskins started the season 6 -- 2, with their two losses coming by a combined 11 points to the New York Giants and St. Louis Rams. Furthermore, Redskins star Clinton Portis led the NFL in rushing yards and Jason Campbell was just 40 pass attempts away from breaking Bernie Kosar 's record of consecutive passes to start the season without an interception. However, things turned for the worse on the eve of the 2008 Presidential Election, when they were routed 23 -- 6 by the Pittsburgh Steelers and Clinton Portis ' injuries finally caught up to him. The Redskins continued to struggle, falling all the way to 7 -- 7, with their only win during that six - week period being a 3 - point victory of the then - 2 -- 8 Seattle Seahawks, who would finish the season 4 - 12. The Redskins managed to upset the Philadelphia Eagles in Week 16, but were eliminated from playoff contention after the Atlanta Falcons defeated the Minnesota Vikings 24 -- 17 that same week. The Redskins lost the final game of the season 27 -- 24 to the San Francisco 49ers, despite having a 17 -- 7 lead at halftime, losing on a Joe Nedney field goal as time expired.
The Redskins ' fortunes continued to slide in 2009, as they lost two of the first four matches, one of which was a 19 - 14 defeat at the hands of the Lions, a team that had not won a game since December 2007. After that, they lost to Carolina on the road and Kansas City at home, the latter match handing another victory to a winless team. On Monday Night Football, the Redskins lost to Philadelphia in a game where Jim Zorn was temporarily relieved of his duties by offensive coordinator Sherman Lewis. In Week 10, they inflicted a surprise defeat on the Denver Broncos before losing two divisional matches to Dallas and Philadelphia. The Week 13 game against an undefeated Saints team proved another surprise. The Redskins managed to tie at the end of regulation, and in overtime had a chance to break New Orleans ' winning streak. However, kicker Shaun Suisham missed a field goal that would have given them the victory. On their next possession, the Saints scored a FG and won the game 33 - 30. Suisham was cut after the game and signed with Dallas (his original team). The Redskins then routed Oakland in Week 14 before losing their last three games to finish 4 - 12. The second match with the Cowboys ended in a 16 - 0 shutout, making for only the second season since 1970 where Washington lost all of its divisional matches. Jim Zorn was fired and replaced by Mike Shanahan afterwards.
The 2010 off - season would bring a surprise when on April 4, Eagles QB Donovan McNabb forced his team to trade him to the Redskins and was also marred by contract disputes with Albert Haynesworth. Washington continued an old tradition of playing its arch - rival Cowboys in the first week of the season. Both teams were unimpressive and the Redskins ' offense sputtered throughout the game, but they finally won 13 - 10 after a touchdown pass by Tony Romo was nullified after a holding call. They hosted the Texans in Week 2, but good all - around offensive performance (especially by McNabb, who passed for 426 yards and a touchdown) failed to secure a win. The game tied at 27 - 27 and went into overtime where Houston kicker Neil Rackers made a 37 - yard FG, ending the match at 30 - 27. After this, the Redskins lost to St. Louis 30 - 16 before McNabb 's return to Philadelphia. Although Washington did not deliver a particularly strong performance, they won 16 - 12 after Eagles QB Michael Vick was injured and replaced by Kevin Kolb. In Week 5, they hosted Green Bay for only the second time since 1979 (the first was in 2004) and beat them 16 - 13. After losing a Sunday Night match to the Colts, Washington beat Chicago in Week 7. Although McNabb threw two interceptions, the team took advantage of their opponent 's porous O - line to sack and pick off Jay Cutler four times, winning 17 - 14. After losing a 37 - 25 trap game in Detroit, the Redskins went on their bye week and returned to host Philadelphia on MNF for the second straight year. As rain fell on Fedex Field, the Eagles proceeded to crush Washington 59 - 28 with eight touchdowns. In contrast to the huge numbers put up by Michael Vick, McNabb looked decidedly unimpressive, with two touchdown passes and three interceptions (one returned for a TD). Just before the game, he had finalized his contract with the Redskins, who gave him a 5 - year, $78 million deal and allowing him to (barring unforeseen circumstances) finish out his career in Washington. After beating Tennessee, the Redskins lost four straight games and were removed from playoff contention before beating Jacksonville in Week 16. After losing to New York at home, the Redskins finished the year at 6 - 10 and once again 4th place in the division.
The McNabb era came to an abrupt end when he was traded to Minnesota in August 2011. The troublesome Albert Haynesworth also headed to New England. After cutting the injury - rattled Clinton Portis, the Redskins had no important offensive players left except for Santana Moss. Mike Shanahan surprised most observers by his decision to name John Beck, an obscure free agent QB, as the starter.
However, Shanahan suddenly reversed direction by naming veteran backup Rex Grossman to the starting position. In Week 1, Grossman threw for 305 yards and two TD passes as the Redskins crushed the Giants 28 - 14, ending a six - game losing streak against that team. After beating the Cardinals in Week 2, the Redskins got off to a surprise 2 - 0 start. In Week 3, they played the Cowboys on MNF and lost a poorly played game where the latter edged them out with six field goals to win 18 - 16.
After beating the Rams in Week 4, the Redskins disintegrated from injuries and did n't win another game until Seattle in Week 12. They finished 5 - 11 following a second win over the eventual champion Giants.
The Redskins traded all their high level draft picks to St. Louis for taking Baylor QB Robert Griffin III # 2 in the 2012 draft. Although the need for a franchise QB was obvious, many football experts doubted the wisdom of such a trade for one player. Griffin silenced his critics in Week 1 as Washington won a surprise upset over the Saints in New Orleans. The rookie QB threw for 320 yards and two TD passes in a 40 - 32 victory for the Redskins ' highest scoring game since 2005.
In Week 2, the team traveled to St. Louis where they lost 24 - 22. A major defensive loss was suffered when Brian Orakpo went down from a tear to his left pectoral muscle. Despite widespread complaints from Redskins fans and players about the Rams playing dirty, there was nothing to do but move on to the home opener against Cincinnati. The game started on a bad omen when the Bengals threw a 76 - yard TD pass on the opening drive. Although the Redskins responded furiously and played another close match, they lost and injuries continued to pile up as CB Josh Wilson and WR Pierre Garçon went down. They would win their next game on a late game field goal at Tampa Bay, 24 - 22, after the Buccaneers made a 4th quarter comeback to take the lead. The Redskins only won one of their next five games, going into the bye week at 3 - 6.
In Week 11, the Redskins would face the struggling Philadelphia Eagles in Washington. RGIII would have one of his best games of his career to date, as the Redskins won 31 - 6 with long touchdowns to Santana Moss and Aldrick Robinson. The Redskins would win their next 6 games after that, including a Thanksgiving Day win over the Dallas Cowboys, an overtime win against the eventual champs, the Baltimore Ravens, and a 38 - 21 win over the Cleveland Browns that featured backup rookie quarterback Kirk Cousins as the starter, filling in for RGIII who got an injured knee against the Ravens. The Redskins would win their crucial last game against the Cowboys, which would clinch the division for them and send the Redskins to the playoffs.
After winning the NFC East in the previous season, hopes were high for a repeat in 2013. However, these hopes were in vain, as poor play and controversy stirred during the entire year, leading to the disastrous record of 3 -- 13. This was the worst record the Redskins have posted since 1994. Even though most players had a down year compared to last season, Pierre Garçon had his greatest season statistically yet. Garcon eventually broke Art Monk 's 29 - year - old franchise record for catches in a single season. Garcon had 113 catches total, which broke Monk 's 106 catches in 1984 by seven.
The Washington Redskins fired Shanahan and most of his staff on December 30, 2013.
On January 9, 2014, the Redskins hired Jay Gruden as their head coach. Gruden became the eighth head coach of the team since Daniel Snyder purchased the franchise in 1999. Gruden lost his first regular season game as an NFL coach against the Houston Texans 17 -- 6 with the Texans defense controlling the Washington offense for the majority of the game. Gruden would then go on to win his first game as an NFL head coach the following week against the Jacksonville Jaguars 41 -- 10. Gruden and the Redskins struggled throughout the season, having three different quarterbacks start games, amounting to a 4 -- 12 record. Defense coordinator Jim Haslett was fired at the end of the season.
On January 7, 2015, the Redskins hired Scot McCloughan to be their general manager. McCloughan took over control of the roster from Bruce Allen, who was given the sole title of team president after the hiring. On October 25, 2015, the Redskins had their largest comeback win in franchise history, coming back to win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 31 -- 30, after being down 0 -- 24 in the second quarter.
The Redskins clinched the NFC East division title on December 26, when they beat the Philadelphia Eagles in Week 16, 38 -- 24. The division title was their third since Snyder took over ownership of the team, and was the first since the 1999 season to be clinched before Week 17. The Redskins hosted the Green Bay Packers in the Wild Card round on January 10, 2016, but lost 35 -- 18, ending their 2015 season.
Kirk Cousins, who took over as starting quarterback in the preseason, finished the season with career highs in touchdowns (29), yards (4,166), and completion percentage (69.8 %). His completion percentage led the league, while his 29 touchdowns tied him for second on the franchise single - season list.
The team 's offense in 2016 set several franchise records, including having over 6,000 total net yards, which was only the third time in franchise history the team had accomplished that. Quarterback Kirk Cousins also set single - season team records in attempts, completions, and passing yards, breaking many of his records he had previously set in 2015. DeSean Jackson, Pierre Garçon, Jamison Crowder, Robert Kelley, Chris Thompson, Jordan Reed, Vernon Davis, and Matt Jones all finished the season with at least 500 yards from scrimmage, tying the 2011 New Orleans Saints for the most in a single season in NFL history.
Despite the numerous records set, the Redskins missed the playoffs, losing 19 -- 10 in a "win and in '' situation against the New York Giants in the final week of the season. However, the Redskins still finished the season with a record of 8 -- 7 -- 1, giving the team their first consecutive winning seasons in nearly 20 years. In contrast with the record setting offense, the team 's defense had a poor season, finishing 29 out of 32 teams in total defense, which lead to the firing of defensive coordinator Joe Barry, as well as three of his assistants.
The Washington Redskins ' primary colors are burgundy and gold. Continuously from 1961 through 1978, the Redskins wore gold pants with both the burgundy and white jerseys, although details of the jerseys and pants changed a few times during this period. Gold face masks were introduced in 1978 and remain to this day; previous to that they were grey. From the start of the Joe Gibbs era until 2010, the Redskins were one of three NFL teams that primarily wore their white jerseys at home (the others being the Dallas Cowboys and Miami Dolphins). The tradition of wearing white jerseys over burgundy pants at home, which is considered the "classic '' look, was started by Joe Gibbs when he took over as coach in 1981. Gibbs was an assistant for the San Diego Chargers in 1979 and 1980, and the Chargers wore white at home during the tenure of coach Don Coryell in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
From 1981 -- 2009, their burgundy jerseys were primarily used when the opposing team decided to wear white at home, which comes mostly against the Dallas Cowboys and occasionally the Philadelphia Eagles, and was normally worn over white pants. It was worn on the road against other teams that like to wear white at home for games occurring early in the season. From 1981 through 2000, the Redskins wore their white jerseys over burgundy pants at home almost exclusively. In 1994, as part of a league - wide celebration of the NFL 's 75th Anniversary, during certain games the Redskins wore special uniforms which emulated the uniforms worn by the team in its inaugural season as the Washington Redskins, 1937. Both worn over gold pants, the burgundy jerseys featured gold numbers bordered in white and the white jerseys featured burgundy numbers bordered in gold. The most distinctive feature of both colors of the jersey was the patches worn on both sleeves, which were a reproduction of the patches worn on the full - length sleeves of the 1937 jerseys. Worn with these uniforms was a plain burgundy helmet with a gold facemask. In 2001, the Redskins wore burgundy for all home games in the preseason and regular season per a decision by Marty Schottenheimer, their coach for that year. In 2002, the team celebrated the passing of 70 years since its creation as the Boston Braves in 1932, and wore a special home uniform of burgundy jersey over gold pants which roughly resembled the home uniforms used from 1969 -- 1978. The helmets used with this special home uniform during that year were a reproduction of the helmets used by the team from 1965 -- 69. This special home uniform was also worn during one game in 2003. In 2004, when Joe Gibbs became the coach of the Redskins once again, the team switched back to wearing white jerseys at home; in Gibbs 's 16 years as head coach, the team never wore burgundy jerseys at home, even wearing a white throwback jersey in 2007.
Their white jerseys have provided three basic color combinations, two of which have been previously alluded to in this article. The last combination consists of both white jerseys and pants. That particular combination surfaced in the first game of the 2003 season, when the team was coached by Steve Spurrier, during a nationally televised game against the New York Jets, which led many sports fans and Redskins faithful alike to point out that they had never seen that particular combination before. That year the Redskins wore it two more times. That look did n't appear again until midway through the 2005 season when the Redskins wore it in a road game against the St. Louis Rams. The Redskins won six straight games, including one in the playoffs against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, wearing that combination and the local media jokingly pointed out that the reason the Redskins were winning was their use of the white over white combination. In the NFC Divisional Playoff game against the eventual 2005 NFC Champion Seattle Seahawks, the Redskins wore the all - white uniforms, in hopes that they could keep their streak going; however, they lost 20 -- 10. The Redskins continued to wear the white jerseys and white pants into the 2006 preseason. In the 2006 season, the Redskins started wearing black cleats, something that had n't been done for quite a while. It was a surprise because they wore white cleats during the preseason. They would have to wear that color for the rest of the season, because the NFL usually asks teams to choose either black or white cleats to be worn throughout the season.
After the white - over-white period which lasted from the mid / late 2005 season into 2006, the classic uniform of white jerseys over burgundy pants reappeared on November 26, 2006, in a home game against the Carolina Panthers. The decision to return to the classic look may have symbolized a desire by the team to turn a new page on their 2006 season, which had been very lackluster previous to that game, the period of success with the white jerseys over white pants having come to an end the previous season. The move may have also been related to the fact that this home game was the second start and first home start of second - year quarterback Jason Campbell, and that the game and the previous week 's game were, in the hopes and perceptions of many Redskins fans, the start of the "Jason Campbell era. '' The Redskins went on to win that game against Carolina, preserving slim hopes of the team 's being able to make it to the 2006 playoffs, although they ultimately missed the playoffs.
In celebration of the franchise 's 75th anniversary, the Redskins wore a special throwback uniform for the September 23, 2007 home game against the New York Giants. Players wore a white jersey (in keeping with Gibbs 's exclusive use of the color, whereas most other NFL throwback jerseys tend to be dark) with 3 burgundy and 2 gold stripes on each sleeve and the 75th anniversary logo on the left chest. The pants were gold, with one white stripe bordered by a burgundy stripe on each side, running down each side. The helmet was gold - colored with a burgundy "R '' logo. The helmet and uniform styles (besides the anniversary patch and the position of the upper-most, "TV '', numbers) were the same as the ones the franchise used during the 1970 -- 71 seasons. While this throwback uniform was worn during a home game, it was actually the away uniform for 1970 -- 71. (The helmet was discontinued after the 1971 season, while this basic away uniform design, minus the helmet, was used through the 1978 season, as well as during most of the 1969 season.) Vince Lombardi, who coached the Redskins in 1969 before dying during the 1970 pre-season, was the inspiration behind the helmet. Lombardi pushed for the logo, which sat inside a white circle enclosed within a burgundy circle border, with Indian feathers hanging down from the side, because of its similarity to the "G '' on the helmets worn by his Green Bay Packers for many years.
On September 14, 2008, Week 2 and game two for the team of the 2008 season, the Redskins again donned the white - on - white look, which was reminiscent of the successful stretch at the end of the 2005 season.
On November 3, 2008, the Redskins wore burgundy jerseys over their burgundy pants in a Monday night home game against the Pittsburgh Steelers the night before the 2008 U.S. Presidential election. The Redskins lost the game, 23 -- 6. It was the first time the Redskins went with the dark "monochrome '' look that many NFL teams have adopted in some form over the past few years. This uniform combination made a reappearance in 2009 against the Dallas Cowboys at Cowboys Stadium on November 22 and a home Monday night game against the New York Giants on December 21.
The Redskins, after wearing white almost exclusively in the 1980s and 1990s, occasionally reverted from 2002 -- 2009 to using their burgundy jerseys for home games during the latter weeks of the season, but would still wear white against the Dallas Cowboys. At the 2010 season and home opener on September 12, the team debuted a never - before - seen look, pairing the standard modern burgundy jerseys with the throwback style of gold pants that are reminiscent of the era of George Allen, the late father of then GM Bruce Allen, which had last been seen in the game vs. the Giants in 2007. In 2010, the team wore burgundy jerseys for all regular season home games, including six total sporting the aforementioned new look. For two home games, vs Green Bay and Tampa Bay, the team wore the standard white pants. In Philadelphia on October 3, with the Eagles wearing white at home, the team also wore white pants with their burgundy jerseys -- and did the same when visiting Dallas in December. Away against Tennessee on November 21, they debuted another new look, matching the gold pants with the standard modern white jerseys for the first time ever; the same combination would be worn at the Giants two weeks later. In the other four away games, the team wore the white jerseys over the burgundy pants.
In 2011, they would wear the burgundy jersey / gold pants look for five home games and a road game at Dallas, the burgundy jersey / white pants look for three home games and a road game at Miami, the white jersey / burgundy pants look for five road games, and the white jersey / gold pants look for a Bills game in Toronto.
In 2012, the team would wear an updated throwback uniform of the 1937 team in a loss versus the Carolina Panthers on November 4, in honor of Sammy Baugh 's rookie season, and the team 's championship season. Due to NFL rules that limits the number of pants worn to three, combined with the popularity of the gold throwback pants, the Redskins quietly dropped the burgundy pants.
Although a recent NFL rule implemented in 2013 that states teams may not wear alternate helmets on account of player safety, the Redskins would again wear the 1937 throwbacks with the sticker removed from the regular helmet in an overtime win versus the San Diego Chargers on November 3. That year would also see the team remove its burgundy collar from their white jersey, in order to have better consistency with the new Nike uniforms that debuted the previous season.
For 2014, the team dropped their white pants and for the next two seasons wore the gold pants full - time with their standard uniforms. In 2016, the burgundy pants returned as part of the team 's away uniform.
The name and logo of the Washington Redskins is part of a larger controversy regarding the use of Native American names, images and symbols by non-native sports teams, but receives the most public attention due to the prominence of the team being located in the nation 's capital and the name itself being defined in current dictionaries of American English as "usually offensive '', "disparaging '', "insulting '', and "taboo ''.
Native American individuals, tribes and organizations have been questioning the use of the name and image for decades. In the 1940s the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) created a campaign to eliminate negative stereotyping of Native American people in the media. Over time, the campaign began to focus on Indian names and mascots in sports. The NCAI maintains that teams with mascots such as the Braves and the Redskins perpetuate negative stereotypes of Native American people, and demean their native traditions and rituals. The NCAI issued a new report in 2013 summarizing opposition to Indian mascots and team names generally, and the Washington Redskins in particular.
In response to the continued controversy, the team owner Dan Snyder sent an open letter to fans that was published in The Washington Post on October 9, 2013. In the letter Snyder states that the most important meaning of the name Redskins is the association that fans have to memories of their personal history with the team. Snyder also states that the name was chosen in 1933 to honor Native Americans in general and the coach and four players at that time who were Native American; and that in 1971 the then coach George Allen consulted with the Red Cloud Athletic Fund on the Pine Ridge reservation when designing the logo. Supporters also assert that a majority of Native Americans themselves are not offended, based upon a public opinion poll in 2004 in which 90 % of those who identified as American Indians answered that they were "not bothered '' by the name "Redskins '' being used for the Washington football team. However, in a commentary published soon after that poll, fifteen Native American scholars collaborated on a critique that stated that there were so many flaws in the Annenberg study that rather than being a measure of Native American opinion, it was an expression of "white privilege '' and colonialism. Several sportscasters on ESPN opted to refuse to use the word Redskins in television broadcasts, after network stated that they did not have to use the term if they found it offensive. Other sportscasters from alternate networks opted for a similar stance.
In May 2016, the Washington Post released a poll of self - identified Native Americans that produced the same results as Annenberg poll, in which 90 % of the 504 respondents were "not bothered '' by the team 's name. Native American groups responded with many of the same criticisms. NCAI Executive Director Jacqueline Pata stated "The survey does n't recognize the psychological impacts these racist names and imagery have on American Indian and Alaska Natives. It is not respectful to who we are as Native people. This poll still does n't make it right. ''
In June 2014, the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB) voted to cancel the six trademarks held by the team in a two to one decision that held that the term "redskins '' is disparaging to a "substantial composite of Native Americans ''. In a separate case (Matal v. Tam) an Asian - American rock band, "The Slants '' appealed the denial of a trademark for their name. In June 2017, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in favor of Tam, the majority opinion stating "the disparagement clause violates the First Amendment 's Free Speech Clause. Contrary to the Government 's contention, trademarks are private, not government speech. '' Both the Native American petitioners and the Justice Department have withdrawn from any further litigation now that the Supreme Court has rendered the legal issue moot, clearing the way for the restoration of the Redskin 's trademarks.
On December 13, 2017 a Native American group, Rising Hearts, created several authentic - appearing websites including one for the team and a Twitter campaign, that made it appear that the Redskins had agreed to change its name to the Washington Redhawks for the 2018 season. The organizers state that their intention is to stimulate debate that will eventually lead to an actual name change. At a news conference the following day they stated that their effort was satire or parody, and were surprised that the Redskins issued a statement denying any plans to change, as if it were serious, or "fake news ''.
The Cowboys -- Redskins rivalry is a sports rivalry between two NFL teams that have won 31 combined division titles and ten Championships, including eight combined Super Bowls. The rivalry started in 1960 when the Cowboys joined the league as an expansion team. During that year they were in separate conferences, but played once during the season. In 1961, Dallas was placed in the same division as the Redskins, and from that point on, they have played each other twice during every regular season.
Texas oil tycoon Clint Murchison Jr. was having a difficult time bringing an NFL team to Dallas. In 1958, Murchison heard that George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, was eager to sell the team. Just as the sale was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms. Murchison was outraged and canceled the whole deal. Around this time, Marshall had a falling out with the Redskin band director, Barnee Breeskin. Breeskin had written the music to the Redskins fight song, now a staple at the stadium. He wanted revenge after the failed negotiations with Marshall. He approached Tom Webb, Murchison 's lawyer, and sold the rights for $2,500. Murchison then decided to create his own team, with the support of NFL expansion committee chairman, George Halas. Halas decided to put the proposition of a Dallas franchise before the NFL owners, which needed to have unanimous approval in order to pass. The only owner against the proposal was George Preston Marshall. However, Marshall found out that Murchison owned the rights to Washington 's fight song, so a deal was finally struck. If Marshall showed his approval of the Dallas franchise, Murchison would return the song. The Cowboys were then founded and began playing in 1960.
In 2016, the Redskins - Cowboys game on Thanksgiving Day was most - watched regular - season game in Fox history.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated April 9, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 74 Active, 0 Inactive
The Redskins ' policy since Baugh 's retirement has been to not retire numbers. However, some numbers are unofficially retired and are usually withheld from being selectable by new players. The following numbers of past Redskins greats fall into that category.
Sean Taylor 's number 21 has not been reissued since his death during the 2007 season, but it is unknown, as of 2015, whether the number should be considered "unofficially retired. '' A Google search reveals multiple fan petitions seeking to have the number formally retired. Free agent signing O.J. Atogwe, who had "worn No. 21 his entire life '', chose to switch to No. 20 out of respect for Taylor.
The use of unofficial retired numbers drew controversy during Steve Spurrier 's first year as head coach. Quarterbacks Danny Wuerffel and Shane Matthews first wore 7 and 9 respectively during training camp. The resulting sports talk furor led to them switching to 17 and 6. During the season, reserve tight end Leonard Stephens wore number 49 for the season. After his retirement as assistant GM, Bobby Mitchell blasted the team, for not being considered for GM and was upset that the team would let a player like Leonard Stephens wear his number.
The Washington Hall of Stars is a series of banners hanging at RFK Stadium honoring D.C. performers from all sports. It was previously located on a series of white - and - red signs ringing the face of the stadium 's mezzanine level. Another version hangs on a large sign on one of the parking garages at Nationals Park.
Despite having been elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Turk Edwards, Ray Flaherty, Joe Gibbs, and Paul Krause are not on the Hall of Stars banners. Edwards, Flaherty, and Gibbs had been honored on signs on the prior version of the Hall of Stars.
When the Redskins moved out of RFK Stadium, the signs commemorating the Washington Hall of Stars were left behind and the team began a new tradition of honoring Redskins greats via the "Ring of Fame '', a set of signs on the upper level facade at FedExField. Unlike the Hall of Stars, which honors historical greats from all sports, the Ring of Fame is limited to honoring Redskins greats. The following is a list of members of the Ring of Fame:
In honor of the Redskins ' 70th anniversary, on June 13, 2002, a panel selected the 70 Greatest Redskins to honor the players and coaches who were significant on - field contributors to the Redskins five championships and rich history. They were honored in a weekend of festivities, including a special halftime ceremony during the Redskins ' 26 -- 21 win over the Indianapolis Colts.
The panel that chose the 70 consisted of former news anchor Bernard Shaw; former player Bobby Mitchell; Senator George Allen (son of coach George Allen); broadcaster Ken Beatrice; Noel Epstein, editor for the Washington Post; former diplomat Joseph J. Sisco; Phil Hochberg, who retired in 2001 after 38 years as team stadium announcer; Pro Football Hall of Fame historian Joe Horrigan; sportscaster George Michael; sports director Andy Pollin; NFL Films president Steven Sabol; and news anchor Jim Vance.
The list includes three head coaches and 67 players, of which 41 were offensive players, 23 defensive players and three special teams players.
Among the 70 Greatest, there are 92 Super Bowl appearances, with 47 going once and 45 playing in more than one. 29 members possess one Super Bowl ring and 26 have more than one. Also, before the Super Bowl, members of the 70 made 18 World Championship appearances including six that participated in the Redskins ' NFL Championship victories in 1937 and 1942.
On August 24, 2012, the Redskins ' 80th anniversary, ten more players and personnel were added to the list.
→ Coaching staff → Front office → More NFL staffs
* Also an NFL record
As of 2008, the Redskins ' flagship station is WTEM (ESPN 980), owned by Red Zebra Broadcasting, which in turn is owned by Snyder.
As of the 2013 season, Larry Michael is the voice of the Redskins on the radio. He took this role in 2004 after longtime announcer Frank Herzog left.
Michael is joined by analysts Sonny Jurgensen and Chris Cooley. Jurgensen is a former Redskins quarterback who has been in broadcasting since he retired from the team in 1974, much of that time spent working for his former team. Cooley played tight end for the Redskins from 2004 until 2012 and made the Pro Bowl twice. Cooley replaced Sam Huff, the former Hall of Fame linebacker who played several years with the Redskins, as color commentator following Huff 's retirement at the end of the 2012 season.
Another former Washington tight end, Rick "Doc '' Walker, is the sideline reporter and Kevin Sheehan hosts the team 's pregame show. Longtime Redskins running back / receiver / return man Brian Mitchell also contributes to broadcasts.
Washington Redskins radio affiliates include:
Telecasts of preseason games not shown on national networks are aired in HD exclusively on Comcast SportsNet in the overall Mid-Atlantic region. WRC - TV broadcasts preseason games in SD in the Washington, D.C. area. Comcast SportsNet also airs a pregame show and an extensive game recap program after each Redskins regular season Sunday game.
Kenny Albert does play - by - play, former Redskins quarterback Joe Theismann is the color analyst, and Rick "Doc '' Walker is the sideline reporter.
In the regular season, most games are shown locally on Fox O&O WTTG per the NFC contract with the Fox Broadcasting Company. The main exceptions are when the Redskins host an AFC team or play at night.
The Redskins have n't been blacked out at home since 1972, a year before local telecasts of sold - out home games were allowed, although the Redskins have often had to deal with no - shows (but not in recent years). Only three other NFL teams have had sellout streaks dating to before 1973.
Prior to the Carolina Panthers inaugural season of 1995, many residents of North Carolina were Washington Redskins fans. A handful of North Carolinians still are, particularly in the northeastern part of the state with those living further west (closer to the Interstate 26 corridor) either neutral or Atlanta Falcons fans. Therefore, prior to 1995, the Washington Redskins were often on television but not mandated by the NFL. A Triangle Redskins Fan club still exists in Raleigh as of 2011.
For 17 of the past 19 United States presidential elections, a win for the Redskins ' last home game prior to Election Day coincided with the incumbent party winning re-election. The exceptions were in 2004, when Republican incumbent George W. Bush won re-election despite the Green Bay Packers beating the Redskins, and again in 2012, when Democratic incumbent Barack Obama retained the presidency on November 6, despite the Redskins losing to the Carolina Panthers on November 4, 21 -- 13. Other than these exceptions, this "Redskins Rule '' has proven true since 1936 when they won and incumbent Franklin D. Roosevelt won re-election, prior to the Redskins ' move from Boston in 1937.
The Redskins Rule was discovered by Steve Hirdt, who was the executive vice president of the Elias Sports Bureau, while searching for discussion fodder in 2000 for a game between the Redskins and Titans.
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who has the highest poverty rate in the world | List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty - wikipedia
Countries by percentage of population living in poverty, as recorded by World bank and other sources.
"Poverty '' is defined as an economic condition of lacking both money and basic necessities needed to successfully live, such as food, water, utilities, and housing. There are many working definitions of "poverty '', with considerable debate on how to best define the term.
Lack of income security, economic stability and the predictability of one 's continued means to meet basic needs all serve as absolute indicators of poverty. Poverty may therefore also be defined as the economic condition of lacking predictable and stable means of meeting basic life needs.
The first table lists countries by the percentage of their population with an income of less than $1.90 and less than $3.10 US dollars per day in 2011 dollars at Purchasing power parity. The data is from the most recent year available from the World Bank API.
The second table lists countries by the percentage of the population living below the national poverty line -- the poverty line deemed appropriate for a country by its authorities. National estimates are based on population - weighted subgroup estimates from household surveys.
Definitions of the poverty line vary considerably among nations. For example, rich nations generally employ more generous standards of poverty than poor nations. Even among rich nations, the standards differ greatly. Thus, the numbers are not comparable among countries. Even when nations do use the same method, some issues may remain.
Only countries for which sourced data is available are listed. Data of countries, including Libya, Saudi Arabia remains unavailable. It is usually accepted, that over one third (33.3 %) of the population in Libya and Saudi Arabia live below the poverty line.
Percent of population living under 1.90 and 3.10 a day, 2011 dollars (purchasing power parity)
Population living below national poverty line (%)
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in a visual search we expect reaction times for recognition to be slowest for | Visual search - wikipedia
Visual search is a type of perceptual task requiring attention that typically involves an active scan of the visual environment for a particular object or feature (the target) among other objects or features (the distractors). Visual search can take place with or without eye movements. The ability to consciously locate an object or target amongst a complex array of stimuli has been extensively studied over the past 40 years. Practical examples of using visual search can be seen in everyday life, such as when one is picking out a product on a supermarket shelf, when animals are searching for food amongst piles of leaves, when trying to find your friend in a large crowd of people, or simply when playing visual search games such as Where 's Wally? Many visual search paradigms have used eye movement as a means to measure the degree of attention given to stimuli. However, vast research to date suggests that eye movements move independently of attention, and therefore are not a reliable method to examine the role of attention. Much previous literature on visual search uses reaction time in order to measure the time it takes to detect the target amongst its distractors. An example of this could be a green square (the target) amongst a set of red circles (the distractors).
Feature search (also known as "disjunctive '' or "efficient '' search) is a visual search process that focuses on identifying a previously requested target amongst distractors that differ from the target by a unique visual feature such as color, shape, orientation, or size. An example of a feature search task is asking a participant to identify a white square (target) surrounded by black squares (distractors). In this type of visual search, the distractors are characterized by the same visual features. The efficiency of feature search in regards to reaction time (RT) and accuracy depends on the "pop out '' effect, bottom - up processing, and parallel processing. However, the efficiency of feature search is unaffected by the number of distractors present. The "pop out '' effect is an element of feature search that characterizes the target 's ability to stand out from surrounding distractors due to its unique feature. Bottom - up processing, which is the processing of information that depends on input from the environment, explains how one utilizes feature detectors to process characteristics of the stimuli and differentiate a target from its distractors. This draw of visual attention towards the target due to bottom - up processes is known as "saliency. '' Lastly, parallel processing is the mechanism that then allows one 's feature detectors to work simultaneously in identifying the target.
Conjunction search (also known as inefficient or serial search) is a visual search process that focuses on identifying a previously requested target surrounded by distractors possessing one or more common visual features with the target itself. An example of a conjunction search task is having a person identify a red X (target) amongst distractors composed of black Xs (same shape) and red Os (same color). Unlike feature search, conjunction search involves distractors (or groups of distractors) that may differ from each other but exhibit at least one common feature with the target. The efficiency of conjunction search in regards to reaction time (RT) and accuracy is dependent on the distractor - ratio and the number of distractors present. As the distractors represent the differing individual features of the target more equally amongst themselves (distractor - ratio effect), reaction time (RT) increases and accuracy decreases. As the number of distractors present increases, the reaction time (RT) increases and the accuracy decreases. However, with practice the original reaction time (RT) restraints of conjunction search tend to show improvement. In the early stages of processing, conjunction search utilizes bottom - up processes to identify pre-specified features amongst the stimuli. These processes are then overtaken by a more serial process of consciously evaluating the indicated features of the stimuli in order to properly allocate one 's focal spatial attention towards the stimulus that most accurately represents the target. In many cases, top - down processing affects conjunction search by eliminating stimuli that are incongruent with one 's previous knowledge of the target - description, which in the end allows for more efficient identification of the target. An example of the effect of top - down processes on a conjunction search task is when searching for a red ' K ' among red ' Cs ' and black ' Ks ', individuals ignore the black letters and focus on the remaining red letters in order to decrease the set size of possible targets and, therefore, more efficiently identify their target.
In everyday situations, people are most commonly searching their visual fields for targets that are familiar to them. When it comes to searching for familiar stimuli, top - down processing allows one to more efficiently identify targets with greater complexity than can be represented in a feature or conjunction search task. In a study done to analyze the reverse - letter effect, which is the idea that identifying the asymmetric letter amongst symmetric letters is more efficient than its reciprocal, researchers concluded that individuals more efficiently recognize an asymmetric letter amongst symmetric letters due to top - down processes. Top - down processes allowed study participants to access prior knowledge regarding shape recognition of the letter N and quickly eliminate the stimuli that matched their knowledge. In the real world, one must use his prior knowledge everyday in order to accurately and efficiently locate his phone, keys, etc. amongst a much more complex array of distractors. While bottom - up processes may come into play when identifying objects that are not as familiar to a person, overall top - down processing highly influences visual searches that occur in everyday life.
It is also possible to measure the role of attention within visual search experiments by calculating the slope of reaction time over the number of distractors present. Generally, when high levels of attention are required when looking at a complex array of stimuli (conjunction search), the slope increases as the reaction times increase. For simple visual search tasks (feature search), the slope decreases due to reaction times being fast and requiring less attention.
One obvious way to select visual information is to turn towards it, also known as visual orienting. This may be a movement of the head and / or eyes towards the visual stimulus, called a saccade. Through a process called foveation, the eyes fixate on the object of interest, making the image of the visual stimulus fall on the fovea of the eye, the central part of the retina with the sharpest visual acuity.
There are two types of orienting:
Visual search relies primarily on endogenous orienting because participants have the goal to detect the presence or absence of a specific target object in an array of other distracting objects.
Visual orienting does not necessarily require overt movement, though. It has been shown that people can covertly (without eye movement) shift attention to peripheral stimuli. In the 1970s, it was found that the firing rate of cells in the parietal lobe of monkeys increased in response to stimuli in the receptive field when they attended to peripheral stimuli, even when no eye movements were allowed. These findings indicate that attention plays a critical role in understanding visual search.
Subsequently, competing theories of attention have come to dominate visual search discourse. The environment contains a vast amount of information. We are limited in the amount of information we are able to process at any one time, so it is therefore necessary that we have mechanisms by which extraneous stimuli can be filtered and only relevant information attended to. In the study of attention, psychologists distinguish between preattentitive and attentional processes. Preattentive processes are evenly distributed across all input signals, forming a kind of "low - level '' attention. Attentional processes are more selective and can only be applied to specific preattentive input. A large part of the current debate in visual search theory centres on selective attention and what the visual system is capable of achieving without focal attention.
A popular explanation for the different reaction times of feature and conjunction searches is the feature integration theory (FIT), introduced by Treisman and Gelade in 1980. This theory proposes that certain visual features are registered early, automatically, and are coded rapidly in parallel across the visual field using preattentive processes. Experiments show that these features include luminance, colour, orientation, motion direction, and velocity, as well as some simple aspects of form. For example, a red X can be quickly found among any number of black Xs and Os because the red X has the discriminative feature of colour and will "pop out. '' In contrast, this theory also suggests that in order to integrate two or more visual features belonging to the same object, a later process involving integration of information from different brain areas is needed and is coded serially using focal attention. For example, when locating an orange square among blue squares and orange triangles, neither the colour feature "orange '' nor the shape feature "square '' is sufficient to locate the search target. Instead, one must integrate information of both colour and shape to locate the target.
Evidence that attention and thus later visual processing is needed to integrate two or more features of the same object is shown by the occurrence of illusory conjunctions, or when features do not combine correctly. For example, if a display of a green X and a red O are flashed on a screen so briefly that the later visual process of a serial search with focal attention can not occur, the observer may report seeing a red X and a green O.
The FIT is a dichotomy because of the distinction between its two stages: the preattentive and attentive stages. Preattentive processes are those performed in the first stage of the FIT model, in which the simplest features of the object are being analyzed, such as color, size, and arrangement. The second attentive stage of the model incorporates cross-dimensional processing, and the actual identification of an object is done and information about the target object is put together. This theory has not always been what it is today; there have been disagreements and problems with its proposals that have allowed the theory to be amended and altered over time, and this criticism and revision has allowed it to become more accurate in its description of visual search. There have been disagreements over whether or not there is a clear distinction between feature detection and other searches that use a master map accounting for multiple dimensions in order to search for an object. Some psychologists support the idea that feature integration is completely separate from this type of master map search, whereas many others have decided that feature integration incorporates this use of a master map in order to locate an object in multiple dimensions.
The FIT also explains that there is a distinction between the brain 's processes that are being used in a parallel versus a focal attention task. Chan and Hayward have conducted multiple experiments supporting this idea by demonstrating the role of dimensions in visual search. While exploring whether or not focal attention can reduce the costs caused by dimension - switching in visual search, they explained that the results collected supported the mechanisms of the feature integration theory in comparison to other search - based approaches. They discovered that single dimensions allow for a much more efficient search regardless of the size of the area being searched, but once more dimensions are added it is much more difficult to efficiently search, and the bigger the area being searched the longer it takes for one to find the target.
A second main function of preattentive processes is to direct focal attention to the most "promising '' information in the visual field. There are two ways in which these processes can be used to direct attention: bottom - up activation (which is stimulus - driven) and top - down activation (which is user - driven). In the guided search model by Jeremy Wolfe, information from top - down and bottom - up processing of the stimulus is used to create a ranking of items in order of their attentional priority. In a visual search, attention will be directed to the item with the highest priority. If that item is rejected, then attention will move on to the next item and the next, and so forth. The guided search theory follows that of parallel search processing.
An activation map is a representation of visual space in which the level of activation at a location reflects the likelihood that the location contains a target. This likelihood is based on preattentive, featural information of the perceiver. According to the guided search model, the initial processing of basic features produces an activation map, with every item in the visual display having its own level of activation. Attention is demanded based on peaks of activation in the activation map in a search for the target. Visual search can proceed efficiently or inefficiently. During efficient search, performance is unaffected by the number of distractor items. The reaction time functions are flat, and the search is assumed to be a parallel search. Thus, in the guided search model, a search is efficient if the target generates the highest, or one of the highest activation peaks. For example, suppose someone is searching for red, horizontal targets. Feature processing would activate all red objects and all horizontal objects. Attention is then directed to items depending on their level of activation, starting with those most activated. This explains why search times are longer when distractors share one or more features with the target stimuli. In contrast, during inefficient search, the reaction time to identify the target increases linearly with the number of distractor items present. According to the guided search model, this is because the peak generated by the target is not one of the highest.
During visual search experiments the posterior parietal cortex has elicited much activation during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) experiments for inefficient conjunction search, which has also been confirmed through lesion studies. Patients with lesions to the posterior parietal cortex show low accuracy and very slow reaction times during a conjunction search task but have intact feature search remaining to the ipsilesional (the same side of the body as the lesion) side of space. Ashbridge, Walsh, and Cowey in (1997) demonstrated that during the application of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to the right parietal cortex, conjunction search was impaired by 100 milliseconds after stimulus onset. This was not found during feature search. Nobre, Coull, Walsh and Frith (2003) identified using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that the intraparietal sulcus located in the superior parietal cortex was activated specifically to feature search and the binding of individual perceptual features as opposed to conjunction search. Conversely, the authors further identify that for conjunction search, the superior parietal lobe and the right angular gyrus elicit bilaterally during fMRI experiments.
In contrast, Leonards, Sunaert, Vam Hecke and Orban (2000) identified that significant activation is seen during fMRI experiments in the superior frontal sulcus primarily for conjunction search. This research hypothesises that activation in this region may in fact reflect working memory for holding and maintaining stimulus information in mind in order to identify the target. Furthermore, significant frontal activation including the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex bilaterally and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex were seen during positron emission tomography for attentional spatial representations during visual search. The same regions associated with spatial attention in the parietal cortex coincide with the regions associated with feature search. Furthermore, the frontal eye field (FEF) located bilaterally in the prefrontal cortex, plays a critical role in saccadic eye movememnts and the control of visual attention.
Moreover, research into monkeys and single cell recording found that the superior colliculus is involved in the selection of the target during visual search as well as the initiation of movements. Conversely, it also suggested that activation in the superior colliculus results from disengaging attention, ensuring that the next stimulus can be internally represented. The ability to directly attend to a particular stimuli during visual search experiments has been linked to the pulvinar nucleus (located in the midbrain) while inhibiting attention to unattended stimuli. Conversely, Bender and Butter (1987) found that during testing on monkeys, no involvement of the pulvinar nucleus was identified during visual search tasks.
There is a variety of speculation about the origin and evolution of visual search in humans. It has been shown that during visual exploration of complex natural scenes, both humans and nonhuman primates make highly stereotyped eye movements. Furthermore, chimpanzees have demonstrated improved performance in visual searches for upright human or dog faces, suggesting that visual search (particularly where the target is a face) is not peculiar to humans and that it may be a primal trait. Research has suggested that effective visual search may have developed as a necessary skill for survival, where being adept at detecting threats and identifying food was essential.
The importance of evolutionarily relevant threat stimuli was demonstrated in a study by LoBue and DeLoache (2008) in which children (and adults) were able to detect snakes more rapidly than other targets amongst distractor stimuli.
Given that the environment in which humans live has changed significantly over time, questions arise as to whether the purpose of visual search is falling away, or whether humans have adapted it to identify new salient targets. Research into the relevance of visual search in modern society has included identifying target nutritional information on product labels, identifying salient features while driving and manipulating consumer shopping habits using different shelf display characteristics. Another modern application of visual search has been the development of artificial visual search engines, such as Google Goggles.
Over the past few decades there have been vast amounts of research into face recognition, specifying that faces endure specialized processing within a region called the fusiform face area (FFA) located in the mid fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe. Debates are ongoing whether both faces and objects are detected and processed in different systems and whether both have category specific regions for recognition and identification. Much research to date focuses on the accuracy of the detection and the time taken to detect the face in a complex visual search array. When faces are displayed in isolation, upright faces are processed faster and more accurately than inverted faces, but this effect was observed in non-face objects as well. When faces are to be detected among inverted or jumbled faces, reaction times for intact and upright faces increase as the number of distractors within the array is increased. Hence, it is argued that the ' pop out ' theory defined in feature search is not applicable in the recognition of faces in such visual search paradigm. Conversely, the opposite effect has been argued and within a natural environmental scene, the ' pop out ' effect of the face is significantly shown. This could be due to evolutionary developments as the need to be able to identify faces that appear threatening to the individual or group is deemed critical in the survival of the fittest. More recently, it was found that faces can be efficiently detected in a visual search paradigm, if the distracters are non-face objects, however it is debated whether this apparent ' pop out ' effect is driven by a high - level mechanism or by low - level confounding features. Furthermore, patients with developmental prosopagnosia, suffering from imparied face identification, generally detect faces normally, suggesting that visual search for faces is facilitated by mechanisms other than the face - identification circuits of the fusiform face area.
Patients with forms of dementia can also have deficits in facial recognition and the ability to recognize human emotions in the face. In a meta - analysis of nineteen different studies comparing normal adults with dementia patients in their abilities to recognize facial emotions, the patients with frontotemporal dementia were seen to have a lower ability to recognize many different emotions. These patients were much less accurate than the control participants (and even in comparison with Alzheimer 's patients) in recognizing negative emotions, but were not significantly impaired in recognizing happiness. Anger and disgust in particular were the most difficult for the dementia patients to recognize.
Face recognition is a complex process that has many more factors that can affect one 's recognition abilities. Other aspects to be considered include race and culture and their effects on one 's ability to recognize faces. Some factors such as the other race effect can influence one 's ability to recognize and remember faces. There are so many factors, both environmental and individually internal, that can affect this task that it can be difficult to isolate and study each and every idea.
Research indicates that performance in conjunctive visual search tasks significantly improves during childhood and declines in later life. More specifically, young adults have been shown to have faster reaction times on conjunctive visual search tasks than both children and older adults, but their reaction times were similar for feature visual search tasks. This suggests that there is something about the process of integrating visual features or serial searching that is difficult for children and older adults, but not for young adults. Studies have suggested numerous mechanisms involved in this difficulty in children, including peripheral visual acuity, eye movement ability, ability of attentional focal movement, and the ability to divide visual attention among multiple objects.
Studies have suggested similar mechanisms in the difficulty for older adults, such as age related optical changes that influence peripheral acuity, the ability to move attention over the visual field, the ability to disengage attention, and the ability to ignore distractors.
A study by Lorenzo - López et al. (2008) provides neurological evidence for the fact that older adults have slower reaction times during conjunctive searches compared to young adults. Event - related potentials (ERPs) showed longer latencies and lower amplitudes in older subjects than young adults at the P3 component, which is related to activity of the parietal lobes. This suggests the involvement of the parietal lobe function with an age - related decline in the speed of visual search tasks. Results also showed that older adults, when compared to young adults, had significantly less activity in the anterior cingulate cortex and many limbic and occipitotemporal regions that are involved in performing visual search tasks.
Research has found that people with Alzheimer 's disease (AD) are significantly impaired overall in visual search tasks. Surprisingly, AD sufferers manifest enhanced spatial cueing, but this benefit is only obtained for cues with high spatial precision. Abnormal visual attention may underlie certain visuospatial difficulties in patients with (AD). People with AD have hypometabolism and neuropathology in the parietal cortex, and given the role of parietal function for visual attention, patients with AD may have hemispatial neglect, which may result in difficulty with disengaging attention in visual search.
An experiment conducted by Tales et al. (2000) investigated the ability of patients with AD to perform various types of efficient visual search tasks. Their results showed that search rates on the "pop - out '' tasks were similar for both AD and control groups, however, people with AD searched significantly slower compared to the control group on the conjunction task. One interpretation of these results is that the visual system of AD patients has a problem with feature binding, such that it is unable to communicate efficiently the different feature descriptions for the stimulus. Binding of features is thought to be mediated by areas in the temporal and parietal cortex, and these areas are known to be affected by AD - related pathology.
Another possibility for the impairment of people with AD on conjunction searches is that there may be some damage to general attentional mechanisms in AD, and therefore any attention - related task will be affected, including visual search.
Tales et al. (2000) detected a double dissociation with their experimental results on AD and visual search. Earlier work was carried out on patients with Parkinson 's disease (PD) concerning the impairment patients with PD have on visual search tasks. In those studies, evidence was found of impairment in PD patients on the "pop - out '' task, but no evidence was found on the impairment of the conjunction task. As discussed, AD patients show the exact opposite of these results: normal performance was seen on the "pop - out '' task, but impairment was found on the conjunction task. This double dissociation provides evidence that PD and AD affect the visual pathway in different ways, and that the pop - out task and the conjunction task are differentially processed within that pathway.
Studies have consistently shown that autistic individuals performed better and with lower reaction times in feature and conjunctive visual search tasks than matched controls without autism. Several explanations for these observations have been suggested. One possibility is that people with autism have enhanced perceptual capacity. This means that autistic individuals are able to process larger amounts of perceptual information, allowing for superior parallel processing and hence faster target location. Second, autistic individuals show superior performance in discrimination tasks between similar stimuli and therefore may have an enhanced ability to differentiate between items in the visual search display. A third suggestion is that autistic individuals may have stronger top - down target excitation processing and stronger distractor inhibition processing than controls. Keehn et al. (2008) used an event - related functional magnetic resonance imaging design to study the neurofunctional correlates of visual search in autistic children and matched controls of typically developing children. Autistic children showed superior search efficiency and increased neural activation patterns in the frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes when compared to the typically developing children. Thus, autistic individuals ' superior performance on visual search tasks may be due to enhanced discrimination of items on the display, which is associated with occipital activity, and increased top - down shifts of visual attention, which is associated with the frontal and parietal areas.
In the past decade, there has been extensive research into how companies can maximise sales using psychological techniques derived from visual search to determine how products should be positioned on shelves. Pieters and Warlop (1999) used eye tracking devices to assess saccades and fixations of consumers while they visually scanned / searched an array of products on a supermarket shelf. Their research suggests that consumers specifically direct their attention to products with eye - catching properties such as shape, colour or brand name. This effect is due to a pressured visual search where eye movements accelerate and saccades minimise, thus resulting in the consumer 's quickly choosing a product with a ' pop out ' effect. This study suggests that efficient search is primarily used, concluding that consumers do not focus on items that share very similar features. The more distinct or maximally visually different a product is from surrounding products, the more likely the consumer is to notice it. Janiszewski (1998) discussed two types of consumer search. One search type is goal directed search taking place when somebody uses stored knowledge of the product in order to make a purchase choice. The second is exploratory search. This occurs when the consumer has minimal previous knowledge about how to choose a product. It was found that for exploratory search, individuals would pay less attention to products that were placed in visually competitive areas such as the middle of the shelf at an optimal viewing height. This was primarily due to the competition in attention meaning that less information was maintained in visual working memory for these products.
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who wins america's next top model cycle 24 | America 's Next Top Model (cycle 24) - wikipedia
January 9 (2018 - 01 - 09) -- April 10, 2018 (2018 - 04 - 10)
The twenty - fourth cycle of America 's Next Top Model premiered on January 9, 2018 and was the second season to air on VH1. Continuing from cycle 23, this cycle featured an all - female cast. However, in a first for the series, the maximum age limit was removed, allowing contestants of all ages to enter the contest.
Top Model franchise creator Tyra Banks returned as the show 's host after being replaced for one cycle by singer Rita Ora. The judging panel, consisting of model Ashley Graham, Paper magazine chief creative officer Drew Elliott, and celebrity stylist Law Roach, remained otherwise unchanged.
(Ages stated are at start of contest.)
Original air date: January 9, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 09)
The semi-finalists were introduced to the judges for the first time, and were made aware of the new casting process in which any of them could be eliminated at any point during casting week (as opposed to the mass - eliminations in previous cycles), to gradually reduce the pool of contestants. The models then had one - on - one auditions with the judges, which saw several semi-finalists leave the competition.
The surviving models later met with judge Drew Elliot and fashion director Nicola Formichetti for an Avant - garde photo shoot and runway challenge. The remaining 18 contestants moved into the model house, and at the end of the week, host Tyra Banks selected the finalized cast of 14 contestants. Immediately afterwards, Banks announced that one of the semifinalists who 'd missed the final cut, Erin Green, would also be allowed to move on to the main competition, bringing the final number of contestants to 15.
Original air date: January 16, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 16)
The finalists moved into the model home. They later met runway coach Stacey McKenzie for a catwalk lesson in preparation for an upcoming runway challenge at Venice Beach skate park, where the contestants had to model designs from Baja East and avoid skateboarders as they navigated across a skating ramp. As the winner of the challenge, Khrystyana was chosen to walk in a show for the label during New York fashion week. On set, the models had a bohemian pregnancy photo shoot with photographer Charlotte Rutherford, inspired by Hollywood 's latest baby boom fashion trends. At elimination, Coura received best picture. Brendi K and Maggie landed in the bottom two, and Maggie was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: January 23, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 23)
The models arrived back at the house and immediately received a Tyra Mail alluding to the fact that makeovers would be taking place soon. After the makeovers were administered, the models met Director X for a video shoot meant to showcase their new trademark looks in a room full of mirrors. At elimination, Liberty was deemed to be the best performer for the shoot. Shanice and Ivana landed in the bottom two, and Ivana was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: January 30, 2018 (2018 - 01 - 30)
The remaining models received scripts for a screen test challenge with actor Kevin Phillips, which was judged by director Anthony Hemingway and Stacey McKenzie. Khrystyana was ultimately chosen as the challenge winner. Later on, the models were taken to a mansion for a photo shoot inspired by American Horror Story. After a heart to heart conversation with Tyra, Liz decided to quit the competition. At elimination, Khrystyana received best photo. Coura and Rhiyan landed in the bottom two, and Rhiyan was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 6, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 06)
The remaining 11 models had to work with renowned YouTuber Patrick Starr to shoot a beauty vlog which required them to use unconventional items as beauty tools. Sandra was chosen as the challenge winner, and was rewarded with a guest appearance on Starr 's channel. On set, the models were stacked on top of one another to have their beauty shots taken. At elimination, Rio received best picture. Christina and Coura landed in the bottom two, and Coura was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 13, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 13)
The remaining 10 contestants celebrated pride week at Micky 's Bar, and took part in a self styled popup runway challenge for designer Christian Cowan which was won by Khrystyana. The models later had a photo shoot posing alongside former Drag Race contestants Manila Luzon, Valentina and Katya Zamolodchikova. Khrystyana won best picture at elimination. Kyla and Liberty landed in the bottom two, and Liberty was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 20, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 20)
The remaining nine contestants were challenged with the task of creating an anti-bullying PSA for the National Crime Prevention Council under the direction of Director X. As the winners of the challenge, Khrystyana, Kyla, and Sandra were chosen to have their video used as part of a national digital campaign for NCPC. On set, the models were stripped to their barest essentials and had their photographs taken by Tyra. At elimination Brendi K, Jeana, Khrystyana, Kyla, Rio, Sandra, and Shanice received a joint first call - out as a group. Christina and Erin landed in the bottom two, and Christina was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: February 27, 2018 (2018 - 02 - 27)
The remaining models received a visit from Tyra, and learned about effective techniques for taking a selfie. They were later introduced to model Jourdan Dunn in time for a selfie challenge in which they had to advertise Jourdan 's clothing brand, LonDunn. Jeana was chosen as the winner of the challenge. On set the contestants were photographed by Tyra in a photo shoot where they had to pose with plus - sized male models covered in gold body paint. At elimination, Kyla received best photo. Khrystyana and Sandra landed in bottom two, and Sandra was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: March 6, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 06)
The seven remaining models met with Ashley Graham and movement coach Jermaine Browne for a motion shoot challenge, which was won by Jeana. They later had a couture photo shoot in the desert while posing with a parachute. Brendi K decided to quit the competition at panel. Shanice received best photo during elimination, while Jeana and Kyla landed in the bottom two. As a result of Brendi K 's departure earlier in the episode, both of them were allowed to stay.
Original air date: March 13, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 13)
The six remaining contestants attended castings in Los Angeles for Chris Mena and Maggie Barry. Kyla and Rio were chosen as the winners of the challenge, and were given the opportunity to walk in a runway show for the designers as part of their reward. On set, the models had a cover try photo shoot for Paper magazine. At elimination, Rio received best photo. Erin and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Erin was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: March 13, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 13)
This episode featured behind the scenes and never before seen footage of the cycle, and highlighted each contestants journey to the top five.
Original air date: March 20, 2018
The remaining finalists had a challenge in which they had to create personalized avatars for the new America 's Next Top Model mobile game. Khrystyana was chosen as the winner, and received an assortment of clothes styled by Law Roach. The models were later taken to a mansion in order to shoot a music video with Maejor and Tyra Banks under the direction of Director X. At elimination, Khrystyana received best performance. Jeana and Rio landed in the bottom two, and Jeana was eliminated from the competition.
Original air date: March 27, 2018 (2018 - 03 - 27)
The final four took part in a throwback America 's Next Top Model challenge inspired by the bubble runway from cycle 16. It was revealed that the models would be walking alongside the formerly eliminated contestants, one of whom would be replacing that week 's eliminee at panel. Erin was chosen as the challenge winner, and along with Liberty, Christina, and Jeana, moved back into the model house for the opportunity to possibly return. On set, the contestants had a photo shoot in pairs with cycle 3 winner Eva Marcille covered in tarantulas, shot by former judge Nigel Barker. At elimination, Kyla received best picture. Rio and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Rio was eliminated from the competition. Out of the four comeback contestants, Jeana was chosen to return.
Original air date: April 3, 2018 (2018 - 04 - 03)
The remaining four models took part in a challenge for Pantene in which they had to style their own hair and makeup. Khrystyana was chosen as the winner. On set, the contestants had to shoot an advertising campaign for Pantene, which required them to embody several different products from the brand. At elimination, Kyla won best photo. Jeana and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Jeana was eliminated from the competition. In a shocking turn of events, she was saved from elimination by guest judge Philip Plein, joining the other three models in the finale.
Original air date: April 10, 2018 (2018 - 04 - 10)
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who plays marissa on the young and the restless | Vanessa Marano - wikipedia
Vanessa Nicole Marano (born October 31, 1992) is an American actress. She has starred in television movies and had recurring roles in such series as Without a Trace, Gilmore Girls, Ghost Whisperer, Scoundrels, Grey 's Anatomy and The Young and the Restless. From 2011 - 2017, she starred as Bay Kennish on the Freeform television series Switched at Birth.
Vanessa Marano began acting professionally at the age of seven. According to an interview with her sister, her mother did not want either of her children to have careers in show business, and took the girls to an agent that she believed was most likely to turn kids down, only to find that Vanessa was accepted. Her sister Laura, who was on the scene with her, also impressed the agency. Since then, she worked for productions at the Stage Door Theater. Marano 's first major roles on television have been as Jack Malone 's older daughter in Without a Trace (she and real life sister Laura play sisters), Valerie 's stepdaughter in The Comeback and as April Nardini in Gilmore Girls. She also played Layne Abeley in The Clique based on the books by Lisi Harrison and Samantha Combs in Dear Lemon Lima. Marano starred in an episode of Ghost Whisperer alongside Jennifer Love Hewitt. Marano played Eden on The Young and the Restless and Hope on Scoundrels. Since June 2011, she has starred as Bay Kennish on the ABC Family TV show Switched at Birth. In 2013, she starred in Restless Virgins which was inspired by a true story.
Marano was born in Los Angeles, California. Her mother, Ellen, is the owner of Agoura Children 's Theatre. Her younger sister, Laura Marano, is also an actress. Marano speaks Italian, and her father is of Italian descent.
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what courts in the federal system are considered intermediate appellate courts | United States courts of appeals - wikipedia
The United States courts of appeals or circuit courts are the intermediate appellate courts of the United States federal court system. A court of appeals decides appeals from the district courts within its federal judicial circuit, and in some instances from other designated federal courts and administrative agencies.
The United States courts of appeals are considered among the most powerful and influential courts in the United States. Because of their ability to set legal precedent in regions that cover millions of Americans, the United States courts of appeals have strong policy influence on U.S. law. Moreover, because the U.S. Supreme Court chooses to review fewer than 2 % of the more than 7,000 to 8,000 cases filed with it annually, the U.S. courts of appeals serve as the final arbiter on most federal cases. The Ninth Circuit in particular is very influential, covering 20 % of the American population.
There are currently 179 judgeships on the U.S. courts of appeals authorized by Congress in 28 U.S.C. § 43 pursuant to Article III of the U.S. Constitution. These judges are nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. They have lifetime tenure, earning (as of 2016) an annual salary of $215,400.
There are thirteen U.S. courts of appeals, although there are other tribunals that have "Court of Appeals '' in their titles, such as the Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, which hears appeals in court - martial cases, and the United States Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, which reviews final decisions by the Board of Veterans ' Appeals in the Department of Veterans Affairs. The eleven numbered circuits and the D.C. Circuit are geographically defined. The thirteenth court of appeals is the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has nationwide jurisdiction over certain appeals based on their subject matter. All of the courts of appeals also hear appeals from some administrative agency decisions and rulemaking, with by far the largest share of these cases heard by the D.C. Circuit. The Federal Circuit hears appeals from specialized trial courts, primarily the United States Court of International Trade and the United States Court of Federal Claims, as well as appeals from the district courts in patent cases and certain other specialized matters.
Decisions of the U.S. courts of appeals have been published by the private company West Publishing in the Federal Reporter series since the courts were established. Only decisions that the courts designate for publication are included. The "unpublished '' opinions (of all but the Fifth and Eleventh Circuits) are published separately in West 's Federal Appendix, and they are also available in on - line databases like LexisNexis or Westlaw. More recently, court decisions have also been made available electronically on official court websites. However, there are also a few federal court decisions that are classified for national security reasons.
The circuit with the smallest number of appellate judges is the First Circuit, and the one with the largest number of appellate judges is the geographically large and populous Ninth Circuit in the Far West. The number of judges that the U.S. Congress has authorized for each circuit is set forth by law in 28 U.S.C. § 44, while the places where those judges must regularly sit to hear appeals are prescribed in 28 U.S.C. § 48.
Although the courts of appeals are frequently called "circuit courts '', they should not be confused with the former United States circuit courts, which were active from 1789 to 1911, during the time when long - distance transportation was much less available, and which were primarily first - level federal trial courts that moved periodically from place to place in "circuits '' in order to serve the dispersed population in towns and the smaller cities that existed then. The current "courts of appeals '' system was established in the Judiciary Act of 1891, also known as the Evarts Act.
Because the courts of appeals possess only appellate jurisdiction, they do not hold trials. Only courts with original jurisdiction hold trials and thus determine punishments (in criminal cases) and remedies (in civil cases). Instead, appeals courts review decisions of trial courts for errors of law. Accordingly, an appeals court considers only the record (that is, the papers the parties filed and the transcripts and any exhibits from any trial) from the trial court, and the legal arguments of the parties. These arguments, which are presented in written form and can range in length from dozens to hundreds of pages, are known as briefs. Sometimes lawyers are permitted to add to their written briefs with oral arguments before the appeals judges. At such hearings, only the parties ' lawyers speak to the court.
The rules that govern the procedure in the courts of appeals are the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure. In a court of appeals, an appeal is almost always heard by a "panel '' of three judges who are randomly selected from the available judges (including senior judges and judges temporarily assigned to the circuit). Some cases, however, receive an en banc hearing. Except in the Ninth Circuit Courts, the en banc court consists of all of the circuit judges who are on active status, but it does not include the senior or assigned judges (except that under some circumstances, a senior judge may participate in an en banc hearing when he or she participated at an earlier stage of the same case).
Many decades ago, certain classes of federal court cases held the right of an automatic appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. That is, one of the parties in the case could appeal a decision of a court of appeals to the Supreme Court, and it had to accept the case. The right of automatic appeal for most types of decisions of a court of appeals was ended by an Act of Congress, the Judiciary Act of 1925. This law was urged by Chief Justice William Howard Taft, and it also reorganized many other things in the federal court system.
The current procedure is that a party in a case may apply to the Supreme Court to review a ruling of the circuit court. This is called petitioning for a writ of certiorari, and the Supreme Court may choose, in its sole discretion, to review any lower court ruling. In extremely rare cases, the Supreme Court may grant the writ of certiorari before the judgment is rendered by the court of appeals, thereby reviewing the lower court 's ruling directly. Certiorari before judgment was granted in the Watergate scandal - related case, United States v. Nixon, and in the 2005 decision involving the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, United States v. Booker.
A court of appeals may also pose questions to the Supreme Court for a ruling in the midst of reviewing a case. This procedure was formerly used somewhat commonly, but now it is quite rare. The Second Circuit, sitting en banc, attempted to use this procedure in the case United States v. Penaranda, as a result of the Supreme Court 's decision in Blakely v. Washington, but the Supreme Court dismissed the question after resolving the same issue in another case, which had come before the Court through the standard procedure. The last instance of the Supreme Court accepting a set of questions and answering them was in a case in 1982.
A court of appeals may convene a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel to hear appeals in bankruptcy cases directly from the bankruptcy court of its circuit. As of 2008, only the First, Sixth, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Circuits have established a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel. Those circuits that do not have a Bankruptcy Appellate Panel have their bankruptcy appeals heard by the District Court.
Courts of appeals decisions, unlike those of the lower federal courts, establish binding precedents. Other federal courts in that circuit must, from that point forward, follow the appeals court 's guidance in similar cases, regardless of whether the trial judge thinks that the case should be decided differently.
Federal and state laws can and do change from time to time, depending on the actions of Congress and the state legislatures. Therefore, the law that exists at the time of the appeal might be different from the law that existed at the time of the events that are in controversy under civil or criminal law in the case at hand. A court of appeals applies the law as it exists at the time of the appeal; otherwise, it would be handing down decisions that would be instantly obsolete, and this would be a waste of time and resources, since such decisions could not be cited as precedent. "(A) court is to apply the law in effect at the time it renders its decision, unless doing so would result in manifest injustice, or there is statutory direction or some legislative history to the contrary. ''
However, the above rule can not apply in criminal cases if the effect of applying the newer law would be to create an ex post facto law to the detriment of the defendant.
In order to serve as counsel in a case appealed to a circuit court the attorney must be admitted to the bar of that circuit. Admission to the bar of a circuit court is granted as a matter of course to any attorney who is admitted to practice law in any state of the United States. The attorney submits an application, pays a fee, and takes the oath of admission. Local practice varies as to whether the oath is given in writing or in open court before a judge of the circuit, and most courts of appeals allow the applicant attorney to choose which method he or she prefers.
When the courts of appeals were created in 1891, one was created for each of the nine circuits then existing, and each court was named the "United States Circuit Court of Appeals for the _____ Circuit ''. When a court of appeals was created for the District of Columbia in 1893, it was named the "Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '', and it was renamed to the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '' in 1934. In 1948, Congress renamed all of the courts of appeals then existing to their current formal names: the court of appeals for each numbered circuit was named the "United States Court of Appeals for the _____ Circuit '', and the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia '' became the "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ''. The Tenth Circuit was created in 1929 by subdividing the existing Eighth Circuit, and the Eleventh Circuit was created in 1981 by subdividing the existing Fifth Circuit. The Federal Circuit was created in 1982 by the merger of the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the appellate division of the United States Court of Claims.
Judicial councils are panels in each circuit that are charged with making "necessary and appropriate orders for the effective and expeditious administration of justice '' within their circuits. Among their responsibilities is judicial discipline, the formulation of circuit policy, the implementation of policy directives received from the Judicial Conference of the United States, and the annual submission of a report to the Administrative Office of the United States Courts on the number and nature of orders entered during the year that relate to judicial misconduct. Judicial councils consist of the chief judge of the circuit and an equal number of circuit judges and district judges of the circuit.
District of Columbia Circuit (Washington)
First Circuit (Boston)
Second Circuit (New York City)
Third Circuit (Philadelphia)
Fourth Circuit (Richmond)
Fifth Circuit (New Orleans)
Sixth Circuit (Cincinnati)
Seventh Circuit (Chicago)
Eighth Circuit (St. Louis)
Ninth Circuit (San Francisco)
Tenth Circuit (Denver)
Eleventh Circuit (Atlanta)
Federal Circuit (Washington)
Based on 2010 United States Census figures, the population residing in each circuit is as follows.
The Judiciary Act of 1789 established three circuits, which were groups of judicial districts in which United States circuit courts were established. Each circuit court consisted of two Supreme Court justices and the local district judge; the three circuits existed solely for the purpose of assigning the justices to a group of circuit courts. Some districts (generally the ones most difficult for an itinerant justice to reach) did not have a circuit court; in these districts the district court exercised the original jurisdiction of a circuit court. As new states were admitted to the Union, Congress often did not create circuit courts for them for a number of years.
The Midnight Judges Act reorganized the districts into six circuits, and created circuit judgeships so that Supreme Court justices would no longer have to ride circuit. This Act, however, was repealed in March 1802, and Congress provided that the former circuit courts would be revived as of July 1 of that year. But it then passed the new Judiciary Act of 1802 in April, so that the revival of the old courts never took effect. The 1802 Act restored circuit riding, but with only one justice to a circuit; it therefore created six new circuits, but with slightly different compositions than the 1801 Act. These six circuits later were augmented by others. Until 1866, each new circuit (except the short - lived California Circuit) was accompanied by a newly created Supreme Court seat.
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when did india become no 1 in test cricket | India national cricket team - Wikipedia
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The India national cricket team, also known as Team India and Men in Blue, represents India in international cricket. Governed by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), it is a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) with Test, One Day International (ODI) and Twenty20 International (T20I) status.
Although cricket was introduced to India by European merchant sailors in the 18th century, and the first cricket club was established in Calcutta in 1792, India 's national cricket team did not play its first Test match until 25 June 1932 at Lord 's, becoming the sixth team to be granted Test cricket status. In its first fifty years of international cricket, India was one of the weaker teams, winning only 35 of the first 196 Test matches it played. From 1932 India had to wait until 1952, almost 20 years for its first Test victory. The team, however, gained strength in the 1970s with the emergence of players such as batsmen Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath, all - rounder Kapil Dev and the Indian spin quartet of Erapalli Prasanna, Srinivas Venkataraghavan, Bhagwat Chandrasekhar and Bishen Singh Bedi.
Traditionally much stronger at home than abroad, the Indian team has improved its overseas form, especially in limited - overs cricket, since the start of the 21st century, winning Test matches in Australia, England and South Africa. It has won the Cricket World Cup twice -- in 1983 under the captaincy of Kapil Dev and in 2011 under the captaincy of Mahendra Singh Dhoni. After winning the 2011 World Cup, India became only the third team after West Indies and Australia to have won the World Cup more than once, and the first cricket team to win the World Cup at home. It also won the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy, under the captaincy of MS Dhoni. It was also the joint champions of 2002 ICC Champions Trophy, along with Sri Lanka.
As of 24 September 2017, India is ranked first in Tests, first in ODIs and fifth in T20Is by the ICC. Virat Kohli is the current captain of the team across all formats, while the head coach is Ravi Shastri. The Indian cricket team has rivalries with other Test - playing nations, most notably with Pakistan, the political arch - rival of India. However, in recent times, rivalries with nations like Australia and England have also gained prominence.
The British brought cricket to India in the early 1700s, with the first cricket match played in 1721. In 1848, the Parsi community in Bombay formed the Oriental Cricket Club, the first cricket club to be established by Indians. After slow beginnings, the Europeans eventually invited the Parsis to play a match in 1877. By 1912, the Parsis, Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims of Bombay played a quadrangular tournament with the Europeans every year. In the early 1900s, some Indians went on to play for the England cricket team. Some of these, such as Ranjitsinhji and KS Duleepsinhji were greatly appreciated by the British and their names went on to be used for the Ranji Trophy and Duleep Trophy -- two major first - class tournaments in India. In 1911, an Indian team went on their first official tour of the British Isles, but only played English county teams and not the England cricket team.
India was invited into The Imperial Cricket Council in 1926, and made their debut as a Test playing nation in England in 1932, led by CK Nayudu, who was considered as the best Indian batsman at the time. The one - off Test match between the two sides was played at Lord 's in London. The team was not strong in their batting at this point and went on to lose by 158 runs. In 1933, the first Test series in India was played between India and England with matches in Bombay, Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Madras (now Chennai). England won the series 2 -- 0. The Indian team continued to improve throughout the 1930s and ' 40s but did not achieve an international victory during this period. In the early 1940s, India did n't play any Test cricket due to the Second World War. The team 's first series as an independent country was in late 1947 against Sir Donald Bradman 's Invincibles (a name given to the Australia national cricket team of that time). It was also the first Test series India played which was not against England. Australia won the five - match series 4 -- 0, with Bradman tormenting the Indian bowling in his final Australian summer. India subsequently played their first Test series at home not against England against the West Indies in 1948. West Indies won the 5 - Test series 1 -- 0.
India recorded their first Test victory, in their 24th match, against England at Madras in 1952. Later in the same year, they won their first Test series, which was against Pakistan. They continued their improvement throughout the early 1950s with a series win against New Zealand in 1956. However, they did not win again in the remainder of the decade and lost badly to strong Australian and English sides. On 24 August 1959, India lost by an innings in the Test to complete the only 5 -- 0 whitewash ever inflicted by England. The next decade saw India 's reputation develop as a team with a strong record at home. They won their first Test series against England at home in 1961 -- 62, and also won a home series against New Zealand. They managed to draw home series against Pakistan and Australia, and another series against England. In this same period, India also won its first series outside the subcontinent, against New Zealand in 1967 -- 68.
The key to India 's bowling in the 1970s were the Indian spin quartet -- Bishen Bedi, E.A.S. Prasanna, BS Chandrasekhar and Srinivas Venkataraghavan. This period also saw the emergence of two of India 's best ever batsmen, Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath. Indian pitches have had tendency to support spin and the spin quartet exploited this to create collapses in opposing batting line - ups. These players were responsible for the back - to - back series wins in 1971 in the West Indies and in England, under the captaincy of Ajit Wadekar. Gavaskar scored 774 runs in the West Indian series while Dilip Sardesai 's 112 played a big part in their one Test win.
The advent of One Day International (ODI) cricket in 1971 created a new dimension in the cricket world. However, India was not considerably strong in ODIs at this point and batsmen such as the captain Gavaskar were known for their defence - based approaches to batting. India began as a weak team in ODIs and did not qualify for the second round in the first two editions of the Cricket World Cup. Gavaskar infamously blocked his way to 36 not out off 174 balls against England in the first World Cup in 1975, India scored just 132 for 3 and lost by 202 runs.
In contrast, India fielded a strong team in Test matches and were particularly strong at home where their combination of stylish batsman and beguiling spinners were seen at their best. India set a then Test record in the third Test against the West Indies at Port - of - Spain in 1976 when they chased 403 to win thanks to 112 from Viswanath. This West Indian defeat is considered to be a watershed in the history of their cricket because it led to captain Clive Lloyd dispensing with spin altogether and relying entirely on a four - man pace attack. In November 1976, the team established another record by scoring 524 for 9 declared against New Zealand at Kanpur without an individual scoring a century. There were six fifties, the highest being 70 by Mohinder Amarnath. The innings was the eighth instance in Test cricket where all eleven batsmen reached double figures.
During the 1980s, India developed a more attack - minded batting line - up with stroke makers such as the wristy Mohammed Azharuddin, Dilip Vengsarkar and all - rounders Kapil Dev and Ravi Shastri. India won the Cricket World Cup in 1983, defeating the favourites and two - time defending champions West Indies in the final, owing to a strong bowling performance. In spite of this, the team performed poorly in the Test arena, including 28 consecutive Test matches without a victory. In 1984, India won the Asia Cup and in 1985, won the World Championship of Cricket in Australia. Apart from this, India remained a weak team outside the Indian subcontinent. India 's Test series victory in 1986 against England remained the last Test series win by India outside the subcontinent for the next 19 years. The 1980s saw Gavaskar and Kapil Dev (India 's best all - rounder to date) at the pinnacle of their careers. Gavaskar made a Test record 34 centuries as he became the first man to reach the 10,000 run mark. Kapil Dev later became the highest wicket - taker in Test cricket with 434 wickets. The period was also marked by an unstable leadership, with Gavaskar and Kapil exchanging the captaincy several times.
The addition of Sachin Tendulkar and Anil Kumble to the national side in 1989 and 1990 further improved the team. The following year, Javagal Srinath, India 's fastest bowler since Amar Singh made his debut. Despite this, during the 1990s, India did not win any of its 33 Tests outside the subcontinent while it won 17 out of its 30 Tests at home. After being eliminated by neighbours Sri Lanka on home soil at the 1996 Cricket World Cup semifinal, the team underwent a year of change as Sourav Ganguly and Rahul Dravid, later to become captains of the team, made their debut in the same Test at Lord 's. Tendulkar replaced Azharuddin as captain in late 1996, but after a personal and team form slump, Tendulkar relinquished the captaincy and Azharuddin was reinstated at the beginning of 1998. With the captaincy burden removed, Tendulkar was the world 's leading run - scorer in both Tests and ODIs, as India enjoyed a home Test series win over Australia, the best ranked team in the world.
After failing to reach the semifinals at the 1999 Cricket World Cup, Tendulkar was again made captain, and had another poor run, losing 3 -- 0 on a tour of Australia and then 2 -- 0 at home to South Africa. Tendulkar resigned, vowing never to captain the team again. Ganguly was appointed the new captain and the team was further damaged in 2000 when former captain Azharuddin and fellow batsman Ajay Jadeja were implicated in a match - fixing scandal and given life and five years bans respectively. This period was described by the BBC as "the Indian cricket 's worst hour ''. However, the new core -- Tendulkar, Dravid, Kumble and Ganguly -- swore not to let this happen to them again, and lead Indian cricket out of the dark times. And the first three put aside personal ambitions to let Ganguly lead them into a new era.
Since 2000, the Indian team underwent major improvements with the appointment of John Wright as India 's first ever foreign coach. India maintained their unbeaten home record against Australia in Test series after defeating them in 2001. The series was famous for the Kolkata Test match, in which India became only the third team in the history of Test cricket to win a Test match after following on. Australian captain Steve Waugh labelled India as the "Final Frontier '' as a result of his side 's inability to win a Test series in India. Victory in 2001 against the Australians marked the beginning of a dream run for India under their captain Ganguly, winning Test matches in Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, West Indies and England. The England series is also known for India 's highest ODI run - chase of 325 runs at Lord 's which came in the Natwest ODI Series final against England. In the same year, India were joint - winners of the ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and then went to the 2003 Cricket World Cup in South Africa where they reached the final only to be beaten by Australia. The 2003 -- 04 season also saw India play out a Test series in Australia where they drew 1 -- 1 with the world champions, and then win a Test and ODI series in Pakistan.
At the end of the 2004 season, India suffered from lack of form and fitness from its older players. A defeat in a following home Test series against Australia was followed by an ODI home series defeat against Pakistan followed by a Test series levelled 1 -- 1. Greg Chappell took over from John Wright as the coach of the Indian cricket team following the series, and his methods proved to be controversial during the beginning of his tenure. The tension resulted in a fallout between Chappell and Ganguly, resulting in Rahul Dravid being made captain. This triggered a revival in the team 's fortunes, following the emergence of players like Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina, and the coming of age of players like Irfan Pathan and Yuvraj Singh. A thumping home series victory over Sri Lanka in 2005 and a drawn series with South Africa put India at second place in the ICC ODI rankings. Dravid, Tendulkar and Virender Sehwag were selected to play for the ICC World XI in the 2005 "SuperTest '' against Australia. A convincing ODI series win in Pakistan in early 2006, following a loss in the Test series, gave India the world record of 17 successive ODI victories while batting second. Towards the middle of 2006, however, a 4 -- 1 series loss in the West Indies gave rise to a slump in India 's ODI form, while they achieved a 1 -- 0 victory in the Test series that followed, giving them their first Test series victory in the Caribbean since 1971. India 's ODI form slumped further with a disappointing performance in the 2006 Champions Trophy and a drubbing in the ODI series in South Africa. This was followed yet again by an initial good performance in the Tests, giving India its first Test match win in South Africa, although they went on to lose the series 2 -- 1. This Test series was marked by Ganguly 's comeback to the Indian team.
In December 2006, India played and won its first ever Twenty20 international in South Africa, becoming the most recent Test team to play Twenty20 cricket. The beginning of 2007 had seen a revival in the Indian team 's ODI fortunes before the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Series victories against the West Indies and Sri Lanka, marked by the comeback of Ganguly, and strong form by Tendulkar, and the emergence of young players like Robin Uthappa saw many pundits to tip India as a real contender to win the 2007 Cricket World Cup. However, defeats to Bangladesh and Sri Lanka saw India fail to reach the second round.
After winning the Test series against England in August 2007, Dravid stepped down as the captain of the team following which Dhoni was made the captain of the Twenty20 and ODI team. In September 2007, India won the first - ever Twenty20 World Cup held in South Africa, beating Pakistan by 5 runs in the final. In 2007 -- 08, they toured Australia where India lost the highly controversial home Test series 2 -- 1, but managed to win the CB series the following month with a whitewash final of Australia.
In April 2009, India secured their first Test series win in New Zealand in 41 years. After beating Sri Lanka 2 -- 0 in December 2009, India became the No. 1 Test team in the world. They retained the ranking by drawing series against South Africa and Sri Lanka. In October 2010, India whitewashed Australia 2 -- 0 in the home test series, giving them back - to - back series wins against them. Later that year, India managed to draw the Test series in South Africa at 1 -- 1.
On 2 April 2011, India won the 2011 Cricket World Cup by defeating Sri Lanka in the final, thus becoming the third team after West Indies and Australia to win the World Cup twice, the previous win being in 1983. Gautam Gambhir and the skipper Dhoni led the way with 97 and 91 * respectively. India also became the first team to win the World Cup on home soil.
India were whitewashed 4 -- 0 in away Test series by England in August 2011 due to which England replaced India as the No. 1 Test team in the rankings. This series was followed by another 4 -- 0 whitewash of India in January 2012 in Australia. The disastrous whitewashes saw the retirement of Dravid and VVS Laxman from Test cricket in 2012. Tendulkar retired in November 2013 after his 200th Test match. With Ganguly having retired in 2008, this period signalled the end of the fabled middle - order batting line - up Indian had for a decade. 2012 signalled a rough period for Indian cricket as they were beaten 2 -- 1 by England at home in the Test series. This was the first Team India were beaten by England at home in the modern era. This was followed by a 2 -- 1 loss in the ODI series against Pakistan, India 's arch rivals, at home. India were then knocked out in the second round of the 2012 ICC World Twenty20. India also failed to qualify for the 2012 Asia Cup final which closed out a disappointing 2012 for the Indian cricket team. 2013 saw a resurgence in Indian cricket.
In early 2013, India returned the favour to Australia and whitewashed them 4 -- 0 at home in a Test series. India then beat the Aussies 3 -- 2 in the 7 - match ODI series and won the one - off T20I. However, India lost heavily against New Zealand and South Africa away from home and led to heavy criticism of Indian cricketers for not being able to perform overseas. India defeated England in the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy final and Mahendra Singh Dhoni became the first captain in history to win the three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20 and ICC Champions Trophy. This was followed by a victory in the West Indies Triangular Series in 2013 consisting of India, West Indies and Sri Lanka. In 2014, India toured Bangladesh and England. Although they beat the former 2 -- 0 in 3 One Day Internationals, Team India were beaten 3 -- 1 in 5 Test matches by England. This series included a famous win for the Indian team in the first match of the series at Lord 's. The Test series was followed by a 3 -- 1 win for the Indians in a 5 - match ODI series and a loss in a one - off T20, both against England.
India failed to reach the final of the Asia Cup yet again in 2014. In the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 hosted in Bangladesh, India narrowly missed out on another ICC trophy by losing to Sri Lanka in the final. This tournament saw the rise of Virat Kohli as one of the best limited overs batsmen in world cricket as he was adjudged the man of the series. India soon comprehensively beat Sri Lanka and West Indies in ODI series to cement their position at the top of the ODI rankings. India toured Australia towards the end of 2014 for a 4 - match Test series, which is remembered for MS Dhoni 's sudden retirement from Test cricket after the end of the second Test. Virat Kohli was appointed captain of Team India in Test matches but he was unable to turn the series around and India lost 2 -- 0. Kohli 's first series win as captain came away from home in a 3 - match Test series vs Sri Lanka which signalled the beginning of an unbeaten Test series run for India.
2015 saw the beginning of India 's dominance at home in Test matches under new captain Virat Kohli when they comprehensively beat South Africa. This series was the beginning of an unbeaten streak of 19 Test matches for India which was brought to an end by Australia in early 2017. This series also saw the emergence of Ravichandran Ashwin and Ravindra Jadeja as two of the best spinners and all rounders. They spun webs around touring batsmen, much like the spinning quartet of the 1970s. This was followed by limited overs victories over Australia and Sri Lanka away from home. India were knocked out of the 2015 World Cup in the semi-final stage, to eventual winners Australia. India began 2016 by winning the 2016 Asia Cup, remaining unbeaten throughout the tournament, beating Pakistan along the way. India were favourites to win the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 which was being held at home, but they lost in the semi final to eventual champions West Indies. Virat Kohli was again named man of the series.
In 2016, "The Grand Home Season '' began for India, including series at home against New Zealand, England, Bangladesh and Australia. India whitewashed New Zealand to regain the number one ranking in Test cricket after almost 10 years. Before the series against England in November 2016, MS Dhoni resigned as captain of India in limited overs, thus handing the captaincy to Virat Kohli across all formats. India beat England across all three formats, with a notable 4 -- 0 win in the Test series. This was followed by Test series wins against Bangladesh and Australia, which meant India reclaimed the Border Gavaskar Trophy. Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer of all time to reach 250 wickets; he and Ravindra Jadeja occupied the top two spots in both the ICC Bowlers and All - Rounders rankings at the time. In the process, India became the third team (after South Africa and Australia) to have won their most recent Test series against all the other Test - playing nations. India hold an unbeaten streak of 8 consecutive Test series wins as of 19 August 2017.
India defeated Pakistan in their first game of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, winning by a convincing 124 - run margin, but lost their second game of the group against Sri Lanka by 7 wickets despite posting a total of 321. In their final group game against South Africa, a must - win encounter, India won comfortably and sealed a spot in the semi-finals, against Bangladesh. India comfortably won the match by 9 wickets, and faced arch - rivals Pakistan in the final, the first time they had met at this stage of a tournament since 2007. In an anti-climax, considering India were the clear favourites, Pakistan defeated India comfortably by 180 runs in the final, outclassing them across all three departments.
India beat the West Indies 3 -- 1 in a 5 - match ODI series in the Caribbean in July 2017, but lost to the same opposition in a one - off T20I. India then toured Sri Lanka, and comprehensively defeated them 3 - 0 in a three - match Test series, the first time India had whitewashed a team away from home in a Test series with at least three games.
The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) is the governing body for the Indian cricket team and first - class cricket in India. The Board has been operating since 1929 and represents India at the International Cricket Council. It is amongst the richest sporting organisations in the world. It sold media rights for India 's matches from 2006 -- 2010 for US $612,000,000. It manages the Indian team 's sponsorships, its future tours and team selection.
The International Cricket Council determines India 's upcoming matches through its future tours program. However, the BCCI, with its influential financial position in the cricketing world, has often challenged the ICC 's program and called for more series between India, Australia and England which are more likely to earn more revenue as opposed to tours with Bangladesh or Zimbabwe. In the past, the BCCI has also come into conflict with the ICC regarding sponsorships and the legitimacy of the ICC Champions Trophy.
Selection for the Indian cricket team occurs through the BCCI 's zonal selection policy, where each of the five zones is represented with one selector and one of the members nominated by BCCI as the Chairman of the selection committee. This has sometimes led to controversy as to whether these selectors are biased towards their zones.
The current chairman of selection committee is M.S.K. Prasad. Devang Gandhi, Sarandeep Singh, Jatin Paranjpe, and Gagan Khoda are the other members of the selection committee from 21 September 2016.
Since colours have made their way into international cricket, the Indian cricket team has chosen blue as their primary colour and orange / red as their secondary colour and have worn one or the other shade of blue. The blue colour of their uniform has also earned them the nickname of "Men in Blue ''. With the advent of the World Series Cup in the 1970s, each team was to don a primary and secondary colour on their uniforms. The Indian team elected to wear light - blue as their primary colour and yellow as their secondary colour. Even during the 1999 Cricket World Cup, the secondary colour on the Indian cricket team 's clothing was yellow. However, this has since been replaced with the tricolour. In the past, the Indian ODI outfits were changed to different shades of blue, mostly darker than the current, and the team donned navy blue during 1992, and then the sky blue colour for the next decade. Indian team has got a new kit from 2009 which is feroza blue with India written on it in orange. Currently, from October 2010, the team is once again using a light blue shade though not as light as the previous sky blue one, with India written in orange, and shades of the tricolour at the sides. The kit sponsor for the Indian cricket team is Nike, which in 2005 bought the kit rights in a $27.2 million contract with BCCI.
Due to their love for blue colour Nike with Board for Control of Cricket in India launched the mega campaign called "Bleed Blue '' for the support of Indian team in 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup which turned out to be a huge success and people over the internet and places adopted this to cheer for India.
A new ultramarine blue coloured jersey of the one - day cricket team was released on 20 October 2010 for the upcoming tours and ICC Cricket World Cup. The jersey has been designed by team 's apparel and kit sponsor Nike. Previously, the Indian cricket team has worn a darker shade of blue and before that the team has worn sky blue. The vertical tricolour band has been made on both sides in comparison to just one side in previous shirt. OPPO, the manufacturer of Chinese electronics is the official team sponsor logo is on the central part of the jersey (above orange coloured INDIA logo and on the right arm Nike logo is visible. The name and jersey number of the player is printed in orange at the back while on the chest the logo of BCCI is on the left side. The one - day cap was also sky blue with the BCCI logo on the front.
When playing first - class cricket, in addition to their cricket whites, Indian fielders sometimes wear a sunhat, which is dark blue and has a wide brim, with the BCCI logo in the middle of the front of the hat. Helmets are coloured similarly. Some players sport the Indian flag on their helmet. The current kit sponsor for the Indian team is Nike, Inc. and current team sponsor is Oppo Electronics.
There are numerous world - renowned cricket stadiums located in India. Most grounds are under the administration of various state cricket boards as opposed to being under the control of the BCCI. The Bombay Gymkhana was the first ground in India to host a full - scale cricket match featuring an Indian cricket team. This was between the Parsis and the Europeans in 1877. The first stadium to host a Test match in India was also the Gymkhana Ground in Bombay in 1933, the only Test it ever hosted. The second and third Tests in the 1933 series were hosted at Eden Gardens and Chepauk. The Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi was the first stadium to host a Test match after independence, a draw against the West Indies in 1948, the first of a 5 - Test series. 21 stadiums in India have hosted at least one official Test match. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of world - class cricket stadiums in India, with multiple Test venues in Indore, Chandigarh Mohali, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Rajkot, Ranchi, Pune, Dharamshala and Nagpur.
Eden Gardens in Kolkata has hosted the most Tests, and also has the second - largest seating capacity of any cricket stadium in the world, being capable of holding more than 66,000 spectators. Founded in 1864, it is one of the most historical stadiums in India, having hosted numerous historical and controversial matches. Other major stadiums in India include the Feroz Shah Kotla, which was established in 1883 and hosted memorable matches including Anil Kumble 's ten wickets in an innings haul against Pakistan. For the last two years, the ground has been undergoing renovation.
The Bombay Gymkhana hosted the first ever Test match in India which is the only Test it has hosted to date. Wankhede Stadium, established in 1974, has a capacity to hold 33,000 spectators and is currently the most popular venue in the city. It has hosted 24 Test matches. It was the unofficial successor of the Brabourne Stadium, which is also located in Mumbai. Mumbai is often considered the cricketing capital of India because of its fans and the talent it produces (see Mumbai cricket team) and thus the stadium regularly hosts major Test matches. The M.A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chepauk is also considered to be an important historical Indian cricket ground, established in the early 1900s it was the site of India 's first Test victory.
Thirty - two men have captained the Indian cricket team in at least one Test match, although only six have led the team in more than 25 matches, and six have captained the team in ODIs but not Tests. India 's first captain was CK Nayudu, who led the team in four matches against England: one in England in 1932 and a series of three matches at home in 1933 -- 34. Lala Amarnath, India 's fourth captain, led the team in its first Test match after Indian independence. He also captained the side to its first Test victory and first series win, both in a three - match series at home against Pakistan in 1952 -- 53. From 1952 until 1961 -- 62, India had a number of captains such as Vijay Hazare, Polly Umrigar and Nari Contractor.
The Nawab of Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, was the team 's captain for 36 Test matches from 1961 -- 62 to 1969 -- 70, returning for another four matches against West Indies in 1974 -- 75. In the early years of his captaincy tenure, the team was whitewashed in the West Indies, England and Australia. However, in 1967 -- 68, Pataudi led India on its maiden New Zealand tour, which ended in India winning the Test series 3 -- 1. In 1970 -- 71, Ajit Wadekar took over the captaincy from Pataudi. Under Wadekar 's captaincy, India registered its first Test series wins in the West Indies and England. India played its first ODI in 1974, also under his captaincy. India won its first ODI under the captaincy of Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan in the 1975 Cricket World Cup, against East Africa. Between 1975 -- 76 and 1978 -- 79, Bishen Singh Bedi captained the team in 22 Tests and 4 ODIs, winning 6 Tests and one ODI.
Sunil Gavaskar took over as Test and ODI captain in 1978 -- 79, leading India in 47 Test matches and 37 ODIs, winning 9 Tests and 14 ODIs. He was succeeded by Kapil Dev in the 1980s, who continued for 34 Test matches, including 4 victories. Kapil Dev led India to victory in 39 of his 74 ODIs in charge, including the 1983 Cricket World Cup. Kapil Dev also captained India 's 2 -- 0 Test series victory in England in 1986. Between 1987 -- 88 and 1989 -- 90, India had three captains in Dilip Vengsarkar, Ravi Shastri and Krishnamachari Srikkanth. Vengsarkar took over the captaincy from Kapil Dev after the 1987 Cricket World Cup. Although he started with two centuries in his first series as captain, his captaincy period was turbulent and he lost the job following a disastrous tour of the West Indies in early - 1989 and a stand - off with the Indian cricket board (BCCI).
India has had six regular Test captains since Mohammad Azharuddin took charge in 1989. Azharuddin led the team in 47 Test matches from 1989 -- 90 to 1998 -- 99, winning 14, and in 174 ODIs, winning 90. He was followed by Sachin Tendulkar, who captained the team in 25 Test matches and 73 ODIs in the late 1990s; Tendulkar was relatively unsuccessful as a captain, winning only 4 Test matches and 23 ODIs. He was replaced as ODI captain by Ajay Jadeja and then by Sourav Ganguly.
Ganguly became the regular captain of the team in both Tests and ODIs in 2000. He remained captain until 2005 -- 06 and became the then most successful Indian captain, winning 21 of his 49 Test matches in charge and 76 of his 146 ODIs. Under his captaincy, India became the joint - winners of the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and the runners - up of the 2003 Cricket World Cup. India lost only three Tests at home under Ganguly and managed to draw Test series in England and Australia. Rahul Dravid took over as Test captain in 2005. In 2006, he led India to its first Test series victory in the West Indies in more than 30 years.
In September 2007, Mahendra Singh Dhoni was named as the new captain of the ODI and T20I teams, after Dravid stepped down from the post. Soon after taking up the captaincy, Dhoni led the team to the inaugural World Twenty20 title. Anil Kumble was appointed Test captain in November 2007, but retired from international cricket in November 2008 after captaining in 14 Tests. Dhoni succeeded him as the Test captain, making him the captain in all formats. Under the captaincy of Dhoni, the Indian team held the number one position in the Test rankings for 21 months (from November 2009 to August 2011), and set a national record for most back - to - back ODI wins (nine straight wins). Dhoni also led the team to victory in 2011 Cricket World Cup and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Thus, Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013. He is widely regarded as India 's best ever captain. However, the team performed poorly in away Tests from 2011 to 2014 and Dhoni retired from Test cricket in December 2014, with Virat Kohli being named as the new Test captain. Dhoni resigned as captain of the ODI and T20 teams in January 2017 and Kohli succeeded him at the position.
Under Kohli 's captaincy, India were unbeaten in 19 Test matches starting from a 3 -- 0 series win over New Zealand and ending with a 2 -- 1 series win over Australia. India have an unbeaten streak of winning 7 consecutive Test series as of May 2017, starting with a 2 -- 1 series win over Sri Lanka. India also became only the third team after Australia and South Africa to have won their most recent Test series simultaneously against all the other Test playing nations. As per winning percentage in Test matches, Kohli is India 's most successful test captain having won more than 61 % of Test matches (at least 2 games).
The recent results and forthcoming fixtures of India in international cricket:
This lists all the players who have played for India in the past 12 months and the forms in which they have played. Correct as of 10 September 2017.
Key
Other players with a central contract who have not played for India in the past 12 months: Ambati Rayudu, Mandeep Singh (both Grade C)
The BCCI awards central contracts to its players, its pay graded according to the importance of the player. Players ' salaries are as follows:
Players also receive a match fee of ₹ 15 lakh (US $23,000) per Test match, ₹ 6 lakh (US $9,400) per ODI, and ₹ 3 lakh (US $4,700) per T20I.
† Cricket was played only at the 1998 Commonwealth Games. † The Indian team that won the 1985 World Championship of Cricket was adjudged by Wisden as the ' Team of the Century '.
Sachin Tendulkar, who began playing for India as a 16 - year - old in 1989 and has since become the most prolific run - scorer in the history of both Test and ODI cricket, holds a large number of national batting records. He holds the record of most appearances in both Tests and ODIs, most runs in both Tests and ODIs and most centuries in Tests and ODIs. The highest score by an Indian is the 319 scored by Virender Sehwag in Chennai. It is the second triple century in Test cricket by an Indian, the first being a 309 also made by Sehwag although against Pakistan. The team 's highest ever score was a 759 / 7 against England at MA Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai in 2016, while its lowest was 42 against England in 1974. In ODIs, the team 's highest score is 418 / 5 against West Indies at Indore in 2011 -- 12. India score 413 -- 5 in a match against Bermuda in 2007 World Cup which is the highest score ever in Cricket World Cup history. In the same match, India set a world record of the highest winning margin in an ODI match of 257 runs.
India has also had some very strong bowling figures, with spin bowler Anil Kumble being a member of the elite group of 3 bowlers who have taken 600 Test wickets. In 1999, Anil Kumble emulated Jim Laker to become the second bowler to take all ten wickets in a Test match innings when he took 10 wickets for 74 runs against Pakistan at the Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
Many of the Indian cricket team 's records are also world records, for example Sachin Tendulkar 's century tally (in Tests and ODIs) and run tally (also in both Tests and ODIs). Mahendra Singh Dhoni 's 183 not out against Sri Lanka in 2005 is the world record score by a wicketkeeper in ODIs. The Indian cricket team also holds the record sequence of 17 successful run - chases in ODIs, which ended in a dramatic match against the West Indies in May 2006, which India lost by just 1 run when Yuvraj Singh was bowled by Dwayne Bravo 's full toss.
Sachin Tendulkar was the first batsman to score 200 runs (he was unbeaten on 200 from 147 deliveries including 25x4 and 3x6) in a single ODI innings, on 24 February 2010 against South Africa in Gwalior. On 8 December 2011, this achievement was eclipsed by compatriot Virender Sehwag, who scored 219 runs from 149 deliveries (25x4 7x6) versus West Indies in Indore. On 13 November 2014 the record was broken by another Indian opening batsmen, Rohit Sharma, who scored 264 runs from 173 deliveries (33x4 9x6) against Sri Lanka in Kolkata. In 2013, MS Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013.
In 2014, Virat Kohli became the first cricketer to win back - to - back man of the series awards in the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 and 2014 ICC World Twenty20. In 2017, Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer in history to reach 250 wickets. He and Ravindra Jadeja are considered to be the best bowlers in Test cricket and occupy the top two spots in the rankings for Test bowlers as of May 2017. Virat Kohli became the first captain in history to score double tons in three consecutive series, against New Zealand, England and Bangladesh in 2017.
Test record versus other nations
Most Test runs for India
Most Test wickets for India
ODI record versus other nations
Most ODI runs for India
Most ODI wickets for India
T20I record versus other nations
Most T20I runs for India
Most T20I wickets for India
Players in bold text are still active with India.
Due to the massive Indian diaspora in nations like Australia, England and South Africa, a large Indian fan turnout is expected whenever India plays in each of these nations.
There have been a number of official fan groups that have been formed over the years, including the Swami Army or Bharat Army, the Indian equivalent of the Barmy Army, that were very active in their support when India toured Australia in 2003 / 2004. They are known to attribute a number of popular Indian songs to the cricket team.
Fan rivalry and cross-border tension has created a strong rivalry between the Indian and the Pakistani cricket teams. In tours between these two nations, cricket visas are often employed to accommodate for the tens of thousands of fans wishing to cross the border to watch cricket. This intense fan dedication is one of the major causes of the BCCI 's financial success.
However, there are downsides to having such a cricket - loving population. Many Indians hold cricket very close to their hearts and losses are not received well by the Indian population. In some cases, particularly after losses to Pakistan or after a long string of weak performances, there have been reports of player effigies being burnt in the streets and vandalism of player homes. In many cases, players have come under intense attention from the media for negative reasons, this has been considered as one of the reasons for Sourav Ganguly being left out of the Indian team. At times, when a match is surrounded by controversy, it has resulted in a debacle. For example, when India slid to defeat against Australia at Brabourne Stadium in 1969, fans began throwing stones and bottles onto the field as well as setting fire to the stands, before laying siege to the Australian dressing rooms. During the same tour, a stampede occurred at Eden Gardens when tickets were oversold and India fell to another loss; the Australian team bus was later stoned with bricks. A similar event occurred during the 1996 Cricket World Cup, where India were losing the semi-final to Sri Lanka at Eden Gardens. In this case, the fan behaviour was directed at the Indian team in disappointment at their lacklustre performance. An armed guard had to be placed at the home of captain Mohammad Azharuddin to ensure his safety. Indian fans have also been passionate in their following of Sachin Tendulkar, who has been commonly thought of as one of the best batsmen in the world. Glorified for the bulk of his career, a riot occurred in early 1999 in a Test against Pakistan at Eden Gardens after a collision with Pakistani paceman Shoaib Akhtar saw him run out, forcing police to eject spectators and the game to be played in an empty stadium. Although in 2006, a string of low scores resulted in Tendulkar being booed by the Mumbai crowd when he got out against England
Often, fans engage in protests regarding players if they believe that regionalism has affected selection, or because of regional partisan support for local players. In 2005, when Sourav Ganguly was dropped due to lack of form, Ganguly 's home state of West Bengal erupted in protests. India later played a match against South Africa in Kolkata, West Bengal. The Indian team was booed by the Bengali crowd who supported South Africa instead of India in response to Ganguly 's dropping. Similar regional divisions in India regarding selection have also caused protests against the team, with political activists from the regional Kalinga Kamgar Sena party in Odisha disrupting the arrival of the team in Cuttack for an ODI over the lack of a local player in the team, with one activist manhandling coach Greg Chappell. Similar treatment was handed to India 's Marathi captain Sunil Gavaskar in the 1980s by Bengali crowds, with consecutive Tests in Calcutta requiring police intervention due to crowd rioting.
However, it should be noted that a successful string of results, victories against arch - rivals Pakistan or victory in major tournaments such as the World Cup are greeted with particular ecstasy from the Indian fans.
The Indian women 's cricket team has a much lower profile than the men 's team. For all national women 's cricket teams, the female players are paid much less their male counterparts, and the women 's teams do not receive as much popular support or recognition as the men 's team. The women 's teams also have a less packed schedule compared to men 's teams and play fewer matches. The Indian women 's cricket team played its first Test match in 1976 / 7, when they drew with the West Indies in a six - match series.
The Women 's Cricket World Cup was held in India in 1978 and featured 4 teams. India lost both the matches they have played. Their next appearance in the Test and ODI circuit was against Australia in 1984, in which the Test series was tied but the ODI series was lost in a whitewash.
The Indian women 's cricket team has since picked up their form, reaching the finals in the World Cup, but then losing to Australia. The Women 's Asia Cup of 2005 -- 06 was won by India, who beat Sri Lanka in the final. They also beat the West Indies in the 2004 -- 05 season, winning the 5 ODI series 5 -- 0. They were knocked out in the group stage of the 2013 Women 's Cricket World Cup held in India. India reached the final of the 2017 World Cup but lost to England by 9 runs, following which the team was praised by many including Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
Jhulan Goswami is the world 's leading ODI wicket - taker while Mithali Raj, the captain, is the leading run - scorer in ODI cricket.
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where does the sun rise in mexico crossword | Sun Belt - Wikipedia
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The Sun Belt is a region of the United States generally considered to stretch across the Southeast and Southwest. Another rough definition of the region is the area south of the 36th parallel. The region is noted for its mild winter, frequent sunny skies, and growing economic opportunities. The sun belt is the fastest growing region in the United States. Within the region, desert / semi-desert (California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas), Mediterranean (California), humid subtropical (Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee), and tropical (South Florida) climates can be found.
The Sun Belt has seen substantial population growth since the 1960s from an influx of people seeking a warm and sunny climate, a surge in retiring baby boomers, and growing economic opportunities. The advent of air conditioning created more comfortable summer conditions and allowed more manufacturing and industry to locate in the sunbelt. Since much of the construction in the sun belt is new or recent, housing styles and design are often modern and open. Recreational opportunities in the sun belt are often not tied strictly to one season, and many tourist and resort cities, such as Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Miami, Myrtle Beach, New Orleans, Orlando, Palm Springs, Phoenix, St. George, and San Diego support a tourist industry all year.
The Sun Belt comprises the southern tier of the United States, including the states of Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, South Carolina, Texas, roughly two - thirds of California (up to Greater Sacramento), and parts of Arkansas, North Carolina, Oklahoma and Nevada. Five of the states -- Arizona, California, Florida, Nevada, and Texas -- are sometimes collectively called the Sand States because of their abundance of beaches or deserts.
First employed by political analyst Kevin Phillips in his 1969 book The Emerging Republican Majority, the term "Sun Belt '' became synonymous with the southern third of the nation in the early 1970s. In this period, economic and political prominence shifted from the Midwest and Northeast to the South and West. Factors such as the warmer climate, the migration of workers from Mexico, and a boom in the agriculture industry allowed the southern third of the United States to grow economically. The climate spurred not only agricultural growth, but also the migration of many retirees to retirement communities in the region, especially in Florida and Arizona.
Industries such as aerospace, defense, and oil boomed in the Sun Belt as companies took advantage of the low involvement of labor unions in the region (due to more recent industrialization, 1930s -- 1950s) and the proximity of military installations that were major consumers of their products. The oil industry helped propel states such as Texas and Louisiana forward, and tourism grew in Florida and Southern California. More recently, high tech and new economy industries have been major drivers of growth in California, Florida, Texas, and other parts of the Sun Belt. Texas and California rank among the top five states in the nation with the most Fortune 500 companies.
In 2005, the U.S. Census Bureau projected that approximately 88 % of the nation 's population growth between 2000 and 2030 would occur in the Sun Belt. California, Texas, and Florida were each expected to add more than 12 million people during that time, which would make them by far the most populous states in America. Nevada, Arizona, Florida, and Texas were expected to be the fastest - growing states.
Events leading up to and including the 2008 -- 2009 recession led some to question whether growth projections for the Sun Belt had been overstated. The economic bubble that led to the recession appeared, to some observers, to have been more acute in the Sun Belt than other parts of the country. Additionally, the traditional lure of cheaper labor markets in the region compared with America 's older industrial centers has been eroded by overseas outsourcing trends.
One of the greatest threats facing the belt in the coming decades is water shortages. Communities in California are making plans to build multiple desalination plants to supply fresh water and avert near - term crises. Texas, Georgia, and Florida also face increasingly serious shortages because of their rapidly expanding populations.
Lingering effects from the Great Recession slowed down, and in some places even stopped, the migration from the Frost Belt to the Sun Belt, according to data tracking people 's movements over the year from July 2012 -- 2013. Americans remained cautious about moving to a different state over this period. However, migration to the Sun Belt from the Frost Belt resumed again, according to 2015 Census data estimates, with growing migration to the Sun Belt and out of the Frost Belt and California.
The environment in the belt is extremely valuable, not only to local and state governments, but to the federal government. Eight of the ten states have extremely high biodiversity (ranging from 3,800 to 6,700 species, not including marine life). The Sun Belt also has the highest number of distinct ecosystems: chaparral, deciduous, desert, grasslands, and tropical rainforest.
Some endangered species live within the belt, including:
The five largest metropolitan statistical areas are Los Angeles, Dallas, Houston, Miami, and Atlanta. The Los Angeles area is by far the largest, with over 13 million inhabitants as of 2012. The ten largest metropolitan statistical areas are found in California, Texas, Georgia, North Carolina, Florida, and Arizona. Additionally, the cross-border metropolitan areas of San Diego - Tijuana and El Paso -- Juárez lie partially within the Sun Belt. Seven of the ten largest cities in the United States are located in the Sun Belt: Los Angeles (2), Houston (4), Phoenix (6), San Antonio (7), San Diego (8), Dallas (9), and San Jose (10).
Coordinates: 32 ° N 100 ° W / 32 ° N 100 ° W / 32; - 100
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how much did the war in afghanistan cost | Financial cost of the Iraq War - wikipedia
The following is a partial accounting of financial costs of the 2003 Iraq War by the United States and the United Kingdom, the two largest non-Iraqi participants of the multinational force in Iraq.
The costs of the 2003 - 2010 Iraq War are often contested, as academics and critics have unearthed many hidden costs not represented in official estimates. The most recent major report on these costs come from Brown University in the form of the Costs of War, which totaled just over $1.1 trillion. The Department of Defense 's direct spending on Iraq totaled at least $757.8 billion, but also highlighting the complementary costs at home, such as interest paid on the funds borrowed to finance the wars.
Those figures are dramatically higher than typical estimates published just prior to the start of the Iraq War, many of which were based on a shorter term of involvement. For example, in a March 16, 2003 Meet the Press interview of Vice President Dick Cheney, held less than a week before the Iraq War began, host Tim Russert reported that "every analysis said this war itself would cost about $80 billion, recovery of Baghdad, perhaps of Iraq, about $10 billion per year. We should expect as American citizens that this would cost at least $100 billion for a two - year involvement. ''
According to a Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report published in October 2007, the U.S. wars in Iraq and Afghanistan could cost taxpayers a total of $2.4 trillion by 2017 when counting the huge interest costs because combat is being financed with borrowed money. The CBO estimated that of the $2.4 trillion long - term price tag for the war, about $1.9 trillion of that would be spent on Iraq, or $6,300 per U.S. citizen. The most recent CBO report, which was conducted after the end of combat operations and hence did not have to estimate future costs, was released in December 2014. It placed the cost of the war operations in Iraq as of January 1, 2014, at $815 billion out of the total $1.6 trillion approved by Congress since September 2001.
Joseph Stiglitz, former chief economist of the World Bank and winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics, and Linda Bilmes of Harvard University, have stated the total costs of the Iraq War on the US economy will be three trillion dollars in a moderate scenario, described in their book The Three Trillion Dollar War and possibly more in the most recent published study, published in March 2008. Stiglitz has stated: "The figure we arrive at is more than $3 trillion. Our calculations are based on conservative assumptions... Needless to say, this number represents the cost only to the United States. It does not reflect the enormous cost to the rest of the world, or to Iraq. ''
A 2013 updated study pointed out that U.S. medical and disability claims for veterans after a decade of war had risen to $134.7 billion from $33 billion two years earlier.
The extended combat and equipment loss have placed a severe financial strain on the U.S. Army, causing the elimination of non-essential expenses such as travel and civilian hiring.
The U.S. has lost a number of pieces of military equipment during the war. The following statistics are from the Center for American Progress; and they are only approximations that also include vehicles lost in non-combat - related accidents as of 2006.
In June 2006, the Army said that the cost of replacing its depleted equipment tripled from that of 2005. As of December 2006, according to government data reported by the Washington Post, the military stated that nearly 40 % of the army 's total equipment has been to Iraq, with an estimated yearly refurbishment cost of $ US 17 billion. The military states that the yearly refurbishment cost has increased by a factor of ten compared to that of the pre-war state. As of December 2006 approximately 500 M1 tanks, 700 Bradley Fighting Vehicles and 1000 Humvees are awaiting repair in US military depots.
In September 2007, the Congressional Budget Office produced a report outlining the Army 's Reset Program and included some combat loss numbers.
As of March 2006, approximately £ 4.5 billion ($6.8 billion) had been spent by the United Kingdom in Iraq. All of this money has come from a government fund called the "Special Reserve '' which at the time had an allocation of £ 7.4 billion ($9.49 billion). According to the Ministry of Defence, the total cost of UK military operations in Iraq from 2003 to 2009 was £ 8.4 bn.
Official calculations stated that the Iraq and Afghanistan wars combined cost £ 20.3 billion (up to but not beyond June 2010).
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is shanghai the same time zone as beijing | Time in China - wikipedia
The time in China follows a single standard time offset of UTC + 08: 00 (eight hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time), despite China spanning five geographical time zones. The official national standard time is called Beijing Time (Chinese: 北京 时间) domestically and China Standard Time (CST) internationally. Daylight saving time has not been observed since 1991.
The special administrative regions (SARs) maintain their own time authorities, with standards called Hong Kong Time (香港 時間) and Macau Standard Time (澳門 標準 時間). These have been equivalent to Beijing time since 1992.
In addition, it has been proposed during 2005 's NPC & CPPCC of China that provinces in the west (such as Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Chongqing) should use the time offset of UTC + 07: 00. However, this proposal has not been voted upon yet.
In the 1870s, the Shanghai Xujiahui Observatory was constructed by a French catholic missionary. In 1880s officials in Shanghai French Concession started to provide a time announcement service using the Shanghai Mean Solar Time provided by the aforementioned observatory for ships into and out of Shanghai. By the end of 19th century, the time standard provided by the observatory had been switched to GMT + 8. The practice has spread to other coastal ports, and in 1902 the "Coastal Time '' was proposed to be the universal timezone for all the coastal ports in China. However, the timezone for the rest of China remained undetermined.
Until 1913, the official time standard for the whole of China was still the apparent solar time of Beijing, the capital of the country at the time. Starting in 1914, the Republic of China government began adopting the Beijing Local Mean Solar Time as the official time standard. By 1918, five standard time zones had been proposed by the Central Observatory of Beiyang government of Republic of China, including the Kunlun (UTC + 05: 30), Sinkiang - Tibet (UTC + 06: 00), Kansu - Szechwan (UTC + 07: 00), Chungyuan (UTC + 08: 00), and Changpai (UTC + 08: 30).
After the defeat of Beiyang government in 1928, the mission of the Central Observatory was moved to Nanjing, and the reference time standard used for the construction of traditional Chinese Calendar was shifted from Beijing Mean Solar Time to GMT + 8.
In 1930s, the proposed five timezones had not been fully observed, causing regions in inner China area to adopt their own time standards, resulting in chaos. On 9 March 1939, when the Ministry of the Interior organized a Standard Time Conference in Chongqing, it was decided to adopt the five timezone proposal with slight modification of their borders starting from 1 June, however it was also decided that the entire country would use the Kansu - Szechwan Time (GMT + 7) during the Second Sino - Japanese War which began at the time.
Following the end of World War II, the five - timezone system was resumed, although there is little information about the historical usage of time in the Kunlun and Changpai zones. A further refined system with adjustment to zone assignment in the Northwest part of Gansu was announced in 1947 for adoption in 1948. However, as the Chinese Civil War came to its end in 1949 - 1950, regional governments under the influence of Communist Party of China, other than those in Xinjiang and Tibet, switched to use the same time as Beijing, which is GMT + 8, and is later known as Beijing Time or China Standard Time.
There are two independent sources that claim the Communist Party of China, and / or the People 's Republic of China, were using apparent solar time for Beijing Time before the period between 27 September 1949 and 6 October 1949, and they adopted the time of GMT + 8 within that period of time, however such claim is dubious.
The change in use of time in Tibet is undocumented but is known to use till at least mid-1950s, and the use of time in Xinjiang have been switched back and forth between GMT + 6 and GMT + 8 during the period of 1969 and 1986 and resulted in the current multiple time standard situation in the area. (see "Xinjiang '' section below for detail)
Daylight saving time was observed from 1945 to 1948, and from 1986 to 1991.
In 1997 and 1999, Hong Kong and Macau were transferred to China from the United Kingdom and Portugal and they were established as special administrative regions. Although the sovereignty of the SARs belongs to China, they retain their own policies regarding time zones for historical reasons. Due to their geographical locations, both are within the UTC + 08: 00 time zone, which is the same as the national standard -- Beijing time.
As an illustration of the wide range, the daylight hours for the Chinese westernmost -- not including Xinjiang due to local customs (see below) -- and easternmost county seats are included:
In Xinjiang, two time standards, namely, Beijing Time and Xinjiang Time, are used in parallel.
Xinjiang Time, also known as Ürümqi Time (Chinese: 乌鲁木齐 时间; pinyin: Wūlǔmùqí Shíjiān), is set due to its geographical location in the westernmost part of the country. The time offset is UTC + 06: 00, which is two hours behind Beijing, and is shared with neighbouring Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
Currently, timezone usage within Xinjiang is roughly split along the ethnic divide, with most ethnic Han following Beijing time and most ethnic Uyghurs following Ürümqi Time. Some local authorities are now using both time standards side by side. Television stations schedule programmes in different time standards according to their nature.
The coexistence of two timezones within the same region causes some confusion among the local population, especially when inter-racial communication occurs. When a time is mentioned in conversation between Han and Uyghur, it is necessary to either explicitly make clear whether the time is in Xinjiang Time or Beijing Time, or convert the time according to the ethnicity of the other party. The double time standard is particularly observable in Xinjiang Television, which schedules its Chinese channel according to Beijing time and its Uyghur and Kazakh channels according to Xinjiang time.
Regardless, Beijing Time users in Xinjiang usually schedule their daily activities two hours later than those who live in eastern China. As such, stores and offices in Xinjiang are commonly open from 10am to 7pm Beijing Time, which equals 8am to 5pm in Ürümqi Time. This is known as the work / rest time in Xinjiang.
In most areas of Xinjiang, the opening time of local authorities is additionally modified by shifting the morning session 30 -- 60 minutes backward and the afternoon session 30 minutes forward to extend the lunch break for 60 -- 90 minutes, so as to avoid the intense heat during noon time in the area during summer.
Hong Kong maintains its own time authority after transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The Hong Kong Time (Chinese: 香港 時間; pinyin: Xiānggǎng Shíjiān; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng sìgaan) is UTC + 08: 00 all year round, and daylight saving time has not been used since 1979. Greenwich Mean Time was adopted as the basis in 1904, and UTC was adopted as a standard in 1972. Before that, local time was determined by astronomical observations at Hong Kong Observatory using a 6 - inch Lee Equatorial and a 3 - inch Transit Circle.
Macau maintains its own time authority after transfer of sovereignty in 1999. The Macau Standard Time (Chinese: 澳門 標準 時間; pinyin: Àomén Biāozhǔn Shíjiān; Portuguese: Hora Oficial de Macau) is the time in Macau. The time is UTC + 08: 00 all year round, and daylight saving time has not been used since 1980.
The territory of the People 's Republic of China is covered in the IANA time zone database by the following zones. The reason why Asia / Shanghai is used instead of Beijing is because Shanghai is the most populous location in the zone.
Columns marked with * are from the file zone. tab of the database.
The following zones, including Asia / Kashgar, Asia / Chongqing, and Asia / Harbin, are kept in the "backzone '' file of the IANA timezone database for backward compatibility.
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the results for the greatest royal rumble 2018 | WWE Greatest Royal Rumble - Wikipedia
Greatest Royal Rumble was a professional wrestling pay - per - view event and WWE Network event promoted by WWE for their Raw and SmackDown brands. The event was held on April 27, 2018 at the King Abdullah Sports City 's International Stadium in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The event was scheduled for 7: 00 p.m. local time. It aired live in the United States at noon EDT, with a pre-show starting at 11 a.m. EDT. At the event, all men 's main roster championships were defended, in addition to a 50 - man Royal Rumble match.
The card comprised ten matches. In the main event, Braun Strowman won the Greatest Royal Rumble match. On the undercard, Brock Lesnar retained the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns in a steel cage match, and WWE Championship match between AJ Styles and Shinsuke Nakamura resulted in a double countout, The Undertaker defeated Rusev in a casket match, and John Cena defeated Triple H in the opening match.
Since 1988, the Royal Rumble has been an annual event held by WWE and is typically shown on pay - per - view. The event is highlighted by the Royal Rumble match, a battle royal whose participants enter at timed intervals. The Greatest Royal Rumble included the largest version of the match to date, having a total of 50 participants.
On March 5, 2018, WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority advertised the Greatest Royal Rumble, a live event to be held on April 27, 2018, at King Abdullah International Stadium, part of the King Abdullah Sports City, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The event is a part of a 10 - year strategic multi-platform partnership between WWE and the Saudi General Sports Authority in support of Saudi Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia 's social and economic reform program.
On March 19, 2018, WWE scheduled seven championship matches for the event: the WWE Championship, Universal Championship, United States Championship, Intercontinental Championship, SmackDown Tag Team Championship, Raw Tag Team Championship and Cruiserweight Championship were to be defended at the event.
As revealed on March 22, 2018, the event was streamed live on the WWE Network. It also aired on traditional pay - per - view in the United States and internationally. The event was also the first WWE pay - per - view with Arabic commentary.
In the weeks leading up to the event, the WWE held tryouts in Saudi Arabia. From these tryouts, eight were selected to receive training by WWE, which would include an opportunity to earn a spot at the Greatest Royal Rumble event itself.
The card comprised ten matches that resulted from scripted storylines and had results predetermined by WWE on the Raw and SmackDown brands. Storylines were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw, SmackDown Live, and the cruiserweight - exclusive 205 Live.
On April 9, Brock Lesnar, who had renewed his WWE contract, was scheduled to defend the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns in a steel cage match as a rematch from WrestleMania 34. On Raw following WrestleMania, Reigns expressed frustration about not being told about his future matches and opponents, singling out the steel cage match with Lesnar. Reigns alleged that there was a conspiracy against him. Samoa Joe, who had been out with an injury since January, came out and warned Reigns that Lesnar would beat him again.
On March 26, WWE scheduled a ladder match between then - champion The Miz, Seth Rollins, Finn Bálor, and Samoa Joe for the Intercontinental Championship. At WrestleMania 34, The Miz lost the Intercontinental Championship to Rollins, thus making Rollins the defending champion. Both Miz and Joe were traded to SmackDown while Rollins and Bálor remained on Raw.
On March 26, Cesaro and Sheamus were scheduled to defend the Raw Tag Team Championship against The Hardy Boyz (Jeff and Matt Hardy). At WrestleMania 34, however, Cesaro and Sheamus lost the titles to Braun Strowman and 10 - year - old Nicholas. The following night on Raw, Strowman and Nicholas relinquished the titles due to Nicholas being a fourth grader. Cesaro and Sheamus demanded their titles back, but Raw General Manager Kurt Angle instead scheduled them to face the winner of the four - team Tag Team Eliminator tournament for the vacant titles at the Greatest Royal Rumble. "Woken '' Matt Hardy and Bray Wyatt won the tournament by defeating Titus Worldwide (Apollo Crews and Titus O'Neil) and The Revival (Dash Wilder and Scott Dawson). Cesaro and Sheamus were then traded to SmackDown during the Superstar Shake - up.
At WrestleMania 34, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defeated The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso) and The New Day 's Big E and Kofi Kingston in a triple threat tag team match to win the SmackDown Tag Team Championship. On the following SmackDown, The Usos defeated The New Day to earn a title match at Greatest Royal Rumble.
A match between John Cena and Triple H was scheduled on March 26.
The Undertaker was originally scheduled to face Rusev in a casket match, the first match of its kind in three years. Due to reasons not entirely clear, Rusev was temporarily replaced by Chris Jericho -- this was explained with Rusev 's wife Lana complaining about her husband competing in a casket match -- but eventually reinserted back into the match. Jericho was restored to his original participation in the Greatest Royal Rumble match.
At WrestleMania 34, Jinder Mahal defeated Randy Orton, Bobby Roode, and Rusev in a fatal - four way match to win the United States Championship. Mahal was then traded to Raw and lost the championship to Jeff Hardy and Mahal invoked his rematch clause for the Greatest Royal Rumble. Hardy was then traded to SmackDown the following night.
At WrestleMania 34, AJ Styles successfully defended the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. After the match, showed his respect to Styles but then attacked him with a low blow and a Kinshasa, turning heel. On April 17, after repeated attacks on Styles by Nakamura, a rematch between the two was scheduled for the Greatest Royal Rumble.
On the WrestleMania 34 pre-show, Cedric Alexander defeated Mustafa Ali in the WWE Cruiserweight Championship tournament final to win the vacant title. Two nights later on 205 Live, Buddy Murphy attacked the new champion during his celebration. Murphy was then scheduled to face Alexander for the title at the Greatest Royal Rumble, but he failed his mandatory weigh - in when he weighed 207 pounds, 2 pounds over the 205 pound weight limit. He was then removed from the match and banned from competing on 205 Live until he met the weight requirement. The following week, Kalisto earned a Cruiserweight Championship match at the Greatest Royal Rumble by winning a gauntlet match.
The actual pay - per - view opened with John Cena facing Triple H. During the match, after trading finishers, and reversing each other 's finishers, Cena performed an Attitude Adjustment on Triple H, a springboard into the corner turnbuckle, followed and another Attitude Adjustment to pick up the victory. Following the match Cena thanked the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for their hospitality, and expressed excitement over the event.
In the following match, Cedric Alexander defended the Cruiserweight Championship against Kalisto. The match ended when Alexander countered a Salida Del Sol attempt into a Lumbar Check to retain the title.
Next, the vacant Raw Tag Team Championship was contested between the team of Bray Wyatt and Matt Hardy and the former champions, Cesaro and Sheamus. In the end, Hardy distracted Sheamus, allowing Wyatt to perform a Sister Abigail on him. Hardy and Wyatt then performed a wheelbarrow Twist of Fate on Sheamus to win the title.
Jeff Hardy then defended the United States Championship against Jinder Mahal. In the end, Hardy performed a Swanton Bomb on Mahal to retain the title.
After that, The Bludgeons Brothers defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos. Harper and Rowan retained their titles after performing a Double Crucifix Powerbomb on Jimmy Uso.
Next, Seth Rollins defended the Intercontinental Championship against Finn Balor, Samoa Joe and The Miz in a Ladder match. Near the end of the match, Finn Balor climbed the ladder to unhook the championship, only for Rollins to leap from the top rope onto the ladder and managed to retrieve the title belt before Balor, thus retaining his championship.
Later, AJ Styles defended the WWE Championship against Shinsuke Nakamura. During the match, Nakamura resorted to various illegal tactics, such as a Low Blow, increasingly frustrating Styles. In the end, both Nakamura and Styles brawled outside of the ring only for the match to end in a double countout. Post-match Styles performed a Phenomenal Forearm over the top rope on Nakamura.
After that, The Undertaker fought Rusev (who was accompanied by Aiden English) in a Casket match. At the end of the match, Undertaker performed a Chokeslam on Rusev and rolled him into the casket. Before he could close the lid, English attacked the Undertaker, who retailiated with another Chokeslam and a Tombstone Piledriver before putting English into the casket alongside Rusev and closing it for the victory.
In the penultimate match, Brock Lesnar (accompanied by Paul Heyman) defended the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns in a steel cage match. Lesnar delivered multiple German Suplexes during the match, and both men kicked out of each other 's finishing moves. At one point in the match, Reigns tried to escape the cage through the door only for Heyman to slam the door on Reigns. The match ended after Reigns put Lesnar through the cage wall with a Spear, sending it onto the floor. Despite Reigns touching the floor with both feet first, the referee awarded the win to Lesnar, thereby retaining the Universal Championship.
Daniel Bryan and Dolph Ziggler began the 50 - man Royal Rumble match as the first two entrants. Bryan survived until the final 3, beating out Rey Mysterio for the longest time spent in a single Royal Rumble match of all time at an hour and sixteen minutes. At the end of the match, Big Cass eliminated Bryan only for Cass to then attempt a Big Boot on Braun Strowman, who ducked and knocked Cass over the top rope to win the match. Strowman also achieved the most eliminations of a single Royal Rumble match at 13, beating out a record previously held by Roman Reigns with 12. Post-match, Strowman received a trophy and a green championship belt.
WWE had been criticized for holding the event without female wrestlers, who were unable to perform at the event due to the limited rights women have in Saudi Arabia. Triple H, WWE 's Executive Vice President of Talent, Live Events and Creative, responded to the criticism: "I understand that people are questioning it, but you have to understand that every culture is different and just because you do n't agree with a certain aspect of it, it does n't mean it 's not a relevant culture... You ca n't dictate to a country or a religion about how they handle things but, having said that, WWE is at the forefront of a women 's evolution in the world and what you ca n't do is effect change anywhere by staying away from it... While women are not competing in the event, we have had discussions about that and hope that, in the next few years they will be ''. Women were in attendance for the event, though only if accompanied by a male guardian. This was a major change from previous events, which were only open to men. Associated Press noted that this is due to "a series of social changes '' by the Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman. During the event, WWE aired a promotional video, which included WWE female wrestlers. The Saudi General Sports Authority issued an apology for "indecent material '' that aired at the event.
In addition to the women, wrestler Sami Zayn did not participate in the event as Zayn is of Syrian descent, and Saudi Arabia has strained relations with Syria.
Another subject of criticism was the situation of LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia, as in Saudi Arabia homosexual intercourse is illegal and can be punished by death.
Al - Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, a militant group offshoot of Al - Qaeda in Yemen, issued a warning to bin Salman and criticized the WWE event stating that "Disbelieving wrestlers exposed their privates and on most of them was the sign of the cross, in front of a mixed gathering of young Muslim men and women. The corruptors did not stop at that, for every night musical concerts are being announced, as well as movies and circus shows. ''
At the conclusion of the Greatest Royal Rumble, Braun Strowman was awarded a trophy and a championship belt. The role of this Greatest Royal Rumble Championship, however remains unclear. According to The Sportster, "the likelihood is that nothing that took place in the main event will have any effect on anything once WWE arrives back in the United States and resume normal service. '' Thus far, the belt has not reappeared on WWE programs.
The base design is similar to the current design of the WWE Championship, with some differences. Instead of a large cut out of the WWE logo, the center plate is modeled with an Arabic pattern with the WWE logo in the center. Like the WWE Championship belt and other belts introduced in 2016 and 2017, the Greatest Royal Rumble Championship belt contains two side plates, both separated by gold divider bars, with removable round sections that can be replaced with the current champion 's logo; the default plates show the official logo of Saudi General Sports Authority, which is identical to the national emblem of Saudi Arabia. The plates are on a green leather strap resembling the color of the national flag of Saudi Arabia.
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who is the the first president of india | List of presidents of India - Wikipedia
The President of India is the head of state and first citizen of India. The President is also the Commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces. Although the president is vested such powers by the Constitution of India, the position is largely a ceremonial role and the executive powers are de facto exercised by the Prime Minister. The post of President is known in Hindi as Rashtrapati, a Sanskrit neologism meaning "lord of the realm ''. The President is elected by the Electoral College composed of elected members of the parliament houses, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, and also members of the Vidhan Sabha, the state legislative assemblies.
There have been 14 presidents of India since the introduction of the post in 1950 (the current tenure is 5 years of an Indian President 's term). The post was established when India was declared as a republic with the adoption of the Indian constitution. Apart from these thirteen, three acting presidents have also been in office for short periods of time. Varahagiri Venkata Giri became Indian Acting President in 1969 following the death of Zakir Husain, who died in office. Giri was elected President a few months later. He remains the only person to have held office both as a president and acting president. Giri was the only person to be elected as an independent candidate. The President may remain in office for a tenure of five years, as stated by article 56, part V, of the constitution of India. In the case where a president 's term of office is terminated early or during the absence of the president, the vice president assumes office. By article 70 of part V, the parliament may decide how to discharge the functions of the president where this is not possible, or in any other unexpected contingency. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, is the only person to have held office for two terms.
Seven presidents have been members of a political party before being elected. Six of these were active party members of the Indian National Congress. The Janata Party has had one member, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, who later became president, he was born in Anantapur District (now Andhra Pradesh). Two presidents, Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, have died in office. Their vice-presidents functioned as acting president until a new president was elected. Following Zakir Husain 's death, two acting presidents held office until the new president, V.V. Giri, was elected. Varahagiri Venkata Giri himself, Zakir Husain 's vice president, was the first acting president. When Giri resigned to take part in the presidential elections, he was succeeded by Mohammad Hidayatullah as acting president. The 12th president, Pratibha Patil, is the first woman to serve as President of India, elected in 2007.
The current President is Ram Nath Kovind, elected on 25 July 2017.
This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Mohammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who have functioned as acting presidents, are therefore not numbered. The President of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following:
Basappa Danappa Jatti (1974 -- 1977)
Muhammad Hidayatullah (1979 -- 1982)
Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1984 -- 1987)
Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (2002 -- 2007)
Venkaiah Naidu
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law & order special victims unit season 18 episode 8 cast | Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (season 18) - wikipedia
The eighteenth season of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit debuted on Wednesday, September 21, 2016 on NBC and finished on Wednesday, May 24, 2017 with a two - hour season finale.
Rick Eid, who previously worked on Law & Order and Law & Order: Trial By Jury, became the executive producer and showrunner, following Warren Leight 's departure from the series at the conclusion of the seventeenth season. Eid himself departed the series at the end of the eighteenth season.
Law & Order: Special Victims Unit was renewed for an eighteenth season on February 1, 2016, by NBC. It was announced in March 2015 that season seventeen would be show runner / executive producer Warren Leight 's last season on the show; he signed a three - year deal with Sony Pictures Television, his contract allowing him to work on SVU for one final season. On March 10, 2016, it was announced that Rick Eid would replace Leight as showrunner on this season.
The 400th episode of the series aired this season. "Motherly Love, '' directed by Mariska Hargitay, was filmed and billed as the 400th show. However, due to the shuffling of episodes during the season, the episode actually aired as the 399th episode. The 400th episode that was aired was the eleventh episode of the season, "Great Expectations, '' which aired on NBC on February 15, 2017 (after being moved from its initial air date of November 9, 2016 and a second air date of January 4, 2017).
At the end of production of the season, during upfronts SVU was renewed for a nineteenth season. Following the renewal announcement, it was revealed that show runner / executive producer Rick Eid had departed the show. He took over Chicago P.D. as show runner / EP starting with its fifth season, replacing C.P.D. co-creator / EP Matt Olmstead. Michael Chernuchin, former showrunner and executive producer for Dick Wolf 's Chicago Justice series, as well as a former executive producer and writer for many past incarnations of the Law & Order franchise, was selected as SVU 's new showrunner.
It was announced at the end of the seventeenth season that recurring star Andy Karl (who portrayed Sergeant Mike Dodds) would be departing the cast due to his Broadway work. He was killed off on the season finale by corrupt corrections officer Gary Munson.
It was announced on July 22, 2016, that SVU would do a ripped from the headlines episode based on Netflix documentary Making a Murderer. Henry Thomas appeared alongside Kelli Williams in the episode about a convicted rapist who is exonerated after DNA is freshly tested. Ice - T 's character, Fin Tutuola, originally arrested Thomas ' character 16 years earlier and then begins investigating him again when he is linked to a deadly crime. Williams played Melanie, a rape victim who initially identified Thomas ' character. On August 20, 2016, it was announced that the season premiere would pit ADA Rafael Barba (Raúl Esparza) against Lt. Olivia Benson (Mariska Hargitay) on opposing sides of the verdict. The episode "Rape Interrupted '' (which guest stars Anthony Edwards), was ripped from the headlines based on the Brock Turner sexual assault case, where Turner sexually assaulted an unconscious girl and was later convicted of three felony sexual assault charges. Turner was leniently punished as he only served three months of his six - month sentence, though he originally faced 14 years in prison based on charges. Executive Producer Julie Martin told The Huffington Post, "It is a phenomenon. Unfortunately, there have been several cases like that over the spring and the summer. '' Hargitay pondered if a similar case were to happen on the show: "Like if I was the detective on that case? It could be healing to somebody to see what should happen. (Seeing) justice, '' Hargitay continued, "If a judge would do a different sentence. You know, that 's healing for people to see the right thing, the just thing happen. ''
On July 29, 2016, it was announced that then - Vice President Joe Biden would appear in the September 28 episode ("Making a Rapist '') as himself to talk about the backlog of rape kits. Henry Thomas also appeared alongside Kelli Williams in the episode, Thomas portraying a convicted rapist who is exonerated after DNA is freshly retested.
On September 8, 2016, Hollywood Reporter reported that Anthony Edwards would guest star on SVU. Edwards starred on the NBC medical drama ER as Dr. Mark Greene; in season four of the medical series, Mariska Hargitay guest starred as Greene 's love interest, Desk Clerk Cynthia Cooper. Later, TV Guide announced that Edwards would be portraying Benson 's very first partner out of the Academy, Sgt. Patrick Griffin in "Rape Interrupted ''. Griffin 's son is the suspect in a rape investigation that puts Benson at odds with ADA Barba and Griffin. Hollywood Reporter announced that rapper - actor Wyclef Jean was guest starring in the episode "Broken Rhymes '' (originally titled "Bad Rap '') as a famed music producer whose client is embroiled in an assault case. Mitchell Edwards portrayed Hype in the episode as well.
On October 11, 2016, Hollywood Reporter reported that Gary Cole would guest star as a politician whose campaign goes haywire when several women go public with damaging accusations. The character and the episode, titled "Unstoppable, '' drew comparisons to then - presidential candidate Donald Trump. The episode was originally scheduled to air on October 26, but was then delayed until November 16 after the election finished. The episode was pulled from the schedule a second time and is indefinitely shelved.
When Lt. Benson finds a boy alone in Central Park, he draws a gun on her. The SVU team finds the boy 's parents as they execute a planned terrorist attack at the park. When the father is killed by police in a shootout in Central Park during an event, the boy 's mother (Natia Dune) says that she was forced to carry out the attack, as she was raped and beaten for five years by the father and his brother. Benson and Barba are at odds over the mother 's claims, with Benson pushing for leniency. Meanwhile, a distraught Deputy Chief Dodds accuses Benson of getting his son killed.
A teenage boy (Aaron Sanders) murders a person, later revealed to be his best friend, whom he believed was raping his mother (Sarah Wynter) at the time. The mother, a psychologist, claims that her son 's best friend had an obsession with her. A seemingly open - and - shut case is revealed to involve layers of deceit and manipulation on the mother 's part, who is not as innocent as she seems and may be hiding several secrets.
When a news anchor (Bonnie Somerville) makes a rape allegation against her boss (Christopher McDonald) on live TV, Benson, Barba, and the rest of the SVU squad ask corroborators to put their jobs on the line by confirming the allegations. However, they are very hesitant, afraid of losing their jobs or getting bad reputations. The defense complicates the case by making it seem as though the allegations sprung from the victim losing her job.
While investigating a case, the SVU squad is asked by a congressman (James Waterston) to debunk sexual assault rumors currently against him, but it takes a surprising twist when they are led to something much more deplorable. Things eventually become extremely personal when Benson and Rollins are targeted by a risqué website, with pictures of them and their children on it, saying false rumours about both Benson, Rollins and their kids. Both detectives become infuriated and upset, vowing to stop the website and the man running it.
"Unstoppable '', written by Julie Martin and Rick Eid, inspired by the sexual misconduct allegations against then - presidential candidate Donald Trump and starring Gary Cole, was originally scheduled to air on October 26, 2016, but it was pulled from the schedule and has since been shelved. At the 2017 Television Critics Association winter press tour, Dick Wolf expressed his belief that the episode may air that spring. NBC currently has no plans to air the episode, therefore shelving it indefinitely.
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who was the first person to successfully lead a team to complete a transantarctic crossing by land | History of Antarctica - Wikipedia
The history of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. The term Antarctic, referring to the opposite of the Arctic Circle, was coined by Marinus of Tyre in the 2nd century AD.
The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn in the 15th and 16th centuries proved that Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land ''), if it existed, was a continent in its own right. In 1773 James Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic Circle for the first time but although they discovered nearby islands, they did not catch sight of Antarctica itself. It is believed he was as close as 150 mi (241.4 km) from the mainland.
In 1819, a few of the 644 crew of the wrecked Spanish ship of the line San Telmo with 74 cannons might have been the first men to set foot on Antarctica before probably dying of hypothermia - but there is no proof that they did. A year later on the 27th of January, 1820 a Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev discovered an ice shelf at Princess Martha Coast that later became known as the Fimbul Ice Shelf. Bellingshausen and Lazarev became the first explorers to see and officially discover the land of Antarctica continent. Three days later, on 30 January 1820, a British expedition captained by Edward Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula, and ten months later an American sealer Nathaniel Palmer sighted Antarctica on 17 November 1820. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, a sealer, set foot on the ice.
Several expeditions attempted to reach the South Pole in the early 20th century, during the ' Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration '. Many resulted in injury and death. Norwegian Roald Amundsen finally reached the Pole on 13 December 1911, following a dramatic race with the Englishman Robert Falcon Scott.
Aristotle speculated, "Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole... ''.
It was not until Prince Henry the Navigator began in 1418 to encourage the penetration of the torrid zone in the effort to reach India by circumnavigating Africa that European exploration of the southern hemisphere began. In 1473 Portuguese navigator Lopes Gonçalves proved that the equator could be crossed, and cartographers and sailors began to assume the existence of another, temperate continent to the south of the known world.
The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any Antarctic land that might exist.
Ferdinand Magellan, who passed through the Straits of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the islands of Tierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this unknown southern land, and it appeared as such on a map by Ortelius: Terra australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita ("Southern land recently discovered but not yet fully known '').
European geographers connected the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land ''), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries. In 1599, according to the account of Jacob le Maire, the Dutch Dirck Gerritsz Pomp observed mountainous land at latitude (64 °). If so, these were the South Shetland Islands, and possibly the first European sighting of Antarctica (or offshore - lying islands belonging to it). Other accounts, however, do not note this observation, casting doubt on their accuracy. It has been argued that the Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla claimed to have sighted "snow - covered mountains '' beyond the 64 ° S in 1603, but this claim is not generally recognized.
Quirós in 1606 took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides) and those he would discover "even to the Pole ''.
Francis Drake like Spanish explorers before him had speculated that there might be an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego. Indeed, when Schouten and Le Maire discovered the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land.
Finally, in 1642 Tasman showed that even New Holland (Australia) was separated by sea from any continuous southern continent. Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice - encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770 reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did.
The visit to South Georgia by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence. Soon after the voyage cartographers started to depict ' Roché Island ', honouring the discoverer.
James Cook was aware of la Roché 's discovery when surveying and mapping the island in 1775.
Edmond Halley 's voyage in HMS Paramour for magnetic investigations in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52 ° S in January 1700, but that latitude (he reached 140 mi off the north coast of South Georgia) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Jean - Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover the "South Land '' -- described by a half legendary "sieur de Gonneyville '' -- resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54 ° 10 ′ S, and in the navigation of 48 ° of longitude of ice - cumbered sea nearly in 55 ° S in 1730.
In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius in search of "a very large continent. '' He lighted upon a land in 50 ° S which he called South France, and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him.
The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratic hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook. Sailing in 1772 with the Resolution, a vessel of 462 tons under his own command and the Adventure of 336 tons under Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in latitude 58 ° S, and then 30 ° eastward for the most part south of 60 ° S, a higher southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17 January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached 67 ° 15 ' S by 39 ° 35 ' E, where their course was stopped by ice.
Cook then turned northward to look for French Southern and Antarctic Lands, of the discovery of which he had received news at Cape Town, but from the rough determination of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned latitude 10 ° too far east and did not see it. He turned south again and was stopped by ice in 61 ° 52 ′ S by 95 ° E and continued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60 ° S to 147 ° E. On 16 March, the approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand, having parted company with the Adventure, and reached 60 ° S by 177 ° W, whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching 67 ° 31 ′ S to stand north again in 135 ° W.
A long detour to 47 ° 50 ′ S served to show that there was no land connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego. Turning south again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109 ° 30 ′ W before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at 71 ° 10 ′ S by 106 ° 54 ′ W. This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without sighting land between 53 ° and 57 ° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia, and discovered the South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice - clad land he had seen, before crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55 ° and 60 °. He thereby laid open the way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook 's most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel, and he convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and of no economic value.
It has been claimed that in 1819, the 644 crew of Spanish 3rd rate frigate San Telmo with 74 cannons were the first men to set foot on Antartica before dying of hypothermia. The San Telmo set sail from Cadiz in 1819 setting course for Callao, Peru to reinforce the Royalist Army with 644 crewmen, along with an escort flotilla of 3 other ships, only of which two made it.
The first land south of the parallel 60 ° south latitude was discovered by the Englishman William Smith, who sighted Livingston Island on 19 February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island, and claimed the new territories for Britain.
The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica on 27 January 1820 is attributed to Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev, discovering an ice shelf at Princess Martha Coast that later became known as the Fimbul Ice Shelf. Bellingshausen and Lazarev became the first explorers to see and officially discover the land of Antarctica continent.
It is certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on the ships Vostok and Mirny, reached on 28 January 1820 a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69 ° 21 ′ 28 '' S 2 ° 14 ′ 50 '' W / 69.35778 ° S 2.24722 ° W / - 69.35778; - 2.24722 that became known as the Fimbul ice shelf. On 30 January 1820, Edward Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula, the northernmost point of the Antarctic mainland. Von Bellingshausen 's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I Island, the first islands to be discovered south of the circle.
The first landing on the Antarctic mainland is thought to have been made by the American Captain John Davis, a sealer, who claimed to have set foot there on 7 February 1821, though this is not accepted by all historians.
In November 1820, Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer looking for seal breeding grounds, sighted what is now known as the Antarctic Peninsula, located between 55 and 80 degrees west. In 1823, James Weddell, a British sealer, sailed into what is now known as the Weddell Sea. Until the twentieth century, most expeditions were for commercial purpose, to look for the prospects of seal and whale hunting. A piece of wood, from the South Shetland Islands, was the first fossil ever recorded from Antarctica, obtained during a private United States expedition during 1829 - 31, commanded by Captain Benjamin Pendleton.
Charles Wilkes, as commander of a United States Navy expedition in 1840, discovered what is now known as Wilkes Land, a section of the continent around 120 degrees East.
After the North Magnetic Pole was located in 1831, explorers and scientists began looking for the South Magnetic Pole. One of the explorers, James Clark Ross, a British naval officer, identified its approximate location, but was unable to reach it on his 4 year - expedition from 1839 to 1843. Commanding the British ships Erebus and Terror, he braved the pack ice and approached what is now known as the Ross Ice Shelf, a massive floating ice shelf over 100 feet (30 m) high. His expedition sailed eastward along the southern Antarctic coast discovering mountains which were since named after his ships: Mount Erebus, the most active volcano on Antarctica, and Mount Terror.
The first documented landing on the mainland of East Antarctica was at Victoria Land by the American sealer Mercator Cooper on 26 January 1853.
These explorers, despite their impressive contributions to South Polar exploration, were unable to penetrate the interior of the continent and, rather, formed a broken line of discovered lands along the coastline of Antarctica. Following the expedition South by the ships Erebus and Terror under James Clark Ross (January, 1841), he suggested that there were no scientific discoveries, or ' problems ', worth exploration in the far South. What followed, is what historian H.R. Mill called ' the age of averted interest ' and in the following twenty years after Ross ' return, there was a general lull internationally in Antarctic exploration.
The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration began at the end of the 19th century and closed with Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans - Antarctic Expedition in 1917.
During this period the Antarctic continent became the focus of an international effort that resulted in intensive scientific and geographical exploration and in which 17 major Antarctic expeditions were launched from ten countries.
The initial impetus for the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was a lecture given by Dr. John Murray entitled "The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration '', given to the Royal Geographical Society in London, 27 November 1893. Murray advocated that research into the Antarctic should be organised to "resolve the outstanding geographical questions still posed in the south ''. Furthermore, the Royal Geographical Society instated an Antarctic Committee shortly prior to this, in 1887, which successfully encouraged many whalers to explore the Southern regions of the world and laid the groundwork for the lecture given by Murray.
The Norwegian ship Antarctic was put ashore at Cape Adare, on 24 January 1895.
In August 1895 the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London passed a general resolution calling on scientific societies throughout the world to promote the cause of Antarctic exploration "in whatever ways seem to them most effective ''. Such work would "bring additions to almost every branch of science ''. The Congress had been addressed by the Norwegian Carsten Borchgrevink, who had just returned from a whaling expedition during which he had become one of the first to set foot on the Antarctic mainland. During his address, Borchgrevink outlined plans for a full - scale pioneering Antarctic expedition, to be based at Cape Adare.
The Heroic Age was inaugurated by an expedition launched by the Belgian Geographical Society in 1897; Borchgrevink followed a year later with a privately sponsored British expedition. (Some histories consider the Discovery expedition, which departed in 1901, as the first proper expedition of the Heroic Age.)
The Belgian Antarctic Expedition was led by Belgian Adrian de Gerlache. In 1898, they became the first men to spend winter on Antarctica, when their ship Belgica became trapped in the ice. They became stuck on 28 February 1898, and only managed to get out of the ice on 14 March 1899.
During their forced stay, several men lost their sanity, not only because of the Antarctic winter night and the endured hardship, but also because of the language problems between the different nationalities. This was the first expedition to overwinter within the Antarctic Circle, and they visited the South Shetland Islands.
The Southern Cross Expedition began in 1898 and lasted for two years. This was the first expedition to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland (Cape Adare) and was the first to make use of dogs and sledges. It made the first ascent of The Great Ice Barrier, (The Great Ice Barrier later became formally known as the Ross Ice Shelf). The expedition set a Farthest South record at 78 ° 30 'S. It also calculated the location of the South Magnetic Pole.
The Discovery Expedition was then launched, from 1901 -- 04 and was led by Robert Falcon Scott. It made the first ascent of the Western Mountains in Victoria Land, and discovered the polar plateau. Its southern journey set a new Farthest South record, 82 ° 17 'S. Many other geographical features were discovered, mapped and named. This was the first of several expeditions based in McMurdo Sound.
A year later, the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition was launched, headed by William Speirs Bruce. ' Ormond House ' was established as a meteorological observatory on Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and was the first permanent base in Antarctica. The Weddell Sea was penetrated to 74 ° 01 'S, and the coastline of Coats Land was discovered, defining the sea 's eastern limits.
Ernest Shackleton, who had been a member of Scott 's expedition, organized and led the Nimrod Expedition from 1907 to 1909. The expedition 's primary objective was of reaching the South Pole. Based in McMurdo Sound, the expedition pioneered the Beardmore Glacier route to the South Pole, and the (limited) use of motorised transport. Its southern march reached 88 ° 23 'S, a new Farthest South record 97 geographical miles from the Pole before having to turn back. During the expedition, Shackleton was the first to reach the polar plateau. Parties led by T.W. Edgeworth David also became the first to climb Mount Erebus and to reach the South Magnetic Pole.
The First German Antarctic Expedition was sent to investigate eastern Antarctica in 1901. It discovered the coast of Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, and Mount Gauss. The expedition 's ship became trapped in ice, however, which prevented more extensive exploration.
The Swedish Antarctic Expedition, operating at the same time worked in the east coastal area of Graham Land, and was marooned on Snow Hill Island and Paulet Island in the Weddell Sea, after the sinking of its expedition ship. It was rescued by the Argentinian naval vessel Uruguay.
The French organized their first expedition in 1903 under the leadership of Jean - Baptiste Charcot. Originally intended as a relief expedition for the stranded Nordenskiöld party, the main work of this expedition was the mapping and charting of islands and the western coasts of Graham Land, on the Antarctic peninsula. A section of the coast was explored, and named Loubet Land after the President of France.
A follow up trip was organized from 1908 -- 10 which continued the earlier work of the French expedition with a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, and the discovery of islands and other features, including Marguerite Bay, Charcot Island, Renaud Island, Mikkelsen Bay, Rothschild Island.
The prize of the Heroic age was to reach the South Pole. Two expeditions set off in 1910 to attain this goal; a party led by Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen from the ship Fram and Robert Falcon Scott 's British group from the Terra Nova.
Amundsen succeeded in reaching the Pole on 14 December 1911 using a route from the Bay of Whales to the polar plateau via the Axel Heiberg Glacier.
Scott and his four companions reached the South Pole via the Beardmore route on 17 January 1912, 33 days after Amundsen. All five died on the return journey from the Pole, through a combination of starvation and cold. The Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station was later named after these two men.
The Australasian Antarctic Expedition took place between 1911 - 1914 and was led by Sir Douglas Mawson. It concentrated on the stretch of Antarctic coastline between Cape Adare and Mount Gauss, carrying out mapping and survey work on coastal and inland territories.
Discoveries included Commonwealth Bay, Ninnis Glacier, Mertz Glacier, and Queen Mary Land. Major accomplishments were made in geology, glaciology and terrestrial biology.
The Imperial Trans - Antarctic Expedition of 1914 - 1917 was led by Ernest Shackleton and set out to cross the continent via the South pole. However, their ship, the Endurance, was trapped and crushed by pack ice in the Weddell Sea before they were able to land. The expedition members survived after a journey on sledges over pack ice, a prolonged drift on an ice - floe, and a voyage in three small boats to Elephant Island. Then Shackleton and five others crossed the Southern Ocean in an open boat called James Caird and made the first crossing of South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken.
A related component of the Trans - Antarctic Expedition was the Ross Sea party, led by Aeneas Mackintosh. Its objective was to lay depots across the Great Ice Barrier, in order to supply Shackleton 's party crossing from the Weddell Sea. All the required depots were laid, but in the process three men, including the leader Mackintosh, lost their lives.
Shackleton 's last expedition and the one that brought the ' Heroic Age ' to a close, was the Shackleton -- Rowett Expedition from 1921 - 1922 on board the ship Quest. Its vaguely defined objectives included coastal mapping, a possible continental circumnavigation, the investigation of sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton 's death on 5 January 1922, Quest completed a shortened programme before returning home.
After Shackleton 's last expedition, there was a hiatus in Antarctic exploration for about seven years. From 1929, aircraft and mechanized transportation were increasingly used, earning this period the sobriquet of the ' Mechanical Age '. Hubert Wilkins first visited Antarctica in 1921 - 1922 as an ornithologist attached to the Shackleton - Rowett Expedition. From 1927, Wilkins and pilot Carl Ben Eielson began exploring the Arctic by aircraft.
On 15 April 1928, only a year after Charles Lindbergh 's flight across the Atlantic, Wilkins and Eielson made a trans - Arctic crossing from Point Barrow, Alaska, to Spitsbergen, arriving about 20 hours later on 16 April, touching along the way at Grant Land on Ellesmere Island. For this feat and his prior work, Wilkins was knighted.
With financial backing from William Randolph Hearst, Wilkins returned to the South Pole and flew over Antarctica in the San Francisco. He named the island of Hearst Land after his sponsor.
US Navy Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd led five expeditions to Antarctica during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. He overflew the South Pole with pilot Bernt Balchen on 28 and 29 November 1929, to match his overflight of the North Pole in 1926. Byrd 's explorations had science as a major objective and extensively used the aircraft to explore the continent.
Captain Finn Ronne, Byrd 's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition in 1947 -- 1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. Ronne disproved the notion that the continent was divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single continent, i.e. that the Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected. The expedition explored and mapped large parts of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and identified the Ronne Ice Shelf, named by Ronne after his wife Edith Ronne. Ronne covered 3,600 miles by ski and dog sled -- more than any other explorer in history.
The 1955 -- 58 Commonwealth Trans - Antarctic Expedition successfully completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica, via the South Pole. Although supported by the British and other Commonwealth governments, most of the funding came from corporate and individual donations.
It was headed by British explorer Dr Vivian Fuchs, with New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary leading the New Zealand Ross Sea Support team. After spending the winter of 1957 at Shackleton Base, Fuchs finally set out on the transcontinental journey in November 1957, with a twelve - man team travelling in six vehicles; three Sno - Cats, two Weasels and one specially adapted Muskeg tractor. En route, the team were also tasked with carrying out scientific research including seismic soundings and gravimetric readings.
In parallel Hillary 's team had set up Scott Base -- which was to be Fuchs ' final destination -- on the opposite side of the continent at McMurdo Sound on the Ross Sea. Using three converted Massey Ferguson TE20 tractors and one Weasel (abandoned part - way), Hillary and his three men (Ron Balham, Peter Mulgrew and Murray Ellis), were responsible for route - finding and laying a line of supply depots up the Skelton Glacier and across the Polar Plateau on towards the South Pole, for the use of Fuchs on the final leg of his journey. Other members of Hillary 's team carried out geological surveys around the Ross Sea and Victoria Land areas.
Hillary 's party reached the South Pole on 3 January 1958, and was just the third (preceded by Amundsen in 1911 and Scott in 1912) to reach the Pole overland. Fuchs ' team reached the Pole from the opposite direction on 19 January 1958, where they met up with Hillary. Fuchs then continued overland, following the route that Hillary had laid and on 2 March succeeded in reaching Scott Base, completing the first overland crossing of the continent by land via the South Pole.
The United Kingdom reasserted sovereignty over the Falkland Islands in the far South Atlantic in 1833 and maintained a continuous presence there. In 1908, the British government extended its territorial claim by declaring sovereignty over "South Georgia, the South Orkneys, the South Shetlands, and the Sandwich Islands, and Graham 's Land, situated in the South Atlantic Ocean and on the Antarctic continent to the south of the 50th parallel of south latitude, and lying between the 20th and the 80th degrees of west longitude ''. All these territories were administered as Falkland Islands Dependencies from Stanley by the Governor of the Falkland Islands. The motivation for this declaration lay in the need for regulating and taxing the whaling industry effectively. Commercial operators would hunt whales in areas outside of the official boundaries of the Falkland Islands and its dependencies and there was a need to close this loophole.
In 1917, the wording of the claim was modified, so as to, among other things, unambiguously include all the territory in the sector stretching to the South Pole (thus encompassing all of the present - day British Antarctic Territory). The new claim covered "all islands and territories whatsoever between the 20th degree of west longitude and the 50th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 50th parallel of south latitude; and all islands and territories whatsoever between the 50th degree of west longitude and the 80th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 58th parallel of south latitude ''.
Under the ambition of Leopold Amery, the Under - Secretary of State for the Colonies, Britain attempted to incorporate the entire continent into the Empire. In a memorandum to the governor - generals for Australia and New Zealand, he wrote that ' with the exception of Chile and Argentina and some barren islands belonging to France... it is desirable that the whole of the Antarctic should ultimately be included in the British Empire. '
The first step was taken on 30 July 1923, when the British government passed an Order in Council under the British Settlements Act 1887, defining the new borders for the Ross Dependency - "that part of His Majesty 's Dominions in the Antarctic Seas, which comprises all the islands and territories between the 160th degree of East Longitude and the 150th degree of West Longitude which are situated south of the 60th degree of South Latitude shall be named the Ross Dependency. ''
The Order in Council then went on to appoint the Governor - General and Commander - in Chief of New Zealand as the Governor of the territory.
In 1930, the United Kingdom claimed Enderby Land. In 1933, a British imperial order transferred territory south of 60 ° S and between meridians 160 ° E and 45 ° E to Australia as the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Following the passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the government of the United Kingdom relinquished all control over the government of New Zealand and Australia. This however had no bearing on the obligations of the Governor - General of both countries in their capacity as Governor of the Antarctic territories.
Meanwhile, alarmed by these unilateral declarations, the French government laid claim to a strip of the continent in 1924. The basis for their claim to Adélie Land lay on the discovery of the coastline in 1840 by the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville, who named it after his wife, Adèle. The British eventually decided to recognize this claim and the border between Adélie Land and Australian Antarctic Territory was fixed definitively in 1938.
These developments also concerned Norwegian whaling interests, who wished to avoid the British taxation of whaling stations in the Antarctic and were concerned that they would be commercially excluded from the continent. The whale - ship owner Lars Christensen financed several expeditions to the Antarctic with the view to claim land for Norway and establish stations on Norwegian territory to gain better privileges. The first expedition, led by Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad, landed on Peter I Island in 1929 and claimed the island for Norway. On 6 March 1931, a Norwegian royal proclamation declared the island under Norwegian sovereignty and on 23 March 1933 the island was declared a dependency.
The 1929 expedition led by Hjalmar Riiser - Larsen and Finn Lützow - Holm named the continental land mass near the island as Queen Maud Land, named after the Norwegian queen Maud of Wales. The territory was explored further during the Norvegia expedition of 1930 -- 31. Negotiations with the British government in 1938 resulted in the western border of Queen Maud Land being set at 20 ° W.
Norway 's claim was disputed by Nazi Germany, which in 1938 dispatched the German Antarctic Expedition, led by Alfred Ritscher, to fly over as much of it as possible. The ship Schwabenland reached the pack ice off Antarctica on 19 January 1939. During the expedition, an area of about 350,000 square kilometres (140,000 sq mi) was photographed from the air by Ritscher, who dropped darts inscribed with swastikas every 26 kilometres (16 mi). Germany eventually attempted to claim the territory surveyed by Ritscher under the name New Swabia, but lost any claim to the land following its defeat in the Second World War.
On 14 January 1939, five days prior to the German arrival, Queen Maud Land was annexed by Norway, after a royal decree announced that the land bordering the Falkland Islands Dependencies in the west and the Australian Antarctic Dependency in the east was to be brought under Norwegian sovereignty. The primary basis for the annexation was to secure the Norwegian whaling industry 's access to the region. In 1948, Norway and the United Kingdom agreed to limit Queen Maud Land to from 20 ° W to 45 ° E, and that the Bruce Coast and Coats Land were to be incorporated into Norwegian territory.
This encroachment of foreign powers was a matter of immense disquiet to the nearby South American countries, Argentina and Chile. Taking advantage of a European continent plunged into turmoil with the onset of the Second World War, Chile 's president, Pedro Aguirre Cerda declared the establishment of a Chilean Antarctic Territory in areas already claimed by Britain.
Argentina had an even longer history of involvement in the Continent. Already in 1904 the Argentine government began a permanent occupation in the area with the purchase of a meteorological station on Laurie Island established in 1903 by Dr William S. Bruce 's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Bruce offered to transfer the station and instruments for the sum of 5.000 pesos, on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission. British officer William Haggard also sent a note to the Argentine Foreign Minister, Jose Terry, ratifying the terms of Bruce proposition.
In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on South Orkney Islands. However, Haggard responded by reminding Argentina that the South Orkneys were British. The British position was that Argentine personnel was granted permission only for the period of one year. The Argentine government entered into negotiations with the British in 1913 over the possible transfer of the island. Although these talks were unsuccessful, Argentina attempted to unilaterally establish their sovereignty with the erection of markers, national flags and other symbols. Finally, with British attention elsewhere, Argentina declared the establishment of Argentine Antarctica in 1943, claiming territory that overlapped with British (20 ° W to 80 ° W) and the earlier Chilean (53 ° W to 90 ° W) claims.
In response to this and earlier German explorations, the British Admiralty and Colonial Office launched Operation Tabarin in 1943 to reassert British territorial claims against Argentine and Chilean incursion and establish a permanent British presence in the Antarctic. The move was also motivated by concerns within the Foreign Office about the direction of United States post-war activity in the region.
A suitable cover story was the need to deny use of the area to the enemy. The Kriegsmarine was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points and as shelters for commerce raiders, U-boats and supply ships. Also, in 1941, there existed a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands, either as a base or to hand them over to Argentina, thus gaining political advantage for the Axis and denying their use to Britain.
In 1943, British personnel from HMS Carnarvon Castle removed Argentine flags from Deception Island. The expedition was led by Lieutenant James Marr and left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and Fitzroy, on Saturday 29 January 1944.
Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island, where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land. A further base was founded at Hope Bay on 13 February 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on 7 February 1944. Symbols of British sovereignty, including post offices, signposts and plaques were also constructed and postage stamps were issued.
Operation Tabarin provoked Chile to organize its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947 - 48, where the Chilean president Gabriel González Videla personally inaugurated one of its bases.
Following the end of the war in 1945, the British bases were handed over to civilian members of the newly created Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (subsequently the British Antarctic Survey) the first such national scientific body to be established in Antarctica.
Friction between Britain and the Latin American states continued into the post war period. Royal Navy warships were despatched in 1948 to prevent naval incursions and in 1952, an Argentine shore party at Hope Bay (the British Base "D '', established there in 1945, came up against the Argentine Esperanza Base, est. 1952) fired a machine gun over the heads of a British Antarctic Survey team unloading supplies from the John Biscoe. The Argentines later extended a diplomatic apology, saying that there had been a misunderstanding and that the Argentine military commander on the ground had exceeded his authority.
The United States became politically interested in the Antarctic continent before and during WWII. The United States Antarctic Service Expedition, from 1939 - 1941, was sponsored by the government with additional support came from donations and gifts by private citizens, corporations and institutions. The objectives of the Expedition, outlined by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was to establish two bases: East Base, in the vicinity of Charcot Island, and West Base, in the vicinity of King Edward VII Land. After operating successfully for two years, but with international tensions on the rise, it was considered wise to evacuate the two bases. However,
Immediately after the war, American interest was rekindled with an explicitly geopolitical motive. Operation Highjump, from 1946 - 1947 was organized by Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd Jr. and included 4,700 men, 13 ships, and multiple aircraft. The primary mission of Operation Highjump was to establish the Antarctic research base Little America IV, for the purpose of training personnel and testing equipment in frigid conditions and amplifying existing stores of knowledge of hydrographic, geographic, geological, meteorological and electromagnetic propagation conditions in the area. The mission was also aimed at consolidating and extending United States sovereignty over the largest practicable area of the Antarctic continent, although this was publicly denied as a goal even before the expedition ended.
Meanwhile, in an attempt at ending the impasse, Britain submitted an application to the International Court of Justice in 1955 to adjudicate between the territorial claims of Britain, Argentina and Chile. This proposal failed, as both Latin American countries rejected submitting to an international arbitration procedure.
Negotiations towards the establishment of an international condominium over the continent first began in 1948, involving the 7 claimant powers (Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, Norway, Chile and Argentina) and the US. This attempt was aimed at excluding the Soviet Union from the affairs of the continent and rapidly fell apart when the USSR declared an interest in the region, refused to recognize any claims of sovereignty and reserved the right to make its own claims in 1950.
An important impetus toward the formation of the Antarctic Treaty System in 1959, was the International Geophysical Year, 1957 - 1958. This year of international scientific cooperation triggered an 18 - month period of intense Antarctic science. More than 70 existing national scientific organizations then formed IGY committees, and participated in the cooperative effort. The British established Halley Research Station in 1956 by an expedition from the Royal Society. Sir Vivian Fuchs headed the Commonwealth Trans - Antarctic Expedition, which completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica in 1958. In Japan, the Japan Maritime Safety Agency offered ice breaker Sōya as the South Pole observation ship and Showa Station was built as the first Japanese observation base on Antarctica.
France contributed with Dumont d'Urville Station and Charcot Station in Adélie Land. The ship Commandant Charcot of the French Navy spent nine months of 1949 / 50 at the coast of Adelie Land, performing ionospheric soundings. The US erected the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station as the first permanent structure directly over the South Pole in January 1957.
Finally, to prevent the possibility of military conflict in the region, the United States, United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and 9 other countries with significant interests negotiated and signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. The treaty entered into force in 1961 and sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that continent. The treaty was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.
A baby, named Emilio Marcos de Palma, was born near Hope Bay on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. He also was born farther south than anyone in history.
On 28 November 1979, an Air New Zealand DC - 10 on a sightseeing trip crashed into Mount Erebus on Ross Island, killing all 257 people on board.
In 1991 a convention among member nations of the Antarctic Treaty on how to regulate mining and drilling was proposed. Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke and French Prime Minister Michel Rocard led a response to this convention that resulted in the adoption of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, now known as the Madrid Protocol. All mineral extraction was banned for 50 years and the Antarctic was set aside as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science ''.
Børge Ousland, a Norwegian explorer, finished the first unassisted Antarctic solo crossing on 18 January 1997.
On 23 November 2007, the MS Explorer struck an iceberg and sank, but all on board were rescued by nearby ships, including a passing Norwegian cruise ship, the MS Nordnorge.
Women were originally kept from exploring Antarctica until well into the 1950s. A few pioneering women visited the Antarctic land and waters prior to the 1950s and many women requested to go on early expeditions, but were turned away. Early pioneers such as Louise Séguin and Ingrid Christensen were some of the first women to see Antarctic waters. Christensen was the first woman to set foot on the mainland of Antarctica. The first women to have any fanfare about their Antarctic journeys were Caroline Mikkelsen who set foot on an island of Antarctica in 1935, and Jackie Ronne and Jennie Darlington who were the first women to over-winter in Antarctica in 1947. The first woman scientist to work in Antarctica was Maria Klenova in 1956. Silvia Morella de Palma was the first woman to give birth in Antarctica, delivering 3.4 kg (7 lb 8 oz) Emilio Palma at the Argentine Esperanza base 7 January 1978.
Women faced legal barriers and sexism that prevented most from visiting Antarctica and doing research until the late 1960s. The United States Congress banned American women from traveling to Antarctica until 1969. Women were often excluded because it was thought that they could not handle the extreme temperatures or crisis situations. The first woman from the British Antarctic Survey to go to Antarctica was Janet Thomson in 1983 who described the ban on women as a "rather improper segregation. ''
Once women were allowed in Antarctica, they still had to fight against sexism and sexual harassment. However, a tipping point was reached in the mid 1990s when it became the new normal that women were part of Antarctic life. Women began to see a change as more and more women began working and researching in Antarctica.
Coordinates: 67 ° 15 ′ S 39 ° 35 ′ E / 67.250 ° S 39.583 ° E / - 67.250; 39.583
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who is the actor who plays loki in thor | Tom Hiddleston - wikipedia
Thomas William Hiddleston (born 9 February 1981) is an English actor, film producer and musician. At the beginning of his career, he appeared in West End theatre productions of Cymbeline (2007) and Ivanov (2008). He won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play for his role in Cymbeline and was also nominated for the same award for his role as Cassio in Othello.
He came to wider public attention when cast as Loki in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, appearing in Thor (2011), The Avengers (2012), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Thor: Ragnarok (2017) and Avengers: Infinity War (2018). In 2011, he won the Empire Award for Best Male Newcomer and was nominated for the BAFTA Rising Star Award. Hiddleston has also appeared in Steven Spielberg 's War Horse (2011), The Deep Blue Sea (2011), Woody Allen 's romantic comedy Midnight in Paris (2011), the 2012 BBC series Henry IV and Henry V, and the romantic vampire film Only Lovers Left Alive (2013).
In late 2013 and early 2014, Hiddleston starred as the title character in the Donmar Warehouse production of Coriolanus, winning the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actor. In 2015, he starred in Guillermo del Toro 's Crimson Peak, Ben Wheatley 's High Rise, and played the troubled country music singer Hank Williams in the biopic I Saw The Light.
In 2016, he starred in and was an executive producer of the AMC / BBC limited series The Night Manager, for which he received two Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie and Outstanding Limited Series, and won his first Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Miniseries or Television Film.
Thomas William Hiddleston was born on 9 February 1981 in Westminster, London, the son of Diana Patricia (née Servaes) Hiddleston, an arts administrator and former stage manager, and James Norman Hiddleston, a physical chemist. His father is from Greenock, Scotland and his mother is from Suffolk. His younger sister, Emma, is also an actress, whilst his older sister, Sarah, is a journalist in India. Through his mother, he is a great - grandson of Vice Admiral Reginald Servaes and a great - great - grandson of food producer Sir Edmund Vestey.
Hiddleston was raised in Wimbledon in his early years, and later moved to a village near Oxford. He started boarding at the Dragon School preparatory school in Oxford when he was seven. His parents divorced when he was 12. When discussing his parents ' divorce in an interview with The Daily Telegraph, he stated: "I like to think it made me more compassionate in my understanding of human frailty. ''
At the age of 13, Hiddleston started at Eton College, again as a boarder. He continued on to Pembroke College at the University of Cambridge, where he earned a double first in Classics. During his second term at Cambridge, he was seen in a production of A Streetcar Named Desire by talent agent Lorraine Hamilton of Hamilton Hodell. He proceeded to study acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, from which he graduated in 2005.
While still doing student plays, Hiddleston began appearing on television, landing parts in Stephen Whittaker 's adaptation of Nicholas Nickleby (2001) for ITV, the BBC / HBO co-production Conspiracy (2001), and as Randolph Churchill, the son of Winston Churchill, in the BBC / HBO drama The Gathering Storm (2002).
Upon graduating from RADA, Hiddleston was cast in his first film role, playing Oakley in Joanna Hogg 's first feature film, Unrelated (2006). His sister Emma also appeared in the film as Badge. Casting director, Lucy Bevan, who cast him in the film said "there was just a fantastic confidence about him ''. Hiddleston had leading roles in Declan Donnellan 's company Cheek by Jowl 's productions The Changeling (2006), and Cymbeline (2007). For the latter he won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play. His Donmar Warehouse credits include Cassio in Michael Grandage 's production of Shakespeare 's Othello (2008) alongside Chiwetel Ejiofor and Ewan McGregor, and Lvov in the West End revival of Chekhov 's Ivanov (2008) with Kenneth Branagh.
Hiddleston was the voiceover for BBC 's documentary on the Galapagos Island in 2006. He also narrated the audiobook The Red Necklace by Sally Gardner in 2007, Hiddleston played the leading role of Edward in Hogg 's second feature, Archipelago (2010). His TV credits include Magnus Martinsson in the BBC detective drama Wallander (2008), Bill Hazledine in Suburban Shootout (2006), John Plumptre in the BBC costume drama TV film Miss Austen Regrets (2008) and William Buxton in the BBC drama series Return to Cranford (2009). In 2007, he joined a list of British actors, including Kate Winslet and Orlando Bloom, to have guest starred in the long - running medical drama Casualty.
Hiddleston is well known for his portrayal of Loki in the 2011 Marvel Studios film Thor. He was invited to audition by Kenneth Branagh, the film 's director, after having previously worked with Branagh on Ivanov and Wallander. Hiddleston said of Branagh, "Ken has had a life - changing effect. He was able to say to the executives, ' Trust me on this, you can cast Tom and he will deliver '. It was massive and it 's completely changed the course of what is available to me to do. Ken gave me my break. '' In the beginning, he originally auditioned for the part of Thor. "I initially auditioned to play Thor. That was what I was being considered for, because I 'm tall and blonde and classically trained, and that seemed to be the mold for what Thor was, he was to be a classical character. And it was in my auditions. I owe this entirely to Marvel and their open - mindedness, they saw something that they thought was interesting. They saw some temperament that they liked. '' The casting director gave Hiddleston six weeks to bulk up, so he went on a strict diet and gained twenty pounds of muscle. In the end, Branagh decided he was more suitable as the antagonist and cast him as Loki. The film magazine Empire ranked Hiddleston 's portrayal as Loki the 19th Greatest Movie Character of All Time.
In November 2010, Hiddleston appeared with Benedict Cumberbatch, Gemma Arterton, Eddie Redmayne and Rose Byrne among others in Danny Boyle 's one time production of The Children 's Monologues, in which he played Prudence, a young girl upset with her mother for her father leaving and excited for her birthday. The play was a one time event of adapted stories of children 's first - hand experiences in South Africa being re-interpreted by and performed by various actors.
In 2011, Hiddleston portrayed novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald in writer - director Woody Allen 's Midnight in Paris. He then played the noble Captain Nicholls in War Horse, a film based on the 1982 novel by Michael Morpurgo, directed by Steven Spielberg. The same year he starred as Freddie Page, a RAF pilot in the drama The Deep Blue Sea, alongside Rachel Weisz. In 2012, he reprised his role as the supervillain Loki in The Avengers. While filming a scene with Chris Hemsworth, who plays Thor, the film 's director, Joss Whedon told the fighting duo that the scene did not look real enough, so Hiddleston told Hemsworth to really hit him for the fight scene. "I said to Chris, ' Dude, just hit me. Just hit me because I 'm protected here and it 's fine. ' He 's like, ' Are you sure? ' I was like, ' Yeah, it will look great. Just go for it. ' '' He provided the voiceover the Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead in 2011 and poetry for iF Poems and The Love Book on iTunes in 2012.
On television in 2012, Hiddleston appeared in the BBC Two series The Hollow Crown, portraying Prince Hal opposite Jeremy Irons as Henry IV in the adaptation of Shakespeare 's Henry IV, Part I and Part II. He later as appeared as King Henry V in the television film Henry V. In 2013, Hiddleston played Loki again in Thor: The Dark World, following which he played a vampire in Jim Jarmusch 's film Only Lovers Left Alive with Tilda Swinton and Mia Wasikowska.
From December 2013 to February 2014, Hiddleston played the title character in William Shakespeare 's Coriolanus at the Donmar Warehouse in Covent Garden directed by Josie Rourke. It was also aired live internationally on 30 January 2014. David Benedict of Variety praised a "scorching '' performance. He had a cameo in the 2014 film Muppets Most Wanted, as the Great Escapo.
Hiddleston replaced Benedict Cumberbatch in the gothic horror film Crimson Peak, directed by Guillermo del Toro. The film started filming in Toronto in February 2014, and was released in October 2015. He starred as Robert Laing in High - Rise (2015), based on J.G. Ballard 's novel of the same name and directed by Ben Wheatley.
In January 2014, Hiddleston became a spokesperson for Jaguar Cars in their "Good to be Bad '' ad campaign featuring British actors in villain - themed commercials to promote Jaguars new models. The first commercial of the campaign, titled "Rendezvous '', first aired during the 2014 Super Bowl and featured Hiddleston along with Mark Strong and Ben Kingsley.
In April 2014, Hiddleston starred in another commercial in the campaign, titled "The Art of Villainy ''. It was released on YouTube, promoting the F - Type coupe. However, the Advertising Standards Authority received complaints about the video "encouraging irresponsible driving ''. Jaguar Land Rover said that in the ad, when the car did leave the car park, it "accelerated briefly '' and that police were present at filming to confirm the speed limit was not breached but the ASA ruled against it and banned the commercial.
It was announced in June 2014 that Hiddleston would play country music singer Hank Williams in the 2015 biopic I Saw the Light, based on the 1994 biography. The film was directed by Marc Abraham, and was first shown in the Special Presentations section of the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival. The film was released on March 25, 2016, by Sony Pictures Classics.
In 2017, Hiddleston starred in Legendary Pictures ' King Kong film, Kong: Skull Island. It was released on 10 March, and was directed by Jordan Vogt - Roberts. He reprised his role as Loki in Thor: Ragnarok, released on 3 November 2017, and also appeared in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and its as yet untitled sequel, which is scheduled for 2019.
Hiddleston was one of the narrators in the 2015 documentary Unity directed by Shaun Monson. Hiddleston appeared as Jonathan Pine in the 2016 television mini-series The Night Manager based on the espionage and detective novel of the same name by John le Carré. The series started filming in Spring 2015 and aired on BBC and AMC with Hugh Laurie also starring.
Hiddleston lives in the Belsize Park area of north - west London. He was one of the celebrities (alongside Benedict Cumberbatch, E.L. James and Rachel Riley, among others) to design and sign his own card for the UK - based charity the Thomas Coram Foundation for Children. The campaign was launched by crafting company Stampin ' Up! UK and the cards were auctioned off on eBay during May 2014. He is also a UK ambassador of the humanitarian and developmental assistance fund group UNICEF. He travelled to Guinea in early 2013 to help women and children and raise awareness about hunger and malnutrition. Hiddleston is a self - described feminist.
Hiddleston was previously in a relationship with actress Susannah Fielding, who appeared with him in an episode of Wallander in 2008. Their relationship ended in late 2011. In 2016, Hiddleston dated singer Taylor Swift for several months.
Hiddleston won the light - hearted UK award Rear of the Year 2016, in which the public nominate the male and female UK - based celebrities that they think should win the titular award. One of the highest profile actors in contemporary British popular culture, Hiddleston appeared on Debrett 's 2017 list of the most influential people in the UK.
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when does saturation occur in an air mass | Saturation (magnetic) - wikipedia
Seen in some magnetic materials, saturation is the state reached when an increase in applied external magnetic field H can not increase the magnetization of the material further, so the total magnetic flux density B more or less levels off. (It continues to increase very slowly due to the vacuum permeability.) Saturation is a characteristic of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials, such as iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys.
Saturation is most clearly seen in the magnetization curve (also called BH curve or hysteresis curve) of a substance, as a bending to the right of the curve (see graph at right). As the H field increases, the B field approaches a maximum value asymptotically, the saturation level for the substance. Technically, above saturation, the B field continues increasing, but at the paramagnetic rate, which is several orders of magnitude smaller than the ferromagnetic rate seen below saturation.
The relation between the magnetizing field H and the magnetic field B can also be expressed as the magnetic permeability: μ = B / H (\ displaystyle \ mu = B / H) or the relative permeability μ r = μ / μ 0 (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (r) = \ mu / \ mu _ (0)), where μ 0 (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (0)) is the vacuum permeability. The permeability of ferromagnetic materials is not constant, but depends on H. In saturable materials the relative permeability increases with H to a maximum, then as it approaches saturation inverts and decreases toward one.
Different materials have different saturation levels. For example, high permeability iron alloys used in transformers reach magnetic saturation at 1.6 -- 2.2 teslas (T), whereas ferrites saturate at 0.2 -- 0.5 T. Some amorphous alloys saturate at 1.2 -- 1.3 T. Mu - metal saturates at around 0.8 T.
Ferromagnetic materials (like iron) are composed of microscopic regions called magnetic domains, that act like tiny permanent magnets that can change their direction of magnetization. Before an external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domains ' magnetic fields are oriented in random directions, effectively cancelling each other out, so the net external magnetic field is negligibly small. When an external magnetizing field H is applied to the material, it penetrates the material and aligns the domains, causing their tiny magnetic fields to turn and align parallel to the external field, adding together to create a large magnetic field B which extends out from the material. This is called magnetization. The stronger the external magnetic field H, the more the domains align, yielding a higher magnetic flux density B. Eventually, at a certain external magnetic field, the domain walls have moved as far as they can, and the domains are as aligned as the crystal structure allows them to be, so there is negligible change in the domain structure on increasing the external magnetic field above this. The magnetization remains nearly constant, and is said to have saturated. The domain structure at saturation depends on the temperature.
Saturation puts a practical limit on the maximum magnetic fields achievable in ferromagnetic - core electromagnets and transformers of around 2 T, which puts a limit on the minimum size of their cores. This is one reason why high power motors, generators, and utility transformers are physically large; because they must have large magnetic cores.
In electronic circuits, transformers and inductors with ferromagnetic cores operate nonlinearly when the current through them is large enough to drive their core materials into saturation. This means that their inductance and other properties vary with changes in drive current. In linear circuits this is usually considered an unwanted departure from ideal behavior. When AC signals are applied, this nonlinearity can cause the generation of harmonics and intermodulation distortion. To prevent this, the level of signals applied to iron core inductors must be limited so they do n't saturate. To lower its effects, an air gap is created in some kinds of transformer cores. The saturation current, the current through the winding required to saturate the magnetic core, is given by manufacturers in the specifications for many inductors and transformers.
On the other hand, saturation is exploited in some electronic devices. Saturation is employed to limit current in saturable - core transformers, used in arc welding, and ferroresonant transformers which serve as voltage regulators. When the primary current exceeds a certain value, the core is pushed into its saturation region, limiting further increases in secondary current. In a more sophisticated application, saturable core inductors and magnetic amplifiers use a DC current through a separate winding to control an inductor 's impedance. Varying the current in the control winding moves the operating point up and down in the saturation curve, controlling the AC current through the inductor. These are used in variable fluorescent light ballasts, and power control systems.
Saturation is also exploited in fluxgate magnetometers and fluxgate compasses.
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when's the last time alabama lost a game | List of Alabama Crimson Tide football seasons - wikipedia
For Alabama 's current season, see 2017 Alabama Crimson Tide football team.
The Alabama Crimson Tide college football team compete as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision, representing the University of Alabama in the Western Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). Alabama has played their home games at Bryant -- Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa, Alabama since 1929.
The Crimson Tide acknowledge 16 national championships, from various and legitimate organizations of their time, 11 of which were awarded by the AP or Coaches ' wire - service polls. Alabama has 29 conference championships and holds NCAA records with 64 postseason bowl game appearances and 36 bowl game victories. The Crimson Tide has also had 11 undefeated seasons, a longest winning streak of 28 games between 1978 and 1980 and a home winning streak of 57 games between 1963 and 1982. Alabama leads the SEC West Division with nine appearances in the SEC Championship Game, and has a winning record against every SEC team. The Associated Press (AP) ranks Alabama 5th all - time in total appearances in the AP Poll. With 887 official wins in over 120 seasons of football, Alabama ranks sixth all - time in win -- loss records in the NCAA.
Football was introduced to the university by W.G. Little in 1892. The first win in the history of the program came in its inaugural game, a 56 -- 0 shutout over Birmingham High School on November 11, 1892. From 1892 to 1894, Alabama competed as a football independent, before they joined the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) as a charter member in 1895. From 1895 to 1921, Alabama saw some success as they had only three losing seasons as a member of the SIAA. In 1922, Alabama left the SIAA and became a charter member of the Southern Conference (SoCon). As a member of the Southern Conference, Alabama won conference championships in 1924, 1925, 1926 and 1930. Additionally, Alabama won their first three National Championships in the 1925, 1926 and 1930 seasons.
By 1933, Alabama again switched conferences, joining the SEC as a charter member. Alabama won the first SEC title in 1933 and its fourth and fifth national championship in the 1934 and 1941 seasons. After winning five national championships and nine conference championships through 1946, Alabama saw a decline between 1946 and 1957 and captured a single conference title. After they only won four games over a period of three seasons, Bear Bryant was hired as head coach in 1958. Under his guidance Alabama won thirteen SEC championships and national championships in the 1961, 1964, 1965, 1973, 1978 and 1979 seasons. After the retirement of Bryant in 1982, Alabama had two coaches, and won one SEC championship before Gene Stallings was hired in 1990. Stallings coached Alabama for seven years, won a national championship in 1992 season, an SEC championship that same season, and four SEC West Division titles. His retirement was followed by a succession of four coaches who only won one SEC championship among them.
In 2007 Alabama hired current coach Nick Saban, who led the program to their thirteenth national championship in the 2009 season, fourteenth in the 2011 season, fifteenth in the 2012 season, and sixteenth in the 2015 season. Through the 2015 season, Alabama has compiled an official overall record of 864 wins, 326 losses, 43 ties and has appeared in 64 bowl games, with the most recent coming in the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship.
Records above take into account an additional 21 victories vacated and 8 victories and 1 tie forfeited. Alabama 's on - field record is 893 - 317 - 44.
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when did the english first come to india | East India Company - wikipedia
The East India Company (EIC), also known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC) or the British East India Company and informally as John Company, was an English and later British joint - stock company, which was formed to pursue trade with the "East Indies '' (in present - day terms, Maritime Southeast Asia), but ended up trading mainly with Qing China and seizing control of the Indian subcontinent.
Originally chartered as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies '', the company rose to account for half of the world 's trade, particularly in basic commodities including cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India.
The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, making it the oldest among several similarly formed European East India Companies. Wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the company 's shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control until 1657 when permanent joint stock was established.
During its first century of operation, the focus of the company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. Company interests turned from trade to territory during the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined in power and the East India Company struggled with its French counterpart, the French East India Company (Compagnie française des Indes orientales) during the Carnatic Wars of the 1740s and 1750s. The battles of Plassey and Buxar, in which the British defeated the Indian powers, left the company in control of Bengal and a major military and political power in India. In the following decades it gradually increased the extent of the territories under its control, ruling the whole Indian subcontinent either directly or indirectly via local puppet rulers under the threat of force by its Presidency armies, much of which were composed of native Indian sepoys.
By 1803, at the height of its rule in India, the British East India company had a private army of about 260,000 -- twice the size of the British Army. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its private armies, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. Company rule in India effectively began in 1757 and lasted until 1858, when, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to the British Crown 's assuming direct control of the Indian subcontinent in the form of the new British Raj.
Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances. It was dissolved in 1874 as a result of the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act passed one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies.
Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, captured Spanish and Portuguese ships with their cargoes enabled English voyagers to potentially travel the globe in search of riches. London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean. The aim was to deliver a decisive blow to the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly of Far Eastern Trade. Elizabeth granted her permission and on 10 April 1591 James Lancaster in the Edward Bonaventure with two other ships sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions. Having sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula, they preyed on Spanish and Portuguese ships there before returning to England in 1594.
The biggest capture that galvanised English trade was the capture of the great Portuguese Carrack Madre de Deus by Sir Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Cumberland at the Battle of Flores (1592). When she was brought in to Dartmouth she was the largest vessel that had been seen in England and her cargo consisted of chests filled with jewels, pearls, gold, silver coins, ambergris, cloth, tapestries, pepper, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, benjamin, red dye, cochineal and ebony. Equally valuable was the ships rutter containing vital information on the China, India, and Japan trades. These riches aroused the English to engage in this opulent commerce.
In 1596, three more English ships sailed east but were all lost at sea. Three years later, on 22 September 1599, another group of merchants met and stated their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper), and the sums that they will adventure '', committing £ 30,133. Two days later, on 24 September, "the Adventurers '' reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project. Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they nonetheless sought the Queen 's unofficial approval to continue. They bought ships for their venture and increased their capital to £ 68,373.
In 1597 the arrival of adventurer merchant Ralph Fitch who along with his companions had made a remarkable fifteen year overland journey to Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf the Indian Ocean, India and Southeast Asia was also of significance. Fitch was then consulted on the Indian affairs and gave even more valuable information to Lancaster.
The Adventurers convened, again, a year later. This time they succeeded, and on 31 December 1600, the Queen granted a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses '' under the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies. For a period of fifteen years, the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Any traders in breach of the charter without a licence from the company were liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which went to the Crown and the other half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure ''.
The governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or "committees '', who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, which appointed them. Ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolph 's church in Bishopsgate, before moving to India House in Leadenhall Street.
Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601 aboard the Red Dragon. After capturing a rich 1,200 ton Portuguese Carrack in the Malacca Straits the trade from the booty enabled the voyagers to set up two "factories '' - one at Bantam on Java and another in the Moluccas (Spice Islands) before leaving. They returned to England in 1603 to learn of Elizabeth 's death but Lancaster was Knighted by the new King James I. By this time the war with Spain had ended but the Company had successfully and profitably breached the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly, with new horizons opened for the English.
In March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. General William Keeling, a captain during the second voyage, led the third voyage aboard the Red Dragon from 1607 to 1610 along with the Hector under Captain William Hawkins and the Consent under Captain David Middleton.
Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the company 's Ascension, and general or commander of the fourth voyage. Thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union (captained by Richard Rowles) sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607 -- 08.
Initially, the company struggled in the spice trade because of the competition from the already well - established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, and imports of pepper from Java comprised an important part of the company 's trade for twenty years. The factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time ships belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608.
In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompted James I to grant subsidiary licences to other trading companies in England. But in 1609 he renewed the charter given to the company for an indefinite period, including a clause that specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years.
English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally in 1612, at Suvali in Surat. The company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland India, with official sanction from both Britain and the Mughal Empire, and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission.
In 1612, James I instructed Sir Thomas Roe to visit the Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (r. 1605 -- 1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give the company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful, and Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas Roe:
Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place soever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port soever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city soever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure. For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal.
The company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations. It eclipsed the Portuguese Estado da Índia, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay, which Portugal later ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza on her marriage to King Charles II. The East India Company also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company (VOC) on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure EIC ports in China. The company established trading posts in Surat (1619), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). By 1647, the company had 23 factories, each under the command of a factor or master merchant and governor, and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle.
In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of Bengal, and in 1717 completely waived customs duties for their trade. The company 's mainstay businesses were by then cotton, silk, indigo dye, saltpetre, and tea. The Dutch were aggressive competitors and had meanwhile expanded their monopoly of the spice trade in the Straits of Malacca by ousting the Portuguese in 1640 -- 41. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and VOC entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the Anglo - Dutch Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Within the first two decades of the 17 century, the Dutch East India Company or Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, (VOC) was the wealthiest commercial operation in the world with 50,000 employees worldwide and a private fleet of 200 ships. It specialized in the spice trade and gave its shareholders 40 % annual dividend.
The British East India Company was fiercely competitive with the Dutch and French throughout the 17 and 18 centuries over spices from the Spice Islands. Spices, at the time, could only be found on these islands, such as pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon could bring profits as high as 400 percent from one voyage.
The tension was so high between the Dutch and the British East Indies Trading Companies that it escalated into at least four Anglo - Dutch Wars between them: 1652 - 1654, 1665 - 1667, 1672 - 1674 and 1780 - 1784.
The Dutch Company maintained that profit must support the cost of war which came from trade which produced profit.
Competition arose in 1635 when Charles I granted a trading licence to Sir William Courteen, which permitted the rival Courteen association to trade with the east at any location in which the EIC had no presence.
In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC, King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.
In 1689 a Mughal fleet commanded by Sidi Yaqub attacked Bombay. After a year of resistance the EIC surrendered in 1690, and the company sent envoys to Aurangzeb 's camp to plead for a pardon. The company 's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better behaviour in the future. The emperor withdrew his troops, and the company subsequently re-established itself in Bombay and set up a new base in Calcutta.
Eventually, the East India Company seized control of Bengal and slowly the whole Indian subcontinent with its private armies, composed primarily of Indian sepoys. As historian William Dalrymple observes,
We still talk about the British conquering India, but that phrase disguises a more sinister reality. It was not the British government that seized India at the end of the 18th century, but a dangerously unregulated private company headquartered in one small office, five windows wide, in London, and managed in India by an unstable sociopath -- (Robert) Clive.
In 1613, during the rule of Tokugawa Hidetada of the Tokugawa shogunate, the British ship Clove, under the command of Captain John Saris, was the first British ship to call on Japan. Saris was the chief factor of the EIC 's trading post in Java, and with the assistance of William Adams, a British sailor who had arrived in Japan in 1600, he was able to gain permission from the ruler to establish a commercial house in Hirado on the Japanese island of Kyushu:
We give free license to the subjects of the King of Great Britaine, Sir Thomas Smythe, Governor and Company of the East Indian Merchants and Adventurers forever safely come into any of our ports of our Empire of Japan with their shippes and merchandise, without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to abide, buy, sell and barter according to their own manner with all nations, to tarry here as long as they think good, and to depart at their pleasure.
However, unable to obtain Japanese raw silk for import to China and with their trading area reduced to Hirado and Nagasaki from 1616 onwards, the company closed its factory in 1623.
In September 1695, Captain Henry Every, an English pirate on board the Fancy, reached the Straits of Bab - el - Mandeb, where he teamed up with five other pirate captains to make an attack on the Indian fleet on return from the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. The Mughal convoy included the treasure - laden Ganj - i - Sawai, reported to be the greatest in the Mughal fleet and the largest ship operational in the Indian Ocean, and its escort, the Fateh Muhammed. They were spotted passing the straits en route to Surat. The pirates gave chase and caught up with Fateh Muhammed some days later, and meeting little resistance, took some £ 50,000 to £ 60,000 worth of treasure.
Every continued in pursuit and managed to overhaul Ganj - i - Sawai, which resisted strongly before eventually striking. Ganj - i - Sawai carried enormous wealth and, according to contemporary East India Company sources, was carrying a relative of the Grand Mughal, though there is no evidence to suggest that it was his daughter and her retinue. The loot from the Ganj - i - Sawai had a total value between £ 325,000 and £ 600,000, including 500,000 gold and silver pieces, and has become known as the richest ship ever taken by pirates.
In a letter sent to the Privy Council by Sir John Gayer, then governor of Bombay and head of the East India Company, Gayer claims that "it is certain the Pirates... did do very barbarously by the People of the Ganj - i - Sawai and Abdul Ghaffar 's ship, to make them confess where their money was. '' The pirates set free the survivors who were left aboard their emptied ships, to continue their voyage back to India.
When the news arrived in England it caused an outcry. To appease Aurangzeb, the East India Company promised to pay all financial reparations, while Parliament declared the pirates hostis humani generis ("enemies of the human race ''). In mid-1696 the government issued a £ 500 bounty on Every 's head and offered a free pardon to any informer who disclosed his whereabouts. When the East India Company later doubled that reward, the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history was underway.
The plunder of Aurangzeb 's treasure ship had serious consequences for the English East India Company. The furious Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ordered Sidi Yaqub and Nawab Daud Khan to attack and close four of the company 's factories in India and imprison their officers, who were almost lynched by a mob of angry Mughals, blaming them for their countryman 's depredations, and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India. To appease Emperor Aurangzeb and particularly his Grand Vizier Asad Khan, Parliament exempted Every from all of the Acts of Grace (pardons) and amnesties it would subsequently issue to other pirates.
An 18th - century depiction of Henry Every, with the Fancy shown engaging its prey in the background
British pirates that fought during the Child 's War engaging the Ganj - i - Sawai
Depiction of Captain Every 's encounter with the Mughal Emperor 's granddaughter after his September 1695 capture of the Mughal trader Ganj - i - Sawai
The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The company developed a lobby in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the company (pejoratively termed Interlopers by the company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694.
This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years. By an act that was passed in 1698, a new "parallel '' East India Company (officially titled the English Company Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state - backed indemnity of £ 2 million. The powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £ 315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade.
It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original company faced scarcely any measurable competition. The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £ 3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
In the following decades there was a constant battle between the company lobby and the Parliament. The company sought a permanent establishment, while the Parliament would not willingly allow it greater autonomy and so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the company 's profits. In 1712, another act renewed the status of the company, though the debts were repaid. By 1720, 15 % of British imports were from India, almost all passing through the company, which reasserted the influence of the company lobby. The licence was prolonged until 1766 by yet another act in 1730.
At this time, Britain and France became bitter rivals. Frequent skirmishes between them took place for control of colonial possessions. In 1742, fearing the monetary consequences of a war, the British government agreed to extend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan of £ 1 million. Between 1756 and 1763, the Seven Years ' War diverted the state 's attention towards consolidation and defence of its territorial possessions in Europe and its colonies in North America.
The war took place on Indian soil, between the company troops and the French forces. In 1757, the Law Officers of the Crown delivered the Pratt - Yorke opinion distinguishing overseas territories acquired by right of conquest from those acquired by private treaty. The opinion asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown.
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Britain surged ahead of its European rivals. Demand for Indian commodities was boosted by the need to sustain the troops and the economy during the war, and by the increased availability of raw materials and efficient methods of production. As home to the revolution, Britain experienced higher standards of living. Its spiralling cycle of prosperity, demand and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The company became the single largest player in the British global market. William Henry Pyne notes in his book The Microcosm of London (1808) that:
On the 1 March 1801, the debts of the East India Company to £ 5,393,989 their effects to £ 15,404,736 and their sales increased since February 1793, from £ 4,988,300 to £ 7,602,041.
Sir John Banks, a businessman from Kent who negotiated an agreement between the king and the company, began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for victualling the navy, an interest he kept up for most of his life. He knew that Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn had amassed a substantial fortune from the Levant and Indian trades.
He became a Director and later, as Governor of the East India Company in 1672, he arranged a contract which included a loan of £ 20,000 and £ 30,000 worth of saltpetre -- also known as potassium nitrate, a primary ingredient in gunpowder -- for the King "at the price it shall sell by the candle '' -- that is by auction -- where bidding could continue as long as an inch - long candle remained alight.
Outstanding debts were also agreed and the company permitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre. Again in 1673, Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700 tons of saltpetre at £ 37,000 between the king and the company. So urgent was the need to supply the armed forces in the United Kingdom, America and elsewhere that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. One governor of the company was even reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the saltpetre made than the tax on salt.
The Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 63) resulted in the defeat of the French forces, limited French imperial ambitions, and stunted the influence of the Industrial Revolution in French territories. Robert Clive, the Governor General, led the company to a victory against Joseph François Dupleix, the commander of the French forces in India, and recaptured Fort St George from the French. The company took this respite to seize Manila in 1762.
By the Treaty of Paris, France regained the five establishments captured by the British during the war (Pondichéry, Mahe, Karikal, Yanam and Chandernagar) but was prevented from erecting fortifications and keeping troops in Bengal (art. XI). Elsewhere in India, the French were to remain a military threat, particularly during the War of American Independence, and up to the capture of Pondichéry in 1793 at the outset of the French Revolutionary Wars without any military presence. Although these small outposts remained French possessions for the next two hundred years, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the company.
In its first century and half, the EIC used a few hundred soldiers as guards. The great expansion came after 1750, when it had 3,000 regular troops. By 1763, it had 26,000; by 1778, it had 67,000. It recruited largely Indian troops, and trained them along European lines. The military arm of the East India Company quickly developed to become a private corporate armed force, and was used as an instrument of geo - political power and expansion, rather than its original purpose as a guard force, and became the most powerful military force in the Indian sub-continent. As it increased in size the army was broken into the Presidency Armies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay each recruiting their own integral infantry, cavalry, artillery and horse artillery units. The navy also grew significantly, vastly expanding its fleet and although made up predominantly of heavily armed merchant vessels, called East Indiamen, it also included warships.
The company, fresh from a colossal victory, and with the backing of its own private well - disciplined and experienced army, was able to assert its interests in the Carnatic region from its base at Madras and in Bengal from Calcutta, without facing any further obstacles from other colonial powers.
It continued to experience resistance from local rulers during its expansion. Robert Clive led company forces against Siraj Ud Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Midnapore district in Odisha to victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, resulting in the conquest of Bengal. This victory estranged the British and the Mughals, since Siraj Ud Daulah was a Mughal feudatory ally.
With the gradual weakening of the Marathas in the aftermath of the three Anglo - Maratha wars, the British also secured the Ganges - Jumna Doab, the Delhi - Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat, the fort of Ahmmadnagar, province of Cuttack (which included Mughalbandi / the coastal part of Odisha, Garjat / the princely states of Odisha, Balasore Port, parts of Midnapore district of West Bengal), Bombay (Mumbai) and the surrounding areas, leading to a formal end of the Maratha empire and firm establishment of the British East India Company in India.
Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the rulers of the Kingdom of Mysore, offered much resistance to the British forces. Having sided with the French during the Revolutionary War, the rulers of Mysore continued their struggle against the company with the four Anglo - Mysore Wars. Mysore finally fell to the company forces in 1799, in the fourth Anglo - Mysore war during which Tipu Sultan was killed.
The last vestiges of local administration were restricted to the northern regions of Delhi, Oudh, Rajputana, and Punjab, where the company 's presence was ever increasing amidst infighting and offers of protection among the remaining princes. The hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 were a period of consolidation for the company, during which it seized control of the entire Indian subcontinent and functioned more as an administrator and less as a trading concern.
A cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic. Between 1760 and 1834 only some 10 % of the East India Company 's officers survived to take the final voyage home.
In the early 19th century the Indian question of geopolitical dominance and empire holding remained with the East India Company. The three independent armies of the company 's Presidencies, with some locally raised irregular forces, expanded to a total of 280,000 men by 1857. First recruited from mercenaries and low - caste volunteers, the Bengal Army especially eventually became composed largely of high - caste Hindus and landowning Muslims.
Within the Army, British officers who initially trained at the company 's own academy at the Addiscombe Military Seminary, always outranked Indians, no matter how long their service. The highest rank to which an Indian soldier could aspire was Subadar - Major (or Rissaldar - Major in cavalry units), effectively a senior subaltern equivalent. Promotion for both British and Indian soldiers was strictly by seniority, so Indian soldiers rarely reached the commissioned ranks of Jamadar or Subadar before they were middle aged at best. They received no training in administration or leadership to make them independent of their British officers.
During the wars against the French and their allies in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the East India Company 's armies were used to seize the colonial possessions of other European nations, including the islands of Réunion and Mauritius.
There was a systemic disrespect in the company for the spreading of Protestantism although it fostered respect for Hindu and Muslim, castes and ethnic groups. The growth of tensions between the EIC and the local religious and cultural groups grew in the 19th century as the Protestant revival grew in Great Britain. These tensions erupted at the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the company ceased to exist when the company dissolved through the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873.
In the 18th century, Britain had a huge trade deficit with Qing dynasty China and so, in 1773, the company created a British monopoly on opium buying in Bengal, India by prohibiting the licensing of opium farmers and private cultivation. The monopoly system established in 1799 continued with minimal changes until 1947. As the opium trade was illegal in China, Company ships could not carry opium to China. So the opium produced in Bengal was sold in Calcutta on condition that it be sent to China.
Despite the Chinese ban on opium imports, reaffirmed in 1799 by the Jiaqing Emperor, the drug was smuggled into China from Bengal by traffickers and agency houses such as Jardine, Matheson & Co and Dent & Co. in amounts averaging 900 tons a year. The proceeds of the drug - smugglers landing their cargoes at Lintin Island were paid into the company 's factory at Canton and by 1825, most of the money needed to buy tea in China was raised by the illegal opium trade.
The company established a group of trading settlements centred on the Straits of Malacca called the Straits Settlements in 1826 to protect its trade route to China and to combat local piracy. The settlements were also used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners.
In 1838 with the amount of smuggled opium entering China approaching 1,400 tons a year, the Chinese imposed a death penalty for opium smuggling and sent a Special Imperial Commissioner, Lin Zexu, to curb smuggling. This resulted in the First Opium War (1839 -- 42). After the war Hong Kong island was ceded to Britain under the Treaty of Nanking and the Chinese market opened to the opium traders of Britain and other nations. The Jardines and Apcar and Company dominated the trade, although P&O also tried to take a share. A Second Opium War fought by Britain and France against China lasted from 1856 until 1860 and led to the Treaty of Tientsin, which legalised the importation of opium. Legalisation stimulated domestic Chinese opium production and increased the importation of opium from Turkey and Persia. This increased competition for the Chinese market led to India 's reducing its opium output and diversifying its exports.
The company employed many junior clerks, known as "writers '', to record the details of accounting, managerial decisions, and activities related to the company, such as minutes of meetings, copies of Company orders and contracts, and filings of reports and copies of ship 's logs. Several well - known British scholars and literary men had Company writerships, such as Henry Thomas Colebrooke in India and Charles Lamb in England. One Indian writer of some importance in the 19th century was Ram Mohan Roy, who learned English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Greek, and Latin.
Though the company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was becoming clearer that the company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. The Bengal famine of 1770, in which one - third of the local population died, caused distress in Britain. Military and administrative costs mounted beyond control in British - administered regions in Bengal because of the ensuing drop in labour productivity.
At the same time, there was commercial stagnation and trade depression throughout Europe. The directors of the company attempted to avert bankruptcy by appealing to Parliament for financial help. This led to the passing of the Tea Act in 1773, which gave the company greater autonomy in running its trade in the American colonies, and allowed it an exemption from tea import duties which its colonial competitors were required to pay.
When the American colonists and tea merchants were told of this Act, they boycotted the company tea. Although the price of tea had dropped because of the Act, it also validated the Townshend Acts, setting the precedent for the king to impose additional taxes in the future. The arrival of tax - exempt Company tea, undercutting the local merchants, triggered the Boston Tea Party in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of the major events leading up to the American Revolution.
By the Regulating Act of 1773 (later known as the East India Company Act 1773), the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and economic reforms; this clearly established Parliament 's sovereignty and ultimate control over the company. The Act recognised the company 's political functions and clearly established that the "acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right ''.
Despite stiff resistance from the East India lobby in parliament and from the company 's shareholders, the Act passed. It introduced substantial governmental control and allowed British India to be formally under the control of the Crown, but leased back to the company at £ 40,000 for two years. Under the Act 's most important provision, a governing Council composed of five members was created in Calcutta. The three members nominated by Parliament and representing the Government 's interest could, and invariably would, outvote the two Company members. The Council was headed by Warren Hastings, the incumbent Governor, who became the first Governor - General of Bengal, with an ill - defined authority over the Bombay and Madras Presidencies. His nomination, made by the Court of Directors, would in future be subject to the approval of a Council of Four appointed by the Crown. Initially, the Council consisted of Lt. General Sir John Clavering, The Honourable Sir George Monson, Sir Richard Barwell, and Sir Philip Francis.
Hastings was entrusted with the power of peace and war. British judges and magistrates would also be sent to India to administer the legal system. The Governor General and the council would have complete legislative powers. The company was allowed to maintain its virtual monopoly over trade in exchange for the biennial sum and was obligated to export a minimum quantity of goods yearly to Britain. The costs of administration were to be met by the company. The company initially welcomed these provisions, but the annual burden of the payment contributed to the steady decline of its finances.
The East India Company Act 1784 (Pitt 's India Act) had two key aspects:
Pitt 's Act was deemed a failure because it quickly became apparent that the boundaries between government control and the company 's powers were nebulous and highly subjective. The government felt obliged to respond to humanitarian calls for better treatment of local peoples in British - occupied territories. Edmund Burke, a former East India Company shareholder and diplomat, was moved to address the situation and introduced a new Regulating Bill in 1783. The bill was defeated amid lobbying by company loyalists and accusations of nepotism in the bill 's recommendations for the appointment of councillors.
The Act of 1786 (26 Geo. 3 c. 16) enacted the demand of Earl Cornwallis that the powers of the Governor - General be enlarged to empower him, in special cases, to override the majority of his Council and act on his own special responsibility. The Act enabled the offices of the Governor - General and the Commander - in - Chief to be jointly held by the same official.
This Act clearly demarcated borders between the Crown and the company. After this point, the company functioned as a regularised subsidiary of the Crown, with greater accountability for its actions and reached a stable stage of expansion and consolidation. Having temporarily achieved a state of truce with the Crown, the company continued to expand its influence to nearby territories through threats and coercive actions. By the middle of the 19th century, the company 's rule extended across most of India, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and British Hong Kong, and a fifth of the world 's population was under its trading influence. In addition, Penang, one of the states in Malaya, became the fourth most important settlement, a presidency, of the company 's Indian territories.
The company 's charter was renewed for a further 20 years by the Charter Act of 1793. In contrast with the legislative proposals of the previous two decades, the 1793 Act was not a particularly controversial measure, and made only minimal changes to the system of government in India and to British oversight of the company 's activities. Sale of liquor was forbidden without licence. It was pointed that the payment of the staff of the board of council should not be made from the Indian revenue.
The aggressive policies of Lord Wellesley and the Marquess of Hastings led to the company 's gaining control of all India (except for the Punjab and Sindh), and some part of the then kingdom of Nepal under the Sugauli Treaty. The Indian Princes had become vassals of the company. But the expense of wars leading to the total control of India strained the company 's finances. The company was forced to petition Parliament for assistance. This was the background to the Charter Act of 1813 which, among other things:
The Industrial Revolution in Britain, the consequent search for markets, and the rise of laissez - faire economic ideology form the background to the Government of India Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. 4 c. 85). The Act:
British influence continued to expand; in 1845, Great Britain purchased the Danish colony of Tranquebar. The company had at various stages extended its influence to China, the Philippines, and Java. It had solved its critical lack of cash needed to buy tea by exporting Indian - grown opium to China. China 's efforts to end the trade led to the First Opium War (1839 -- 1842).
The English Education Act by the Council of India in 1835 reallocated funds from the East India Company to spend on education and literature in India.
This Act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 95) provided that British India would remain under the administration of the company in trust for the Crown until Parliament should decide otherwise. It also introduced a system of open competition as the basis of recruitment for civil servants of the company and thus deprived the Directors of their patronage system.
Under the act, for the first time the legislative and executive powers of the governor general 's council were separated. It also added six additional members to the governor general 's executive committee.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also known as the Indian Mutiny) resulted in widespread devastation in India: many condemned the East India Company for permitting the events to occur. In the aftermath of the Rebellion, under the provisions of the Government of India Act 1858, the British Government nationalised the company. The Crown took over its Indian possessions, its administrative powers and machinery, and its armed forces.
The company remained in existence in vestigial form, continuing to manage the tea trade on behalf of the British Government (and the supply of Saint Helena) until the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 came into effect, on 1 January 1874. This Act provided for the formal dissolution of the company on 1 June 1874, after a final dividend payment and the commutation or redemption of its stock. The Times commented on 8 April 1873:
It accomplished a work such as in the whole history of the human race no other trading Company ever attempted, and such as none, surely, is likely to attempt in the years to come.
In the 1980s, a group of investors purchased the rights to the moribund corporate brand and founded a clothing company, which lasted until the 1990s. The corporate vestiges were again purchased by another group of investors who opened their first store in 2010.
The company 's headquarters in London, from which much of India was governed, was East India House in Leadenhall Street. After occupying premises in Philpot Lane from 1600 to 1621; in Crosby House, Bishopsgate, from 1621 to 1638; and in Leadenhall Street from 1638 to 1648, the company moved into Craven House, an Elizabethan mansion in Leadenhall Street. The building had become known as East India House by 1661. It was completely rebuilt and enlarged in 1726 -- 9; and further significantly remodelled and expanded in 1796 -- 1800. It was finally vacated in 1860 and demolished in 1861 -- 62. The site is now occupied by the Lloyd 's building.
In 1607, the company decided to build its own ships and leased a yard on the River Thames at Deptford. By 1614, the yard having become too small, an alternative site was acquired at Blackwall: the new yard was fully operational by 1617. It was sold in 1656, although for some years East India Company ships continued to be built and repaired there under the new owners.
In 1803, an Act of Parliament, promoted by the East India Company, established the East India Dock Company, with the aim of establishing a new set of docks (the East India Docks) primarily for the use of ships trading with India. The existing Brunswick Dock, part of the Blackwall Yard site, became the Export Dock; while a new Import Dock was built to the north. In 1838 the East India Dock Company merged with the West India Dock Company. The docks were taken over by the Port of London Authority in 1909, and closed in 1967.
The East India College was founded in 1806 as a training establishment for "writers '' (i.e. clerks) in the company 's service. It was initially located in Hertford Castle, but moved in 1809 to purpose - built premises at Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire. In 1858 the college closed; but in 1862 the buildings reopened as a public school, now Haileybury and Imperial Service College.
The East India Company Military Seminary was founded in 1809 at Addiscombe, near Croydon, Surrey, to train young officers for service in the company 's armies in India. It was based in Addiscombe Place, an early 18th - century mansion. The government took it over in 1858, and renamed it the Royal Indian Military College. In 1861 it was closed, and the site was subsequently redeveloped.
In 1818, the company entered into an agreement by which those of its servants who were certified insane in India might be cared for at Pembroke House, Hackney, London, a private lunatic asylum run by Dr George Rees until 1838, and thereafter by Dr William Williams. The arrangement outlasted the company itself, continuing until 1870, when the India Office opened its own asylum, the Royal India Asylum, at Hanwell, Middlesex.
The East India Club in London was formed in 1849 for officers of the company. The Club still exists today as a private gentlemen 's club with its club house situated at 16 St. James 's Square, London.
The East India Company was one of the most powerful and enduring organizations in history and had a long lasting impact on the Indian Subcontinent, with both positive and harmful effects. Although dissolved by the East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 following the rebellion of 1857, it stimulated the growth of the British Empire. Its armies were to become the armies of British India after 1857, and it played a key role in introducing English as an official language in India. This also led to Macaulayism in the Indian subcontinent.
Once the East India Company took over Bengal in the treaty of Allahabad (1765) it collected taxes which It used to further its expansion to the rest of India and did not have to rely on venture capital from London. It returned a high profit to those who risked original money for earlier ventures into Bengal.
During the first century of the East India Company 's expansion in India, most people in India lived under regional kings or Nawabs. By the late 18 century many Moghuls were weak in comparison to the rapidly expanding Company as it took over cities and land, built railways, roads and bridges. The first railway of 21 mile (33.8 km), known as the Great Indian Peninsula Railway ran between Bombay (Mumbai) and Tannah (Thane) in 1849. The Company sought quick profits because the financial backers in England took high risks: their money for possible profits or losses through shipwrecks, wars or calamities.
The increasingly large territory the Company was annexing and collecting taxes was also run by the local Nawabs. In essence, it was a dual administration. Between 1765 and 1772 Robert Clive gave the responsibility of tax collecting, diwani, to the Indian deputy and judicial and police responsibilities to other Indian deputies. The Company concentrated its new power of collecting revenue and left the responsibilities to the Indian agencies. The East India Company took the beginning steps of British takeover of power in India for centuries to come. In 1772 the Company made Warren Hastings, who had been in India with the Company since 1750, its first governor general to manage and overview all of the annexed lands. The dual administration system came to an end.
Hastings learned Urdu and Persian and took great interest in preserving ancient Sanskrit manuscripts and having the translated into English. "He employed many Indians as officials ''
Hastings used Sanskrit texts for Hindus and Arabic texts for Muslims. This is still used in Indian, Pakistan and Bangladesh courts today in civil law. Hastings also annexed lands and kingdoms and enriched himself in the process. His enemies in London used this against him to have him impeached. See (Impeachment of Warren Hastings)
Charles Cornwallis, widely remembered as having surrendered to George Washington in 1781, replaced Hastings. Cornwallis distrusted Indians and replaced Indians with English. He introduced a system of personal land ownership for Indians. This change caused much conflict since most illiterate people had no idea why they suddenly became land owners to land renters.
Mughals often had to choose to fight against the Company and lose everything or cooperate with the Company and receive a big pension but lose his throne. The British East India Company gradually took over most of India by threat, intimidation, bribery or outright war.
The East India Company was the first company to record the Chinese usage of orange - flavoured tea, which led to the development of Earl Grey tea.
The East India Company introduced a system of merit - based appointments that provided a model for the British and Indian civil service.
Widespread corruption and looting of Bengal resources and treasures during its rule resulted in poverty. Famines, such as the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and subsequent famines during the 18th and 19th centuries, became more widespread, chiefly because of exploitative agriculture promulgated by the policies of the East India company and the forced cultivation of opium in place of grain.
Downman (1685)
Lens (1700)
National Geographic (1917)
Rees (1820)
Laurie (1842)
1600 -- 1707
1707 -- 1801
1801 -- 1874
The English East India Company flag changed with history, with a canton based on the current flag of the Kingdom, and a field of 9 to 13 alternating red and white stripes.
From the period of 1600, the canton consisted of a St George 's Cross representing the Kingdom of England. With the Acts of Union 1707, the canton was updated to be the new Union Flag -- consisting of an English St George 's Cross combined with a Scottish St Andrew 's cross -- representing the Kingdom of Great Britain. After the Acts of Union 1800 that joined Ireland with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom, the canton of the East India Company flag was altered accordingly to include a Saint Patrick 's Saltire replicating the updated Union Flag representing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
Regarding the field of the flag, there has been much debate and discussion regarding the number and order of the stripes. Historical documents and paintings show many variations from 9 to 13 stripes, with some images showing the top stripe 's being red and others showing the top stripe being white.
At the time of the American Revolution the East India Company flag was nearly identical to the Grand Union Flag. Historian Charles Fawcett argued that the East India Company Flag inspired the Stars and Stripes.
The East India Company 's original coat of arms was granted in 1600. The blazon of the arms is as follows:
"Azure, three ships with three masts, rigged and under full sail, the sails, pennants and ensigns Argent, each charged with a cross Gules; on a chief of the second a pale quarterly Azure and Gules, on the 1st and 4th a fleur - de-lis or, on the 2nd and 3rd a leopard or, between two roses Gules seeded Or barbed Vert. '' The shield had as a crest: "A sphere without a frame, bounded with the Zodiac in bend Or, between two pennants flottant Argent, each charged with a cross Gules, over the sphere the words DEUS INDICAT '' (Latin: God Indicates). The supporters were two sea lions (lions with fishes ' tails) and the motto was DEO DUCENTE NIL NOCET (Latin: Where God Leads, Nothing Harms).
The East India Company 's arms, granted in 1698, were: "Argent a cross Gules; in the dexter chief quarter an escutcheon of the arms of France and England quarterly, the shield ornamentally and regally crowned Or. '' The crest was: "A lion rampant guardant Or holding between the forepaws a regal crown proper. '' The supporters were: "Two lions rampant guardant Or, each supporting a banner erect Argent, charged with a cross Gules. '' The motto was AUSPICIO REGIS ET SENATUS ANGLIÆ (Latin: Under the auspices of the King and the Senate of England).
HEIC Merchant 's mark on East India Company Coin: 1791 Half Pice
HEIC Merchant 's mark on a Blue Scinde Dawk postage stamp (1852)
When the East India Company was chartered in 1600, it was still customary for individual merchants or members of companies such as the Company of Merchant Adventurers to have a distinguishing merchant 's mark which often included the mystical "Sign of Four '' and served as a trademark. The East India Company 's merchant mark consisted of a "Sign of Four '' atop a heart within which was a saltire between the lower arms of which were the initials "EIC ''. This mark was a central motif of the East India Company 's coinage and forms the central emblem displayed on the Scinde Dawk postage stamps.
Ships of the East India Company were called East Indiamen or simply "Indiamen ''.
During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the East India Company arranged for letters of marque for its vessels such as the Lord Nelson. This was not so that they could carry cannon to fend off warships, privateers, and pirates on their voyages to India and China (that they could do without permission) but so that, should they have the opportunity to take a prize, they could do so without being guilty of piracy. Similarly, the Earl of Mornington, an East India Company packet ship of only six guns, also sailed under a letter of marque.
In addition, the company had its own navy, the Bombay Marine, equipped with warships such as Grappler. These vessels often accompanied vessels of the Royal Navy on expeditions, such as the Invasion of Java.
At the Battle of Pulo Aura, which was probably the company 's most notable naval victory, Nathaniel Dance, Commodore of a convoy of Indiamen and sailing aboard the Warley, led several Indiamen in a skirmish with a French squadron, driving them off. Some six years earlier, on 28 January 1797, five Indiamen, the Woodford, under Captain Charles Lennox, the Taunton - Castle, Captain Edward Studd, Canton, Captain Abel Vyvyan, Boddam, Captain George Palmer, and Ocean, Captain John Christian Lochner, had encountered Admiral de Sercey and his squadron of frigates. On this occasion the Indiamen also succeeded in bluffing their way to safety, and without any shots even being fired. Lastly, on 15 June 1795, the General Goddard played a large role in the capture of seven Dutch East Indiamen off St Helena.
East Indiamen were large and strongly built and when the Royal Navy was desperate for vessels to escort merchant convoys it bought several of them to convert to warships. Earl of Mornington became HMS Drake. Other examples include:
Their design as merchant vessels meant that their performance in the warship role was underwhelming and the Navy converted them to transports.
Unlike all other British Government records, the records from the East India Company (and its successor the India Office) are not in The National Archives at Kew, London, but are held by the British Library in London as part of the Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections. The catalogue is searchable online in the Access to Archives catalogues. Many of the East India Company records are freely available online under an agreement that the Families in British India Society has with the British Library. Published catalogues exist of East India Company ships ' journals and logs, 1600 -- 1834; and of some of the company 's daughter institutions, including the East India Company College, Haileybury, and Addiscombe Military Seminary.
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what was the attendance at ewood park today | Ewood Park - wikipedia
Ewood Park is a football stadium in the English town of Blackburn, Lancashire, and is the home of Blackburn Rovers Football Club -- one of the founder members of the Football League and Premier League. Rovers have played there since they moved from Leamington Street in the summer of 1890. The stadium opened in 1882 and is an all seater multi-sports facility with a capacity of 31,367. It comprises four sections: The Bryan Douglas Darwen End, Riverside Stand (named as such because it stands practically on the banks of the River Darwen), Ronnie Clayton Blackburn End, and Jack Walker Stand, which is named after Blackburn industrialist and club supporter, Jack Walker. The football pitch within the stadium measures 115 by 76 yards (105 m × 69 m).
Football had been played on the site since at least 1881; Rovers played four matches there when it was known as Ewood Bridge and was most likely little more than a field. Their first match was against Sheffield Wednesday on 9 April 1881.
Ewood Park was officially opened in April 1882 and during the 1880s staged football, athletics and some form of greyhound racing (not oval). Rovers moved back in in 1890, signing a ten - year lease at an initial annual rent of £ 60. Their first match at the ground was against Accrington in September. In 1893, Blackburn Rovers bought the freehold of the ground for £ 2500, but came close to disaster soon after when part of a stand collapsed under the weight of a 20,000 strong crowd for the visit of Everton.
In 1903, a roof was built on the Darwen End of the ground, at a cost of £ 1680. The stand now held 12,000 spectators.
In 1904, the Nuttall Street Stand was built, based on designs by the architect, Archibald Leitch at a cost of £ 24,000. The stand was first used by supporters on New Year 's Day 1907 for a match against Preston North End.In 1905, the textile baron Laurence Cotton became chairman and set about overhauling both team and ground. In 1906, construction started on a new main stand seating 4,112 on its upper tier with a paddock for 9,320 in front with changing rooms and offices underneath, cranked at one end to follow the angle of Nuttall Street.
The Nuttall Street stand changed very little until a fire in 1984 in the Blackburn End corner of the Stand. The club took the opportunity to redevelop this section of the stand with executive boxes and glass - fronted lounge overlooking the ground. The development cost £ 250,000 and was named the John Lewis Complex, after the clubs founder.
The Blackburn End is so named as the town of Blackburn lies behind the stand and is for home supporters. The Blackburn End was terraced in 1928, but did not acquire its concrete cantilever roof until 1960, which was financed after an FA Cup run to the 1960 FA Cup Final.
A double tiered Riverside Stand was built in 1913, bringing the capacity of Ewood Park up to 70,886 with 7000 seats. In 1928 the Riverside Stand roof was re-roofed for a total outlay of £ 1,550.
Ewood Park saw its largest crowd -- 62,522 for the visit of Bolton Wanderers in 1929. Floodlights were installed in 1958 and were first used in a friendly against Werder Bremen.
After selling Walkersteel to British Steel Corporation for £ 330 million, Jack Walker decided to buy Blackburn Rovers and set about changing Ewood Park to one of the most advanced grounds in the country. In June 1992 the local council approved plans to develop Ewood Park into a 31,000 all - seater stadium. By February 1994, the new two - tiered Blackburn and Darwen End stands were opened with car parks situated behind both stands.
The ground 's transformation was complete when in August 1994, the Jack Walker Stand was opened on the site of the old Nuttall Street Stand. The new stadium was officially opened in November 1995 and Blackburn Rovers marked the occasion with a 7 - 0 win over Nottingham Forest.
The biggest stand at Ewood is named after former club owner Jack Walker. It has 11,000 seats and is one of three stands that were built during Ewood Park 's ground redevelopment in the 1990s. This stand contains the home and away dressing rooms and media / conferencing facilities. Furthermore, the stand is home to the Premier Suite and Jack 's Kitchen which form part of the club 's hospitality packages. Executive catering is provided by Northcote which is owned by Walker 's daughter Lynda Matthewman and her husband Richard, a former Vice Chairman of the football club. Due to the unpopularity of club owners Venkys, many fans have criticised this business partnership out of loyalty to Walker.
The modern Blackburn End Stand has 8,000 seats and was constructed in the early 1990s. The boardroom in the Nuttall Street Stand was dismantled piece by piece and, when rebuilding was finished, reassembled in the Blackburn End. The lower tier houses some of the more vocal Rovers supporters. The rear of the stand is also home to a memorial garden and a statue of Jack Walker entitled "Rovers ' Greatest Supporter ''. Outside the stand is the Blackburn Rovers club shop "Roverstore '' which was revamped in 2008. The home supporters ticket office and "Blues '' cafe bar is situated in the lower reaches of the stand. From here ground tours were led by former Rovers player, Ronnie Clayton until his death in October 2010. The stand is home to the "Strikers Lounge '' where members of the club 's junior membership scheme "Team Rovers '' congregate before and after matches. The Bob Crompton suite and Executive Boxes are also located in the stand.
On 13 August 2011, as a sign of respect to the late and long - serving Rover Ronnie Clayton, it was announced at half - time during the first game of the 2011 / 12 Premier League season that The Blackburn End was to be renamed The Ronnie Clayton End.
It was not until 1988 that the old Riverside Stand was replaced by a new stand. The old stand had failed a safety check in 1985 that came in the aftermath of the Bradford City stadium fire; a new, single - tier stand housing over 4,300 (700 seated approx.). The material for the new roof and terracing was provided by local steel firm, Walkersteel, owned by the man who was soon to buy the club, Jack Walker. Further development of the Riverside Stand took place in the 1990s with further seats being added. The stand is currently sponsored by Regulatory Finance Solutions (RFS).
The Riverside Stand is now the oldest part of the modern Ewood Park. It is the only single tiered stand in the ground, the seating spells out the word "ROVERS '' -- the club 's nickname. The stand holds approximately 4,000 spectators. At the corner of the stand is a giant TV screen showing features, teamsheets and other live games on a match day. There are long - term plans to redevelop the stand, which would raise Ewood Park 's capacity by around 9,000 to 40,000. Any development in the foreseeable future depends on an increase of attendance.
The Darwen End is so named after the town of Darwen which lies behind the stand about 1 mile up the road.
The modern Darwen End was constructed in the early 1990s. The stand houses both home and away supporters in a two tier stand mirroring the Blackburn End in both appearance and capacity. The stand houses the club 's education department which attracts youngsters from the surrounding areas for football - based activities in the classroom. The stand is home to the "Legend 's Lounge '' and International hospitality suites. Behind the stand is the Blackburn Rovers Indoor Centre which provides facilities for community coaching, football leagues and soccer schools.
On 1 November 2012 the Darwen End was renamed as a tribute to club legend Bryan Douglas. He said of the honour: "The first person to congratulate me was Ronnie 's wife Val. He is at one end of the ground and I 'm at the other end and long may that continue. We were great friends. They have put me at the right end as well. I was born just 400 yards away from the Darwen End. It is a really proud moment. ''
Though primarily the home ground for Blackburn Rovers, Ewood Park has seen other usage, including hosting the 1941 Football League War Cup Final Replay. The ground was given the honour of hosting an international -- England v Scotland in 1891 and England v Wales in 1924. Six FA Cup semi finals were played at the venue between 1893 and 1947. On 9 November 2002 Ewood Park hosted Great Britain 's rugby league test match against New Zealand, which was part of their tour of Great Britain and France. The tourists won 30 - 16 with 16,654 in attendance. The ground has also hosted numerous England U21 internationals including England v Wales in 2004. The stadium hosted three matches during the Women 's Euro 2005 competition -- two England matches in group play, and the final. In 2014, the official supporters trust of the club, Rovers Trust, successfully applied to register the stadium as a Asset of Community Value, In June 2017 the ground hosted a pop concert by Elton John.
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who rode for yamaha when rossi ride for ducati | Valentino Rossi - wikipedia
Valentino Rossi (/ ˈrɒsi /; Italian: (valenˈtiːno ˈrossi); born 16 February 1979) is an Italian professional motorcycle road racer and multiple MotoGP World Champion.
Rossi is one of the most successful motorcycle racers of all time, with nine Grand Prix World Championships to his name -- seven of which are in the premier class. Rossi owns the Sky Racing Team by VR46 which competes in the Moto3 and Moto2 categories of Grand Prix motorcycle racing. Following his father Graziano Rossi, he started racing in Grand Prix in 1996 for Aprilia in the 125cc category and won his first World Championship the following year. From there, Rossi moved up to the 250cc category with Aprilia and won the 250cc World Championship in 1999.
After graduating to the premier class in 2000, Rossi won the 500cc World Championship with Honda in 2001, the MotoGP World Championships (also with Honda) in 2002 and 2003 and continued his streak of back - to - back championships by winning the 2004 and 2005 titles after leaving Honda to join Yamaha, before regaining the title in 2008 and retaining it in 2009. Rossi left Yamaha to join Ducati for the 2011 season. It was confirmed in 2012 that he would rejoin Yamaha for the 2013 and 2014 seasons after Rossi suffered two winless seasons while at Ducati.
Rossi came close to winning the 2015 title after several years out of contention, leading the championship for most of the season, only to lose out in the final round to his Yamaha team - mate Jorge Lorenzo. The end of that season was marred with controversy after Rossi collided on track with Marc Márquez, resulting in the Spaniard crashing. Rossi was given a grid penalty for the final round and accused Márquez of deliberately trying to harm his championship, something Márquez repeatedly denied. Feedback from riders and experts showed a generalized consensus that Márquez 's manoeuvres were aggressive but within the rules, with Race Director Mike Webb officially acknowledging that there was blame on both sides. Márquez 's manoeuvres exasperated Rossi, prompting an illegal response, although Lorenzo eventually stated to the media he was helped by Márquez not making serious moves trying to overtake him. The controversial rivalries between Rossi and Márquez appeared to come to an end at the 2016 Catalan Grand Prix, when Rossi and Márquez shook hands at the parc ferme. However, during the 2018 Argentine Grand Prix, controversies reared up again following some disputed maneuvers carried out by Marc Marquez before and during the race, where he tried a very risky overtake on Rossi that resulted in a crash for the latter.
Rossi is the record holder of most all time 500cc / MotoGP race wins with 89 victories and second in most overall wins with 115 race wins, behind Giacomo Agostini with 122. After the Italian GP held at Mugello on June 3rd 2018 Rossi became the first MotoGP rider to accumulate over 5,000 championship points throughout a career.
Rossi was born in Urbino, Marche and he was still a child when the family moved to Tavullia. Son of Graziano Rossi, a former motorcycle racer, he first began riding at a very young age. Rossi 's first racing love was karting. Fuelled by his mother, Stefania 's, concern for her son 's safety, Graziano purchased a kart as substitute for the bike. However, the Rossi family trait of perpetually wanting to go faster prompted a redesign; Graziano replaced the 60cc motor with a 100cc national kart motor for his then 5 - year - old son.
Rossi won the regional kart championship in 1990. After this he took up minimoto and before the end of 1991 had won numerous regional races.
Rossi continued to race karts and finished fifth at the national kart championships in Parma. Both Valentino and Graziano had started looking at moving into the Italian 100cc series, as well as the corresponding European series, which most likely would have pushed him into the direction of Formula One. However, the high cost of racing karts led to the decision to race minimoto exclusively. Through 1992 and 1993, Valentino continued to learn the ins and outs of minimoto racing.
In 1993, with help from his father, Virginio Ferrari, Claudio Castiglioni and Claudio Lusuardi (who ran the official Cagiva Sport Production team), Rossi rode a Cagiva Mito 125cc motorcycle for the team, which he damaged in a first - corner crash no more than a hundred metres from the pit lane. He finished ninth that race weekend.
Although his first season in the Italian Sport Production Championship was varied, he achieved a pole position in the season 's final race at Misano, where he would ultimately finish on the podium. By the second year, Rossi had been provided with a factory Mito by Lusuardi and won the Italian title.
In 1994, Rossi raced in the Italian 125 CC Championship with a prototype called Sandroni, using a Rotax engine. The bike was built by Guido Mancini, a former rider and mechanic who had worked, in the past, with Loris Capirossi. A documentary about Mancini, called "Mancini, the Motorcycle Wizard '' (Il Mago Mancini), was released in 2016 by director Jeffrey Zani and explains the birth of the motorcycle and the relationship between Rossi and the mechanic.
In 1995, Rossi switched to Aprilia and won the Italian 125 CC Championship. He was third in the European Championship.
Rossi had some success in the 1996 World Championship season, failing to finish five of the season 's races and crashing several times. Despite this, in August he won his first World Championship Grand Prix at Brno in the Czech Republic on an AGV Aprilia RS125R. He finished the season in ninth position and proceeded to dominate the 125 cc World Championship in the following 1997 season, winning 11 of the 15 races.
By 1998, the Aprilia RS250 was reaching its pinnacle and had a team of riders in Valentino Rossi, Loris Capirossi and Tetsuya Harada. He later concluded the 1998 250 cc season in second place, 23 points behind Capirossi. In 1999, however, he won the title, collecting five pole positions and nine wins.
Rossi was rewarded in 2000 for his 250 cc World Championship by being given a ride with Honda in what was then the ultimate class in World Championship motorcycle racing, 500 cc. Retired 500 cc World Champion Mick Doohan, who also had Jeremy Burgess as chief engineer, worked with Rossi as his personal mentor in his first year at Honda. It would also be the first time Rossi would be racing against Max Biaggi. It would take nine races before Rossi would win on the Honda but, like his previous seasons in 125 and 250, it would bode well for a stronger second season as he finished second to Kenny Roberts, Jr.; Rossi recorded only two wins during the season, winning in Great Britain and Brazil.
Rossi won his first 500 cc World Championship in 2001, winning 11 races in the final year of that class and collected 325 points, 106 points ahead of Biaggi, who became Rossi 's main rival during the season, and Rossi was the first and only satellite rider to clinch the title. Also during the season, Rossi teamed up with American rider Colin Edwards for the Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race aboard a Honda VTR1000SPW, becoming the first Italian rider to win the race. The pair won the race despite Rossi 's lack of experience racing superbikes. In 2002, 500cc two - strokes were still allowed, but saw the beginning of the 990 cc four - stroke MotoGP class, after which the 500 cc machines were essentially obsolete.
The inaugural year for the MotoGP bikes was 2002, when riders experienced teething problems getting used to the new bikes. Rossi won the first race in wet conditions at Suzuka, beating several local riders, who were racing as wildcards. Rossi went on to win 8 of the first 9 races of the season, eventually claiming 11 victories in total. Rossi clinched his second title at Rio de Janeiro, with four races remaining in the season; he finished all but one race during the season, with a retirement at Brno.
It was more of the same in 2003 for Rossi 's rivals when he claimed nine pole positions as well as nine race wins to claim his third consecutive World Championship, clinching the title in Malaysia. This year, Sete Gibernau became his strongest opponent, beating Rossi several times, although Rossi got the better of Gibernau in the Czech Republic, by just 0.042 seconds. The Australian Grand Prix at Phillip Island is considered by many observers to be one of Rossi 's greatest career moments due to unique circumstances. After being given a 10 - second penalty for overtaking during a yellow flag due to a crash by Ducati rider Troy Bayliss, front runner Rossi proceeded to pull away from the rest of the field, eventually finishing more than 15 seconds ahead, more than enough to cancel out the penalty and win the race. He won the final race at Valencia with a special livery, which would turn out to be his final win for Honda.
Partnered with increased scepticism that the reason for his success was the dominance of the RC211V rather than Rossi, it was inevitable that Honda and Rossi would part. Mid-season rumours pointed towards a possible move to Ducati, which sent the Italian press into a frenzy; the concept of Rossi on the great Italian bike seemed too good to be true. Ducati did indeed try to seduce Rossi into riding their MotoGP bike, the Desmosedici, but for numerous reasons Rossi passed the offer up. Critics say that compared to the other manufacturers, Ducati had a significant way to go before being competitive even with Rossi at the helm. This proved to be the truth with Ducati 's lacklustre performance in the 2004 season, which had actually been worse than their inaugural year in MotoGP in 2003. In his 2005 autobiography, What If I 'd Never Tried It?, Rossi offered another reason for choosing Yamaha over Ducati, saying that the mindset at Ducati Corse was a little too similar to the one he was trying to escape from at Honda. Ultimately, Rossi signed a two - year contract with rivals Yamaha reportedly worth in excess of US $12 million; a price no other manufacturer, even Honda, was willing to pay.
With the traditional first race of the season at Suzuka off the list due to safety considerations following the fatal accident of Daijiro Kato, the 2004 season started at Welkom in South Africa. Rossi won the race, becoming the only rider to win consecutive races with different manufacturers, having won the final race of the previous season on his Honda bike. His fourth - place finish at Jerez saw the end of a 23 - race podium streak. He failed to finish in Brazil and Qatar but Rossi would go on to win eight more Grands Prix in the season, primarily battling Sete Gibernau, with Rossi clinching the championship at the penultimate race of the season at Phillip Island, beating Gibernau by just 0.097 seconds to do so. Rossi ended the season with 304 points to Gibernau 's 257, with Max Biaggi third with 217 points.
In 2005, Rossi captured his 7th World Championship and fifth straight MotoGP Championship after winning 11 races including wins in 3 rain - affected races at Shanghai, Le Mans and Donington. His only non-podium result was a retirement at Motegi. Rossi finished with a total of 367 points, 147 points ahead of second - place finisher Marco Melandri, and Nicky Hayden finished third with 206 points.
The 2006 MotoGP season started off with Rossi, once again, being the favorite to take the Championship, but he had trouble in the first half of the season, including mechanical failures at Shanghai and Le Mans. Rossi did however, win several races, in Qatar, Italy, Catalunya, Germany and Malaysia. Hayden held the points lead throughout most of the season, but Rossi was slowly working his way up the points ladder. It was not until Motegi when Rossi finally grabbed 2nd in the points race behind Hayden. In the Portuguese Grand Prix, the penultimate race of the season, Hayden was taken out by his teammate, Dani Pedrosa, and did not finish the race. This led to Rossi taking the points lead with only one race left in the season. However, Rossi crashed early in Valencia, the last race, and Hayden went on to win the championship, ahead of Rossi.
Rossi returned to MotoGP for the 2007 season, riding the new Yamaha YZR - M1 800 cc. In the first race in Qatar he came second to Casey Stoner on the Ducati Desmosedici. Rossi won the second race of the season in Spain, and would win three more races that year -- at Assen, Estoril and Mugello -- but retired from races at the Sanchsenring and Misano. Stoner dominated the season, winning ten races to take his first title, 125 points clear of second place Dani Pedrosa. Pedrosa 's win in the last race at Valencia combined with Rossi 's retirement meant that he beat Rossi, by a single point. This was Rossi 's lowest championship position since his first season in 1996 in 125s.
For 2008 Rossi changed to Bridgestone tyres. The season started slowly with a fifth - place finish in Qatar, but he took his first win in Shanghai, and also won the next two races at Le Mans and Mugello. From that race, Rossi was on the podium of every remaining race -- except Assen, where he crashed on the first lap and finished 11th -- winning a total of nine races in the season. His victories at Laguna Seca -- after a pass down the "Corkscrew '' corner over Stoner, who crashed but continued and took the second place -- and at a rain - shortened race in Indianapolis, meant that Rossi had won at every circuit on the calendar, at that time. His win at Motegi was his first MotoGP victory at the track, and became the first Yamaha rider to win at the Honda - owned circuit. The victory at Motegi won Rossi his first 800cc MotoGP title, his sixth in the premier category, and eighth overall.
The 2009 season saw Rossi win six races to win his ninth championship title, beating his teammate Jorge Lorenzo into second place by 45 points, clinching the title at Sepang in wet conditions. Six wins was the lowest number of wins Rossi has had in a championship winning season; the previous lowest was nine in 1999 in the 250 cc class and 2003, 2004 and 2008 in MotoGP. Rossi also failed to win at Mugello, for the first time since 2001. The most dramatic victory of the season came at Barcelona, beating Lorenzo by 0.095 seconds. Rossi also won a close race in Germany, winning by 0.099 seconds.
His victory at the 2009 Dutch TT in Assen was Rossi 's 100th victory, becoming only the second rider in motorcycle grand prix history -- after Giacomo Agostini -- to reach 100 wins.
On 8 June 2009, Valentino Rossi rode a Yamaha around the famous Snaefell Mountain Course in an exhibition lap at the 2009 Isle of Man TT, alongside Agostini, in what was called ' The Lap of the Gods '. This had been delayed by 48 hours due to bad weather. He also performed the garlanding ceremony for the Superbike podium, bestowing the podium of John McGuinness, Steve Plater and Guy Martin.
The 2010 season began with Rossi topping most of all pre-season testing sessions and took victory in the first race of the season in Qatar, after early leader Casey Stoner crashed out. Rossi injured his shoulder and back while training on a motocross bike after the Japanese Grand Prix was postponed to October due to the disruption to air travel after the second eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland. The following two rounds in Spain and France, Rossi was beaten by teammate Lorenzo with Rossi complaining about shoulder pain. The injury was not taken seriously initially and was expected to cure in a few weeks, but did not turn out as expected and the ligament tear in the shoulder failed to sufficiently heal.
On 5 June 2010 at his home race at Mugello, Rossi crashed in the second free practice session, around the Biondetti corner, at around 120 mph (190 km / h). Rossi suffered a displaced compound fracture of his right tibia, and after post-surgical care close to his home in the hospital at Cattolica, it was diagnosed that he was likely to be out for most of the season. It was the first time that Rossi had missed a race in his Grand Prix career. However ahead of the British Grand Prix, Suzi Perry reported in her Daily Telegraph column that Rossi was planning on making a comeback at Brno. This was confirmed a week later by Rossi himself. On 7 July, Rossi rode at Misano on a Superbike World Championship - specification Yamaha YZF - R1 provided by the Yamaha World Superbike Team to test his leg 's recovery. He completed 26 laps during two runs, with a best lap time that was around two seconds off the pace of recent World Superbike times at the circuit. At the conclusion of the session, Rossi complained of discomfort, reporting pain in both his leg and his shoulder. On 12 July, Rossi took part in another test at Brno, after which Rossi stated he was happier and a lot more in form.
After an observation by the Chief Medical Officer on the Thursday before the weekend, Rossi made his return at the German Grand Prix, two rounds earlier than predicted and only 41 days after the accident. He managed to end the race in fourth place after a battle with Casey Stoner for third before a third - place finish at Laguna Seca. He added another race victory to his name at Sepang, Malaysia on his way to collecting ten podiums throughout the season, including five podiums in a row in the final run in of the season, where he finished third in the overall standings.
On 15 August 2010, after the Brno race, Rossi confirmed he would ride for Ducati Corse, signing a two - year deal starting in 2011, joining former Honda racing teammate Nicky Hayden on the team. He tested the Desmosedici for the first time in Valencia on 9 November 2010, making his first appearance since 1999, on an Italian motorcycle. Rossi underwent surgery on his shoulder which he injured during the 2010 season, in order to be ready for preseason testing in Malaysia. After original progress during the first test, the Ducati failed to meet the team 's expectations at the second Malaysian test and left Rossi unsatisfied, having finished over 1.8 seconds behind Casey Stoner 's pace - setting Honda.
Rossi started the season finishing seventh in Qatar. before a fifth in wet conditions at Jerez, despite a collision with Casey Stoner, which Rossi later apologised for. Another fifth place followed in Portugal, before a third place at Le Mans, benefitting from a collision between Dani Pedrosa and Marco Simoncelli, with Pedrosa retiring from the race and Simoncelli given a ride - through penalty. Rossi then finished the next four races inside the top six, with a best of fourth at Assen. Ninth at the Sachsenring, was followed by a pair of sixth places at Laguna Seca and Brno, and a tenth place at Indianapolis.
A seventh - place finish at Misano was followed by a tenth - place finish in Aragon, before a first - lap retirement in Japan, after contact with Jorge Lorenzo and Ben Spies, which left Rossi with a blow to his finger. He also retired in Australia, crashing out midway through the race. In Malaysia, Rossi qualified ninth but was involved in a collision with Marco Simoncelli and Colin Edwards on the second lap of the race. Simoncelli fell while running fourth, landing in the path of Edwards and Rossi, who both hit Simoncelli 's Honda with Simoncelli 's helmet also coming off in the incident. Simoncelli was killed instantly, and the race was cancelled. At the final race in Valencia, Rossi retired at the first corner after Álvaro Bautista fell from his bike and took down Rossi, teammate Hayden and Randy de Puniet in the process. With his retirement, Rossi finished a season winless for the first time in his Grand Prix career, and finished seventh place in the championship.
Rossi started the 2012 season slowly with a tenth place in Qatar, ninth at Jerez and seventh in Portugal, At Le Mans he scored his first podium of the season; he was involved in a fight for third position from the early stages of the race with Tech 3 pairing Andrea Dovizioso and Cal Crutchlow, but both riders hit trouble and left Rossi on his own. Rossi later closed down Casey Stoner, and passed him in the closing stages. Rossi finished seventh in Catalunya, while at Silverstone, Rossi was fastest in the first free practice session, but finished the race in ninth. After a thirteenth - place finish at Assen, Rossi finished sixth at the Sachsenring and fifth at Mugello. He scored his second podium of the season at Misano and ultimately finished sixth in the final championship standings, with 163 points.
On 10 August, it was confirmed that Rossi would leave the factory Ducati team at the end of the 2012 season, after two seasons with the team. Later that day, it was also announced that Rossi would rejoin the Yamaha factory team until the end of the 2014 season, resuming his partnership with Jorge Lorenzo. Rossi was reacquainted with the Yamaha, when he tested the bike over 13 -- 14 November 2012 at a post season test at Valencia. However, rain prevented him from posting an accurate lap time, until he next tested the 2013 machine over 5 -- 7 February 2013, in Sepang, where he posted a 3rd fastest time of 2: 00.542 out of 28 riders, clocking 0.442 seconds from pace setter Dani Pedrosa; and just 0.113 seconds off teammate Jorge Lorenzo.
He kicked off the season with 2nd place at the season opener in Qatar, followed by 6th at Circuit of the Americas, and 4th at Jerez. At Le Mans, he crashed but was able to finish in 12th place, which was followed by a crash at his home race in Mugello after making contact with Álvaro Bautista. In Catalunya he finished 4th.
On 29 June 2013 Rossi won the Dutch TT at Assen, his first MotoGP win since Malaysia in 2010 -- a 46 race winless streak -- after passing Dani Pedrosa on the sixth lap of the race. He finished third in the German Grand Prix at the Sachsenring on 14 July, behind race winner Marc Márquez and Cal Crutchlow. At the United States Grand Prix at Laguna Seca, Rossi finished in third place, his third consecutive podium finish. Before the end of the season, he obtained two more third - place finishes in Aragon and Australia, finishing fourth in the final championship standings, with 237 points. Rossi battled consistently among the second group of riders, along with Cal Crutchlow, Stefan Bradl and Álvaro Bautista.
At the end of the 2013 season, Rossi announced the conclusion of his long collaboration with crew chief Jeremy Burgess, who was replaced by Silvano Galbusera, the former crew chief of Marco Melandri in the Superbike World Championship.
Rossi started the season well, with second - place finishes in the season - opening Qatar Grand Prix -- after battling with Márquez until the last lap for the victory -- and at the Spanish Grand Prix in Jerez. He achieved his third second place of the season at the French Grand Prix. On 1 June 2014, Rossi appeared in his 300th Grand Prix race, at his home round at Mugello. He finished the race in third place. At the San Marino Grand Prix at Misano, Rossi took his first win of the season -- the first non-Honda win of 2014 -- ahead of teammate Lorenzo. The victory pushed him past the 5000 career points total, the first and so far only rider to achieve this.
At the Aragon Grand Prix, Rossi qualified in sixth place and had been making progress up the order in the race, when he ran wide onto the grass -- damp due to the wet conditions -- and crashed heavily. He lost consciousness briefly after the crash (or as Rossi put it: "I had a little nap ''), and was transferred to a hospital in Alcañiz for a precautionary CT scan. Rossi took his second victory of 2014, at Phillip Island, benefitting from an accident for Márquez, while he was leading the race. It was Rossi 's sixth win at the circuit, after five successive wins from 2001 to 2005. Rossi took his first pole position since the 2010 French Grand Prix in Valencia, his 60th pole position in Grand Prix racing. He finished in second place behind Márquez in the race, and as a result, he finished the season with 295 points -- his highest points tally since the 2009 season -- which was enough to finish as championship runner - up, 67 points behind Márquez.
Rossi started the 2015 season -- his 20th at World Championship level -- by taking victory in the opening race in Qatar; it was his first win in a season - opening race since 2010. Rossi held off Ducati 's Andrea Dovizioso to complete his 109th Grand Prix victory, while Dovizioso 's teammate Andrea Iannone finished third, completing an all - Italian podium -- the first since the 2006 Japanese Grand Prix. After achieving a third place behind Marc Márquez and Dovizioso in the Grand Prix of the Americas in Texas, Rossi took a second victory of the season in Argentina, consolidating his championship lead, becoming the first rider to win a race using an extra-hard Bridgestone rear tyre. He recorded his eighth successive podium finish -- and the 200th of his Grand Prix career -- with a third place in Spain, and kept the run going with a second place in France, and a third on home soil at Mugello.
Rossi finished second to Lorenzo in Catalunya, to maintain the championship lead over his teammate by one point. Rossi took his first pole position of the season at Assen, his 61st pole position in Grand Prix racing, and achieved his third victory of the season; it was his first win the race from pole position since the 2009 San Marino Grand Prix -- and his twelfth successive podium -- after a race - long battle with Márquez; he also extended his championship lead to ten points over Lorenzo, who finished third. Rossi further extended his championship lead at Sachsenring with third, and continued his podium streak with third - place finishes at Indianapolis, and Brno. Lorenzo 's win in Brno gave him the championship lead over Rossi, by virtue of more wins at that point. Rossi returned to the championship lead with his fourth victory of 2015 at Silverstone, after Márquez -- who had been chasing him for the majority of the race -- crashed out in wet conditions, while Lorenzo could only finish fourth. The podium streak of 16 races ended with a fifth - place finish at Misano, but Rossi extended his championship lead to 23 points after Lorenzo crashed out. Lorenzo won the Aragon Grand Prix with Rossi in third, to cut the gap to fourteen points with four races remaining. The pair 's results were enough for the team to clinch their respective title, their first since 2010.
In Japan, Rossi extended his championship lead to eighteen with a second - place finish to Dani Pedrosa in drying conditions. Lorenzo had started on pole but faded to third with tyre issues. Lorenzo cut the lead to eleven in Australia, with a second - place finish to Rossi 's fourth. Lorenzo further cut the lead to seven, after a second - place finish in Malaysia; Rossi finished third after a collision with Márquez, in which he accrued three penalty points -- enough to enforce a start from the back of the grid for the final race in Valencia. Rossi made it up to fourth in the race, but with Lorenzo winning the race, Lorenzo took the championship by five points.
Rossi began the 2016 season with fourth place in Qatar, albeit just two seconds from victory. In the next race in Argentina, Rossi returned to the podium with second place behind Marc Márquez after a collision between Ducati riders Andrea Iannone and Andrea Dovizioso on the last lap for which Iannone was penalised. The race was split into two parts similar to the 2013 Australian Grand Prix after concerns over Michelin rear tyres forced riders into making a pitstop to change bikes, Rossi had fought with Marquez for the lead in the first half of the race but fell back to fourth on his second bike before the last lap incident between the Ducati 's. At Austin, Rossi suffered his first DNF since the 2014 Aragon Grand Prix, bringing an end to a run of 24 consecutive top five finishes after crashing at the start of the third lap. At Jerez, Rossi led the race start - to - finish with the exception of one corner to Jorge Lorenzo after gaining his 52nd pole position, the race marked the first time in his MotoGP career that Rossi led every lap of a race from pole position. At Le Mans, Rossi started a lowly seventh on the grid but recovered in the race to finish second with the fastest lap of the race. Rossi suffered an engine failure in his rome race at Mugello when closely following Lorenzo for the lead after starting from pole position. It was Rossi 's first technical failure since the 2007 San Marino Grand Prix. Rossi bounced back at the Catalunya by winning from seventh on the first lap after a late race battle with Márquez. Rossi dedicated the victory to the family of former Moto2 rider Luis Salom, who had been killed following a crash in Friday practice. The first race held on Sunday at Assen saw disappointment for Rossi as wet conditions saw him fall from a comfortable lead in a restarted race following a red flag in torrential conditions. Assuming the lead in the second race, Rossi set the fastest lap but continued to push before crashing due to what he called a "stupid mistake ''. More rain at the Sachsenring saw Rossi in contention for victory again, however a delayed decision to change bikes in the drying conditions; as he did since the 2015 San Marino Grand Prix combined with using intermediate tires instead of slicks like Marquez, saw him come home 8th.
After the summer break, MotoGP 's return to Austria for the first time since 1997, saw Ducati dominate for a 1 - 2 finish, Rossi coming a close 4th behind Jorge Lorenzo. Another wet race in Brno saw Rossi go against the majority of the field in choosing the harder rear wet tyre. Initially it seemed an error as he fell from 6th to 12th but he recovered throughout the race to finish 2nd to Cal Crutchlow. Silverstone saw Rossi line up second on the grid behind pole - sitter Crutchlow, and following an intense battle with Marquez, eventually finishing third behind Crutchlow and first - time race winner Maverick Viñales. A week later Rossi finished second at his home race of Misano. After leading for the majority of the race he was overhauled by Dani Pedrosa in the closing laps. Rossi again led for a period in Aragon before eventually finishing 3rd.
The flyaway races began badly for Rossi after crashing out of second place in Motegi having started from pole. Victory for Marquez saw him crowned champion. Rossi started 15th in Phillip Island after a rain affected qualifying but recovered to finish second in the race. Rossi secured second place in wet conditions at Sepang behind Andrea Dovizioso having again led for periods, the result securing second place in the championship for the third year in a row. The season concluded as 2015 did, with 4th place in Valencia, after a long - battle with Iannone.
Rossi suffered a difficult winter testing period for the 2017 season, often lagging behind new teammate Viñales after suffering with a new softer construction Michelin front tyre. For the first race in Qatar however he appeared to make a breakthrough, moving from 10th on the grid to finish 3rd. Rossi continued his improvement by finishing second in Argentina and the US to take the lead of the Championship after three races. The European season began disappointingly with 10th at Jerez, this was followed by a crash on the last lap at Le Mans while battling teammate Vinales for the win, Rossi also lost the championship lead after the race. Following the French race Rossi suffered a motocross training crash which initially put his participation at Mugello under threat, ultimately he passed a late fitness test and finished the race in 4th. A week later at Barcelona Yamaha struggled as they did in Jerez in the hot conditions as Rossi came home 8th. Tests of a new chassis after the Catalan race were positive and saw Rossi take his first victory of the season at Assen after a late race battle with Danilo Petrucci with slick tyres on a damp track, the older Italian prevailing by just 0.063 seconds. The result also made Rossi the oldest race winner in the MotoGP era, surpassing Troy Bayliss.
Earlier in his career Max Biaggi was considered Rossi 's main rival. Although they had not even raced against each other until 2000, the rivalry between the two had been growing since the mid-1990s, and reached its peak in Barcelona in 2001, at the end of the 500cc race, when the two riders came to blows (involving members of their entourage and circuit employees) in the moments before the podium ceremony. Previously, in 2001, during the grand - prix of Japan, one of the most famous episodes in their rivalry took place, when first Biaggi seemed to have tried to push Rossi into the dirt at high speed, and a few laps later Rossi returned to overtake Biaggi showing, on live television, his middle finger. The rivalry died down after Rossi 's consecutive World Championships and Biaggi 's struggle to find support and a consistent rhythm with his races.
In his autobiography What If I 'd Never Tried It?, Rossi makes a number of claims about the reasons for his rivalry with Biaggi, and some of the incidents which led to its escalation. The rivalry was also featured in the 2003 documentary film, Faster.
Rossi 's closest rival in the 2003 and 2004 seasons was Sete Gibernau, riding with Team Gresini 's Movistar Honda team on a satellite RC211V in 2004 and then on an all but in name factory RC211V, which Gibernau helped to develop, in 2005. Initially they were quite friendly in the paddock and off -- Gibernau partied on occasions with Rossi at the Italian 's Ibiza villa -- but a souring in their relationship began in the 2004 season and culminated in the "Qatar Incident '' that same season when Rossi 's team was penalized for "cleaning '' his grid position to aid in traction, along with Honda Pons ' Max Biaggi, and both riders were subsequently forced to start from the back of the grid. A number of teams, including Gibernau 's Team Gresini and the official Repsol Honda factory team, appealed successfully to race direction for Rossi to be sanctioned. Rossi and his chief engineer, Jeremy Burgess, insisted that they were doing nothing more than what many others had done before when faced with a dirty track.
Since then the two have not spoken and Rossi seemed to resolve to use the incident to apply psychological pressure on Gibernau. Rumours of Rossi having sworn that after the Qatar race, which Gibernau won while Rossi crashed out after rising to 6th position, he would do everything to make sure that Gibernau never stood on the highest step of the podium again. However, Rossi has denied these claims. Gibernau retired from Grand Prix racing after an unsuccessful, injury blighted 2006 season with Ducati and he never won another race after Qatar, prompting some in the Spanish and Italian motorcycle racing media to explain this fact by way of reference to the "Qatar Curse. ''
In 2007, Casey Stoner emerged as a rival for Rossi. Coupled with a Ducati, the young Australian won the first race of the year, followed by many more victories resulting in his claiming of the 2007 MotoGP World Championship title. Stoner 's and Rossi 's rivalry came to a dramatic climax at Laguna Seca Raceway in 2008. After numerous position changes, Rossi overtook Stoner at the Corkscrew. The bold move caused Rossi to run into the dirt and broken pavement on the inside of the right turn, and his rejoining the track came close to causing a collision between the two riders. A few laps later, Stoner went into the gravel on the slow entry into turn 11. Stoner picked up his bike to finish second, while Rossi took the win. After this, Casey Stoner made the comment, "I have lost respect for one of the greatest riders in history. '' For the comment, Stoner apologised to Rossi at the next race.
In 2008, Jorge Lorenzo joined Rossi in the factory Yamaha Motor Racing team, which started a new rivalry. Rossi won the 2008 title, with Lorenzo suffering two serious crashes at Laguna Seca and China. In 2009, Rossi and Lorenzo resumed hostilities with Rossi emerging as champion again. In 2009, Rossi defeated Lorenzo in several tight battles, at Valencia, Assen, Sachsenring and, most memorably, Lorenzo 's home race at Catalonia, after passing him in the final corner to take victory, in that part of the track where any overtaking was considered impossible. In 2010, Lorenzo finally emerged victorious in the championship battle, after Rossi first injured his shoulder in a motocross training accident, then breaking his shin - bone after a vicious crash in Mugello, missing four races. The most dramatic race of the season came at Motegi, beating Lorenzo for third place.
Since his early racing days Valentino Rossi has had numerous nicknames. In the beginning he was known as "Rossifumi '', inspired by Norifumi Abe, who made a spectacular debut in the 500cc class in Japan.
Since dominating the 500 cc category later known as MotoGP, "The Doctor '' has become the nickname of choice for Rossi. Two theories prevail as to why Rossi uses "The Doctor. '' One is that Rossi adopted the nickname upon having earned a degree, which in Italy entitles one to use the title "Doctor. '' Another, as spoken by Graziano himself, "The Doctor because, I do n't think there is a particular reason, but it 's beautiful, and is important, The Doctor. And in Italy, The Doctor is a name you give to someone for respect, it 's very important, The Doctor... important. '' Rossi often jokes, however, that the name arrived because in Italy, Rossi is a common surname for doctors.
He has always raced with the number No. 46 in his motorcycle grand prix career, the number his father had raced with in the first of his 3 grand prix career wins in 1979, in Yugoslavia, on a 250c Morbidelli. Typically, a World Championship winner is awarded the No. 1 sticker for the next season. However, in a homage to Britain 's Barry Sheene, who was the first rider of the modern era to keep the same number (# 7), Rossi has stayed with the now - famous No. 46 throughout his career, though as the world champion he has worn the No. 1 on the shoulder of his racing leathers.
The text on his helmet refers to the name of his group of friends: "The Tribe of the Chihuahua, '' and the letters WLF on his leathers stand for "Viva La Figa, '' Italian for "Long Live Pussy. '' He has so far escaped any sanctions or ultimatums that he remove the letters because the "W '' in "WLF '' represents the two "V '' s in "ViVa. '' Equally obvious is his success at escaping any disciplinary action from the FIM or Dorna Sports for having the letters so brazenly on the front neck area of his leathers. He traditionally also incorporates his favorite color (fluorescent yellow) into his leather designs. This has also earned him the nickname "Highlighter Pen '' more recently. It is most commonly used by commentators Toby Moody and Julian Ryder.
Fellow motorcycle racer and former teammate Colin Edwards, as well as some TV journalists, have often referred to him as ' the GOAT ' (Greatest of all Time).
Rossi tested the Ferrari Formula One car in 2006 on 31 January, 1 February, and 2 February at Valencia. The first test saw Rossi spin out on the damp track into the gravel trap, ending his day. On the second day, he posted the ninth fastest time of fifteen drivers, approximately one second behind Michael Schumacher, who himself was third fastest. Rossi lapped faster than seasoned drivers Red Bull Racing 's Mark Webber and David Coulthard and Toyota F1 's Jarno Trulli. On the final day of testing, Rossi was just a little more than a half second behind Schumacher 's best time. Schumacher hailed Rossi as having immense talent and said he would be perfectly capable of moving to Formula One and being competitive immediately.
In May 2006, Rossi announced that he would be staying in MotoGP until he felt his work on the motorbike was "finished. '' Ferrari driver Schumacher said that he felt "saddened '' by Rossi 's decision but supported it. Rossi subsequently signed a new contract with Yamaha for the 2007 and 2008 seasons, then for 2009 and 2010.
Beyond his interest in F1, Rossi 's strong passion is for rallying. In Rossi 's youth one of his heroes was WRC Champion Colin McRae. Rally legend McRae taught Rossi the basics of driving a rally car. The two competed against each other at the 2005 Monza Rally Show, with McRae driving a Skoda Fabia WRC and Rossi winning in a Subaru Impreza WRC. His first official foray into rallying came in 2002 at WRC Rally Great Britain in a Peugeot 206 WRC, in which he crashed out on the second stage (first non-superspecial stage).
In October 2006 it was announced that Rossi would enter that year 's Rally New Zealand, a WRC event, which was to run from 17 -- 19 November. He competed in a Subaru Impreza WRC04 finishing 11th out of 39. In 2006 Rossi also won the Monza Rally Show driving a Ford Focus RS WRC 04. He beat the 2005 winner Rinaldo Capello by 24 seconds, winning five of the seven stages on his way. He also managed to outpace former WRC champion Didier Auriol by seven seconds in the head - to - head Master Show final. Rossi also announced at the 2006 Monza Rally Show, that he would be entering the 2007 Rally of Great Britain, however, he later opted out. At the 2007 Monza Rally, Rossi again took first place.
Rossi had been linked with a move to both Formula One and the World Rally Championship in 2007, having tested for Ferrari and competed in a number of rally events.
But Rossi decided to remain in MotoGP; "I have a contract with Yamaha until 2008, '' said Rossi. "When that finishes then we will see. What I am sure about is that I will ride until I 'm 31 or 32 at most. I will look for new stimuli in the next few seasons, but for now I am fully motivated ''. Rossi signed a new two - year contract confirming he will be at Yamaha until 2010. He originally planned to use the Impreza WRC2008 during his participation in the Rally GB in December 2008, but decided to drive a Ford Focus RS WRC 07 instead. He finished the rally in 12th place, 13 minutes and 20.4 seconds behind eventual winner Sébastien Loeb.
In January 2010, Rossi has said that once he retires from motorcycle racing, he hopes to move into rallying. "There are not many changes in a man 's body between 22 and 34 so I still have some time left. I would consider shifting to cars, probably rallying, after that before I finally decide to take it easy... I know F1 would 've been easier but by the time I finish MotoGP, I will be too old for F1. '' Stefano Domenicali, Ferrari 's Formula One Team principal, however, reasserted his wish to have a third Ferrari on the F1 grid driven by Rossi, whilst confirming that Rossi would test an older Ferrari F1 car on 21 and 22 January 2010.
In March 2010, the Italian minister Franco Frattini government awarded Rossi the first Winning Italy Award for the image he portrays of his country on an international level.
In 2013, Rossi was given a special test of Kyle Busch 's NASCAR Nationwide Series stock car at Charlotte Motor Speedway in Charlotte, North Carolina. Rossi achieved a top speed of 185 miles per hour, a speed which would have put him in the top fifteen of a Nationwide Series race.
Rossi is the owner of the Sky Racing Team by VR46, which debuted in the Moto3 category of Grand Prix motorcycle racing in 2014 with riders Romano Fenati and Francesco Bagnaia. In 2015, Andrea Migno replaced Bagnaia.
Valentino Rossi has gone through numerous helmet designs throughout his career, most featuring the Sun & Moon motif, signifying (according to Rossi) the two sides of his personality. His helmets are manufactured by AGV. Aldo Drudi was associated with Rossi 's helmet graphics in 2010. Nearly every year, Rossi works with Aldo Drudi to design a unique helmet to use while racing at the Italian Grand Prix.
Since commencing his Grand Prix career, Rossi has worn leathers from Dainese. In 1996 and 1997, Alpinestars was a sponsor on his bike, but did not supply Rossi with leathers. Alpinestars just supplied racing boots for Rossi. After Rossi joined the Yamaha Factory Team, the team wore shirts from Alpinestars, while Rossi maintained his association with Dainese. In 2011 and 2012, Rossi was a member of the Ducati factory team, where the team wore shirts from Puma, while Rossi still maintained his association with Dainese. In 2016, Rossi has a new jacket from Dainese. His jacket has a different graphic compared with Alpinestars Movistar Yamaha jacket.
Rossi is very superstitious and is renowned for his pre-ride rituals. On a race day, he will always watch the beginning of the Moto3 race to see how long the starting lights remain lit before going out at the start of the race. Prior to riding (whether racing, qualifying, or practice), he will start his personal ritual by stopping about 2 metres from his bike, bending over and reaching for his boots. Then, when arriving at his bike, he will crouch down and hold the right - side foot - peg, with his head bowed. In an interview, Rossi said "It 's just a moment to focus and ' talk ' to my bike, like moving from one place to the next. '' He adjusts the fit of his leathers by standing straight up on the foot - pegs, whilst riding down the pit - lane before the start of race or practice. He also revealed in an interview with MotoGP.com that he always puts one boot on before the other, one glove on before the other, and he always gets on the bike the same way. He also gets off the bike in the same way, swinging his right leg over the front of the bike.
After leaving the family home in Tavullia, he moved to Milan, before taking up residency in London, England during his period with Honda. During this time he acquired a villa in Ibiza which he still owns, and following the tax case has now returned to his main residence to live close to his family in Italy. Rossi is a practising Catholic.
In 2002 he received threats from an Italian - Spanish anarchist movement, which in those days sent parcel bombs to people it considered targets in either of the two countries. The anarchists considered Rossi "guilty '' because at the time he rode for Honda 's MotoGP factory team which have had sponsorship from the oil company Repsol since 1994, (For which he filmed a commercial in Spain.) with their logo displayed on both the motorcycle and on his race suits.
On 31 May 2005 he received an honorary degree in Communications and Advertising for Organizations. In March 2010, the Italian Foreign Minister Franco Frattini delivered to Valentino Rossi the first Winning Italy Award for his contribution to the promotion of Italy 's image in the world.
According to Sports Illustrated, Rossi is one of the highest earning sports personalities in the world, having earned an estimated $34 million in 2007. In 2009 Forbes ranked Rossi as number nine among the world 's highest - paid athletes having earned an estimated $35 million in the past year.
In 2007, the Italian tax authorities declared Rossi was being investigated for suspected tax evasion. Having previously unsuccessfully investigated Rossi for tax evasion in 2002, the authorities announced they were investigating Rossi for undeclared revenues of 112 million euros ($160 million) between 2000 and 2004. The officials said, against the European Taxes Agreements among European countries, Rossi 's London residency has enabled him to take advantage of favourable tax conditions, such as only declaring earnings made in Britain and avoiding taxes on his lucrative merchandising and sponsorship contracts, commenting that Rossi had residency in London but his "centre of interests '' was n't there, as shown by a thorough investigation. It noted that in 2002, Rossi 's Italian tax form declared earnings of 500 euros, while sponsorship contracts were all reported to be made out to foreign companies, but with his affairs controlled mainly from Italy. In February 2008, Rossi announced that he had reached a settlement with the Italian tax authorities: he paid 35 million euros to close the tax case. He also plea - bargained a suspended sentence of six months ' imprisonment for non-declaration of income.
In November 2015, Milestone S.r.l. announced Valentino Rossi: The Game, to be released on Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One.
Rossi tries to keep his personal life out of the public eye as much as possible, though he makes no secret of his fondness for Italian football club Internazionale. After he won world titles in 2008 and 2009, Inter congratulated him via their website. At the 2015 Argentine Grand Prix, Rossi wore a replica Diego Maradona football shirt on the podium in tribute to Maradona after Rossi won the race. Maradona congratulated him via his Facebook.
* Season still in progress.
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)
* Season still in progress.
As of the conclusion of round number 12 in Silverstone of the 2017 season, Valentino Rossi holds the following records:
Rossi, Valentino; Enrico Borghi. Valentino Rossi -- The Autobiography: What if I had never tried it. Gabriele Marcotti (translation). Arrow Books. ISBN 978 - 0 - 09 - 948696 - 1.
Giacomo Agostini (1975), Kenny Roberts (1978, 1979, 1980) Eddie Lawson (1984, 1986, 1988) Wayne Rainey (1990, 1991, 1992) Valentino Rossi (2004, 2005, 2008, 2009) Jorge Lorenzo (2010, 2012, 2015)
Freddie Spencer (1983, 1985) Wayne Gardner (1987) Eddie Lawson (1989) Mick Doohan (1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998) Àlex Crivillé (1999) Valentino Rossi (2001, 2002, 2003) Nicky Hayden (2006) Casey Stoner (2011) Marc Márquez (2013, 2014, 2016, 2017) Rossi was a satellite team rider in 2001.
1949 -- L. Graham
1950 -- U. Masetti 1951 -- G. Duke 1952 -- U. Masetti 1953 -- G. Duke 1954 -- G. Duke 1955 -- G. Duke 1956 -- J. Surtees 1957 -- L. Liberati 1958 -- J. Surtees 1959 -- J. Surtees
1960 -- J. Surtees 1961 -- G. Hocking 1962 -- M. Hailwood 1963 -- M. Hailwood 1964 -- M. Hailwood 1965 -- M. Hailwood 1966 -- G. Agostini 1967 -- G. Agostini 1968 -- G. Agostini 1969 -- G. Agostini
1970 -- G. Agostini 1971 -- G. Agostini 1972 -- G. Agostini 1973 -- P. Read 1974 -- P. Read 1975 -- G. Agostini 1976 -- B. Sheene 1977 -- B. Sheene 1978 -- K. Roberts 1979 -- K. Roberts
1980 -- K. Roberts 1981 -- M. Lucchinelli 1982 -- F. Uncini 1983 -- F. Spencer 1984 -- E. Lawson 1985 -- F. Spencer 1986 -- E. Lawson 1987 -- W. Gardner 1988 -- E. Lawson 1989 -- E. Lawson
1990 -- W. Rainey 1991 -- W. Rainey 1992 -- W. Rainey 1993 -- K. Schwantz 1994 -- M. Doohan 1995 -- M. Doohan 1996 -- M. Doohan 1997 -- M. Doohan 1998 -- M. Doohan 1999 -- À. Crivillé
2000 -- K. Roberts, Jr. 2001 -- V. Rossi 2002 -- V. Rossi 2003 -- V. Rossi 2004 -- V. Rossi 2005 -- V. Rossi 2006 -- N. Hayden 2007 -- C. Stoner 2008 -- V. Rossi 2009 -- V. Rossi
2010 -- J. Lorenzo 2011 -- C. Stoner 2012 -- J. Lorenzo 2013 -- M. Márquez 2014 -- M. Márquez 2015 -- J. Lorenzo 2016 -- M. Márquez 2017 -- M. Márquez
1949 -- B. Ruffo
1950 -- D. Ambrosini 1951 -- B. Ruffo 1952 -- E. Lorenzetti 1953 -- W. Haas 1954 -- W. Haas 1955 -- H. Müller 1956 -- C. Ubbiali 1957 -- C. Sandford 1958 -- T. Provini 1959 -- C. Ubbiali
1960 -- C. Ubbiali 1961 -- M. Hailwood 1962 -- J. Redman 1963 -- J. Redman 1964 -- P. Read 1965 -- P. Read 1966 -- M. Hailwood 1967 -- M. Hailwood 1968 -- P. Read 1969 -- K. Carruthers
1970 -- R. Gould 1971 -- P. Read 1972 -- J. Saarinen 1973 -- D. Braun 1974 -- W. Villa 1975 -- W. Villa 1976 -- W. Villa 1977 -- M. Lega 1978 -- K. Ballington 1979 -- K. Ballington
1980 -- A. Mang 1981 -- A. Mang 1982 -- J. Tournadre 1983 -- C. Lavado 1984 -- C. Sarron 1985 -- F. Spencer 1986 -- C. Lavado 1987 -- A. Mang 1988 -- S. Pons 1989 -- S. Pons
1990 -- J. Kocinski 1991 -- L. Cadalora 1992 -- L. Cadalora 1993 -- T. Harada 1994 -- M. Biaggi 1995 -- M. Biaggi 1996 -- M. Biaggi 1997 -- M. Biaggi 1998 -- L. Capirossi 1999 -- V. Rossi
2000 -- O. Jacque 2001 -- D. Kato 2002 -- M. Melandri 2003 -- M. Poggiali 2004 -- D. Pedrosa 2005 -- D. Pedrosa 2006 -- J. Lorenzo 2007 -- J. Lorenzo 2008 -- M. Simoncelli 2009 -- H. Aoyama
2010 -- T. Elías 2011 -- S. Bradl 2012 -- M. Márquez 2013 -- P. Espargaró 2014 -- E. Rabat 2015 -- J. Zarco 2016 -- J. Zarco 2017 -- F. Morbidelli
1949 -- N. Pagani
1950 -- B. Ruffo 1951 -- C. Ubbiali 1952 -- C. Sandford 1953 -- W. Haas 1954 -- R. Hollaus 1955 -- C. Ubbiali 1956 -- C. Ubbiali 1957 -- T. Provini 1958 -- C. Ubbiali 1959 -- C. Ubbiali
1960 -- C. Ubbiali 1961 -- T. Phillis 1962 -- L. Taveri 1963 -- H. Anderson 1964 -- L. Taveri 1965 -- H. Anderson 1966 -- L. Taveri 1967 -- B. Ivy 1968 -- P. Read 1969 -- D. Simmonds
1970 -- D. Braun 1971 -- Á. Nieto 1972 -- Á. Nieto 1973 -- K. Andersson 1974 -- K. Andersson 1975 -- P. Pileri 1976 -- P. Bianchi 1977 -- P. Bianchi 1978 -- E. Lazzarini 1979 -- Á. Nieto
1980 -- P. Bianchi 1981 -- Á. Nieto 1982 -- Á. Nieto 1983 -- Á. Nieto 1984 -- Á. Nieto 1985 -- F. Gresini 1986 -- L. Cadalora 1987 -- F. Gresini 1988 -- J. Martínez 1989 -- À. Crivillé
1990 -- L. Capirossi 1991 -- L. Capirossi 1992 -- A. Gramigni 1993 -- D. Raudies 1994 -- K. Sakata 1995 -- H. Aoki 1996 -- H. Aoki 1997 -- V. Rossi 1998 -- K. Sakata 1999 -- E. Alzamora
2000 -- R. Locatelli 2001 -- M. Poggiali 2002 -- A. Vincent 2003 -- D. Pedrosa 2004 -- A. Dovizioso 2005 -- T. Lüthi 2006 -- Á. Bautista 2007 -- G. Talmácsi 2008 -- M. Di Meglio 2009 -- J. Simón
2010 -- M. Márquez 2011 -- N. Terol 2012 -- S. Cortese 2013 -- M. Viñales 2014 -- Á. Márquez 2015 -- D. Kent 2016 -- B. Binder 2017 -- J. Mir
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for want of a nail the shoe was lost song | For want of a nail - wikipedia
For want of a nail the shoe was lost. For want of a shoe the horse was lost. For want of a horse the rider was lost. For want of a rider the message was lost. For want of a message the battle was lost. For want of a battle the kingdom was lost. And all for the want of a horseshoe nail.
"For Want of a Nail '' is a proverb, having numerous variations over several centuries, reminding that seemingly unimportant acts or omissions can have grave and unforeseen consequences.
For want of a nail the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost, for want of a horse the knight was lost, for want of a knight the battle was lost, for want of a battle the kingdom was lost. So a kingdom was lost -- all for want of a nail.
The proverb has come down in many variations over the centuries. It describes a situation in which a failure to anticipate or correct some initially small dysfunction leads by successively more critical stages to an egregious outcome. The rhyme 's implied small difference in initial conditions is the lack of a spare horseshoe nail, relative to a condition of its availability. At a more literal level, it expresses the importance of military logistics in warfare.
Such chains of causality are perceived only in hindsight. No one ever lamented, upon seeing his unshod horse, that the kingdom would eventually fall because of it.
Related sayings are is "A stitch, in time, saves nine '' and "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure ''. A somewhat similar idea is referred to in the metaphor known as The Camel 's nose.
For want of a nail the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost; and for want of a horse the rider was lost; being overtaken and slain by the enemy,
A little neglect may breed mischief... for want of a nail, the shoe was lost; for want of a shoe the horse was lost;
For want of a nail the shoe was lost; For want of a shoe the horse was lost; For want of a horse the battle was lost; For the failure of battle the kingdom was lost --
The proverb is found in a number of forms, beginning as early as the 13th century:
Along with the long history of the proverb listed above, it has continued to be referenced since the mid 20th century in modern culture. Examples include:
For want of a nail a horseshoe was lost, for want of a horseshoe a horse went lame, for want of a horse a rider never got through, for want of a rider a message never arrived, for want of a message an army was never sent, for want of an army a battle was lost, for want of a battle a war was lost, for want of a war a kingdom fell,
For want of a nail, the shoe was lost, For want of a shoe, the horse was lost, For want of a horse, the rider was lost, For want of a rider, the message was lost, For want of a message, the battle was lost, For want of a battle, the war was lost, For want of a war, the kingdom was lost, For want of a nail, the world was lost ' The Want of a Nail ''
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who came up with the group name the temptations | The Temptations - wikipedia
The Temptations are an American vocal group who released a series of successful singles and albums with Motown Records during the 1960s and 1970s. Their work with producer Norman Whitfield, beginning with the Top 10 hit single "Cloud Nine '' in October 1968, pioneered psychedelic soul, and was significant in the evolution of R&B and soul music. The band members are known for their choreography, distinct harmonies, and flashy wardrobe. Having sold tens of millions of albums, the Temptations are among the most successful groups in popular music.
Featuring five male vocalists and dancers (save for brief periods with fewer or more members), the group formed in 1960 in Detroit, Michigan under the name The Elgins. The founding members came from two rival Detroit vocal groups: Otis Williams, Elbridge "Al '' Bryant, and Melvin Franklin of Otis Williams & the Distants, and Eddie Kendricks and Paul Williams of the Primes. In 1964, Bryant was replaced by David Ruffin, who was the lead vocalist on a number of the group 's biggest hits, including "My Girl '' (1964), "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg '' (1966), and "I Wish It Would Rain '' (1967). Ruffin was replaced in 1968 by Dennis Edwards, with whom the group continued to record hit records such as "Cloud Nine '' (1969) and "Ball of Confusion (That 's What the World Is Today) '' (1970). The group 's lineup has changed frequently since the departures of Kendricks and Paul Williams from the act in 1971. Later members of the group have included singers such as Richard Street, Damon Harris, Ron Tyson, and Ali - Ollie Woodson, with whom the group scored a late - period hit in 1984 with "Treat Her Like a Lady ''.
Over the course of their career, the Temptations released four Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles and fourteen R&B number - one singles. Their music has earned three Grammy Awards. The Temptations were the first Motown recording act to win a Grammy Award - for "Cloud Nine '' in 1969 - and in 2013 received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Six of the Temptations (Edwards, Franklin, Kendricks, Ruffin, Otis Williams and Paul Williams) were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989. Three classic Temptations songs, "My Girl '', "Just My Imagination (Running Away with Me) '', and "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '', are among The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. The Temptations were ranked at number 68 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 100 Greatest Artists of all time.
As of 2017, the Temptations continue to perform with founder Otis Williams in the lineup (Williams owns rights to the Temptations name).
Eddie Kendricks and Paul Williams started singing together in church as children. By their teenage years, they formed a doo - wop quartet in 1955 with Kell Osborne and Wiley Waller, naming themselves the Cavaliers.
After Waller left the group in 1957, the remaining trio left Birmingham to break into the music business. The group settled in Detroit where they changed their name to the Primes under the direction of Milton Jenkins. The Primes soon became well known around the Detroit area for their meticulous performances. Jenkins later created a sister group, The Primettes, later known as the Supremes. Kendricks was already seen as a "matinee idol '' in the Detroit area while Williams was well received for his baritone vocals. Texas teenager Otis Williams moved to Detroit as a youngster to be with his mother.
By 1958, Williams was the leader of a vocal group named Otis Williams and the Siberians. The group included Elbridge "Al '' Bryant, James "Pee - Wee '' Crawford, Vernard Plain and Arthur Walton. The group recorded a song, "Pecos Kid '' for a label run by radio deejay Senator Bristol Bryant. Shortly after its release, the group changed its name to The El Domingoes. Following this, Montgomery native Melvin Franklin replaced Arthur Walton as bass vocalist and Detroit - born Richard Street (claimed by Melvin Franklin to be his cousin) replaced Vernard Plain as lead singer. Signing with Johnnie Mae Matthews ' Northern Records, the group had their name changed again to The Distants.
The group recorded two Northern singles including "Come On '' (1959) and "Alright '' (1960). Between these releases, Albert "Mooch '' Harrell replaced Pee - Wee Crawford. "Come On '' became a local hit and the Warwick Records label picked the record up for national distribution. Following the release of "Alright '', Matthews appointed Williams the group leader, and the group 's name was changed to Otis Williams & The Distants. During this period, both the Primes and Distants were influenced by other vocal groups including the Miracles. Other inspirations included the Cadillacs, Frankie Lymon & the Teenagers, the Drifters, and the Isley Brothers. Though "Come On '' was a local hit in the Detroit area, the Distants never saw much record sales and "Alright '' was not as successful. After receiving an offer from Berry Gordy to sign with Motown Records, the Distants got out of their contract with Northern Records. However, Mooch Harrell and Richard Street shortly departed from the group and the remaining members lost use of the Distants name. Richard Street later formed another Distants group who recorded for the Thelma label in the early 1960s.
Members of the Distants were acquainted with the Primes as both groups participated in the same talent shows and performed at the same public venues. Friendly rivals, the Primes were considered to be the more polished and vocally stronger group of the two. The Primes disbanded in 1960 after Kell Osborne moved to California. Eddie Kendricks and Paul Williams returned to Alabama following the band 's dissolution. While visiting relatives in Detroit, Kendricks called Otis Williams, who desperately needed two more members for an audition for Gordy 's label and offered Kendricks a lead singer place in his new group. Kendricks agreed on the condition he bring Paul Williams with him. Otis Williams happily agreed and Kendricks and Paul Williams moved back to Detroit to join the new group.
The original name for the new lineup of Otis Williams, Melvin Franklin, Elbridge "Al '' Bryant, Eddie Kendricks, and Paul Williams was the Elgins. Under that name, the group auditioned for Motown in March 1961. Already impressed with some of the members after hearing session work, Berry Gordy agreed to sign the group to the Motown imprint, Miracle. However, before signing, Gordy discovered another group was using the name of Elgins. The group began tossing about ideas for a new name on the steps of the Hitsville U.S.A. studio. On a suggestion from Miracle Records employee Billy Mitchell, songwriter Mickey Stevenson, and group members Otis Williams and Paul Williams, the Temptations became the group 's new moniker. The "Elgins '' name re-surfaced at Motown in 1965, when Gordy renamed a quartet called the Downbeats as the Elgins.
The Temptations ' first two singles, "Oh Mother of Mine '' and "Check Yourself '', with Paul Williams on lead, were released on Miracle before Gordy closed the label down and reassigned the band to his latest imprint, Gordy Records. On the Gordy imprint, Eddie Kendricks sang lead on the Temptations ' first charted single, "(You 're My) Dream Come True '', which peaked at number 22 on the R&B chart in 1962. Later that year, the Temptations began touring as part of the Motortown Revue. The group would issue eight recordings between 1961 - 63 without much success.
Paul Williams and Eddie Kendricks split the leads during this early period, with Al Bryant, Otis Williams, and Melvin Franklin occasionally singing lead, as they would on a song titled "Is n't She Pretty ''. For a brief time, the group almost had their name changed to The Pirates, and recorded the songs "Mind Over Matter '' and "I 'll Love You Till I Die '' under that name. Eventually the label and the group decided against it. One hit song, "Do You Love Me '', was originally to be recorded by the Temptations. When he could n't get a hold of the group, Gordy produced a version for the Contours. In 1963, the Temptations began working with Smokey Robinson as producer and writer. Robinson 's first work with the group was the Paul Williams - led "I Want a Love I Can See ''. While the song failed to chart, it did eventually become a popular live performance spot for the group and particularly for Paul Williams in general. Some called the group "The Hitless Temptations '' due to their lack of hits.
During this time, David Ruffin began following the group around as he aspired to join the group. During a local Detroit performance, Ruffin joined the group onstage and impressed the group with his vocal talent and dancing skills. Following that same time, Al Bryant had grown frustrated with the group 's lack of success and became restless and uncooperative, preferring the mundane routine of his day job as a milkman over the rigors of rehearsal and performing. After a second altercation onstage at a Christmas performance, having struck Paul with a beer bottle during a heated quarrel at an earlier gig in the middle of the year, Bryant was summarily fired from the group. As a result, David Ruffin was brought in as his replacement in January 1964. Though Ruffin 's brother, Jimmy was also considered for the slot, David was selected following his performance with them in 1963.
Bryant continued to perform in a number of other local groups, and died at the age of 36 in Flagler County, Florida, of liver cirrhosis on October 26, 1975.
The Temptations would now consist of Otis Williams, Melvin Franklin, Paul Williams, Eddie Kendricks, and David Ruffin; the success that would follow the group would result in what would, in later years, be frequently referred to as the "Classic Five '' lineup. In January 1964, Smokey Robinson and Miracles bandmate Bobby Rogers co-wrote and produced "The Way You Do the Things You Do '' with Eddie Kendricks on lead and the single became the Temptations ' first Top 20 hit that April.
Shortly afterward, "The Way You Do The Things You Do '' and several pre-David Ruffin singles were compiled into the group 's first album, Meet the Temptations, released in early 1964. The next two Temptations singles in 1964, "Girl (Why You Wanna Make Me Blue) '' along with "I 'll Be in Trouble '' and its B - side "The Girl 's Alright with Me '', all featured Kendricks on lead (although Franklin sang one line in "I 'll Be in Trouble ''). However, producer Smokey Robinson saw potential in the "mellow yet gruff '' voice of David Ruffin, and thought that if he could write the perfect song for his lead, then the group could have a Top 10 hit.
While traveling as part of Motown 's Motortown Revue later that year, Robinson and fellow Miracles member Ronnie White wrote "My Girl '', which the Temptations recorded in the fall of 1964 with Ruffin singing his first lead vocal for the group. Released as a single on December 21, 1964, the song became the Temptations ' first number - one pop hit in March 1965. Over 50 years and multiple chart topping songs later, it is still their signature song to this day.
After the success of "My Girl '', Ruffin sang lead on the next three singles: "It 's Growing '', "Since I Lost My Baby '', and "My Baby '', which all made it to the Top 20 in 1965. The B - side to "My Baby '', "Do n't Look Back '', featured a stirring lead from Paul Williams, and was a sleeper hit on the R&B charts and a standard for vocal group playlists.
Norman Whitfield had requested the opportunity to write for the group and in 1966, Berry Gordy promised him that if Robinson 's "Get Ready '', with Eddie Kendricks on lead, failed to chart in the Top 20, Whitfield would be allowed to produce the next song. "Get Ready '' subsequently missed its mark, and Gordy issued the Whitfield - produced "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg '', with David Ruffin on lead, as the next single. "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg '' outperformed "Get Ready '' on the Billboard charts, and Whitfield became the Temptations ' new main producer. He began pulling the group away from the ballad - based productions espoused by Robinson, toward a harder - edged and brass - heavy soul sound reminiscent of James Brown.
Nearly all singles Whitfield produced prior to 1968 featured David Ruffin on lead, including the R&B number - one / pop Top 10 hits "Beauty Is Only Skin Deep '', "(I Know) I 'm Losing You '' and the early 1967 hit "(Loneliness Made Me Realize) It 's You That I Need ''. Other important singles from this period include "All I Need '', produced by Frank Wilson, a Whitfield protégé, and the "You 're My Everything '', on which Kendricks and Ruffin share lead. Studio albums during the "Classic Five '' period apart from Meet the Temptations include The Temptations Sing Smokey (1965), The Temptin ' Temptations (1965), Gettin ' Ready (1966), The Temptations with a Lot o ' Soul (1967), and The Temptations Wish It Would Rain (1968).
During this period, the various songwriting partners of Norman Whitfield included Roger Penzabene, Edward Holland, Jr., and Temptations road show manager and guitarist Cornelius Grant. Subsequently, Barrett Strong, who sang the very first hit at Motown in 1959, "Money (That 's What I Want) '', began working with Whitfield and Penzabene on Temptations material after Eddie Holland left Motown with the rest of the Holland - Dozier - Holland songwriting / production team in 1967. Two of the Whitfield - Strong - Penzabene collaborations, "I Wish It Would Rain '' and "I Could Never Love Another (After Loving You) '', became hits in early 1968 after the suicide of Roger Penzabene in December 1967. Subsequently, Barrett Strong became the sole collaborator of Norman Whitfield.
From early 1964 to mid 1968, the Temptations went from unknown hopefuls to international stars and as a result, appeared frequently on television shows such as American Bandstand, The Ed Sullivan Show, and The Hollywood Palace. At the same time, the group began to achieve a crossover success, catering to middle America with a pop standards album (The Temptations in a Mellow Mood, 1967), the success of which resulted in performances at the famous Copacabana in New York City along with dates at other similar supper clubs. Outside of music, the Temptations were made honorary members of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity.
By 1967, David Ruffin had begun demanding special treatment as lead singer, riding to and from gigs in a private mink - lined limousine with his then - girlfriend, Motown singer Tammi Terrell, instead of in the group limousine used by the other four Temptations. The other members slowly became irritated and annoyed with Ruffin 's behavior. Following Motown 's decision to rechristen the Supremes as Diana Ross & the Supremes, Ruffin felt entitled to the same treatment and demanded that his group be renamed as well, to David Ruffin & the Temptations. Ruffin was also causing friction with Berry Gordy by demanding an accounting of the group 's earnings; Motown partially acquiesced by allowing the Temptations to retain an outside accounting firm, but the firm did not have full access to the books from the Temptations ' manager, International Talent Management, Inc. - a subsidiary of Motown.
Some of this behavior was attributed to the fact that by this time Ruffin had begun using cocaine regularly, building further tension within the group and causing him to miss a number of group meetings, rehearsals, and concerts. There was a consensus among the rest of the group that Ruffin needed to be replaced. When Ruffin missed a June 1968 engagement at a Cleveland supper club in order to attend a show by his new girlfriend, Barbara Gail Martin (daughter of Dean Martin), the group decided that he had crossed the line. The other four Temptations drew up legal documentation, officially firing Ruffin on June 27, 1968. The next day, Dennis Edwards, a singer formerly of the Contours that Eddie Kendricks and Otis Williams already had pegged as a potential Ruffin replacement, was hired to take Ruffin 's place.
Edwards and Ruffin were good friends, and at first, Ruffin went along with the changing of the guard and encouraged Edwards. However, at Edwards ' official debut with the Temptations in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, on July 7, Ruffin came to the show and jumped onstage, taking the microphone from Edwards, singing lead on "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg, '' and disappearing as quickly as he had appeared. Ruffin repeated this stunt several times throughout the group 's July tour run. Despite the group hiring extra security to keep Ruffin out, he continued to find ways to sneak into the venue and jump onstage when the group performed one of the songs he had once sung lead on.
In a story recounted several times by Dennis Edwards, (rebutted by Otis Williams and Temptations road manager Don Foster), after several of these stunts, the positive audience reactions and a remorseful Ruffin 's pleas to be let back into the act convinced the other Temptations to do so. Otis Williams informed the then still - new Edwards that the group would lay him off and rehire Ruffin while in Gaithersburg, Maryland. However, when Ruffin failed to show up on time the next night for his "return '' engagement, the group kept Edwards on and ceased to entertain the prospect of rehiring Ruffin.
After Gaithersburg, Ruffin stopped attempting to disrupt the Temptations ' concerts and instead turned his attention to the Motown offices back in Detroit. He sued Motown in October 1968, seeking a release from the label, but Motown countersued to keep the singer from leaving and the case was eventually settled out of court. The settlement required Ruffin to remain with Motown as a solo artist to finish out his contract.
Edwards ' first album with the Temptations was Live at the Copa, recorded at the group 's return to the Copacabana nightclub. The year 1968 also saw the debut of the first of a number of collaborations for the Temptations with Diana Ross & the Supremes. The results included two studio albums: 1968 's Diana Ross & the Supremes Join The Temptations, which featured Edwards 's first studio recordings with the group and the number - two hit single "I 'm Gonna Make You Love Me '' and "Together ''. There was also a joint tour and two NBC television specials, TCB (aired December 9, 1968) and G.I.T. on Broadway (aired November 12, 1969).
The addition of Dennis Edwards to the Temptations coincided with the adoption of a new sound for the group by producer Norman Whitfield, and in the fall of 1968, Whitfield began producing psychedelic - based material for the Temptations, derived primarily from the sound of funk band Sly & the Family Stone. This new style, which debuted with the Top 10 hit single "Cloud Nine '' in October 1968, was a marked departure from the David Ruffin - era ballads. The instrumentation was funkier, the beat was hard - driving, and all five Temptations traded lead vocals, similar to Sly & the Family Stone. "Cloud Nine '', the centerpiece of the group 's landmark Cloud Nine LP, was a Top 10 hit and won Motown its first Grammy Award, for Best R&B Vocal Group Performance of 1969.
The blending of the Motown sound and psychedelic rock sound resulted in a new subgenre of music called psychedelic soul, also evident in the work of Diana Ross and the Supremes ("Reflections '', "Love Child ''), Marvin Gaye 's version of "I Heard It Through the Grapevine '', and music of the 5th Dimension, the Undisputed Truth, and the Friends of Distinction. More Temptations psychedelic soul singles followed in 1969 and 1970 -- among them "Runaway Child, Running Wild '' (a number - one R&B hit), "I Ca n't Get Next to You '' (a number - one pop hit), "Psychedelic Shack '', and "Ball of Confusion (That 's What the World Is Today) '', but the formula began to wear thin when "Ungena Za Ulimwengu (Unite the World) '', only went to number 33 Pop in the fall of 1970. The group 's other important albums from this period included Puzzle People (1969) and Psychedelic Shack (1970). Psychedelic Shack includes the original version of "War '', later made famous by Edwin Starr.
Paul Williams, who suffered from sickle - cell disease, fell into depression because of the stress of touring and personal issues. By the late 1960s, he had developed a serious case of alcoholism. Having never previously consumed anything stronger than milk, he began to drink quite heavily, and it was hard to take, according to Otis Williams. As his physical and mental health began to decline sharply, it made performing increasingly difficult. Williams began traveling with oxygen tanks, and the other four Temptations made valiant efforts to raid and drain his alcohol stashes.
In late 1969, Richard Street, lead singer of Motown act the Monitors and a former Distant, was hired by Otis Williams to tour with the group as a backup replacement for Williams. For most shows, save for his solo numbers, Williams would dance and lip - sync on stage to parts sung live by Street into an offstage mic behind a curtain. At other shows, and during most of the second half of 1970, Street substituted for Williams on stage when he was too sick to go on.
Eddie Kendricks became detached from the group after David Ruffin 's firing and as the health of Paul Williams continued to fail. He regularly picked fights with Otis Williams and Melvin Franklin, which often became violent, and in addition, he preferred the ballad material from the earlier days and was uncomfortable with the psychedelic soul material the group was now performing. Kendricks rekindled his friendship with Ruffin, who persuaded him to go solo. He no longer felt he had a say in Otis Williams 's handling of the group and was also convinced Motown 's handling of the Temptations ' finances was cheating the group out of money. Kendricks, being the only member to continue an alliance with Ruffin, also repeatedly suggested that Ruffin should be allowed back into the group, despite the other members ' strong objections.
Kendricks lobbied strongly in 1970 to have the Temptations go on "strike '' - no performances, no recordings - until Berry Gordy and the Motown staff would be willing to go over all group finances with independent accountants. Otis Williams and Franklin strongly opposed this idea, and regular group infighting between Kendricks, Otis Williams, and Franklin grew from this disagreement. After a November 1970 Copacabana engagement, one final confrontation between the three caused Kendricks to walk out in - between shows and not return. Both Kendricks and Williams then agreed that Kendricks would be leaving the group. Kendricks later stated that he actually considered leaving as early as 1965, but remained with the Temptations and unsuccessfully attempted to get permission to record a solo album without leaving the group.
Before Kendricks officially left the Temptations, he and Paul Williams recorded the lead vocals for "Just My Imagination (Running Away with Me) '', a ballad that became Kendricks ' final single with the group. Included on the Sky 's the Limit LP along with the original album version of "Smiling Faces Sometimes '', "Just My Imagination '' was released as a single in January 1971, and the song began steadily climbing the US pop singles chart, peaking at number 1 two months later. By the time "Just My Imagination '' topped the charts, Kendricks had negotiated his release from the group and signed a solo deal with Motown 's Tamla label.
The Temptations originally hired Ricky Owens, from the Los Angeles - based vocal group the Vibrations, to replace Kendricks. However, Owens only played two dates with the group before he was fired for forgetting the words to his solo numbers due to nervousness. For several weeks of the spring of 1971, the Temptations were without a fifth member. Owens meanwhile returned to the Vibrations and died in Los Angeles, California on December 6, 1996, at the age of 57.
Whitfield took the remaining Temptations quartet and re-recorded "It 's Summer '', the B - side to "Ball of Confusion (That 's What the World Is Today) '', as a replacement single. "Smiling Faces Sometimes '' was released as a single for the Undisputed Truth instead, becoming a Top 5 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1971. Meanwhile, "It 's Summer '' peaked at number 51 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it the first Temptations single to miss the Top 40 since "Farewell My Love '' eight years earlier.
After his doctor declared a few weeks later that he was unable to continue performing due to medical reasons, Paul Williams quit the Temptations in May. Richard Street officially took Williams ' place, although Williams continued to be paid his customary one - fifth of group revenue (Street was paid on salary for the first eighteen months of his tenure), and worked when he could with the group as an adviser and choreographer. After Williams had recovered enough to record again, he recorded two sides in 1973 for a debut solo single. However, on August 17, 1973, Williams died in Detroit at the age of 34 from a gunshot wound, his death ruled a suicide by the Wayne County coroner.
In May 1971, the Temptations finally found a permanent replacement for the first tenor position in twenty - year - old Baltimore native Damon Harris. Otis Williams, Edwards, Franklin, Street, and Harris continued recording and performing, and Norman Whitfield continued producing hits for them. There were Top 40 hits such as "Superstar (Remember How You Got Where You Are) '' (1971), a message from the Temptations to David Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks, and "Take a Look Around '' (1972). During this period, the group toured with Quiet Elegance as their back - up singers. Quiet Elegance featured Lois Reeves, the sister of Martha Reeves, alongside Frankie Gearing and Millie Vaney - Scott.
Late 1972 saw the release of "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '', a magnum opus written by Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong and produced by Whitfield. Originally a three - minute record written and produced for the Undisputed Truth, Whitfield took the somber tune and created a sprawling, dramatic twelve - minute version for the Temptations -- a forerunner of the extended single, soon to become popular in clubs and discothèques. An edited seven - minute version was released as a single and became one of the longest hit singles in music history: it hit number 1 on the pop charts and number 5 on the R&B charts. In 1973, "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' won the Temptations their second Grammy for Best R&B Performance by a Group. Whitfield and arranger / conductor Paul Riser won the award for Best R&B Instrumental Performance for the instrumental version on the B - side, and Whitfield and Barrett Strong won the songwriting Grammy for Best R&B Song.
After "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '', Whitfield stopped working with Barrett Strong, and began writing the Temptations ' material on his own. The success of "Papa '' led Whitfield to create more elongated, operatic pieces, including the Top 10 hit "Masterpiece '' (1973) and several of the tracks on the resulting Masterpiece album. Tensions developed between Whitfield and the group, who found Whitfield arrogant and difficult to work with, and the group citing his habitual tardiness, his emphasis of the instrumental tracks at the expense of their vocals on many of his productions, and the declining singles and albums sales as other sources of conflict, sought to change producers. Otis Williams complained about Whitfield 's actions and the Temptations ' stagnant sales to Berry Gordy; as a result, the group was reassigned to Jeffrey Bowen, co-producer of the 1967 In a Mellow Mood album.
The final Norman Whitfield - produced Temptations album, 1990, was released in December 1973, and included the Top 30 single "Let Your Hair Down ''. Shortly afterwards, Whitfield left Motown, and in 1975 established Whitfield Records, taking the Undisputed Truth and Willie Hutch with him, along with Rose Royce -- - who performed an instrumental track for "Let Your Hair Down '' before recording their 1976 smash "Car Wash. ''
Bowen 's first LP with the Temptations was January 1975 's A Song for You, which included a cover of the titular Leon Russell tune (popularized with soul audiences by Donny Hathaway), along with the pop Top 40 / R&B number - one hits "Happy People '' (featuring the Commodores as the instrumentalists) and "Shakey Ground '' (featuring instrumentation by Parliament - Funkadelic 's Eddie Hazel along with Billy Bass Nelson). "Glasshouse '', the group 's final Top 40 Pop hit was also included. Damon Harris was fired from the group during the recording of A Song for You, as his behavior and work ethic were deemed unprofessional, and his replacement was Washington, D.C. native Glenn Leonard, formerly of the Unifics.
A number of producers, including Bowen, Brian Holland, James Anthony Carmichael, and even the Temptations themselves tried producing hits for the next three LPs, House Party (November 1975), Wings of Love (March 1976), and The Temptations Do the Temptations (August 1976). None of these recordings were as commercially successful as A Song for You however, and none of their associated singles entered the Billboard charts.
As time progressed, Bowen pushed Dennis Edwards further to the front of the group. This was evident on Wings of Love, where several tracks featured Edwards ' vocal more prominently than the other Temptations ' backing vocals. Otis Williams felt that this was hurting the group, accused Motown of inattention, and cited this as the reason for the group 's declining sales and popularity. After The Temptations Do the Temptations was recorded in 1976, Edwards was fired from the group, and with new lead Louis Price on board, they left Motown for Atlantic Records.
Success continued to elude the group at Atlantic, however. Their two releases on Atlantic -- Hear to Tempt You (1977), and Bare Back (1978), along with their associated singles, had failed to perform any better at Atlantic than their last handful of singles had at Motown. As a result, in 1979, Atlantic released the group from its contract, and shortly afterwards, the Temptations met once again with Smokey Robinson and Berry Gordy, who re-signed the group to Motown in 1980.
Upon the return to Motown several lineup changes occurred. Louis Price departed from the group and joined the Drifters. Dennis Edwards -- who had made an unsuccessful attempt at developing a solo career during his three - year exit from the group -- returned to the lineup. Berry Gordy co-wrote and produced "Power '', the Temptations ' first single under the new contract. "Power '', from the album of the same name, hit number 11 on the R&B charts but failed to chart in the Top 40. Two years of under - performing singles and albums followed, including an eponymous album) with Philadelphia - based producer Thom Bell, until Motown began planning a Temptations reunion tour in 1982.
Eddie Kendricks and David Ruffin agreed to rejoin the group for the new album, aptly titled Reunion, and its subsequent promotional tour. Rick James, the Motown funk star who had previously used the Temptations as backup vocalists on his 1981 hit "Super Freak '' and whom Franklin claimed as his nephew, wrote, produced, and guested on the Reunion album 's lead single, "Standing on the Top ''. The single went to number - six on the R&B charts and featured Ruffin, Kendricks and Edwards trading back and forth on lead.
While the ensuing Reunion tour with all seven Temptations (Ruffin, Kendricks, Otis Williams, Franklin, Edwards, Richard Street, and Glenn Leonard) was financially successful, it ended up being a stressful venture: Kendricks ' voice had weakened after decades of chain smoking, Ruffin (still addicted to drugs) missed a number of the performances due to being incapacitated, and current group members Dennis Edwards and Glenn Leonard were causing problems. At the conclusion of the Reunion tour, Ruffin and Kendricks were dismissed, and they began touring and performing together as a duo.
One more album, Surface Thrills, released in 1983, featured a sharp departure in the group 's sound by incorporating elements of then - current rock. Following its release, Glenn Leonard was let go and replaced by Ron Tyson, who was with the Philadelphia groups the Ethics and Love Committee. Tyson had been a staff songwriter at Atlantic during the Temptations ' tenure at that label, and co-wrote several songs on the album Hear to Tempt You.
By this time, the Temptations ' releases were no longer performing well on the pop charts, though some singles still made the R&B Top 20. "Love on My Mind Tonight, '' a single from Surface Thrills, charted at number 17.
The lineup of Franklin, Williams, Street, Tyson, and Edwards proved to be short - lived. The five performed on Motown 25 and released the direct to video The Temptations: Live in Concert (filmed at Harrah 's Atlantic City). The album Back to Basics, released later in 1983, was the first album featuring Ron Tyson on lead. "Sail Away, '' produced by a returning Norman Whitfield and featuring Ron Tyson 's first lead vocal, peaked at number 13 on the US R&B chart.
In addition, a then - relatively unknown singer / musician, Ali - Ollie Woodson was featured on one track, "Stop the World Right Here (I Wanna Get Off). '' Woodson was a Detroit native who had been a potential candidate to replace Dennis Edwards back in 1977. Meanwhile, Edwards (who also had his share of lead vocals on the Back to Basics album) was again fired in 1984, for missing rehearsals or showing up hungover. He then attempted a second solo career, scoring a hit with the 1984 single "Do n't Look Any Further '', a duet with Siedah Garrett.
At this point, Woodson officially joined the group, taking Edwards ' place. Woodson 's first lead on a single was 1984 's "Treat Her Like a Lady '', co-written by himself and Otis Williams, and co-produced by former Earth, Wind & Fire members Al McKay and Ralph Johnson. The single became their biggest success on R&B radio since 1975, reaching number - two on the R&B charts, and just missing the Pop Top 40 at number 48. The group enjoyed further successes with 1985 's "Do You Really Love Your Baby, '' a number 14 R&B hit co-written by soul star Luther Vandross, and 1986 's "Lady Soul, '' the group 's third and final Top 10 R&B hit of the decade.
Ali Woodson remained with the Temptations until 1987, when he was fired for consistent lateness. He was replaced by the again - returning Dennis Edwards. The group recorded one album during Edwards 's third tenure, Together Again, released in late 1987. The following year, Otis Williams published his autobiography, Temptations, co-written with Patricia Romanowski, chronicling the careers of the group from the Primes / Distants days and focusing on the lives of Williams and Melvin Franklin. (An updated version of the book was published in 2002.)
Edwards was fired from the group for the third and final time in late 1988, with Woodson re-joining the lineup. On January 18, 1989, the Temptations were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The event honored Edwards, Franklin, Otis Williams, David Ruffin, Eddie Kendricks (now performing as "Eddie Kendrick ''), and, posthumously, Paul Williams. Most of the Temptations, present and former, showed no ill feelings towards one another, although Otis Williams reported that Kendricks would not speak to him during the ceremony. The Temptations ended their induction ceremony with a performance of Paul Williams ' signature song, Do n't Look Back, dedicated to his memory.
After reuniting at the induction ceremony, and much to the chagrin of Otis Williams and Motown, Edwards, Ruffin, and Kendrick made plans to tour and record as Ruffin, Kendricks and Edwards, Former Leads of The Temptations. The tour was in fact carried out, but production on the album was canceled when 50 - year - old David Ruffin died in Philadelphia after a cocaine overdose on June 1, 1991. Kendricks was diagnosed with lung cancer soon after; he continued to perform until his death on October 5, 1992, in his native Birmingham.
Richard Street missed a performance in 1992 after undergoing emergency surgery to remove kidneystones. Otis Williams, completely unaware of Street 's surgery, called him angrily about his absence. Street felt Williams was unsympathetic, and as a result, he left the group in 1993 after twenty - two years. His replacement was St. Louis native Theo Peoples.
By the early 1990s, bass Melvin Franklin began missing performances due to failing health and Ray Davis, former bass man of Parliament - Funkadelic, began touring as a fill - in during 1993. Franklin died after suffering a brain seizure at the age of 52 on February 23, 1995, and Davis was named his official replacement. The group subsequently finished production on For Lovers Only, an album of pop standards featuring two tracks recorded with Melvin Franklin prior to his death.
This lineup would not last, however, as Davis was diagnosed with lung cancer and left shortly after completing the album. Davis died in New Brunswick, New Jersey of respiratory problems and complications of lung cancer on the evening of Tuesday July 5, 2005.
The group continued as a quartet for a short time before recruiting bass Harry McGilberry, a former member of the Futures. For Lovers Only would also be the last contribution for lead Ali - Ollie Woodson; he was released from the group shortly after McGilberry 's hiring due to health problems: he suffered two bouts of throat cancer in a short time. He was replaced by new member Terry Weeks, who had served as his sub.
The Temptations ' new lineup, consisting of Otis Williams, Ron Tyson, Theo Peoples, and newcomers Harry McGilberry and Terry Weeks, toured throughout 1997, and was featured in the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXII in early 1998, which celebrated the 40th anniversary of Motown. Later that year, the Temptations released Phoenix Rising, vocally arranged by 1980s producer Narada Michael Walden, Isaias Gamboa, Claytoven Richardson, Theo Peoples, Tony Lindsey and Skyler Jett, which became their first million - selling album in more than 20 years. The album was anchored by "Stay, '' a single featuring Theo Peoples on lead and including a sample from "My Girl, '' which became a number - one hit on the adult contemporary charts.
Peoples was fired from the group before the release of Phoenix Rising because of issues with drug addiction, and was replaced by Barrington "Bo '' Henderson. Henderson lip - synched to Peoples 's vocals in the "Stay '' music video, and the completed album features lead vocals on different tracks by both Henderson and Peoples. Peoples would go on to join the Four Tops the following year.
Also in 1998, de Passe Entertainment (run by former Motown vice-president Suzanne de Passe) and Hallmark Entertainment produced The Temptations, a four - hour television miniseries based on Otis Williams ' Temptations autobiography. The miniseries was broadcast in two parts on NBC on November 1 and November 2, 1998, with the first part covering the group 's history from 1958 to 1968, and the second part the years from 1968 to 1995. The miniseries was a ratings success and was nominated for five Emmy Awards, with Allan Arkush winning for Best Direction; it was subsequently rerun on the VH - 1 cable television network and released to VHS and DVD.
Otis Williams ' former wife Josephine Miles, Melvin Franklin 's mother Rose Franklin, David Ruffin 's family, and Johnnie Mae Matthews filed lawsuits against Williams, Motown, de Passe and de Passe Entertainment, Hallmark, and NBC for a number of charges, including defamation.
The lawsuits were consolidated, and the judges ruled in favor of the defendants, and the ruling was upheld when the plaintiffs appealed in 2001. Williams later claimed that, although his book was used as the source material for the film, he did not have a great deal of control over how the material was presented.
The Temptations were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1999. In 2001, their 2000 album Ear - Resistible won the group its third Grammy, this one for Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance. Bo Henderson was fired from the group in 2003, prompting a wrongful termination lawsuit.
His replacement was former Spinners lead G.C. Cameron. The lineup of Cameron, Otis Williams, Ron Tyson, Harry McGilberry, and Terry Weeks recorded for a short time before McGilberry was dismissed; his replacement was former Spaniels bass Joe Herndon. McGilberry died on April 3, 2006, at the age of 56.
The group 's final Motown album, Legacy, was released in 2004. Later that year, the Temptations asked to be released from their Motown contract, and moved to another Universal label, New Door Records. Their sole album with this lineup, Reflections, was released on January 31, 2006, and contains covers of several popular Motown songs, including Diana Ross & the Supremes ' "Reflections '', the Miracles ' "Ooo Baby Baby '', Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell 's "Ai n't Nothing Like the Real Thing '', and the Jackson 5 's "I 'll Be There. ''
G.C. Cameron left the group in June 2007 to focus on his solo career. He was replaced by new member Bruce Williamson. The new lineup recorded another album of soul covers, Back to Front, released in October 2007. Former member Ali - Ollie Woodson died on May 30, 2010, after a long battle with leukemia.
On May 4, 2010, the group released their Still Here album. The first single from Still Here, "First Kiss '', was criticized for having instances of using Auto - Tune technology.
The Temptations received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award on February 9, 2013. Otis Williams, Dennis Edwards, and the children of David Ruffin, Eddie Kendricks, Paul Williams, and Melvin Franklin attended the ceremony to accept the six Grammys given to the group for the occasion.
Former member Damon Harris died on February 18, 2013, from prostate cancer at a Baltimore hospital. Nine days later, former member Richard Street died of pulmonary embolism in Las Vegas, Nevada. At the time of his death, Street was in the process of writing a book regarding his time with the Temptations entitled Ball of Confusion: My Life as a Temptin ' Temptation. Completed by his co-author, Gary Flanigan, the book was published in 2014; it is the second autobiography regarding the group.
In late 2015 both Bruce Williamson and Joe Herndon announced their departures from the group. Williamson 's replacement, Larry Braggs, was lead singer of Tower of Power from 2000 - 13 Herndon 's replacement on bass is Willie Green, who had previously toured with former Temptations Richard Street and Ali - Ollie Woodson. Dennis Edwards died in a Chicago hospital on February 1, 2018, two days before his 75th birthday. He had been battling with meningitis before his death
On May 4, 2018, the Temptations released All the Time, their first album since 2010 's Still Here, as well as their first for Universal 's UMe Direct imprint.
Following their first Motown hit, the group would alter their style several times over the ensuing years, adapting to the popular styles of the day while retaining their signature visual and vocal styles. The earliest Temptations recordings backed by Motown 's stalwart studio band, the Funk Brothers, reflect the influence of producers Berry Gordy and Smokey Robinson, and featured a cohesive blend of black rhythm and blues along with elements of white pop music that later came to be known as the Motown Sound. Recordings made prior to 1966, such as "My Girl '', were built around songs with simple, direct lyrics supported by an R&B rhythm section with orchestral strings and horns added for pop appeal. During this period, each recording usually featured only one lead singer, usually David Ruffin or Eddie Kendricks, although Paul Williams, Melvin Franklin, and Otis Williams each had solo numbers of their own at various times during this period.
In 1966, Norman Whitfield changed the group 's dynamic, moving them away from the previous one lead singer model and adding elements derived from the rougher soul of artists such as James Brown, Wilson Pickett, and the performers at Stax Records. Whitfield and his lyricists crafted Temptations songs with shifts of dynamics, syncopated horn stabs, and more intricate harmony arrangements which spotlighted each singer 's unique vocal range. Onstage, this change was reflected in the group 's use of a custom - made four - headed microphone stand, invented by David Ruffin.
When Ruffin was replaced by Dennis Edwards, and Sly and the Family Stone became popular, Whitfield again restructured the Temptations ' sound, this time driving the group almost completely into a "psychedelic soul '' - type sound. However, ballads in the traditional style of the group were still being recorded as B - sides and album fillers, with the lone exception being "Just My Imagination ''.
Tracks such as the album version of "Run Away Child, Running Wild '' from Cloud Nine, "Take a Stroll Thru Your Mind '' from Psychedelic Shack, and "Smiling Faces Sometimes '' from Sky 's the Limit, all run at least eight minutes. At Whitfield 's insistence, a large portion of the additional running time for each song consisted of instrumental passages without vocals. For example, the hit version of their smash 1972 single "Papa Was a Rollin ' Stone '' was nearly seven minutes, featuring an instrumental intro that was almost two minutes, a rarity for songs of that era.
"Psychedelic soul '' soon gave way to "cinematic soul '' -- highlighting a further series of lengthy recordings featuring detailed orchestration, extended instrumental introductions and bridging passages. Often focusing on lyrics about the ghettos and inner cities of black America, these songs were heavily influenced by the work of singer - songwriters Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield.
Unlike Hayes and Mayfield however, the Temptations had no creative control over their recordings, and were in no way fond of the 12 - and 13 - minute - long songs being forced upon them by Whitfield, whose contributions were the focal point of Temptations albums such as Solid Rock, All Directions, and particularly Masterpiece.
In 1974, after Whitfield was dismissed as the producer for the Temptations, the group altered its sound to accommodate a balance of both up - tempo dance material as well as ballads. The vocal arrangements began to again focus primarily on one lead singer per track, although some leads were still being shared periodically. In addition, the Temptations themselves, after fighting Motown and Berry Gordy for creative control, began to write and produce some of their own material. From this point on, the Temptations focused almost exclusively on songs about romance. However, songs about social issues similar to the recordings made during Whitfield 's tenure were periodically produced as well.
Temptations recordings of the mid 1970s focused significantly on the influences of funk music from artists such as Parliament - Funkadelic and Sly and the Family Stone, and members of both acts contributed significantly to material recorded by the group during this period. Their signature ballad sound, reduced to filler material during much of the Whitfield period, was restored to the lush, full productions of the earlier hits produced by Smokey Robinson. After a brief diversion into disco in the late - 1970s, the Temptations settled into a form of an adult contemporary - rooted type of R&B, a style in which they continue to record.
Berry Gordy insisted that all his acts be equally appealing to both white as well as black audiences, and employed an extensive creative team to help tailor Motown talent for the crossover success he desired. Motown choreographer Cholly Atkins, along with Paul Williams, created the trademark precise and energetic, yet refined, dance steps used by the Temptations onstage. The most famous of these, the Temptation Walk, or Temptation Strut, was adapted from similar moves by the Flamingos and the Vibrations, from those two sources, Atkins and Williams crafted the resulting signature dance routine.
Like other similar independent companies of the period, Motown was not a member of the Recording Industry of America, preferring to stay independent and handling their own widely varied distribution through thousands of "Mom & Pop '' record stores and small radio stations. As such, hit singles by Motown artists such as the Temptations never achieved official "gold '' or "platinum '' RIAA certification until after Motown joined the RIAA in 1977.
During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of soul groups showed significant influence from the Temptations, among them the Delfonics, the Chi - Lites, Parliaments, featuring George Clinton, the Dramatics, Daryl Hall & John Oates (from 1965 - 67, one of Daryl Hall 's earliest bands was named the Temptones), and Motown labelmates the Jackson 5 and the Undisputed Truth. These acts and others, showed the influence of the Temptations in both their vocal performances and their onstage choreography.
The Temptations ' songs have been covered by scores of musicians, from R&B singers such as Luther Vandross ("Since I Lost My Baby ''), to pop vocalists such as Bette Midler ("Just My Imagination ''), to rock bands such as Rare Earth ("Get Ready ''), Anthrax, Love and Rockets, Duran Duran ("Ball of Confusion (That 's What the World Is Today) '' and the Rolling Stones ("My Girl '', "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg '', "Just My Imagination '') and Mick Jagger 's collaboration with reggae artist Peter Tosh on ("Do n't Look Back ''). British rock singer Rod Stewart released a cover of "I 'm Losing You '' in 1971, and, in 1991, collaborated with the Temptations on the single "The Motown Song ''.
In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked the Temptations number 67 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. The Temptations were voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame in 2005. They received the Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award in 2013. On Saturday August 17, 2013, the Temptations were officially inducted into the R&B Music Hall of Fame at the inaugural ceremony held at the Waetejen Auditorium on the campus of Cleveland State University.
aka The Cavaliers
aka Otis Williams & the Distants, Otis Williams & the Siberians
aka The Elgins
The following singles reached the Top Twenty of the US Pop Singles Chart or the UK Pop Singles Chart, or reached the top spot on the US R&B Chart.
2 (1992 reissue)
The following albums reached the Top Ten on either the United States Pop or R&B Albums Chart.
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who has been eliminated from masterchef so far | MasterChef (U.S. season 9) - wikipedia
Season 9 of the American competitive reality TV series MasterChef premiered on Fox on May 30, 2018.
Gordon Ramsay and Aarón Sanchez return from last season as judges, while former judge Joe Bastianich returns to the show as the third judge, replacing Christina Tosi. This season introduced a new format to the show, as the three judges each selected eight contestants to give aprons to, and then the judges mentor their respective contestants throughout the competition.
Except where noted, source for all names, hometowns, and occupations: All ages and nicknames as given on air.
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who sang america in the movie spencer's mountain | Spencer 's Mountain - wikipedia
Spencer 's Mountain is a 1963 American family drama film written, directed, and produced by Delmer Daves from the 1961 novel of the same name by Earl Hamner Jr. The film stars Henry Fonda, Maureen O'Hara, and in early appearances in their careers, James MacArthur, Veronica Cartwright, and Victor French. Longtime Hollywood actor Donald Crisp plays "Grandpa '', his final screen role.
The Spencers are a large and growing family living in the Grand Teton Mountains of Wyoming in the early 1960s. Family patriarch Clay Spencer (Henry Fonda) is fiercely independent, yet dedicated to his family. While he resists the influence of religion, he struggles to remain faithful to his wife Olivia (Maureen O'Hara), to enable his son Clay Spencer, Jr. (James MacArthur) - whom most everyone calls "Clayboy '' - to attend college, and to build a new home for his family. The area is very rural, and the family of eleven does not own a motor vehicle or even a horse, nor do they have electricity or a telephone.
One day Olivia asks Clay for money for a high school graduation ring for Clayboy, but Clay says he does n't have the money. He used what they had to buy a table saw from his boss. He promises to get the money by working overtime at the quarry, and then the men set off to Clay 's land on Spencer 's Mountain. They work on the foundation for the house he plans to build for his family. In fact, he 's been promising to build the house for years.
The next day, Clay and Clayboy take their cow to their neighbor Percy Cook 's (Dub Taylor) farm to get her bred with Methuselah, the local prize bull. Percy 's daughter Minnie - Cora (Kathy Bennett) comes on to Clayboy, and he 's unsure how to react. Later, talking with his dad, Clay tells him to remember: a lady ai n't no cow, and he ai n't no bull.
Clay then works overtime to get the money for Clayboy 's ring, and his boss Col. Coleman (Hayden Rorke) gives him an added bonus: a day off with pay the day trout season opens. While Clay slips off to fish (instead of working on the house), the town prepares for the arrival of their new minister. Enjoying himself at the river, Clay meets a stranger, who joins him, and Clay tells him about the old granddad of all fish -- and offers him a drink from a bottle he calls "insect repellent ''. Later, the man comments that he finds the "repellent '' to be "somewhat numbing ''. It is in fact moonshine, and the man hooks "old granddad ''. When the fish gets away, Clay launches into a profanity - laden tirade. The man chides him for his salty speech, and then -- right before he plunges head first into the river -- reveals that he 's Preacher Goodman (Wally Cox), the town 's new minister. When he and Clay, drunk and drenched, stumble into town, he is now disgraced to everyone.
Clay learns that the outraged community has all boycotted Goodman 's church in favor of another, so he sets about fixing things. He essentially blackmails everyone into returning to the church, despite the fact that he does n't go himself. As he 's helped virtually everyone in town, over the years, they either go to church or pay him for the work he 's done. They go, and Goodman leads them in the song "Shall We Gather at the River ''.
Clayboy graduates from high school, as the only boy in a class of less than a dozen seniors. His teacher Miss Parker (Virginia Gregg) wants him to go to college, and she and the minister come to talk to Olivia and Clay. The only scholarship available is to study theology. However, Clay comes home drunk, having been celebrating his son 's accomplishment at being the first of the family to graduate. So, he signs the application without reading it. The teacher then begs Col. Coleman to convert an old building into a community library and pay Clayboy to run it, so he can earn money toward college. While working on the library, Clayboy meets an old friend: the boss 's daughter Claris (Mimsy Farmer), now home from college, who shows a great interest in him. They start dating.
When Clayboy gets a rejection letter from the college, Clay borrows a neighbor 's vehicle and drives to the city to ask the dean why. The dean explains that Clayboy had not studied Latin, which was required for his ministry scholarship. Clay is furious to learn that his son would study for ministry, but he works out a deal with the dean: if Clayboy can learn Latin before the start of college, he can enroll, but there will be no scholarship. Goodman agrees to teach Clayboy Latin, in exchange for Clay starting to attend church. He does, to the amazement of everyone.
Clay and his dad Grandpa Spencer (Donald Crisp), visit the old homestead on Spencer 's Mountain, and Grandpa speaks of his concerns about the big tree next to the family cemetery. Clay says he 'll chop it down. Meanwhile, Grandpa putters around the ruins of his old home. When he finds a childhood memento, he heads back toward Clay. The tree starts to fall in Grandpa 's direction, and Clay tries to warn Grandpa off, but he freezes. Clay races to get him out of the way, but only ends up getting in the way himself. Both are crushed. Clayboy arrives, having been sent to bring the two their lunch. He rings a large alarm bell to summon the townsfolk to help and everyone heads up the mountain. Clay is hurt, but will recover. Grandpa has been mortally wounded, and dies soon after they get him home. After his funeral, Grandma reads his will. As he had given his sons his homestead on the mountain, he had nothing else left to give -- except $37, and he leaves it to Clayboy to help him in college.
Clay and Clayboy go to college to show the dean Clayboy 's certificate for Latin. He accepts it, and adds the name Clay Spencer Jr. to the roll of incoming freshmen. Clay then visits a friend to get a loan to pay for the college. Minnie - Cora, whom Clayboy had earlier rejected, is now married to the friend, and she wo n't let him lend Clay the money. Olivia takes the kids home and tells Clay to give up -- Clayboy is never going to get to college. Clay visits the new house, now well under construction, and hears Olivia 's words echoing in his mind as he strolls around the place. Drenching the wood framing in accelerant, he burns the house down. Later, at home, he tells Olivia all the things he 's going to do to fix up their existing home, and tells her the new house is gone. He 's sold the land to Col. Coleman to pay for Clayboy 's college.
Later, at the bus stop, the family says good - bye to Clayboy. Before getting on board, he and Clay embrace, and then he sits in the back next to a man. The fellow asks if he 's going far, and Clayboy responds: "Right far, '' even as the tears trickle down his face.
The novel and film became the basis for the popular television series The Waltons, which followed in 1972. The series switched the setting from the film 's Wyoming to the novel 's Virginia, and placed the action in 1933 during the Great Depression. The series also differed from both the film and novel by playing down many of the adult themes, including alcoholism and infidelity, to suit the standards of early - 70s family television. Spencer 's Mountain was the second of three films co-starring Henry Fonda and Maureen O'Hara. Twenty years earlier they starred in the 1943 war drama Immortal Sergeant and, ten years after Spencer 's Mountain, played the leads in the 1973 made - for - television film adaptation of John Steinbeck 's novel The Red Pony, directed and co-written by Spencer 's Mountain second unit director Robert Totten.
Spencer 's Mountain features the majestic scenery of Wyoming 's Teton Range, as photographed by cinematographer Charles Lawton in Panavision and Technicolor. It was filmed in and around the town of Jackson and features the nearby Chapel of the Transfiguration. Although the original novel was set in the Appalachians of Virginia, Hamner said in 1963 that Daves wanted more imposing mountains to emphasize the characters ' isolation and struggles with their environment.
Film critic Judith Crist, writing in The New York Herald Tribune, said of the film, "sheer prurience and perverted morality, '' adding "it makes the nudie shows at the Rialto look like Walt Disney productions. ''
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when did curling come back to the olympics | Curling at the Winter Olympics - wikipedia
Curling was included in the program of the inaugural Winter Olympic Games in 1924 in Chamonix although the results of that competition were not considered official by the International Olympic Committee until 2006. Curling was a demonstration sport at the 1932 Games, and then again after a lengthy absence in 1988 and 1992. The sport was finally added to the official program for the 1998 Nagano Games.
Until 2018, men 's and women 's events were contested. An additional event, mixed doubles, was rejected for 2010 because the Olympic Programme Commission felt it had not developed enough, but was approved for the 2018 Winter Olympics at an IOC Executive Board meeting in June 2015.
Since the 1998 Olympics, Canada has generally dominated the sport with their men 's teams winning gold in 2006, 2010, and 2014, and silver in 1998 and 2002. The women 's team won gold in 1998 and 2014, a silver in 2010, and a bronze in 2002 and 2006. Their mixed doubles team won gold in 2018.
The related ice stock sport (Eisstockschießen in German) was a demonstration event in 1936 and 1964. These events are not considered additional demonstrations of curling.
The final placement for each team in each tournament is shown in the following tables.
Note: The three medal winners in 1924 were the only teams entered that year.
Standings in curling medals won as of the 2018 Winter Olympics.
Media related to Curling at the Olympics at Wikimedia Commons
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is the taj mahal one of the seven wonders | Wonders of the World - wikipedia
Various lists of the Wonders of the World have been compiled from antiquity to the present day, to catalogue the world 's most spectacular natural wonders and manmade structures.
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is the first known list of the most remarkable creations of classical antiquity; it was based on guidebooks popular among Hellenic sightseers and only includes works located around the Mediterranean rim and in Mesopotamia. The number seven was chosen because the Greeks believed it represented perfection and plenty, and because it was the number of the five planets known anciently, plus the sun and moon. Many similar lists have been made.
The historian Herodotus (484 -- ca. 425 BC) and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305 -- 240 BC), at the Museum of Alexandria, made early lists of seven wonders. Their writings have not survived, except as references.
The classic seven wonders were:
The only ancient world wonder that still exists is the Great Pyramid of Giza.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, some writers wrote their own lists with names such as Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Medieval Mind, and Architectural Wonders of the Middle Ages. However, it is unlikely that these lists originated in the Middle Ages, because the word "medieval '' was not invented until the Enlightenment - era, and the concept of a Middle Age did not become popular until the 16th century. Brewer 's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable refers to them as "later list (s) '', suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages.
Many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages but were well known.
Typically representative are:
Other sites sometimes included on such lists:
Following in the tradition of the classical list, modern people and organisations have made their own lists of wonderful things ancient and modern. Some of the most notable lists are presented below.
In 1994, the American Society of Civil Engineers compiled a list of Seven Wonders of the Modern World, paying tribute to the "greatest civil engineering achievements of the 20th century ''.
In November 2006 the American national newspaper USA Today and the American television show Good Morning America revealed a new list of New Seven Wonders as chosen by six judges. An eighth wonder was chosen on November 24, 2006 from viewer feedback.
Similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, and there has been debate over how large the list should be. One of the many existing lists was compiled by CNN:
In 2001 an initiative was started by the Swiss corporation New7Wonders Foundation to choose the New7Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments. Twenty - one finalists were announced January 1, 2006. Egyptians were not happy that the only surviving original wonder, the Great Pyramid of Giza, would have to compete with the likes of the Statue of Liberty, the Sydney Opera House, and other landmarks, calling the project absurd. In response, Giza was named an honorary Candidate. The results were announced on July 7, 2007, in Lisbon, Portugal:
New7Wonders of Nature (2007 -- 11), a contemporary effort to create a list of seven natural wonders chosen through a global poll, was organized by the same group as the New7Wonders of the World campaign.
New7Wonders Cities is the third global vote organized by New7Wonders.
The Seven Underwater Wonders of the World was a list drawn up by CEDAM International, an American - based non-profit group for divers, dedicated to ocean preservation and research.
In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of marine scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark, to pick underwater areas which they considered to be worthy of protection. The results were announced at The National Aquarium in Washington DC by actor Lloyd Bridges, star of TV 's Sea Hunt:
British author Deborah Cadbury wrote Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a book telling the stories of seven great feats of engineering of the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 2003, the BBC aired a seven - part docudrama exploring the same feats, with Cadbury as a producer. Each episode dramatised the construction of one of the following industrial wonders:
Seven Wonders of the World is a 1956 film in which Lowell Thomas searches the world for natural and man made wonders and invites the audience to try to update the ancient Greek Wonders of the World list.
In a 1999 article, Astronomy magazine listed the "Seven Wonders of the Solar System ''. This article was later made into a video.
Numerous other authors and organisations have composed lists of the wonders of the world. For example:
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where is the bulk of the water absorbed | Absorption (chemistry) - wikipedia
In chemistry, absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions enter some bulk phase -- liquid or solid material. This is a different process from adsorption, since molecules undergoing absorption are taken up by the volume, not by the surface (as in the case for adsorption). A more general term is sorption, which covers absorption, adsorption, and ion exchange. Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance.
In many processes important in technology, the chemical absorption is used in place of the physical process, e.g., absorption of carbon dioxide by sodium hydroxide -- such acid - base processes do not follow the Nernst partition law.
For some examples of this effect, see liquid - liquid extraction. It is possible to extract from one liquid phase to another a solute without a chemical reaction. Examples of such solutes are noble gases and osmium tetroxide.
The process of absorption means that a substance captures and transforms energy. The absorbent distributes the material it captures throughout whole and adsorbent only distributes it through the surface.
The process of gas or liquid which penetrate into the body of adsorbent is commonly known as absorption.
If absorption is a physical process not accompanied by any other physical or chemical process, it usually follows the Nernst distribution law:
The value of constant K depends on temperature and is called partition coefficient. This equation is valid if concentrations are not too large and if the species "x '' does not change its form in any of the two phases "1 '' or "2 ''. If such molecule undergoes association or dissociation then this equation still describes the equilibrium between "x '' in both phases, but only for the same form -- concentrations of all remaining forms must be calculated by taking into account all the other equilibria.
In the case of gas absorption, one may calculate its concentration by using, e.g., the Ideal gas law, c = p / RT. In alternative fashion, one may use partial pressures instead of concentrations.
Absorption is a process that may be chemical (reactive) or physical (non-reactive).
Chemical absorption or reactive absorption is a chemical reaction between the absorbed and the absorbing substances. Sometimes it combines with physical absorption. This type of absorption depends upon the stoichiometry of the reaction and the concentration of its reactants.
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section 7 of copland's appalachian spring is in | Appalachian Spring - wikipedia
Appalachian Spring is a composition by Aaron Copland that premiered in 1944 and has achieved widespread and enduring popularity as an orchestral suite. The ballet, scored for a thirteen - member chamber orchestra, was created upon commission of choreographer and dancer Martha Graham with funds from the Coolidge Foundation. It premiered on Monday, October 30, 1944 at the Library of Congress in Washington D.C., with Martha Graham dancing the lead role. The set was designed by the American sculptor Isamu Noguchi. Copland was awarded the 1945 Pulitzer Prize for Music for his achievement.
In 1942, Martha Graham and Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge commissioned Copland to write a ballet with "an American theme ''. Copland did the bulk of the work in 1943 / 44, and the work was premiered at the Library of Congress on Oct. 30, 1944, with Graham dancing the lead role. In 1945, Copland was commissioned by conductor Artur Rodzinski to rearrange the ballet as an orchestral suite, preserving most of the music. Copland cut about 10 minutes from the original 13 - instrument score to make the suite. From the preface in the original Boosey & Hawkes publication of the suite:
The original scoring called for a chamber ensemble of thirteen instruments. The present arrangement for symphony orchestra was made by the composer in the Spring of 1945. It is a condensed version of the ballet, retaining all essential features but omitting those sections in which the interest is primarily choreographic.
The Orchestral Suite from 1945 was first recorded by Serge Koussevitzky with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. In 1954, Eugene Ormandy asked Copland to expand the orchestration for the full score of the ballet. In 1972, Boosey & Hawkes published a version of the suite fusing the structure of it with the scoring of the original ballet: double string quartet, bass, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and piano. Thus there are four versions of Appalachian Spring, dating from 1944 (13 - player complete), 1945 (orchestral suite), 1954 (orchestral complete) and 1972 (13 - player suite).
The 1944 version was recorded in 1991 by Hugh Wolff with the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra for Teldec. The 1954 version was recorded by Michael Tilson Thomas and the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra for RCA Victor in May 1999.
The original ballet and the orchestral suite were well received. The latter was credited as more important in popularizing the composer.
Copland 's inspiration arrived in the form of an Edward Deming Andrews book, The Gift to be Simple - Songs, Dances and Rituals of the American Shakers, J.J. Augustin; Republished by Dover. Copland stated that the book 's title composition jumped into him immediately upon receipt (see Winterthur archives). Originally, Copland did not have a title for the work, referring to it simply as "Ballet for Martha '' -- a title as simple and direct as the Shaker tune ' Tis the Gift to be Simple quoted in the music. Shortly before the premiere, Graham suggested Appalachian Spring, a phrase from a Hart Crane poem, "The Dance '' from a collection of poems in his book "The Bridge. ''
O Appalachian Spring! I gained the ledge; Steep, inaccessible smile that eastward bends And northward reaches in that violet wedge Of Adirondacks!
Because he composed the music without the benefit of knowing what the title was going to be, Copland was often amused when people told him he captured the beauty of the Appalachians in his music, a fact he alluded to in an interview with NPR 's Fred Calland. Little known is that the word "spring '' denotes a source of water in the Crane poem; however the poem is a journey to meet springtime.
The story tells of a spring celebration of the American pioneers of the 19th century, after building a new Pennsylvania farmhouse. Among the central characters are a bride, a groom, a pioneer woman, a preacher and his congregation. The L.A. Times provides a concise summary of the storyline in its transitions between the choreographed sequences stating:
Created in 1944, the ballet tells a simple story. A young farm couple ruminate on their lives before getting married and setting up house in the wilderness. An itinerant preacher delivers a sermon. An older pioneer woman oversees the events with sympathy and wisdom. The newlyweds muse on their future as night falls. In the course of the dance, Graham reveals the inner lives of the four principal characters -- Wife, Husbandman, Pioneer Woman and Preacher. She shows that the couple will face a future that will not be all sweetness and light, but she also draws out the private and shared emotional resources they will be able to bring to the challenges. Such is the power of Graham 's images, however, that this very particular story broadens out to become a parable about Americans conquering a new land.
The orchestral suite is divided into eight sections. Copland describes each scene thus:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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The original ballet version is divided into 14 movements. The movements that do not appear in the orchestral suite occur mostly between the 7th and last movement as variations on the Shaker melody Simple Gifts (1848). The second variation provides a lyrical treatment in the low register while the third contrasts starkly in a fast staccato. The last two variations of this section use only a part of the folk tune, first an extraction treated as a pastoral variation and then as a majestic closing. In the ballet, but not the suite, there is an intermediary section that moves away from the folk tune preceding the final two variations.
Known as the "Shaker Melody '', "Shaker Song '', and the "Shaker Hymn '', the music Copland based his ending variations on was actually called Simple Gifts. This same Shaker tune was used by Sydney Carter in a widely recognized hymn entitled "Lord of the Dance ''. Copland published independent arrangements of this section for band (1958) and orchestra (1967) titled Variations on a Shaker Melody.
For many years part of the seventh movement of the orchestral suite was used as the opening music to CBS Reports.
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how many counties are there in the state of maine | List of counties in Maine - wikipedia
This is a list of the sixteen counties in the U.S. state of Maine. Before statehood, Maine was officially part of the state of Massachusetts and was called the District of Maine. Maine was granted statehood on March 15, 1820 as part of the Missouri Compromise. Nine of the sixteen counties had their borders defined while Maine was still part of Massachusetts, and hence are older than the state itself. Even after 1820, the exact location of the northern border of Maine was disputed with Britain, until the question was settled and the northern counties signed their final official form, the Webster - Ashburton Treaty, signed in 1842. Almost all of Aroostook County was disputed land until the treaty was signed.
The first county to be created was York County, created as York County, Massachusetts by the government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1652 to govern territories it claimed in southern Maine. No new counties have been created since 1860, when Knox County and Sagadahoc County were created. The most populous counties tend to be located in the southwestern portion of the state, along the Atlantic seaboard. The largest counties in terms of land area are inland and further north. Maine 's county names come from a mix of British, American, and Native American sources, reflecting Maine 's pre-colonial, colonial, and national heritage.
The Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) code, which is used by the United States government to uniquely identify states and counties, is provided with each entry. Maine 's code is 23, which when combined with any county code would be written as 23XXX. The FIPS code for each county links to census data for that county.
A song is taught to many elementary school children across the state, entitled the Maine County Song, to aid in memorizing the names of the state 's 16 counties. It is sung to the tune of Yankee Doodle.
An alternate version as put forth by the Maine Secretary of State 's Kids ' Page:
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where does going to the sun road start | Going - to - the - Sun road - wikipedia
Going - to - the - Sun Road is a scenic mountain road in the Rocky Mountains of the western United States, in Glacier National Park in Montana. The Sun Road, as it is sometimes abbreviated in National Park Service documents, is the only road that traverses the park crossing the Continental Divide through Logan Pass at an elevation of 6,646 feet (2,026 m), which is the highest point on the road. Construction began in 1921 and was completed in 1932 with formal dedication in the following summer on July 15, 1933. The road is the first to have been registered in all of the following categories: National Historic Place, National Historic Landmark and Historic Civil Engineering Landmark. The length of the road is approximately 50 miles (80 km) and spans the width of the park between the east and west entrance stations. The National Historic Landmark Nomination records a slightly shorter distance of 48.7 miles which is measured from the first main intersection just outside the park 's west entrance to Divide Creek in St. Mary on the east side of the park.
The road is one of the most difficult roads in North America to snowplow in the spring. Up to 80 feet (24 m) of snow can lie on top of Logan Pass, and more just east of the pass where the deepest snowfield has long been referred to as the Big Drift. The road takes about ten weeks to plow, even with equipment that can move 4,000 tons of snow in an hour. The snowplow crew can clear as little as 500 feet (150 m) of the road per day. On the east side of the Continental Divide, there are few guardrails due to heavy snows and the resultant late winter avalanches that have repeatedly destroyed every protective barrier ever constructed. The road is generally open from early June to mid October, with its late opening on July 13, 2011 marking the record for the latest opening since the inaugural date of July 15, 1933.
The two lane Going - to - the - Sun Road is quite narrow and winding with hairpin turns, especially west of Logan Pass. Consequently, vehicle lengths over the highest portions of the roadway are limited to no longer than 21 feet (6.4 m) and no wider than 8 feet (2.4 m) between Avalanche Creek and Rising Sun picnic areas which are located many miles below Logan Pass, on the west and east sides of the pass, respectively. Vehicles over 10 feet (3.0 m) in height may not have sufficient clearance due to rock overhangs when driving west between Logan Pass and the hairpin turn called the Loop.
Prior to the construction of the road, visitors would need to spend several days traveling through the central part of the park, an area which can now be traversed within a few hours, excluding any stops for sightseeing or construction. The speed limits are 45 mph (72 km / h) in the lower elevations and 25 mph (40 km / h) in the steeper and winding alpine sections.
The road is named after Going - to - the - Sun Mountain which dominates the eastbound view beyond Logan Pass. One Native American legend concerns the deity Sour Spirit who came down from the sun to teach the Blackfeet the basics of hunting. While returning to the sun, an image of Sour Spirit was placed on the mountain as an inspiration for the Blackfeet. Another story has suggested that a late - 19th - century Euro - American explorer provided the mountain 's name and the legend.
Going - to - the - Sun Road is notable as one of the first National Park Service projects specifically intended to accommodate the automobile - borne tourist. The road was first conceived by superintendent George Goodwin in 1917, who became the chief engineer of the Park Service the following year. As chief engineer, the new road became Goodwin 's primary project, and construction began in 1921.
As the project proceeded, Goodwin lost influence with National Park Service director Stephen Mather, who favored landscape architect Thomas Chalmers Vint 's alternative routing of the upper portion of the road along the Garden Wall escarpment. Vint 's alignment reduced both switchbacks and the road 's visual impact, at increased cost. With Goodwin 's resignation, Vint 's proposal became the preferred alignment. The entire project was finally opened from end to end in 1933, at a cost of $2.5 million.
A restoration project by the National Park Service and the Federal Highway Administration has been repairing road damage from many avalanches and rock slides over the years. The repairs, which started in the 1980s and continue to the present day when weather permits, include fixing retaining walls, replacing the original pavement with reinforced concrete, and work on tunnels, bridges, culverts and overlooks.
A fleet of vintage 1930s red buses, modernized in 2001 and called Red Jammers, or simply "Reds ", continue the tradition of offering guided tours along the road. The original bus drivers became affectionately known as "Gear Jammers '' or simply "Jammers "since they had to jam the manual gearbox into low to safely negotiate the steepest road sections. Thirty three of the original buses were rebuilt with flexible fuel engines which operate mainly on propane but can use gasoline, and with automatic transmissions making the Jammer name archaic. Modern - style shuttle buses for shorter trips and Blackfeet tour buses operate on the road as well.
Going - to - the - Sun Road is shown in the opening credits of the 1980 film The Shining, as aerial flybys of Wild Goose Island and the protagonist 's car traveling along the north shore of Saint Mary Lake, through the East Side tunnel and onward, going to a mountain resort hotel for his job interview as a winter caretaker.
The road is also seen briefly in the 1994 film Forrest Gump. As Forrest reminisces with Jenny he remembers running across the U.S. and remarks, "Like that mountain lake. It was so clear, Jenny. It looked like there were two skies, one on top of the other. '' The shots in the background are Going - to - the - Sun Road and Saint Mary Lake.
Construction (1932) and Going - to - the - Sun Mountain
Newly paved road section
Bighorn sheep
Clements Mountain and the East Side tunnel
Looking out of the East Tunnel
Clearing snow below West Tunnel
Major points of interest along the road from west - to - east include:
Carr, Ethan (1998). Wilderness by Design: Landscape Architecture & the National Park Service. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0 - 8032 - 6383 - X.
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when did we start celebrating president's day | Washington 's Birthday - wikipedia
Washington 's Birthday is a United States federal holiday celebrated on the third Monday of February in honor of George Washington, the first President of the United States, who was born on February 22, 1732. Since the Uniform Federal Holidays Act of 1971, its observance can occur between February 15 and February 21 inclusive.
Colloquially, the day is also now widely known as Presidents ' Day and is often an occasion to honor the incumbent president and all persons who have served as president, not just George Washington.
The day is a state holiday in most states, with official names including Washington 's Birthday, Presidents ' Day, President 's Day, and Washington 's and Lincoln 's Birthday. Depending upon the specific law, the state holiday might officially celebrate Washington alone, Washington and Abraham Lincoln (whose birthday is February 12), or some other combination of U.S. presidents (such as Washington and the third president Thomas Jefferson, who was born in April).
Although Lincoln 's birthday, February 12, was never a federal holiday, nearly half of the state governments have officially renamed their Washington 's Birthday observances as "Presidents ' Day '', "Washington and Lincoln Day '', or other such designations. (In historical rankings of Presidents of the United States Lincoln and Washington are frequently, but not always, the top two presidents.) However, "Presidents ' Day '' is not always an all - inclusive term and might refer to only a selection of presidents.
In the following states and possessions, Washington 's Birthday is an official state holiday and known as:
Using "president ''
Washington alone
Washington and Lincoln
Washington and another person
Unspecified
Several states honor presidents with official state holidays that do not fall on the third Monday of February. In Massachusetts, the state officially celebrates "Washington 's Birthday '' on the same day as the Federal holiday. State law also directs the governor to issue an annual "Presidents Day '' proclamation on May 29 (John F. Kennedy 's birthday), honoring the presidents with Massachusetts roots: Kennedy, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, and Calvin Coolidge. In California, Connecticut, Missouri, and Illinois, while Washington 's Birthday is a federal holiday, Abraham Lincoln 's birthday is still a state holiday, falling on February 12 regardless of the day of the week.
In New Mexico, Presidents ' Day, at least as a state - government paid holiday, is observed on the Friday following Thanksgiving. In Georgia, Presidents ' Day, at least as a state - government paid holiday, is observed on Christmas Eve (Observed on the prior Thursday if Christmas falls on Saturday; observed on the prior Friday if Christmas falls on a Sunday. If December 24 is a Wednesday, then this holiday is observed on Friday December 26.) Similarly, in Indiana, Washington 's Birthday is observed on Christmas Eve, or the day preceding the weekend if Christmas falls on Saturday or Sunday; while Lincoln 's Birthday is the day after Thanksgiving.
George Washington was born on February 11, 1731 (Old Style) at his parents ' Pope 's Creek Estate near Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. At the time, the entire British Empire, including its North American possessions, was on the Julian calendar; the Empire, not being bound to the Catholic Church, had not yet adopted the modern Gregorian calendar that Catholic countries had adopted in 1582. Consequently, by the 1730s, the Julian calendar used by Britain and the Colonies was eleven days behind the Gregorian, due to leap year differences. Furthermore, the British civil year began on March 25 rather than January 1, so that dates in February (such as this one) ' belonged ' to the preceding year. (See Dual dating). In 1752, The British Empire switched to the Gregorian calendar; since then, Americans born prior to 1752, including Washington, have typically had their birthdays recognized under what their birthday would have been under the Gregorian calendar ("New Style '' dates). Since, during the 1700s, February 11 under the Julian calendar would fall as February 22 on the Gregorian, Washington 's birthday has been generally recognized as February 22, 1732.
The federal holiday honoring Washington was originally implemented by an Act of Congress in 1879 for government offices in Washington (20 Stat. 277) and expanded in 1885 to include all federal offices (23 Stat. 516). As the first federal holiday to honor an American president, the holiday was celebrated on Washington 's birthday under the Gregorian calendar, February 22. On January 1, 1971, the federal holiday was shifted to the third Monday in February by the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. This places it between February 15 and 21, which makes "Washington 's Birthday '' something of a misnomer, since it never occurs on Washington 's actual birthday, February 22. (A rough analog of this phenomenon can be seen in Commonwealth realms, where the reigning monarch 's official birthday is celebrated without regard to their actual date of birth.)
The first attempt to create a Presidents Day occurred in 1951 when the "President 's Day National Committee '' was formed by Harold Stonebridge Fischer of Compton, California, who became its National Executive Director for the next two decades. The purpose was not to honor any particular president but to honor the office of the presidency. It was first thought that March 4, the original inauguration day, should be deemed Presidents Day, but the bill recognizing March 4 stalled in the Senate Judiciary Committee (which had authority over federal holidays). The committee felt that, given its proximity to Lincoln 's and Washington 's Birthdays, three holidays so close together would be unduly burdensome. But meanwhile the governors of a majority of the states issued proclamations declaring March 4 Presidents ' Day in their respective jurisdictions.
An early draft of the Uniform Monday Holiday Act would have renamed the holiday "Presidents ' Day '' to honor the birthdays of both Washington and Lincoln, which would explain why the chosen date falls between the two, but this proposal failed in committee, and the bill was voted on and signed into law on June 28, 1968, keeping the name "Washington 's Birthday ''.
By the mid-1980s, with a push from advertisers, the term "Presidents ' Day '' began its public appearance.
In Washington 's adopted hometown of Alexandria, Virginia, celebrations are held throughout February.
A food traditionally associated with the holiday is cherry pie, based on the legendary chopping down of a cherry tree in Washington 's youth.
Until the late 1980s, corporate businesses generally closed on this day, similar to present corporate practices on Memorial Day or Christmas Day. However, after having been moved to the third Monday, most businesses remain open with many offering sales other promotions. Federal and state government services close (U.S. Postal Service, state Departments of Motor Vehicles, federal and state courts). Class schedules at universities and colleges vary depending on the school. Public elementary and secondary schools are generally closed, but some school districts, such as New York City, may close for an entire week as a "mid-winter recess ''.
The holiday is also a tribute to the general who created the first military badge of merit for the common soldier. Revived on Washington 's 200th birthday in 1932, the Purple Heart medal (which bears Washington 's image) is awarded to soldiers who are injured in battle.
Community celebrations often display a lengthy heritage. Washington 's hometown of Alexandria, Virginia, hosts a month - long tribute, including what is claimed to be the nation 's longest - running and largest George Washington Birthday parade, while Eustis, Florida, continues its annual "GeorgeFest '' celebration begun in 1902. In Denver, Colorado, there is a society dedicated to observing the day. At the George Washington Birthplace National Monument in Westmoreland County, Virginia, visitors are treated to birthday celebrations on the holiday, while at Mount Vernon, they last throughout the holiday weekend and through February 22.
Since 1862 there has been a tradition in the United States Senate that George Washington 's Farewell Address be read on his birthday. Citizens asked that this be done in light of the ongoing Civil War.
Because "Presidents ' Day '' is not the official name of the federal holiday there is variation in how it is rendered, both colloquially and in the name of official state holidays.
When used with the intention of celebrating more than one individual, the form "Presidents ' Day '' was usual in the past. In recent years, as the use of attributive nouns (nouns acting as modifiers) has become more widespread, the form "Presidents Day '' has become more common; the Associated Press Stylebook, most newspapers and some magazines use this form.
"President 's Day '' as an alternate rendering of "Washington 's Birthday '', or for the purpose of commemorating the presidency as an institution, is a proper use of a possessive and is the legal spelling in eight states. But it is a misspelling if meant to refer to more than one president (see apostrophe).
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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is the red river a tributary of the mississippi | Red River of the south - wikipedia
The Red River, or sometimes the Red River of the South, is a major river in the southern United States of America. The river was named for the red - bed country of its watershed. It is one of several rivers with that name. Although it was once a tributary of the Mississippi River, the Red River is now a tributary of the Atchafalaya River, a distributary of the Mississippi that flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico. It is connected to the Mississippi River by the Old River Control Structure.
The south bank of the Red River formed part of the US -- Mexico border from the Adams -- Onís Treaty (in force 1821) until the Texas Annexation and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
The Red River is the second - largest river basin in the southern Great Plains. It rises in two branches in the Texas Panhandle and flows east, where it acts as the border between the states of Texas and Oklahoma. It forms a short border between Texas and Arkansas before entering Arkansas, turning south near Fulton, Arkansas, and flowing into Louisiana, where it flows into the Atchafalaya River. The total length of the river is 1,360 miles (2,190 km), with a mean flow of over 57,000 cubic feet per second (1,600 m / s) at the mouth.
The Red River rises near the edge of the northwestern dip slope of the Llano Estacado mesa in two forks in northern Texas and southwestern Oklahoma. The North Fork Red River meets the southern and largest fork near the Texas -- Oklahoma border. The southern fork, which is about 120 miles (190 km) long, is generally called the Prairie Dog Town Fork. It is formed in Randall County, Texas, near the county seat of Canyon, by the confluence of intermittent Palo Duro Creek and Tierra Blanca Creek.
The Red River turns and flows southeast through Palo Duro Canyon in Palo Duro Canyon State Park at an elevation of 3,440 feet (1,050 m), then past Newlin, Texas, to meet the Oklahoma state line. Past that point, it is generally considered the main stem of the Red River. Near Elmer, Oklahoma, the North Fork finally joins, and the river proceeds to follow a winding course east through one of the most arid parts of the Great Plains, receiving the Wichita River as it passes the city of Wichita Falls. Near Denison, the river exits the eastern end of Lake Texoma, a reservoir formed by the Denison Dam. The lake is also fed by the Washita River from the north.
After the river flows out of the southeastern end of the lake, it runs generally east towards Arkansas and receives Muddy Boggy Creek before turning southward near Texarkana.
Soon after, the river crosses south into Louisiana. The sister cities of Shreveport and Bossier City were developed on either bank of the river, as were the downriver cities of Alexandria and Pineville. Where it is joined by the Ouachita River, its largest tributary, the river later broadens into a complex network of marshlands surrounding the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers. Its waters eventually discharge into the Atchafalaya River and flow eastward or southward into the Gulf of Mexico.
In 1946, the Red River flood spilled over into Pineville because of insufficient levee height and strength. However, the taller and stronger levee held in Alexandria. Willie E. Kees Jr., the newly elected mayor of Pineville, worked to gain support for the Corps of Engineers to increase the height of the levee on the eastern side of the river to equal that in Alexandria.
Tributaries include the Little Red River, Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River, Salt Fork Red River, North Fork Red River, Pease River, Washita River, Kiamichi River, Little Wichita River, Little River, Sulphur River, Loggy Bayou (through Lake Bistineau and Dorcheat Bayou) as well as the Ouachita River (also known as the Black River at that point) not far (at Acme, Louisiana) from the mouth.
The Red River 's watershed covers 65,590 square miles (169,900 km) and is the southernmost major river system in the Great Plains. Its drainage basin is mostly in the states of Texas and Oklahoma, but also covers parts of Arkansas and Louisiana. Its basin is characterized by flat, fertile agricultural land, with only a few major cities. The drainage basin of the Red River is very arid and receives little precipitation. As a result, much of the river above the Texas -- Oklahoma border is intermittent, and until the river is past its great bend south in Arkansas, the flow varies widely. Most of the agriculture in the basin is sustained by groundwater, which is recharged with rainfall and riverflow. The lower course of the river flows through a series of marshes and swamps, where its flow is dramatically moderated.
Native American cultures along the river were diverse, developing specialized adaptations to the many different environments. By the time of European contact, the eastern Piney Woods were dominated by the numerous historic tribes of the Caddoan Confederacy. They found plentiful game and fish, and also had good land for cultivating staple crops. The middle part of the Red River was dominated by Wichita and Tonkawa. This area was prairie, where Native Americans constructed portable and temporary tepees for housing. They practiced limited farming and followed game in seasonal, nomadic hunting cycles. The Plains division of the Lipan Apache dominated the western Red River area until the 18th century, when they were displaced by invading Comanche from the north.
In 1806, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Red River Expedition to explore parts of the new lands of the Louisiana Purchase by traveling up the Red River. He said it was "in truth, next to the Missouri, the most interesting water of the Mississippi '', in a letter to William Dunbar. Having threaded the maze of bayous at the river 's confluence, and the "Great Raft '' of lodged driftwood, the expedition, was stopped by the Spanish near what is now New Boston, Texas.
In 1806, Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, under orders to ascertain the source of the Red River, ascended the Arkansas River, made his way downstream on what turned out to be the Rio Grande, and was sent home by the Spanish authorities. A more successful exploration of the river 's upper reaches to both its sources was the 1852 expedition under Capt. Randolph Barnes Marcy, assisted by Brevet Capt. George B. McClellan. The latter was important as a general in the American Civil War.
In April 1815, Captain Henry Miller Shreve was the first person to bring a steamboat, the Enterprise, up the Red River. Fulton and Livingston, who claimed the exclusive right to navigate Louisiana waters by steamboat, sued Shreve in the District Court of New Orleans. The judge ruled that the monopoly claimed by the plaintiffs was illegal. That decision, along with a similar outcome in Gibbons v. Ogden freed navigation on every river, lake or harbor in the United States from interference by monopolies.
When John Quincy Adams became Secretary of State in 1817, one of his highest priorities was to negotiate the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase with Spain. He negotiated with the Spanish Minister to the United States, Luis de Onis, and finally concluded Adams -- Onis Treaty, also known as the Treaty of 1819. The treaty defined the south bank of the river as the boundary between the United States and Spain. That boundary continued to be recognized when Mexico gained its independence from Spain, then again when Texas became independent from Mexico. It remained so until the United States Congress consented to the Red River Boundary Compact adopted by the states of Oklahoma and Texas, which set the jurisdictional boundary between Texas and Oklahoma at the vegetation line on the south bank, but left title of adjacent property owners at the south bank.
In Louisiana, the area of present - day Natchitoches Parish was settled by French Creole and mixed - race Louisiana Creole people, starting before 1800. The Cane River National Heritage Area marks this area of influence, with plantations and churches founded by Louisiana Creoles. Some of the sites are designated as destinations on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail, designed in the 21st century. For nearly 100 years after the American Civil War, some of the plantations were the center of a large African American and Creole community life, whose people lived and worked in this area for generations.
The area along the lower Red River of Grant Parish, Louisiana, and neighboring parishes were a mixture of hill country and cotton plantations, with white planters and subsistence farmers, and numerous African American slaves working the plantations in the ante bellum years. It was an area of heated social tensions and insurgency during and after the Reconstruction era. Grant was a new parish created by the Reconstruction legislature, which was trying to increase Republican Party representation. In 1873, Grant Parish was the site of the Colfax massacre, caused by the political tension and violence arising from the disputed 1872 gubernatorial election and efforts by local whites to keep white supremacy. White militias, organized from nearby parishes, killed more than 100 freedmen, some of whom had surrendered as prisoners.
In 1874, such militias organized as the White League in Grant Parish, and other chapters were soon founded across the state. The Coushatta Massacre was attributed to the White League, which attacked Republican officeholders to run them out of office. The paramilitary groups intimidated and terrorized freedmen to keep them from the polls, and by the late 1870s, conservative Democrats had retaken political control of the state.
In the early 19th century, settlers found that much of the river 's length in Louisiana was unnavigable because of a collection of fallen trees that formed a "Great Raft '' over 160 miles (260 km) long. Captain Henry Miller Shreve began clearing the log jam in 1839. The log jam was not completely cleared until the 1870s, when dynamite became available. The river was thereafter navigable, but north of Natchitoches it was restricted to small craft. Removal of the raft further connected the Red and Atchafalaya rivers, accelerating the development of the Atchafalaya River channel.
In the 20th century, the interest group known as the Red River Valley Association was formed to lobby the United States Congress to make the river fully navigable between Alexandria and Shreveport, Louisiana. Leading supporters of the longstanding project were Louisiana Democratic senators Allen J. Ellender, J. Bennett Johnston and Russell B. Long, the Fourth District Congressman Joe Waggonner, and the late Shreveport Mayor Calhoun Allen. With the completion of the project, a lock system constructed by the US Army Corps of Engineers allowed navigation of barge traffic as far north as Shreveport.
Specialists debate whether the North Fork or the Prairie Dog Town Fork is the true stem. Because of a cartographic error, the land between the north and south forks was claimed by both the state of Texas and the United States federal government. Randolph B. Marcy 's expedition followed the Prairie Dog Town Fork in 1852. Originally called Greer County, Texas, the US Supreme Court ruled that it belonged to the United States, which at the time oversaw the Oklahoma Territory. That territory was later incorporated into the state of Oklahoma, whose southern border now follows the south fork. Today, the southern Prairie Dog Town Fork is considered the main fork, though the North Fork is as long and normally has a greater water flow.
In June 2015, the Red River flooded parts of northeast Texas, southwest Arkansas, and Louisiana, from New Boston, Texas, to just south of Alexandria, Louisiana.
In 1943, Denison Dam was built on the Red River to form Lake Texoma, a large reservoir of 89,000 acres (360 km), some 70 miles (110 km) north of Dallas. Other reservoirs on the river 's tributaries serve as flood control.
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who played young anakin skywalker in episode 1 | Jake Lloyd - wikipedia
Jake Matthew Lloyd (born March 5, 1989) is an American former actor who played young Anakin Skywalker in the 1999 film Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, the first in the Star Wars prequel trilogy. He reprised this role in five subsequent Star Wars video games.
Jake Matthew Lloyd was born in Fort Collins, Colorado, the son of EMT William "Bill '' Lloyd and entertainment agent Lisa Riley. He attended Carmel High School in Carmel, Indiana and graduated from there in 2007.
Lloyd began his acting career in 1996, playing Jimmy Sweet in 4 episodes of ER. He was then cast as Jake Warren in Unhook the Stars. He got his big break playing Jamie Langston in Jingle All the Way. He also played Mark Armstrong in Apollo 11. Lloyd gained worldwide fame when he was chosen by George Lucas to play the young Anakin Skywalker in the 1999 film Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, the first film in the Star Wars prequel trilogy.
After portraying Anakin in a chain of related video games, Lloyd retired from acting in 2001, citing bullying on the part of classmates and the stress of doing up to 60 interviews a day as his reasons for doing so.
After retiring from acting in 2001, Lloyd continued to make appearances at sci - fi and comic - book festivals. In 2012, he announced he was directing a documentary highlighting the Tibetan refugees in India, who are attempting to escape persecution by the Chinese government.
Lloyd was commissioned in 2012 to create a promo for singer Mallory Low 's song, and Star Wars: Episode II -- Attack of the Clones actor Daniel Logan, who played young Boba Fett in that film, was cast as the star in his video.
Lloyd left Hollywood for Chicago, and dropped out after a semester at Columbia College Chicago, where he studied film and psychology.
On June 17, 2015, Lloyd (now going by the name "Jake Broadbent '') was arrested for reckless driving, driving without a license, and resisting arrest. He was moved from jail to a psychiatric facility after he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Lloyd currently resides in California.
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who is the father of the dragon in beowulf | The dragon (Beowulf) - wikipedia
The final act of the Anglo - Saxon poem Beowulf is about the hero Beowulf 's fight with a dragon, the third monster he encounters in the epic. On his return from Heorot, where he killed Grendel and Grendel 's mother, Beowulf becomes king of the Geats and rules peacefully for fifty winters until a slave awakens and angers a dragon by stealing a jewelled cup from its lair. When the angry dragon mercilessly burns the Geats ' homes and lands, Beowulf decides to fight and kill the monster personally. He and his thanes climb to the dragon 's lair where, upon seeing the beast, the thanes flee in terror, leaving only Wiglaf to battle at Beowulf 's side. When the dragon wounds Beowulf fatally, Wiglaf slays it.
This depiction indicates the growing importance and stabilization of the modern concept of the dragon within European mythology. Beowulf is the first piece of English literature to present a dragonslayer. Although many motifs common to the Beowulf dragon existed in the Scandinavian and Germanic literature, the Beowulf poet was the first to combine features and present a distinctive fire - breathing dragon. The Beowulf dragon was later copied in literature with similar themes such as J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Hobbit (1937), one of the forerunners of modern high fantasy.
The dragon fight, occurring at the end of the poem, is foreshadowed in earlier scenes. The dragon fight symbolizes Beowulf 's stand against evil and destruction, and, as the hero, he knows that failure will bring destruction to his people after many years of peace. The dragon himself acts as a mock "gold - king ''; one who sees attacking Beowulf 's kingdom as suitable retribution for the theft of just a single cup. The scene is structured in thirds, ending with the deaths of the dragon and Beowulf.
After his battles against Grendel 's mother and Grendel, Beowulf returns to homeland and becomes king of the Geats. Fifty years pass with Beowulf leading as a wise king, when a local dragon is angered when a slave enters its lair and takes a cup from its treasure. The creature attacks the neighboring towns in revenge. Beowulf and a troop of men ("the Geats '') leave to find the dragon 's lair. The Geats run away in fear, leaving only Beowulf and his young companion Wiglaf to slay the dragon. Beowulf receives a fatal wound from the dragon, but Wiglaf impales the dragon 's belly to reduce the flames, and Beowulf deals the fatal blow. In his death - speech, Beowulf nominates Wiglaf as his heir, and that of the treasure.
Beowulf is the oldest extant heroic poem in English literature and the first to present a dragon slayer. The legend of the dragonslayer already existed in Norse sagas such as the tale of Sigurd and Fafnir, and the Beowulf poet incorporates motifs and themes common to dragon - lore in the poem. Beowulf is the earliest surviving piece of Anglo - Saxon literature to feature a dragon, and it is possible that the poet had access to similar stories from Germanic legend. Secular Germanic literature and the literature of Christian hagiography featured dragons and dragon fights. Although the dragons of hagiography were less fierce than the dragon in Beowulf, similarities exist in the stories such as presenting the journey to the dragon 's lair, cowering spectators, and the sending of messages relaying the outcome of the fight.
The dragon with his hoard is a common motif in early Germanic literature with the story existing to varying extents in the Norse sagas, but it is most notable in the Völsunga saga and in Beowulf. Beowulf preserves existing medieval dragon - lore, most notably in the extended digression recounting the Sigurd / Fafnir tale. Nonetheless, comparative contemporary narratives did not have the complexity and distinctive elements written into Beowulf 's dragon scene. Beowulf is a hero who previously killed two monsters. The scene includes extended flashbacks to the Geatish - Swedish wars, a detailed description of the dragon and the dragon - hoard, and ends with intricate funerary imagery.
Beowulf scholar J.R.R. Tolkien considered the dragon in Beowulf to be one of only two real dragons in northern European literature, writing of it, "dragons, real dragons, essential both to the machinery and the ideas of a poem or tale, are actually rare. In northern literature there are only two that are significant... we have but the dragon of the Völsungs, Fáfnir, and Beowulf 's bane. '' Furthermore, Tolkien believes the Beowulf poet emphasizes the monsters Beowulf fights in the poem and claims the dragon is as much of a plot device as anything. Tolkien expands on Beowulf 's dragon in his own fiction, which indicates the lasting impact of the Beowulf poem. Within the plot structure, however, the dragon functions differently in Beowulf than in Tolkien 's fiction. The dragon fight ends Beowulf, while Tolkien uses the dragon motif (and the dragon 's love for treasure) to trigger a chain of events in The Hobbit.
The Beowulf dragon is the earliest example in literature of the typical European dragon and first incidence of a fire - breathing dragon. The Beowulf dragon is described with Old English terms such as draca (dragon), and wyrm (reptile, or serpent), and as a creature with a venomous bite. Also, the Beowulf poet created a dragon with specific traits: a nocturnal, treasure - hoarding, inquisitive, vengeful, fire - breathing creature.
The fire is likely symbolic of the hellfire of the devil, reminiscent of the monster in the Book of Job. In the Septuagint Bible, Job 's monster is characterized as a draco, and identified with the devil. Job 's dragon would have been accessible to the author of Beowulf, as a Christian symbol of evil, the "great monstrous adversary of God, man and beast alike. ''
A study of German and Norse texts reveals three typical narratives for the dragonslayer: a fight for the treasure, a battle to save the slayer 's people, or a fight to free a woman. The characteristics of Beowulf 's dragon appear to be specific to the poem, and the poet may have melded together dragon motifs to create a dragon with specific traits that weave together the complicated plot of the narrative.
The third act of the poem differs from the first two. In Beowulf 's two earlier battles, Grendel and Grendel 's mother are characterised as descendants of Cain: "(Grendel) had long lived in the land of monsters / since the creator cast them out / as the kindred of Cain '' and seem to be humanoid: in the poet 's rendition they can be seen as giants, trolls, or monsters. The dragon, therefore, is a stark contrast to the other two antagonists. Moreover, the dragon is more overtly destructive. He burns vast amounts of territory and the homes of the Geats: "the dragon began to belch out flames / and burn bright homesteads ''.
Beowulf 's fight with the dragon has been described variously as an act of either altruism or recklessness. In contrast with the previous battles, the fight with the dragon occurs in Beowulf 's kingdom and ends in defeat, whereas Beowulf fought the other monsters victoriously in a land distant from his home. The dragon fight is foreshadowed with earlier events: Scyld Shefing 's funeral and Sigmund 's death by dragon, as recounted by a bard in Hrothgar 's hall. Beowulf scholar Alexander writes that the dragon fight likely signifies Beowulf 's (and by extension, society 's) battle against evil. The people 's fate depend on the outcome of the fight between the hero and the dragon, and, as a hero, Beowulf must knowingly face death.
Beowulf 's eventual death from the dragon presages "warfare, death, and darkness '' for his Geats. The dragon 's hoard symbolizes the vestige of an older society, now lost to wars and famine, left behind by a survivor of that period. His imagined elegy foreshadows Beowulf 's death and elegy to come. Before he faces the dragon, Beowulf thinks of his past: his childhood and wars the Geats endured during that period, foreshadowing the future. At his death, peace in his lands will end, and his people will again suffer a period of war and hardship. An embattled society without "social cohesion '' is represented by the avarice of the "dragon jealously guarding its gold hoard '', and the elegy for Beowulf becomes an elegy for the entire culture. The dragon 's hoard is representative of a people lost and antique, which is juxtaposed against the Geatish people, whose history is new and fleeting. As king of his people, Beowulf defends them against the dragon, and when his thanes desert him, the poem shows the disintegration of a "heroic society '' which "depends upon the honouring of mutual obligations between lord and thane ''.
Wiglaf remains loyal to his king and stays to confront the dragon. The parallel in the story lies with the similarity to Beowulf 's hero Sigemund and his companion: Wiglaf is a younger companion to Beowulf and, in his courage, shows himself to be Beowulf 's successor. The presence of a companion is seen as a motif in other dragon stories, but the Beowulf poet breaks hagiographic tradition with the hero 's suffering (hacking, burning, stabbing) and subsequent death. Moreover, the dragon is vanquished through Wiglaf 's actions: although Beowulf dies fighting the dragon, the dragon dies at the hand of the companion.
The dragon battle is structured in thirds: the preparation for the battle, the events prior to the battle, and the battle itself. Wiglaf kills the dragon halfway through the scene, Beowulf 's death occurs "after two - thirds '' of the scene, and the dragon attacks Beowulf three times. Ultimately, as Tolkien writes in Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (1936), the death by dragon "is the right end for Beowulf, '' for he claims, "a man can but die upon his death - day ''.
In 1918, William Witherle Lawrence argued in his article "The Dragon and His Lair in Beowulf '' that the fight between Beowulf and the dragon tends to receive less critical attention than other portions of the poem, commenting that "Grendel and his dam have, as it were, become more beloved of the commentators ''. Conversely, Kemp Malone writes in "The Kenning in Beowulf '' that Beowulf 's fight with the dragon receives much critical attention, but that commentators fail to note that "the dragon was no fighter. Not that it refused to fight when challenged, but that it did not seek out Beowulf or anyone else. It left Beowulf to do the seeking out ''. In his 1935 work Beowulf and the Seventh Century, Ritchie Girvan writes that Beowulf should be seen as having some degree of historical accuracy despite the presence of a dragon in it; he argues that "Tales of dragons as well as a belief in dragons survived till recent times, and the popular mind is apt to accept with credulity stories of water - monsters. The stories, moreover, are often attached to real persons and localized precisely in time and place. The habit is so well known that examples are superfluous ''. Raymond Wilson Chambers, in his Beowulf: An Introduction to the Study of the Poem with a Discussion of the Stories of Offa and Finn, says that Beowulf 's dragon acts like "the typical dragon of Old English proverbial lore '' because he guards treasure. W.P. Ker criticized the inclusion of Beowulf 's fight with the dragon and his subsequent death in the poem, writing "It is as if to the end of the Odyssey there had been added some later books telling in full of the old age of Odysseus, far from the sea, and his death at the hands of Telegonus ''.
In Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics, J.R.R. Tolkien noted that the dragon and Grendel are "constantly referred to in language which is meant to recall the powers of darkness which Christian men felt themselves to be encompassed. They are ' inmates of hell ', ' adversaries of God ', ' offspring of Cain ', ' enemies of mankind '... And so Beowulf, for all that he moves in the world of the primitive Heroic Age of the Germans, nevertheless is almost a Christian knight ''.
Peter Gainsford noted in the article "The Deaths of Beowulf and Odysseus: Narrative Time and Mythological Tale Types '' that "In the twenty - first century Beowulf does not lack for commentators to defend the literary merit of the dragon episode ''. Adrien Bonjour opined in 1953 that the dragon 's "ultimate significance in the poem '' remains a "mystery ''.
The New Yorker 's Joan Acocella wrote that "unlike Grendel and his mother, (the dragon) is less a monster than a symbol. He is not sad or weird. Indeed, he is rather glamorous ''. According to Seamus Heaney, the dragon "could be read as a projection of Beowulf 's own chthonic wisdom refined in the crucible of experience ''. James Parker of The Atlantic argues that because Beowulf dies even though he killed the dragon, "There is no transcendence in Beowulf, and no redemption... kill the dragon -- but the dragon will get you anyway ''.
In From Homer to Harry Potter: A Handbook on Myth and Fantasy, Matthew Dickerson and David O'Hara argue that the Beowulf poet added the figure of the dragon to "the pot... that is ladeled out of by most modern fantasy writers ''; they argued that both numerous works with villainous dragons, as well as literature with benign dragons like the My Father 's Dragon books and the Pern series by Anne McCaffrey, were influenced by Beowulf 's dragon. Dickerson and O'Hara further elaborated that through its dragon, Beowulf turned the "notion of having a monstrous evil (and not mere human foes) as the enemy '' into "a hallmark of modern fantasy '' present in C.S. Lewis ' Narnia books, Ursula K. Le Guin 's Earthsea books, and the Thomas Covenant series by Stephen Donaldson. J.R.R. Tolkien used the dragon story of Beowulf as a template for Smaug of The Hobbit; in each case, the dragon awakens upon the hoard being disturbed by one stealing a chalice and goes into a wrathful rampage until slain by another person. Aia Hussein of the National Endowment for the Humanities has written that the fight between Harry Potter and the Hungarian Horntail in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2000) by J.K. Rowling was influenced by the confrontation between the dragon and the title character in Beowulf. James Parker of The Atlantic saw similarities between the dragon in Beowulf and the dragons in Game of Thrones (2011 -- present).
The tale of Beowulf was translated and rewritten in prose as a children 's story by Rosemary Sutcliff in 1961, titled Dragon Slayer.
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when does maggie find out richard is her dad | Maggie Pierce - wikipedia
Margaret "Maggie '' Pierce, M.D. is a fictional character from the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes and is portrayed by actress Kelly McCreary from the tenth season 's penultimate episode onwards. It is revealed in the season ten finale, Maggie 's biological parents are Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.) and Ellis Grey (Kate Burton), making her Meredith 's half - sister. McCreary was upgraded to a series regular in the eleventh episode of the eleventh season.
Pierce has been described as "perky '' and "chatty '', as well as focusing mostly on her academic career rather than social life. She graduated from high school and medical school early, and becomes the head of her department at the young age of 31 years old.
Maggie is first introduced in the penultimate episode of the tenth season. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) interviews various different candidates to replace her as the head of her department in Cardiothoracic surgery. Maggie, having finished high school and medical school early, becomes head of her department at 31 years old. It is revealed in the season 10 finale "Fear (of the Unknown) '', Maggie 's biological mother was Ellis Grey. Richard Webber is shocked by this, knowing he is her biological father. Throughout the eleventh season, Webber struggles to deal with the revelation and keeps it from Maggie. Maggie explains that 2 years prior, she looked for her birth mom and needed to go to the court for the records. She found out that she was dead, but got her name, and discovered that she was an amazing surgeon that worked at the Seattle Grace Hospital. She stated that that 's not why she took the job, but it 's "a little bit '' why she took the interview.
When Maggie identifies Meredith Grey, her half - sister, she attempts to bond with her. However, Meredith attempts to take charge and conflicts with her on a case. After several arguments, Maggie tells Meredith that she is her half - sister. Meredith, in disbelief, points out that she would know that her mother would be pregnant when she was five years old, as Maggie is five years younger than her. Meredith works with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) to decide whether Maggie is lying or if she is wrong. They discover she is correct. Meredith gets flashes back to the time of her mother 's crisis at five years old, and remembers being at a hospital and hearing a screaming baby. After several weeks, Webber admits to Maggie that he is her father. Maggie is angry at him. Later, when he comes to apologize for not being there as a father, Maggie corrects him and says he is not her father, as she has adoptive parents she loves, and that she is only angry because of his dishonesty and making her look foolish and naive for weeks. Derek and Meredith decide to have Maggie come over to their house for dinner, to get to know Maggie better. After Maggie says yes, Derek decides it is a good idea to ask Richard as well. Richard reluctantly agrees. The night of the dinner, Maggie and Richard show up, but no - one answers. Maggie leaves him after that. Maggie develops a relationship with radiologist, Ethan Boyd. She admits her awkwardness in relationships, having ended her previous engagement to Dean, who she was unable to sleep in the same bed with. Meredith ends up in a bind with no one to watch her kids, so Maggie offers to watch them. Richard and Maggie eventually come to good terms, and Maggie 's helping with Meredith 's kids help her integrate into her family home more. Maggie learns about the histories of Meredith, Alex and Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) as they commemorate their dead friend, George O'Malley (TR Knight).
After Derek 's death, Meredith abandons Seattle for a year, leaving Maggie a note. Maggie is shocked by this, and admits she felt abandoned by Meredith right when they were starting to become a family. She invites Webber to a Christmas party, noticing his loneliness. Meredith eventually returns home, hugging Maggie and re-integrating into her old family home. While Maggie and her colleagues are busy dealing with Keith Gardner after a tunnel collapse, Maggie gets a phone call that her parents are getting a divorce. Her mother confesses to her that she 'd been having an affair with their car serviceman for eleven years and they had only stayed together for her sake, but were getting a divorce now that she was out on her own. Maggie is emotional about this, but she does n't want to bother her colleagues about it. Later, she confides in Meredith over the issue, but feels it is silly in comparison to her husband 's death. Meredith, however, says she can tell her anything and she should come to her whenever she is having a problem. After Meredith buys her house back from Alex, she invites Maggie and Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) to move in with her. They assist Meredith in caring for her kids. Maggie also often mediates between Meredith and Amelia, who frequently get into fights over little things. She often helps with Meredith 's three kids, with each "sister '' in charge of getting one kid ready for the day.
In the twelfth season, Maggie develops a relationship with intern Andrew DeLuca. Maggie sleeps with DeLuca after a short conversation and a couple of drinks at Joe 's. They agree it is a one - time thing, before they have sex again. Maggie and DeLuca keep their relationship private to avoid difficulties at work. DeLuca grows frustrated with their secrecy, so Maggie abruptly decides to go public. When this happens, DeLuca becomes uncomfortable with the way he is viewed by others because he is dating an attending, and does n't want others to think he is getting special treatment. He also feels intimidated by her authority. When she confronts him, he ends things with her. Maggie attempts to move on and develops an interest in Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson). However, she is unaware Meredith has a sexual relationship with him. She confides in Meredith about this at Amelia 's wedding to Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd). In the thirteenth season, Maggie is personally hurt by Meredith lying to her about Alex 's actions assaulting DeLuca. She tells her to never lie to her again, but she does so immediately afterwards about Riggs. Riggs tells Meredith she needs to tell Maggie. Maggie works up the courage to ask Riggs out, but Meredith told him to say no.
Benjamin Lindsay, Backstage 2015
On April 5, 2014, TVLine reported that Kelly McCreary best known for her series regular role on The CW 's short lived medical drama Emily Owens, M.D. and recent guest appearances on Scandal had been cast in a guest star role. McCeary was slated to debut on the May 8, 2015 episode. On October 23, 2014, it was announced that McCreary was promoted to series regular after being credited as guest - starring until the eleventh episode. It was a couple of months after McCreary wrapped her stint on Scandal that she was invited to audition for Grey 's. McCeary revealed that she originally auditioned for the character of "Claudette '' with dummy sides, unbeknownst to her. The only information McCeary had about the character was "that she was adopted, that she would recur, and she was going to be a very important storyline. '' Just before the script reading for the season 10 finale, Rhimes summoned McCeary to inform her of Maggie 's true identity. "I was really psyched '' McCeary revealed when Rhimes informed her of Maggie 's lineage. "I felt really honored to be the one to accept the challenge. '' However, it was n't until McCeary experienced the reactions to Maggie 's existence from her fellow cast mates that McCeary realized just how big of a deal the character would be.
The character 's potential existence was first referenced in the press in February 2009 when Michael Ausiello hinted at the possibility of Meredith having a half - sibling, the product of her mother 's affair with Richard. Initial speculation pointed to Jesse Williams ' Jackson Avery as the child, but the actor refuted those rumors. Shonda Rhimes revealed that the character had always been a part of the original story plans, but the character 's existence was not set in stone until season 4.
Kelly McCeary expressed her excitement about how special Maggie in an interview with BuddyTV. "I just feel like it 's a rare opportunity to be able to play somebody that is so complex and fully realized and smart and fierce and compassionate and awkward and the whole thing. '' Maggie is very good at her job so she can find a place in a professional capacity, but in her personal life, she "gets more than she bargained for '' McCreary said. "I think she 's a really good doctor '' McCeary said of Maggie. "She 's obviously super-bright. She 's very young to be as high in her field as she is. '' McCeary further described Maggie as a "really great problem - solver. '' Maggie is "very compassionate '' and at the same time can "keep a clear head and do the right thing medically all the time. '' McCeary further described Maggie as "so dynamic. '' While Maggie initially "came across as all business, '' Kelly McCeary relishes in playing "Maggie 's neurotic, existential, meltdown side. '' "Maggie also wo n't really back down from a fight; she 's very decisive. ''
Kate Aurthur noted that until Maggie 's introduction, Grey 's was not "known for dropping in stories that it planted seasons before -- it 's never been filled with twisty mythology. '' Rhimes insisted that the timing was n't right for Maggie 's introduction in previous seasons. In season 3, the series introduced Meredith 's paternal half - sister Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) and it was at that time that Maggie became a serious topic of discussion. Though Lexie was killed off in the season 8 finale, "Flight, '' Rhimes felt it was still too soon for Maggie 's arrival. The scribe even thought the show might end without the character ever being introduced. "Then we hit this moment in time and I remember walking into the writers ' room and going, ' You guys, it 's time. ' ''
When Maggie makes the sudden revelation that she is Ellis ' child to Richard, viewers are left to wonder about her history. The second episode of the season puts Maggie front and center. The episode appropriately titled "Puzzle With a Piece Missing, '' focuses on Maggie 's struggle to fit in throughout her life, even with her own adoptive parents whom she is very different from. Though she is very close with her parents, and they get along very well, she 's grown up "still feeling like something 's missing. '' Kelly McCreary said "That 's what 's really compelling to me about Maggie: that sort of dark underbelly of this person who seems to really have it all together. '' Maggie struggles to build relationships with her colleagues. She unknowingly shares confidential information about Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) and she gets she also insults the hospital board when she tries to prop up Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). Though she 's got the "best intentions, '' things backfire. Maggie also serves as a "mentor '' to Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington). As Maggie discovers she has several things in common with Richard, the stage is set for Maggie to learn that Richard is her father.
"I think people will relate to the awkwardness of being the new kid at school '' McCeary said of the episode 's comedic tone. Despite so many different interactions, the episode highlights "Maggie 's loneliness. '' The Maggie - centric episode also featured Kelly McCreary stepping into the coveted role of narrator for the episode, which was usually reserved for Ellen Pompeo 's Meredith, and on occasion other veteran cast members. "It was overwhelming and very surprising '' McCeary said of being the center of attention so early into her Grey 's tenure. She continued, "I felt terrified and also really grateful that they trusted me with the institution about of Grey 's Anatomy for a whole episode. '' McCeary relished in finally learning the character 's history. "(It) was a huge gift to have 65 pages worth of material telling me exactly who she is. It was great! ''
Critics responded positively to the development of Pierce in her centric episode "Puzzle With a Piece Missing ''. Fempop gave a largely positive review writing, "Puzzle With a Piece Missing is a funny and insightful look both into this latest interloper and the established characters of Grey 's. '' praising the new addition, "Thankfully she 's (Pierce) her own person, confident and happy to bring the thunder and put everyone, from interns to the chief of surgery, into their places. ''
Entertainment Weekly lauded the episode stating, "Coming into the second week without Cristina Yang, Grey 's was smart to focus all of its attention on the newcomer. With most other main characters only making occasional cameos, it made it more difficult to feel Yang 's absence. And by showing Maggie 's side of the story, it made her more relatable. It was a win - win. '' adding on McCreary 's character, "this episode is about how Maggie is her own, very likable person. ''
On her character TV Fanatic wrote, Overall, we got to know Maggie a little better and it 's nice to see that she 's made some friends. It was a fair episode that showed Maggie 's basically a work in progress. Maybe she 'll grow on us eventually. ''
For the thirteenth season, Vulture writer, Maggie Fremont spoke positively about the character: "It 's never easy for a long - running series to introduce a new character, especially when that character is meant to immediately fit in with the rest of the ensemble. But when Maggie Pierce arrived in season ten, that 's exactly what Grey 's Anatomy did. It could 've been easy to dislike her -- she showed up to take over cardio as Cristina Yang was leaving, for chrissakes! She was yet another one of Meredith 's long - lost sisters. The cards were really stacked against Maggie Pierce. Yet, thanks to the writers and Kelly McCreary 's terrific performance, Maggie was immediately endearing. She is weird and neurotic and cheerful. She is nothing like Cristina, but she fills a void that Meredith needs filled in order to function. Can you really imagine Grey 's without Maggie Pierce? ''
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total mbbs seats in government college in india | Medical college in India - Wikipedia
In India, a medical college is an educational institution that provides medical education. These institutions may vary from stand - alone colleges that train doctors to conglomerates that offer training related in all aspects of medical care. term is synonymous with "medical school '' as used in the USA and some other countries.
Indian law requires these institutions to be recognised by the Medical Council of India. The Indian government keeps an updated list of these approved medical colleges.
Prospective students for an undergraduate course leading towards a Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (M.B.B.S.) degree must have completed a Higher Secondary (School) Certificate (HSC) (10 + 2, or high school) with the Science stream, including the subjects Biology, Chemistry and Physics and must have cleared the NEET exam.
Traditionally, admission criteria differed from one part of the country to another and even from Institution to Institution. For example, applicants should be undergraduates when they apply to American universities while they pursue bachelor 's degrees when they apply to China medical colleges. The whole admission process is under a major reform with ongoing court cases from parties against it. In general, admission was based on one of the following:
Similarly for Post-graduate degrees and diplomas (residencies) the competitive examinations conducted at central (NEET) level forms the basis for admission or donation based seats. Specific institutions may also require a personal interview of the candidate but this is more in cases of sub-specialty courses.
These donation based seats have come under heavy criticism because this makes effectively India the only country that authorises, as official policy, the sale of medical seats by private medical colleges, implicitly accepting the principle that the ability to pay, and not merit, is what counts. These illegal capitation fees range from Rs. 50 lakh to Rs. 1 crore for a MBBS seat. But medical colleges in states like Kerala, require minimum marks / ranks in their respective competitive entrance exams even for the management seats.
In order to reduce stress of multiple examinations and ensuring minimum competence and importantly with the purpose to weed out corruption in medical education across the country NEET - UG and NEET - PG were first proposed in the Vision 2015 by Board of Governors (BOGs) appointed after by Government of India after dissolution of MCI. These exams were supposed to be a single window for entry into a medical college (except institutions like AIIMS, PGIMER, JIPMER, which were set up by parliamentary order). Although specifics of implemented NEET for UG and PG courses are different from what was proposed in Vision 2015 document, it has essentially maintained its core purpose.
NEET - UG (Undergraduate), for MBBS and BDS courses, was conducted in 2013 by the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). NEET - UG replaced the All India Pre Medical Test (AIPMT) and all individual MBBS exams conducted by states or colleges themselves. However, many colleges and institutes took a stay order and conducted private examinations for admission to their MBBS and BDS courses. Nevertheless, many other reputed institutes such as the Armed Forces Medical College and Banaras Hindu University have opted to admit students on the basis of the NEET - UG. The first exam was held on 5 May 2013, and the results were announced on 5 June 2013. In India, there is a huge competition to qualify for an MBBS seat. In NEET - UG 2013, among the registered candidates, a total of 7, 17,127 candidates were eligible to appear in the NEET - UG, 2013, out of which 6, 58,040 candidates appeared in the test and 3, 66,317 candidates qualified the test for 31,000 seats. This makes a 4.71 % appearing the exam to securing a seat success rate.
On 18 July 2013 the Indian Supreme Court struck down the NEET exam with a 2: 1 decision. The Medical Council of India has appealed for a review in August 2013, in may of 2016 supreme court of India cancelled all medical exams and NEET (UG) and NEET (PG) becomes an only way to get admission in almost all medical colleges of India
Similarly for Post graduation courses (residencies), the NEET - PG is the single eligibility cum entrance examination for MD / MS and post-graduate diploma courses. This effectively replaced the existing AIPGMEE and similar state level exams for entry into post-graduate courses. The first NEET - PG was conducted by the National Board of Examinations from 23 November -- 6 December 2012, which was referred to as the testing window (with 24th, 25th, 28 November and 2 December as non-testing days). The test was a computer - based test unlike the traditional paper and pen based test AIIMS had been conducting over years for admission to 50 % all India quota Post graduate courses in the country. In all, 90,377 candidates took the exam.
Apart from non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin (NRI) quotas in different government as well as private colleges, Government of India has also allocated a number of seats for students from developing countries where facilities for medical education are either inadequate. The exact number and country - based allocation of these reserved seats may vary annually.
Students seeking admission to the reserved seats are required to apply through the Indian missions abroad or through the diplomatic missions of the respective countries in India. The Indian Embassy or High Commission in a country will be able to provide more information on request. The requirement for an entrance is usually waived for such sponsored candidates.
Its important to note that foreign nationals wishing to take seats through NRI quota should still qualify through NEET (at least for all government colleges) and seats will be allotted on merit in that quota from all the NRI candidates eligible. The fee structure for NRI candidates is also different.
A medical college offers graduate degree Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS). Only institutions offering MBBS course in its curriculum are referred to as a Medical Colleges. The college may teach Post Graduate as well as Paramedical courses. The admission to government MBBS programs is highly competitive because of high subsidy and extensive hands on experience.
The MBBS course starts with the basic pre and para-clinical subjects such as biochemistry, physiology, anatomy, microbiology, pathology and pharmacology. The students simultaneously obtain hands - on training in the wards and out - patient departments, where they interact with real patients for five long years. The curriculum aims to inculcate standard protocols of history taking, examination, differential diagnosis and Complete patient Management. The student is taught to determine what investigations will be useful for a patient and what are the best treatment options. The curriculum also contains a thorough practical knowledge and practice of performing standard clinical procedures. The course also contains a 12 - month - long internship, in which an intern is rotated across various specialties. Besides standard clinical care, one also gets a thorough experience of ward management, staff management and thorough counselling skills.
The degree awarded is "Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery ''. The minimum requirements for the MBBS course are 50 % marks in physics, chemistry, biology and English in the ' 10 + 2 ' examinations. For reserved category students the requirement is 40 %. MBBS admissions are not centralised. The admission requirements differ across universities. Generally, students who attain higher marks in the qualifying examinations and in the Medical Entrance examinations conducted by various agencies are accepted onto the MBBS course.
Entrance examinations are conducted by the following agencies
All the major colleges also have Postgraduate Degree or Diploma courses in their programmes. The awards conferred are Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of philosophy (Ph. D Medical) Master of Surgery (MS) Master of Science (M.Sc Medical) or Diplomate of National Board (DNB)). The MD / MS degrees are offered by the universities affiliated to the Medical Council of India and the DNB degree is awarded by the National Board of Examinations, an independent autonomous body under the Ministry of Health, India. They are available in different streams of medical science such as General medicine, General surgery, Orthopaedics, Radiodiagnosis, Radiotherapy, ENT, Obstetrics and gynaecology, Ophthalmology, Anaesthesia, Paediatrics, Community medicine, Pathology, Microbiology, Forensic medicine, Pharmacology, Anatomy, Physiology etc. Degree courses are of 3 years duration while diploma courses are of 2 years duration. Following post-graduation, students can opt for further super-specialization in their area of interest by opting for courses called DM or DNB (Doctorate of Medicine), or MCh or DNB (Master of Chirurgery / Surgery) again of three years duration.
An MD or a DNB (general medicine or paediatrics) is the basic requirement for specialisation in Cardiology, Nephrology, Neonatology, Gastro - enterology, Neurology except for Clinical Hematology (Pathology or general medicine), etc., while an MS or a DNB (general surgery, ENT or Orthopaedic surgery) is the basic requirement for Neurosurgery, Urology, Cardio - thoracic & Vascular Surgery, Gastrointestinal Surgery, Paediatric Surgery, Plastic Surgery, etc.
Family medicine has now become an area of priority in India, and many teaching hospitals offer DNB (Family Medicine).
Post-doctoral fellowship courses in Neuro - radiology, Neuro or Cardiac anesthesiology, etc. are offered by select institutions.
They include
Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha Homeopathy are collectively called as AYUSH -- Alternative medicine.
Professionals holding MBBS, BDS, BAMS BNYS, BUMS, BSMS, BHMS, BEMS, Degrees are referred to by the title physicians but not Doctor they not hold doctorates; however, physicians holding these degrees are "as they are fully licensed as medical practitioners.
The pre-clinical course consists of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, and these are the basic subjects of medical students and it lasts for a year. Prior to 1997 the I MBBS consisted of 11⁄2 years, but this was trimmed to make more time available for clinical exposure. Passing the I MBBS final examination is mandatory to proceed with the course. A candidate failing the first MBBS examination is detained until all the 1st MBBS subjects are cleared. However the MCI has changed this in regulations on graduate medical education 2012. In many universities if one does not clear a subject that student will get into an intermediate batch. It is a severe drawback. Morning session usually consist of an Anatomy lecture followed by dissection, except for one day when a class in biostatistics may be taken. Afternoon sessions consist of a theory class followed by laboratory work in Physiology or Biochemistry or it may be histology branch of anatomy.
Pathology, Pharmacology, Microbiology, and Forensic Medicine for one and half years. After clearing all the four subjects a student advances to III MBBS. The lecture classes and lab work of these subjects are usually held in the afternoons to enable students to attend the clinical wards and out patient departments in the mornings. These are followed by Short postings (15days duration) in Pediatrics, Psychiatry, Forensic medicine, Skin & Leprosy, & Respiratory medicine & TB. This may be followed directly by major postings or a clinical posting in Community Medicine may intervene.
Part I consists of one year, where Social and Preventive Medicine (Community Medicine), Ear Nose and Throat and Ophthalmology form the core subjects.
One year of focused training in the four basic clinical subjects, namely: Medicine, Surgery (incl. Orthopaedics), Paediatrics, Obstetrics & Gynaecology. On passing the final MBBS examination, a candidate is awarded provisional registration by the MCI or the State medical council and can start the internship. Permanent registration (license to practice) and the final Medical degree (i.e., MBBS) is given only after successful and satisfactory completion of the Compulsory Rotatory Resident Internship, also called the CRRI.
After successful completion of the MBBS course, one has to compulsorily work in the hospital attached to the medical college or in any other approved hospital allowed in some medical colleges, for a period of one year. This posting is called the Compulsory Rotatory Residential Internship or the House Surgeon in Kerala / Tamil Nadu. The student gets the degree only after satisfactory completion of the CRRI. An Intern (also called an Internee or a CRRI) is posted in all the clinical departments of the hospital on a rotation basis. This gives him or her the basic clinical and practical knowledge about all the disciplines of medicine and makes the medical graduate fit to work in the community as a General Physician. The schedules of an intern is usually extremely exhaustive. For example, one may have to work for the whole night and then have to start the next day duty only after about one or two hours. This may last till the afternoon. 24 - hour sleepless duty at a stretch is not uncommon and sometimes the scheduled breaks are also not allowed by the superiors. He or she is also paid a monthly stipend for his work in the hospital which differs in different medical colleges on the basis of the management. The person is licensed to practice medicine only after completion of this internship. And only after finishing internship, one can receive his MBBS degree and can pursue postgraduate studies.
The Internship is different from House Officership (which may follow Internship), as understood in UK and other countries. The latter is not a compulsory tenure. The House Physician or House Surgeon, unlike an Intern, works in a particular department of his or her choice and is paid a monthly ' salary ' for his work in the hospital (especially, in the UK). The American counterpart is simply called a "Resident '' (i.e., a Resident Physician or a Resident Surgeon).
Post-internship, some graduates may choose to work in different medical specialities and are often referred to as House Officers or House Physicians or House Surgeons. This is different from postgraduate training and does not lead to award of a degree. A doctor undergoing higher speciality training is referred to as a "post-graduate trainee '' or simply a PGT. House Physicians, PGTs and interns are also called junior doctors across Indian hospitals. PGTs and House Officers are sometimes referred to as Junior Residents. After completion of postgraduate work, doctors may enter subspeciality training and are then known as "post-doctoral trainees '' or simply PDTs. They are also called as senior residents at some institutes.
The entire period of residency in India can be very demanding, both physically and psychologically. The Maharashtra Association of Resident Doctors (Mard) had filed a compliant with the Maharashtra Human Rights Commission (MHRC) regarding resident doctors being made to work for more than 30 hours at a stretch. There have been instances of doctor suicides due to stress and burnout. Institutions have been criticised for lack of hygienic food supply to resident doctors and their shabby living conditions.
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where are the valence electrons located in the periodic table | Valence electron - wikipedia
In chemistry, a valence electron is an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a shared pair. The presence of valence electrons can determine the element 's chemical properties, such as its valence -- whether it may bond with other elements and, if so, how readily and with how many. For a main group element, a valence electron can exist only in the outermost electron shell; in a transition metal, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell.
An atom with a closed shell of valence electrons (corresponding to an electron configuration s p) tends to be chemically inert. Atoms with one or two more valence electrons than are needed for a "closed '' shell are highly reactive due to the following reasons: 1) It requires relatively low energy (compared to the lattice enthalpy) to remove the extra valence electrons to form a positive ion. 2) Because of their tendency either to gain the missing valence electrons (thereby forming a negative ion), or to share valence electrons (thereby forming a covalent bond).
Similar to an electron in an inner shell, a valence electron has the ability to absorb or release energy in the form of a photon. An energy gain can trigger an electron to move (jump) to an outer shell; this is known as atomic excitation. Or the electron can even break free from its associated atom 's valence shell; this is ionization to form a positive ion. When an electron loses energy (thereby causing a photon to be emitted), then it can move to an inner shell which is not fully occupied.
Valence energy levels correspond to the principal quantum numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5...) or are labeled alphabetically with letters used in the X-ray notation (K, L, M,...).
The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic table group (vertical column) in which the element is categorized. With the exception of groups 3 -- 12 (the transition metals), the units digit of the group number identifies how many valence electrons are associated with a neutral atom of an element listed under that particular column.
The electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those whose average distance from the nucleus is greatest; that is, those with the highest energy.
For a main group element, the valence electrons are defined as those electrons residing in the electronic shell of highest principal quantum number n. Thus, the number of valence electrons that it may have depends on the electron configuration in a simple way. For example, the electronic configuration of phosphorus (P) is 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p so that there are 5 valence electrons (3s 3p), corresponding to a maximum valence for P of 5 as in the molecule PF; this configuration is normally abbreviated to (Ne) 3s 3p, where (Ne) signifies the core electrons whose configuration is identical to that of the noble gas neon.
However, transition elements have partially filled (n − 1) d energy levels, that are very close in energy to the ns level. So as opposed to main group elements, a valence electron for a transition metal is defined as an electron that resides outside a noble - gas core. Thus, generally, the d electrons in transition metals behave as valence electrons although they are not in the valence shell. For example, manganese (Mn) has configuration 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d; this is abbreviated to (Ar) 4s 3d, where (Ar) denotes a core configuration identical to that of the noble gas argon. In this atom, a 3d electron has energy similar to that of a 4s electron, and much higher than that of a 3s or 3p electron. In effect, there are possibly seven valence electrons (4s 3d) outside the argon - like core; this is consistent with the chemical fact that manganese can have an oxidation state as high as + 7 (in the permanganate ion: MnO).
The farther right in each transition metal series, the lower the energy of an electron in ad subshell and the less such an electron has the properties of a valence electron. Thus, although a nickel atom has, in principle, ten valence electrons (4s 3d), its oxidation state never exceeds four. For zinc, the 3d subshell is complete and behaves similarly to core electrons.
Because the number of valence electrons which actually participate in chemical reactions is difficult to predict, the concept of the valence electron is less useful for a transition metal than for a main group element; the d electron count is an alternative tool for understanding the chemistry of a transition metal.
The number of electrons in an atom 's outermost valence shell governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements whose atoms can have the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the periodic table of the elements. As a general rule, a main group element (except hydrogen or helium) tends to react to form a closed shell, corresponding to the electron configuration s p. This tendency is called the octet rule, because each bonded atom has eight valence electrons including shared electrons.
The most reactive kind of metallic element is an alkali metal of group 1 (e.g., sodium or potassium); this is because such an atom has only a single valence electron; during the formation of an ionic bond which provides the necessary ionization energy, this one valence electron is easily lost to form a positive ion (cation) with a closed shell (e.g., Na or K). An alkaline earth metal of Group 2 (e.g., magnesium) is somewhat less reactive, because each atom must lose two valence electrons to form a positive ion with a closed shell (e.g., Mg).
Within each group (each periodic table column) of metals, reactivity increases with each lower row of the table (from a light element to a heavier element), because a heavier element has more electron shells than a lighter element; a heavier element 's valence electrons exist at higher principal quantum numbers (they are farther away from the nucleus of the atom, and are thus at higher potential energies, which means they are less tightly bound).
A nonmetal atom tends to attract additional valence electrons to attain a full valence shell; this can be achieved in one of two ways: An atom can either share electrons with a neighboring atom (a covalent bond), or it can remove electrons from another atom (an ionic bond). The most reactive kind of nonmetal element is a halogen (e.g., fluorine (F) or chlorine (Cl)). Such an atom has the following electron configuration: s p; this requires only one additional valence electron to form a closed shell. To form an ionic bond, a halogen atom can remove an electron from another atom in order to form an anion (e.g., F, Cl, etc.). To form a covalent bond, one electron from the halogen and one electron from another atom form a shared pair (e.g., in the molecule H -- F, the line represents a shared pair of valence electrons, one from H and one from F).
Within each group of nonmetals, reactivity decreases with each lower rows of the table (from a light element to a heavy element) in the periodic table, because the valence electrons are at progressively higher energies and thus progressively less tightly bound. In fact, oxygen (the lightest element in group 16) is the most reactive nonmetal after fluorine, even though it is not a halogen, because the valence shell of a halogen is at a higher principal quantum number.
In these simple cases where the octet rule is obeyed, the valence of an atom equals the number of electrons gained, lost, or shared in order to form the stable octet. However, there are also many molecules which are exceptions, and for which the valence is less clearly defined.
Valence electrons are also responsible for the electrical conductivity of an element; as a result, an element may be classified as a metal, a nonmetal, or a semiconductor (or metalloid).
Metallic elements generally have high electrical conductivity when in the solid state. In each row of the periodic table, the metals occur to the left of the nonmetals, and thus a metal has fewer possible valence electrons than a nonmetal. However, a valence electron of a metal atom has a small ionization energy, and in the solid state this valence electron is relatively free to leave one atom in order to associate with another nearby. Such a "free '' electron can be moved under the influence of an electric field, and its motion constitutes an electric current; it is responsible for the electrical conductivity of the metal. Copper, aluminium, silver, and gold are examples of good conductors.
A nonmetallic element has low electrical conductivity; it acts as an insulator. Such an element is found toward the right of the periodic table, and it has a valence shell that is at least half full (the exception is boron). Its ionization energy is large; an electron can not leave an atom easily when an electric field is applied, and thus such an element can conduct only very small electric currents. Examples of solid elemental insulators are diamond (an allotrope of carbon) and sulfur.
A solid compound containing metals can also be an insulator if the valence electrons of the metal atoms are used to form ionic bonds. For example, although elemental sodium is a metal, solid sodium chloride is an insulator, because the valence electron of sodium is transferred to chlorine to form an ionic bond, and thus that electron can not be moved easily.
A semiconductor has an electrical conductivity that is intermediate between that of a metal and that of a nonmetal; a semiconductor also differs from a metal in that a semiconductor 's conductivity increases with temperature. The typical elemental semiconductors are silicon and germanium, each atom of which has four valence electrons. The properties of semiconductors are best explained using band theory, as a consequence of a small energy gap between a valence band (which contains the valence electrons at absolute zero) and a conduction band (to which valence electrons are excited by thermal energy).
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what was the purpose of the civil service examinations in china | Imperial examination - wikipedia
The Chinese imperial examinations were a civil service examination system in Imperial China to select candidates for the state bureaucracy. Although there were imperial exams as early as the Han dynasty, the system became widely utilized as the major path to office only in the mid-Tang dynasty, and remained so until its abolition in 1905. Since the exams were based on knowledge of the classics and literary style, not technical expertise, successful candidates were generalists who shared a common language and culture, one shared even by those who failed. This common culture helped to unify the empire and the ideal of achievement by merit gave legitimacy to imperial rule, while leaving clear problems resulting from a systemic lack of technical and practical expertise.
The examination helped to shape China 's intellectual, cultural, political, shopping, arts and crafts, and religious life. The increased reliance on the exam system was in part responsible for Tang dynasty shifting from a military aristocracy to a gentry class of scholar - bureaucrats. Starting with the Song dynasty, the system was regularized and developed into a roughly three - tiered ladder from local to provincial to court exams. The content was narrowed and fixed on texts of Neo-Confucian orthodoxy. By the Ming dynasty, the highest degree, the jinshi (Chinese: 進士), became essential for highest office, while there was a vast oversupply of holders of the initial degree, shengyuan (生 員), who could not hope for office, though these were granted social privilege. Critics charged that the system stifled creativity and created officials who dared not defy authority, yet the system also continued to promote cultural unity. Wealthy families, especially from the merchant class, could opt into the system by educating their sons or purchasing degrees. In the 19th century, critics blamed the imperial system, and in the process its examinations, for China 's lack of technical knowledge and its defeat by foreign powers.
The influence of the Chinese examination system spread to neighboring Asian countries, such as Vietnam, Korea, Japan (though briefly) and Ryūkyū. The Chinese examination system was introduced to the Western world in reports by European missionaries and diplomats, and encouraged the British East India Company to use a similar method to select prospective employees. Following the initial success in that company, the British government adopted a similar testing system for screening civil servants in 1855. Other European nations, such as France and Germany, followed suit. Modeled after these previous adaptations, the United States established its own testing program for certain government jobs after 1883.
Although, in a general way, the formative ideas behind the imperial exams can be traced back at least to Zhou dynasty times (or, more mythologically, Yao), such as imperial promotion for displaying skill in archery contests, the imperial examination system in its classical manifestation is historically attested to have been established in 605, during the Sui dynasty; which in the quickly succeeding Tang dynasty was used only on a relatively small scale, especially in its early phase. However, the structure of the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian: the impact of Wu 's use of the testing system is still a matter for scholarly debate. During the Song dynasty the emperors expanded both examinations and the government school system, in part to counter the influence of military aristocrats, increasing the number of those who passed the exams to more than four to five times that of the Tang. Thus the system played a key role in the selection of the scholar - officials, who formed the elite members of society. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrowness of intellectual life and the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its 1905 abolition under the Qing dynasty. Other brief interruptions to the system occurred, such as at the beginning of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.
The operations of the examination system were part of the imperial record keeping system, and the date of receiving the jinshi degree is often a key biographical datum: sometimes the date of achieving jinshi is the only firm date known for even some of the most historically prominent persons in Chinese history.
Tests had a lengthy historical background in Chinese thought, including evaluating the potential of possible people to fill positions through various contests, competitions, or interviews: even as early as the Zhou dynasty promotions might be won through winning archery competitions. Much of the development of the imperial bureaucracy in the Confucian form in which it was known in later times had much of its origin in the Han dynasty rule of Han Wudi (Emperor Wu of Han). Through the Three Kingdoms and the Sui dynasty recruitment would be viewed as basically a bottom - up process: promotions being generally through preferment from the local and lower levels of government up to each successively higher level until recommendations finally might be offered to the emperor himself, in continuation of the Zhou idea that the lower levels of government were responsible for finding recruits for the higher ones.
In the modern sense of an open examination system, the imperial civil service examinations did not take place until the Sui dynasty, when they then began to recognizably take on the form of standardized tests, though under the prerogative of the Emperor. The Tang dynasty saw most of the recruitment into central government bureaucrat offices performed by the bureaucracy itself, at least nominally by the reigning emperor. However, the historical dynamics of the official recruitment system involved changes in the balances of the various means used for appointments (all theoretically under the direction of the emperor); including, the civil service examinations, direct appointments (especially of members of the ruling dynastic family), nominations by quotas allotted to favored important families, recommendations, clerical promotions, direct sale of official rank, and special induction procedures for eunuchs. The regular higher level degree examination cycle was nominally decreed in 1067 to be 3 years. In practice both before and after this, the examinations were irregularly implemented for significant periods of time: thus, the calculated statistical averages for the number of degrees conferred annually should be understood in this context. The jinshi tests were not a yearly event and should not be considered so; the annual average figures are a necessary artifact of quantitative analysis.
The imperial examinations already existed during the Han dynasty but did not offer a formal entry into government posts. Recruitment and appointment in the Han dynasty was primarily through recommendations by aristocrats and local officials. Recommended individuals were also primarily aristocrats. In theory, recommendations were based on a combination of reputation and ability but it 's not certain how well this worked in practice. Oral examinations on policy issues were sometimes conducted personally by the emperor himself during Western Han times.
In 165 BC Emperor Wen of Han introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinations, however these did not heavily emphasize Confucian material. Previously, potential officials never sat for any sort of academic examinations.
Emperor Wu of Han 's early reign saw the creation of a series of posts for academicians in 136BC. Ardently promoted by Dong Zhongshu, the Taixue and Imperial examination came into existence by recommendation of Gongsun Hong, chancellor under Wu. Officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics, from which Emperor Wu would select officials to serve by his side.
Gongsun intended for the Taixue 's graduates to become imperial officials but they usually only started off as clerks and attendants, and mastery of only one canonical text was required upon its founding, changing to all five in the Eastern Han. Starting with 50 students; Han Emperors Emperor Zhao expanded it to 100, Emperor Xuan to 200, and Emperor Yuan to 1000.
While the examinations expanded under the Han, the number of graduates who went on to hold office were few. The examinations did not offer a formal route to commissioned office and the vast majority of appointees were through recommendations. Though connections and recommendations remained more meaningful than the exam, the initiation of the examination system by Emperor Wu had a cultural significance, as the state determined the most important examination material were Confucian. During the Han dynasty, these examinations were primarily used for the purpose of classifying candidates who had been specifically recommended. Even during the Tang dynasty the quantity of placements into government service through the examination system only averaged about nine persons per year, with the known maximum being less than 25 in any given year.
Beginning in the Three Kingdoms period (with the nine - rank system in the Kingdom of Wei), imperial officials were responsible for assessing the quality of the talents recommended by the local elites. This system continued until Emperor Yang of Sui established a new category of recommended candidates for the mandarinate (进士 科) in AD 605. For the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. However, the Sui dynasty was short - lived, and the system did not reach its mature development until afterwards.
Over the course of the Tang dynasty (唐 朝) and during the Zhou dynasty of the Wu Zetian interregnum, the examination system developed into a more comprehensive system, developing beyond the basic Sui process of qualifying candidates based on questions on policy matters and then followed by an interview. Oral interviews as part of the examination and selection system were theoretically supposed to be an unbiased process, but in practice favored candidates from elite clans based in the capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang (speakers of solely non-elite dialects could not succeed).
A pivotal point in the development of imperial examinations arose with the rise of Wu Zetian. Up until that point, the rulers of the Tang dynasty were all male members of the Li family (李 氏). Wu Zetian was exceptional: a woman not of the Li family, she came to occupy the seat of the emperor in an official manner in the year of 690, and even beforehand she had already begun to stretch her power within the imperial courts behind the scenes. Reform of the imperial examinations to include a new class of elite bureaucrats derived from humbler origins became a keystone of Wu 's gamble to retain power.
In 655, Wu Zetian graduated 44 candidates with the jìnshì degree (進士), and during one 7 - year period the annual average of exam takers graduated with a jinshi degree was greater than 58 persons per year. Wu lavished favors on the newly graduated jinshi degree - holders, increasing the prestige associated with this path of attaining a government career, and clearly began a process of opening up opportunities to success for a wider population pool, including inhabitants of China 's less prestigious southeast area. Most of the Li family supporters were located to the northwest, particularly around the capital city of Chang'an. Wu 's progressive accumulation of political power through enhancement of the examination system involved attaining the allegiance of previously under - represented regions, alleviating frustrations of the literati, and encouraging education in various locales so even people in the remote corners of the empire would work on their studies in order to pass the imperial exams, and thus developed a nucleus of elite bureaucrats useful from the perspective of control by the central government.
In 681, a written test on knowledge of the Confucian classics was introduced, meaning that candidates were required to memorize these works and fill in the blanks on the test.
In 693, Wu Zetian 's government further expanded the civil service examination system, part of a policy to reform society and to consolidate power for her self - proclaimed "Zhou dynasty ''. Examples of officials whom she recruited through her reformed examination system include Zhang Yue, Li Jiao, and Shen Quanqi. She introduced major changes in regard to the Tang system, increasing the pool of candidates permitted to take the test by allowing commoners and gentry previously disqualified by their non-elite backgrounds to attempt the tests. Successful candidates then became an elite nucleus of bureaucrats within her government.
Sometime between 730 and 740, after the Tang restoration, a section requiring the composition of original poetry (including both shi and fu) was added to the tests, with rather specific set requirements: this was for the jinshi degree, as well as certain other tests. The less - esteemed examinations tested for skills such as mathematics, law, and calligraphy. The success rate on these tests of knowledge on the classics was between 10 and 20 percent, but for the thousand or more candidates going for a jinshi degree each year in which it was offered, the success rate for the examinees was only between 1 and 2 percent: a total of 6504 jinshi were created during course of the Tang dynasty (an average of only about 23 jinshi awarded per year).
During the early years of the Tang restoration, the following emperors expanded on Wu 's policies since they found them politically useful, and the annual averages of degrees conferred continued to rise; however with the upheavals which later developed and the disintegration of the Tang empire into the "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period '', the examination system gave ground to other traditional routes to government positions and favoritism in grading reduced the opportunities of those taking the tests who lacked political patronage. Ironically this period of fragmentation resulted in the utter destruction of old networks established by elite families that had ruled China throughout its various dynasties since its very conception. With the disappearance of the old aristocracy, Wu 's system of bureaucrat recruitment once more became the dominant model in China, and eventually coalesced into the class of nonhereditary elites who would become known to the West as "mandarins, '' in reference to Mandarin, the dialect of Chinese employed in the imperial court.
In the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279) more than a hundred higher level examinations were held. Officials selected through the exams became dominant in the bureaucracy. Theoretically, the examinations were open to adult (at least in terms of literacy) Chinese males, with some restrictions. This included even individuals from the occupied northern territories. Many individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Examples include Wang Anshi, who proposed reforms to make the exams more practical, and Zhu Xi, whose interpretations of the Four Classics became the orthodox Neo-Confucianism which dominated later dynasties. Two other prominent successful entries into politics through the examination system were Su Shi and his brother Su Zhe: both of whom became political opponents of Wang Anshi. Indeed, one of the major objectives of the examination system was to promote diversity of viewpoints and to avoid over-filling of offices with individuals of particular political or partisan alignment, as might occur with alternative, more biased methods, which could allow for active recruitment. Yet the process of studying for the examination tended to be time - consuming and costly, requiring time to spare and tutors. Most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land - owning scholar - official class.
Since 937, by the decision of the Taizu Emperor of Song, the palace examination was supervised by the emperor himself. In 992, the practice of anonymous submission of papers during the palace examination was introduced; it was spread to the departmental examinations in 1007, and to the prefectural level in 1032. The practice of recopying the papers in order not to allow biases by revealing the candidate by his calligraphy was introduced at the capital and departmental level in 1105, and in the prefectures in 1037. Statistics indicate that the Song imperial government degree - awards eventually more than doubled the highest annual averages of those awarded during the Tang dynasty, with 200 or more per year on average being common, and at times reaching a per annum figure of almost 240.
Various reforms or attempts to reform the examination system were made during the Song dynasty, including by Fan Zhongyan and those by Wang Anshi. Fan 's memorial to the throne actually initiated a process which lead to major educational reform through the establishment of a comprehensive public school system.
Governmental examinations ended with the defeat of the Song in 1279 by a disintegrating Mongol empire. After a period of turmoil, the part of the Mongol empire that was led by Kublai Khan established itself in China as the Yuan dynasty. Kublai ended the imperial examination system, as he believed that Confucian learning was not needed for government jobs.
The examination system was revived in 1315, with significant changes, during the reign of Emperor Renzong. The new examination system was one of regionalism with Mongol characteristics. The northern areas of Mongolia and its vicinity were favored, and a quota system (both for number of candidates and number of degrees awarded) which was based on the classification of the imperial population into four racially - based groups (or castes and / or ethnicities) was instituted, the groups being Mongols, their non-Han allies (Semu - ren), Northern Chinese, and Southern Chinese, with further restrictions by province. Under the revived and revised system the yearly averages for examination degrees awarded was about 21. As the degrees were arithmetically divided between the four "races '' (although with further modification), rather than being proportionally based on either population or number of qualified candidates, this tended to favor the Mongols, Semu - ren, and North Chinese: the South Chinese were by far the greatest part of the population, the 1290 census figures recording some 12,000,000 households (about 48 % of the total Yuan population), versus 2,000,000 North Chinese households, and the populations of Mongols and Semu - ren were both less. The restrictions on candidates by the new quota system allowed only 300 candidates for each testing session of the three year examination cycle. The provincial restrictions resulted in a greater effect; for example, only 28 Han Chinese from South China were included among the 300 candidates, the rest of the South China slots (47) being occupied by resident Mongols or Semu - ren, although 47 "racial South Chinese '' who were not residents of South China were approved as candidates.
The Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644) retained and expanded the system it inherited. Shortly after the inauguration of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor in 1370 declared that the exams should cover the Four Books, discourses, and political analysis, accepting the Neo-Confucian canon put forth by Zhuxi in the Song dynasty. But he firmly insisted on including the martial arts. The curriculum at the National Academy emphasized law, mathematics, calligraphy, horse riding, and archery in addition to Confucian classics required in the exams. The emperor especially emphasized archery.
The Ming established Neo-Confucian interpretations as the orthodoxy guidelines and created what the historian Benjamin Elman called a "single - minded and monocular political ideology '' that "affected politically and socially how literati learning would be interpreted and used. '' The imperial civil service system adopted this rigid orthodoxy at a time when commercialization and population growth meant that there was an inflation in the number of degree candidates at the lower levels. As a result, the higher and more prestigious offices were dominated by jinshi (Palace) degree - holders, who tended to come from elite families. The Ming thus started a process in which access to government office became harder and harder and officials became more and more orthodox in their thought. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, in 1600, there were roughly half a million licentiates in a population of 150 million, that is, one per 300 people; by the mid-19th century the ratio had shrunk to one civil licentiate for each 1,000 people.
The social background of metropolitan graduates also narrowed as time went on. In the early years of the Ming dynasty only 14 percent of metropolitan graduates came from families that had a history of providing officials, while in the last years of the Ming roughly 60 percent of metropolitan exam graduates came from established elite families.
The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, which attempted to overthrow the Qing dynasty in the middle of the 19th century, in 1853 admitted for the first time women as examination candidates. The exams administered by the Heavenly Kingdom differed from those administered by the Qing dynasty, in that they required knowledge of the Bible. Fu Shanxiang took the exam and became the first female zhuangyuan in Chinese history.
With the military defeats in the 1890s and pressure to develop a national school system, reformers such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao called for abolition of the exams, and the Hundred Days ' Reform of 1898 proposed a set of modernizations. After the Boxer Rebellion, the government drew up plans to reform under the name of New Policies, then abolish the exams. On 2 September 1905, the throne endorsed a memorial which ordered that the old examination system be discontinued at all levels in the following years. The new system provided equivalents to the old degrees; a bachelor 's degree, for instance, would be considered equivalent to the xiu cai. The details of the new system remained to be worked out by the fall of the dynasty in 1911, but the end of the system meant the end of Confucianism as an official state ideology and of the scholar official as a legal group.
Yet the system also promoted resistance to change. Reformers charged that the set format of the "Eight - legged essay '' stifled original thought and satirists portrayed the rigidity of the system in novels such as Rulin waishi. In the twentieth century, the New Culture Movement portrayed the examination system as a cause for China 's weakness in such stories as Lu Xun 's "Kong Yiji. '' Some have suggested that limiting the topics prescribed in examination system removed the incentives for Chinese intellectuals to learn mathematics or to conduct experimentation, perhaps contributing to the Great Divergence, in which China 's scientific and economic development fell behind Europe.
In late imperial China, the examination system was the major mechanism by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local - level elites. Their loyalty, in turn, ensured the integration of the Chinese state, and countered tendencies toward regional autonomy and the breakup of the centralized system. The examination system distributed its prizes according to provincial and prefectural quotas, which meant that imperial officials were recruited from the whole country, in numbers roughly proportional to each province 's population. Elite individuals all over China, even in the disadvantaged peripheral regions, had a chance at succeeding in the examinations and achieving the rewards and emoluments office brought.
The examination based civil service thus promoted stability and social mobility. The Confucian - based examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would - be members of those elites across the whole of China were taught with similar values. Even though only a small fraction (about 5 percent) of those who attempted the examinations actually passed them and even fewer received titles, the hope of eventual success sustained their commitment. Those who failed to pass did not lose wealth or local social standing; as dedicated believers in Confucian orthodoxy, they served, without the benefit of state appointments, as teachers, patrons of the arts, and managers of local projects, such as irrigation works, schools, or charitable foundations.
After the fall of the Qing in 1911, Dr. Sun Yat - sen, the leader of the newly risen Republic of China, developed similar procedures for the new political system through an institution called the Examination Yuan, one of the five branches of government, although this was quickly suspended due to the turmoil in China between the two world wars, such as the warlord period and the Japanese invasion. The Kuomintang administration revived the Examination Yuan in 1947 after the defeat of Japan. This system continues into present times in Taiwan along with the government itself after loss of the mainland to the Communist Party of China.
The examinations consisted of tests administered at the district, provincial, and metropolitan levels. Tight quotas restricted the number of successful candidates at each level -- for example, only three hundred students could pass the metropolitan examinations. Students often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.
Each candidate arrived at an examination compound with only a few amenities: a water pitcher, a chamber pot, bedding, food (which he had to prepare himself), an inkstone, ink and brushes. Guards verified a student 's identity and searched for hidden printed materials. In the Ming and Qing periods, each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing "eight - legged essays '' -- literary compositions with eight distinct sections -- in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, desk and bench. There were no interruptions during those three days, nor were candidates allowed any communication. If a candidate died, officials wrapped his body in a straw mat and tossed it over the high walls that ringed the compound.
Intense pressure to succeed meant that cheating and corruption were rampant, often outrunning strenuous attempts to prevent or defeat them. The Ming - dynasty Book of Swindles (ca. 1617) contains an entire section of stories about "Corruption in Education, '' most of which involve swindlers exploiting exam - takers ' desperate attempts to bribe the examiner. In order to discourage favoritism which might occur if an examiner recognized a student 's calligraphy, each exam was recopied by an official copyist. Exact quotes from the classics were required; misquoting even one character or writing it in the wrong form meant failure, so candidates went to great lengths to bring hidden copies of these texts with them, sometimes written on their underwear. The Minneapolis Institute of Arts holds an example of a Qing dynasty cheatsheet, a handkerchief with 10,000 characters of Confucian classics in microscopically small handwriting.
By 115 AD, a set curriculum had become established for the so - called First Generation of examination takers. They were tested on their proficiency in the "Six Arts '':
The curriculum was then expanded to cover the "Five Studies '': military strategy, civil law, revenue and taxation, agriculture and geography, and the Confucian classics. In this form, the examinations were institutionalized during the sixth century AD, under the Sui dynasty. These examinations are regarded by most historians as the first standardized tests based on merit.
The examinations and degrees formed a "ladder of success '', with success generally being equated with being graduated as jinshi, which is a degree similar to a modern Doctor of Literature degree, or PhD. Modifications to the basic jinshi or other degree were made for higher - placing graduates, similar to the modern Summa cum laude. The examination process extended down to the county level, and included examinations at the provincial and national levels. The highest level tests would be at the imperial court or palace level, of which the jinshi was the highest regular level, although special purpose tests were occasionally offered, by imperial decree:
Besides the regular tests for the jinshi and other degrees, there were also occasionally special purpose examinations, by imperial decree (zhiju). These decree examinations were for the purpose of particular promotions or to identify talented men for dealing with certain, specific, especially difficult assignments. During the Song dynasty, in 1061, Emperor Renzong of Song decreed special examinations for the purpose of finding men capable of "direct speech and full remonstrance '' (zhiyan jijian): the testing procedure required the examinees to submit 50 previously prepared essays, 25 on particular contemporary problems, 25 on more general historical governmental themes. In the examination room, the examinees then had a day to write essays on six topics chosen by the test officials, and finally were required to write a 3,000 character essay on a complex policy problem, personally chosen by the emperor, Renzong. Among the few successful candidates were the Su brothers, Su Shi and Su Zhe (who had already attained their jinshi degrees, in 1057), with Su Shi scoring exceptionally high in the examinations, and subsequently having copies of his examination essays widely circulated.
During the reign of Wu Zetian the imperial government created specialized military examinations for the selection of army officers as a response to the breakdown of garrison militias known as the Fubing system. The first formal military examinations were introduced in 702. Before the military exams, the participants who were from military families studied at military schools. Successful candidates were awarded military versions of Jinshi and Juren degrees: Wujinshi (武進 士) and Wujuren (武 舉人), and so on. Military degrees were considered inferior to civil degrees and never held the same prestige until the end of the examinations during the Qing dynasty. The names of civil jinshi were carved in marble whereas military jinshi were not. Nevertheless, the civil and military elements of government were in Chinese political theory sometimes compared to the two wheels of a chariot; if either were neglected, government would not run smoothly. Thus, the military examinations had the same general arrangement as the regular exams, with provincial, metropolitan and palace versions of the exams. The ideal candidate was expected to master the same Confucian texts as the civilians, in addition to martial skills such as archery and horsemanship as well as Chinese military texts, especially Sun Tzu. At the entry level exam, for instance, which was conducted by the district magistrate, the candidate had to shoot three arrows while riding his horse toward the target, which was the shape of a person. A perfect score was three hits, a good score two, and one hit earned a pass. The candidate failed if he made no hits or fell from his horse. The higher levels were made up of more and more challenging exams until the highest level, conducted at the palace in the presence of the emperor, which included not only mounted archery, but bow bending, halberd brandishing, and weight lifting.
Despite the intention of raising more military officers through these examinations, rarely did famous generals and strategists ever arise from military degree holders. With some exceptions such as the Tang general Guo Ziyi, the father of the founder of the Song dynasty Zhao Hongyin, Ming generals Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang, and Qing general Wu Sangui, graduates of the official military examinations have left few traces. Even in desperate times, the majority of distinguished military figures in Chinese history have come from civil degree holders. In total, 282 military metropolitan exams were held between their inception in 702 and abolishment in 1901. The practices of the Qing and Ming military exams was incorporated into physical education during the Republic of China.
Besides China, the military examinations were also a practice of certain Korean and Vietnamese dynasties.
By 1370, the examinations lasted between 24 and 72 hours, and were conducted in spare, isolated examination rooms; sometimes, however, it was held within cubicles. The small rooms featured two boards which could be placed together to form a bed or placed on different levels to serve as a desk and chair. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third party before being evaluated to prevent the candidate 's handwriting from being recognized.
In the main hall of the imperial palace during the Tang and Song Dynasties there stood two stone statues. One was of a dragon and the other of Ao (鳌), the mythical turtle whose chopped - off legs serve as pillars for the sky in Chinese legend. The statues were erected on stone plinths in the center of a flight of stairs where successful candidates (jinshi) in the palace examination lined up to await the reading of their rankings from a scroll known as the jinbang (金榜). The first ranked scholar received the title of Zhuàngyuán (狀元 / 状元), and the honor of standing in front of the statue of Ao. This gave rise to the use of the phrases "to have stood at Ao 's head '' (占 鳌头 (Zhàn ào tóu)), or "to have stood alone at Ao 's head '' (独占鳌头 (Dú zhàn ào tóu)) to describe a Zhuàngyuán, and more generally to refer to someone who excels in a certain field.
Some people were banned from taking the imperial exam, although this varied to some extent over history. Traditionally, Chinese society was divided into officials / nobility and commoners. The commoners were divided by class or status into 4 groups by occupation, ranked in order of prestige: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Beneath these in terms of prestige were the so - called "mean '' people, with various regional names and attributes; but, boat - people, beggars, sex - workers, entertainers, slaves, and low - level government employees were all people included among the "mean '' class: among other forms of discrimination, "mean '' people were forbidden to serve as government officials or to take the imperial exam. This was the case for the caste of "degraded '' outcasts in Ningbo city, where around 3,000 people, said to be Jin dynasty descendants, were barred from taking the Imperial Exams, among numerous other restrictions. Women were generally excluded from taking the exams. Butchers and sorcerers were also excluded at times. Merchants were generally restricted from taking the exams until the Ming and Qing dynasties. During Sui and Tang artisans were also restricted from official service; during the Song dynasty artisans and merchants were specifically excluded from the jinshi exam; and, in the Liao dynasty, physicians, diviners, butchers, and merchants were all prohibited from taking the examinations. At times, quota systems were also used to restrict the number of candidates allowed to take or to pass the imperial civil service examinations, by region or by other criteria.
Chinese traditional religion responded to concerns about the imperial examination system. The examination system was also influential on the contemporary literary tradition.
From a certain viewpoint, the examination system represented the Confucian system in its most rationalist aspect. The test system was designed to achieve a society ruled by men of merit, as determined by an objective measure of the candidates ' knowledge and intelligence. However, in actual operation, the examinations also included various religious, mythical, or irrational beliefs, which made the examination structure more complex than the Confucian ideal.
A less scientifically rational idea which had a significant role in the cultural context of the examination system involved traditional beliefs about fate: that cosmic forces predestine certain human affairs, and particularly that individual success or failure was subject to the will of Heaven, or that the results of taking the tests could be influenced by the intervention of various deities.
Zhong Kui, also known as Chung - kuei, was a deity associated with the examination system. The story is that he was a scholar who took the tests, and, despite his most excellent performance, he was unfairly deprived of the first - place prize by a corrupt system: in response, he killed himself, the act of suicide condemning him to be a ghost. Many people afraid of traveling on roads and paths that may be haunted by evil spirits have worshiped Zhong Kui as a protective deity.
Also known as Kechang Yiwen Lu, the Strange Stories from the Examination Halls was a collection of stories popular among Confucian scholars of the Qing dynasty. The theme of many of the stories is that good deeds are rewarded by success in the examination halls, often by Heaven - inspired deities acting on karmic principles; and evil deeds result in failure, often under the influence of the ghosts of victims.
Some individuals were discriminated against because of their names, due to a naming taboo. For example, because the Tang dynasty poet Li He 's father 's name sounded like the jin, in jinshi, he was discouraged from taking the tests. The claim was that if Li He was called a jinshi, it would be against the rule of etiquette that a son not be called by his father 's name.
The Chinese imperial examination system had extensive influence throughout East Asia. It was used as a model by both the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties in Korea (see Gwageo) until the country 's annexation by Japan. The examination was technically open to all, except Nobi who were not subject to taxes or army service.
The Chinese system provided the framework for the Confucian examination system in Vietnam from the reign of the Lý dynasty Emperor Lý Nhân Tông (1075) until that of the Nguyễn dynasty Emperor Khải Định (1919).
Japan also used the system as a model in the Heian period; however, it affected only the minor nobility and was replaced by the hereditary system during the Samurai era.
The imperial examination system attracted much attention and greatly inspired political theorists in the Western World, and one of the earliest Chinese institutions to receive foreign notice. It influenced the Northcote -- Trevelyan Report and hence the reform of the Civil Service in British India. After Great Britain 's successful implementation of systematic, open, and competitive examinations in India in the 19th century, similar systems were instituted in the United Kingdom itself, and in other Western nations.
Some of the main outstanding questions regarding the imperial examinations are in regard to poetry. To what extent did the inclusion of poetry in the examinations influence the writing of poetry, for instance the proliferation of poetry during the Tang dynasty? There is a long history of debate on the usefulness of the procedure of testing the ability of the candidates to write poetry. During the Tang dynasty, a poetry section was added to the examinations, requiring the examinee to compose a shi poem in the five - character, 12 - line regulated verse form and a fu composition of 300 to 400 characters The poetry requirement remained standard for many decades, despite some controversy, although briefly abolished for the examination year 833 − 834 (by order of Li Deyu). During the Song dynasty, in the late 1060s Wang Anshi removed the traditional poetry composition sections (regulated verse and fu), on the grounds of irrelevancy to the official functions of bureaucratic office: on the other side of the debate, Su Shi (Dongpo) pointed out that the selection of great ministers of the past had not been obstructed by the poetry requirements, that the study and practice of poetry encouraged careful writing, and that the evaluation and grading of poetry was more objective than for the prose essays, due to the strict and detailed rules for writing verse according to the formal requirements.
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guy who sings scotty doesn't know in eurotrip | Scotty Does n't Know - Wikipedia
"Scotty Does n't Know '' is a song written and performed by the American rock band Lustra. Originally written for the 2004 film EuroTrip, the song contains numerous lewd references to how Scotty 's girlfriend Fiona has been cheating on him for an extended period of time; the song is written from the perspective of the person she is having the affair with. The song was eventually released on their 2006 album Left for Dead. The song peaked at # 53 on the U.S. Billboard Pop chart, # 39 on the Digital Songs chart and at # 75 on the Hot 100, mainly due to the high amount of digital downloads.
In the film EuroTrip, Scotty (Scott Mechlowicz) is dumped by his girlfriend Fiona (Kristin Kreuk) for the lead singer of a band (played in the film by Matt Damon). The band performs the song at a party Scotty is attending and is praised by many characters in the film (including Scotty 's parents and eventually Scotty himself) as being "catchy. '' The song becomes something of a popular phenomenon, appearing on the radio and across the world; in Bratislava, the song has been remixed and is playing in a popular nightclub. By the end of the film, it has become so widespread and popular that Scotty 's best friend Cooper is able to use it as his cell phone ring tone.
"Scotty Does n't Know '' debuted at # 89 on the U.S. Billboard Pop 100 for the chart week of July 22, 2006.
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where does the newell highway start and finish | Newell Highway - Wikipedia
The Newell Highway is a national highway in New South Wales, Australia. The route is currently signed as the A39, however before 2013 was signed as National Highway 39. The Newell Highway is an important road link for freight between Queensland and Victoria and regional centres in western NSW. At 1,058 kilometres (657 mi) in length, the Newell is the longest highway in New South Wales, and passes through fifteen local government areas.
Traffic volumes along the Newell Highway vary significantly from around 1,200 to 4,000 vehicles per day in rural areas. In the urban centres such as Dubbo, average daily traffic volumes are in the order of 20,000 vehicles a day. A large number of heavy vehicles use the Newell Highway -- on average, between 26 per cent and 52 per cent of all traffic on the route. At one point in the south west of the state, the highway carries approximately 1,900 vehicle movements daily, of which about 32 per cent are heavy vehicles; while at another point in the north west of the state, believed to be the highest traffic density on that highway, a truck passes every 60 seconds, 24 hours a day 7 days a week.
The Newell Highway carries the National Highway 39 shield for its entire length. The highway is generally flat, with long, straight sections joined by the occasional curved section. However, passing through the Warrumbungle Ranges, there are steeper grades and tighter curves than on the rest of the highway. Open road sections of the Newell Highway are mostly 110 km / h (68 mph) zones. The Newell Highway serves as a major road link between Melbourne and Brisbane; and is named in honour of H.H. Newell, the Commissioner of Main Roads in New South Wales from 1932 until 1941.
The highway runs generally north - south, parallel to the eastern coast of New South Wales, about 400 kilometres (250 mi) inland, and is the main inland direct road link from Victoria to Queensland, bypassing the more urbanised and congested coastal areas of the state.
From its northern terminus at Goondiwindi in Queensland where it meets the Leichhardt Highway, the Newell runs to the south across the New South Wales and Queensland state border through Boggabilla, Moree, Narrabri, Coonabarabran, Gilgandra, Dubbo, Parkes, Forbes, West Wyalong, Narrandera, Jerilderie, and Finley. The Newell meets its southern terminus at Tocumwal where the highway crosses the Murray River (part of the border between New South Wales and Victoria) and adjoins the Goulburn Valley Highway in Victoria.
The highway crosses eight major inland rivers, from north to south, the Macintyre between Goondiwindi and Boggabilla, the Mehi at Moree, the Namoi near Narrabri, the Castlereagh at Coonabarabran and at Gilgandra, the Macquarie at Dubbo, the Lachlan and Lake Forbes at Forbes, the Murrumbidgee at Narrandera, and the Murray River at Tocumwal. The Newell Highway is subject to periodic flooding north of Moree, at Dubbo, and south of Narrandera.
At various points on its route, the Newell shares part of its route with other highways including, from north to south, the Gwydir at Moree, the Kamilaroi near Narrabri, the Oxley and Castlereagh between Coonabarabran and Gilgandra, the Mitchell at Dubbo, the Mid-Western between Marsden and West Wyalong, and the Riverina near Finley.
The Newell was declared a State Highway in 1938, numbered No. 17, and named in honour of H.H. Newell following his death in 1941. At the time of its gazettal, the Newell Highway followed existing roads as far as possible, the exceptions being between Narrandera and West Wyalong and from Coonabarabran to Narrabri completed during 1941 - 42 and 1946 - 49 respectively as wartime and post-war defence projects. Between 1965 and November 1992 the Newell Highway carried the National Route 39 black and white shield and despite its misnomer as a national route, the highway was a patchwork of other national and state highways, and funding of the highway was in the main the responsibility of the NSW Government. Following the passage of the Australian Land Transport Development Act 1988 on 15 January 1993 the Australian Government gazetted the Newell as a national highway and assumed funding and administrative responsibility. A large number of non-reflective signs along the highway have reflective NH39 coverplates, a clear indication that they once showed NR39.
Cunningham Highway (National Highway A39) north to Leichhardt Highway (National Highway A39) and Cunningham Highway (National Route 42) -- Brisbane, Rockhampton, Warwick
Oxley Highway looking towards the Junction of Newell and Oxley Highways, just east of Coonabarabran, looking south - west.
National Route 39, the Newell Highway, in New South Wales, just south of West Wyalong, looking south.
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when was the last time canada was in the world cup | Canada at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
This is a record of Canada 's results at the FIFA World Cup. Canada has appeared in the FIFA World Cup on one occasion, which was in 1986.
Head coach: Tony Waiters
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when did melbourne win there last grand final | Melbourne Football club - Wikipedia
The Melbourne Football Club, nicknamed the Demons, is a professional Australian rules football club, playing in the Australian Football League (AFL). It is named after and based in the city of Melbourne, Victoria, and plays its home games at the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG).
Melbourne is the world 's oldest professional club of any football code. The club 's origins can be traced to an 1858 letter in which Tom Wills, captain of the Victoria cricket team, calls for the formation of a "foot - ball club '' with its own "code of laws ''. An informal Melbourne team played that winter and was officially formed in May 1859 when Wills and three other members codified "The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club '' -- the basis of Australian rules football. The club was a dominant force in the earliest Australian rules football competition, the Challenge Cup, and was also a foundation member of the Victorian Football Association (VFA) in 1877 and the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1896, which later became the national Australian Football League. Melbourne has won 12 VFL / AFL premierships, the latest in 1964.
The club celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2008 by naming "150 Heroes '' as well as creating a birthday logo which appeared on its official guernsey.
The football club has been a sporting section of the Melbourne Cricket Club (MCC) since 2009, having previously been associated with the MCC between 1889 and 1980.
In the winter and spring of 1858, a loosely organised football team known as Melbourne played in a series of scratch matches in the parklands outside the Melbourne Cricket Ground. This team was captained by Tom Wills, a prominent athlete and captain of the Victoria cricket team, who, on 10 July that year, had a letter of his published by the Melbourne - based Bell 's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle, in which he calls for the formation of a "foot - ball club '' with a "code of laws '' to keep cricketers fit during winter. Other figures associated with this embryonic Melbourne side include cricketers Jerry Bryant, William Hammersley and J.B. Thompson, and teacher Thomas H. Smith.
During meetings held on 17 and 21 May 1859, Wills, Hammersley, Thompson and Smith met near the MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, to draft "The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club ''. The resulting ten codified rules are the laws from which Australian rules football evolved.
The first mention of an interclub match played under the new code was between Melbourne and South Yarra in July 1859, with Hammersley as Melbourne 's inaugural captain.
In 1861, Melbourne participated in the Caledonian Society 's Challenge Cup, but lost the trophy to the Melbourne University Football Club. The club pushed for its rules to be the accepted rules, however many of the early suburban matches were played under compromised rules decided between the captains of the competing clubs.
Although some Melbourne players and officials were associated with the cricket club, the football club was not initially allowed to use the MCG, so it used a nearby field at Yarra Park as its home ground instead.
By 1866 several other clubs had also adopted an updated version of Melbourne 's rules, drafted at a meeting chaired by Wills ' cousin, H.C.A. Harrison. Harrison was a key figure in the early years of the club; he often served as captain and, in later years, as president. Due to his popular reputation and administrative efforts, he was officially named "Father of Australian Football '' in 1908, the year of the sport 's golden jubilee.
During the 1870s, Melbourne fielded teams in the Seven Twenties and South Yarra Cup competitions.
After a visit to England by one of the club 's officials, the colours of red and green were officially adopted by the club. Shortly afterward, the club began wearing a predominantly red strip and became informally known by supporters as the "Redlegs ''.
The name "Redlegs '' was coined after a Melbourne official returned from a trip to England with one set of red and another of blue woollen socks. Melbourne wore the red set while the blue set was, allegedly, given to the Carlton Football Club. This may be the source of Carlton 's nickname, ' The Blueboys '.
In 1877, the club became a foundation member of the Victorian Football Association (VFA). During the same year the club took part in the first interstate football match involving a South Australian side, Victorian, defeating the home side 1 - 0. During this time, the club was known as the "Fuchsias ''. Melbourne never won a VFA premiership, although they were consistently one of the stronger teams in the competition, finishing runner - up four times, to Carlton in 1877 (the inaugural year of the VFA), to Geelong in 1878 and twice to Essendon in 1893 and 1894.
In 1889, the MFC was reincorporated into the MCC, and for many years the two organisations remained unhappily linked. The MFC 's close association with the MCC allowed it to claim the MCG as its home ground and gave it access to a wealthy membership base, but Melbourne 's reputation as an "establishment '' club was not always an advantage. MCC members have the automatic right to attend all events at the ground, including MFC football games. This meant many potential members had a reduced incentive to join the football club, and Melbourne 's membership remained one of the lowest in the competition.
In 1897, the MFC was part of the breakaway Victorian Football League, and has been a part of the competition ever since. The team became known as the "Redlegs ''. This nickname is still used by some members and supporter groups within the club.
In 1900 Melbourne won its first VFL premiership, defeating Fitzroy. Melbourne 's greatest player of these early years of the VFL was Ivor Warne - Smith, who in 1926 won the club 's first Brownlow Medal, the League 's annual award for the fairest and best player. In that year Melbourne won its second flag. Warne - Smith went on to win a second Brownlow in 1928.
Frank ' Checker ' Hughes became Melbourne 's coach in 1933, and under his leadership, the club entered a golden age. He was the driving force behind changing the club 's nickname from the Fuchsias to the Demons.
In 1939, 1940 and 1941 Melbourne won its third, fourth and fifth flags. In 1946 Don Cordner became the second Demon to win the Brownlow. In 1947 Fred Fanning kicked a record 18 goals in the last game of the season. The following season Melbourne played the first ever drawn Grand Final, against Essendon, and went on to win the premiership the following week.
Norm Smith became Melbourne 's coach in 1952, and the following season Ron Barassi played his first game. These two were to take Melbourne to new heights in the coming years. The Demons made the Grand Final in 1954, losing to Footscray, won the flag in 1955, 1956 and 1957, lost to Collingwood in 1958, and then won again in 1959 and 1960 with Smith as coach and Barassi as captain.
1964 Melbourne won its 12th flag, defeating Collingwood, at the end of the season, Barassi left the club to become captain - coach of Carlton. The following season Norm Smith was sacked after a dispute with the club. Although he was soon reinstated, things were never the same again for the Demons. The club appeared in Grand Finals from 1954 -- 1960 and every Finals ' Series from 1954 -- 1964.
After the 1954 Grand Final loss to Footscray, no team was able to score 100 points against the club until Collingwood in round 5 1963. The next team was Geelong with 110 in round 1 1964. The 1965 season started with eight wins but only two wins from the next 10 games saw the end of the era. They would have to wait until 1987 for Melbourne to make the finals again.
Poor recruiting zones and management meant that Melbourne, under coaches John Beckwith (1968 -- 70), Ian Ridley (1971 -- 73), Bob Skilton (1974 -- 77), Dennis Jones (1978) and Carl Ditterich (1979 -- 80), languished near the bottom of the League ladder for most of the 1970s. Their best start to a season was in 1971 when they were at the top of the ladder after the first round and maintained that position until it lost to Collingwood in round 6. Melbourne was still in second place at the start of the second half of the season but a dramatic slump had them dropping to fifth position five weeks later. They finished with only two more wins and a draw.
In 1976, Melbourne missed what looked to be an almost certain finals appearance. In the final round, they only needed to beat bottom side Collingwood and Footscray one place ahead were expected to lose to the top side Carlton. They beat Collingwood at Victoria Park but an unexpected drawn game between Footscray and Carlton saw them miss fifth position. Had Footscray lost the game, Melbourne 's superior percentage would have led them to a fifth spot finish.
Melbourne collected Wooden spoons in 1974 and 1978, and in 1979 they suffered the worst defeat in VFL / AFL history, losing to Fitzroy by 190 points in round 17. Although they beat Essendon the following week
In 1980, the MFC finally legally separated from the MCC, becoming a public company, in an effort to attract more members and improve the club 's finances. The season produced one less win than 1979 (five) but the club finished higher -- ninth. It became evident that drastic action was needed for a club that had missed 16 finals series in a row the return of former star Ron Barassi was seen as the cure. When Barassi left in 1965 it was felt that he would eventually return and his arrival caused much excitement and an expectation of immediate success.
In 1981, under the chairmanship of Sir Billy Snedden, Barassi returned to Melbourne as the senior coach and immediately appointed Robert Flower as captain. In Barassi 's first year the team finished last, but this was attributed to working out who the willing players were and the club won some powerful victories in the next three seasons. There was a distinct revival during the middle of the 1984 season. The club had lost 6 of its first 7 games but won its next 6, two by large margins. After a powerful win against reigning premiers Hawthorn in round 13, elevating the club to 4th place on the ladder, Barassi 's five - year plan seemed close to fruition. However, a loss the following week to eventual premiers Essendon seemed to demoralize the club and they only won two more games.
Even though during his era Brian Wilson won the Brownlow in 1982, and Peter Moore won it in 1984, Barassi 's coaching was not directly able to get the club back into premiership contention, although his coaching may have set a precedent for the success that occurred 2 years after his departure.
In 1987, Melbourne made the finals under John Northey (for the first time since 1964), losing the Preliminary Final to Hawthorn on the last kick of the game after the final siren. It was also the last game played by the team captain Robert Flower. In 1988 the Demons did even better, reaching their first Grand Final in 24 years, only to be defeated, again, by Hawthorn.
From 1987 to 1991, Melbourne had five positive win - loss differentials in successive seasons which the club had not been able to achieve since the 1954 -- 65 era. Thereafter things went downhill for Northey, although Jim Stynes won the Brownlow in 1991. In 1992, the club finished 11th, and Northey was replaced by Neil Balme as coach. Balme coached Melbourne into the finals in 1994, but the last game loss to Brisbane saw them drop out of the top - eight in 1995, and the club lingered at or near the bottom of the ladder for most of the 1996 season.
By 1996, the club was also in dire financial straits. The board, headed by past player Ian Ridley decided on the desperate step of a merger with Hawthorn. In the ensuing weeks, a passionate debate was fought between pro and anti-merger supporters. In the first few days of this debate, lifelong supporters Mark and Anthony Jenkins met with coterie member George Zagon to form the Demon Alternative -- an anti-merger group that was to significantly impact on the plans of the incumbent board. The Demon Alternative recruited members from a wide range of areas but the two most recognised were former player and politician Brian Dixon and Rabbi Joseph Gutnick. The group quickly organised itself into a credible option for Melbourne supporters; however given the support of the AFL and other factors, when the merger issue was put to a vote, a majority of Melbourne members supported the board. In a meeting on the opposite side of town, Hawthorn members rejected their board 's proposal and eventually the merger was defeated.
In the aftermath of the merger meetings, Ridley focused on a compromise with the Demons Alternative to ensure that Melbourne could continue as a viable business. His board co-opted Gutnick and Mark Jenkins onto the board and a truce of sorts was struck between all parties. In the months following the 1996 merger vote, the businessman and Joseph Gutnick became president. He put $3 million of his own money into the club, and sacked Balme as coach midway through the 1997 season. In 1998, under new coach Neale Daniher, the club spent most of the season in the top eight and beat the eventual premiers Adelaide in the Qualifying Final. Melbourne also eliminated St Kilda, but lost to North Melbourne in the Preliminary Final. In 1999 Melbourne finished in the bottom three.
In 2000 Daniher took Melbourne to the Grand Final, but the Demons were convincingly beaten by Essendon. The members had expected a new era of success, but in 2001 it was the same old story: Melbourne finished 11th. In 2002, although Melbourne again made the finals, Gutnick was voted out by the members.
In 2003, Melbourne plunged into a new crisis, winning only five games for the year and posting a $1 million loss. President Gabriel Szondy resigned and it seemed that Daniher 's tenure as coach was under threat. But, continuing the recent trend, in 2004, Melbourne climbed the ladder again, winning 14 games and leading the competition, albeit for one round only, in round 18; from there, the club lost five matches in a row, including the elimination final, to finish seventh. During the 2004 post-season, the Demons tragically lost defender Troy Broadbridge in the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, when he was swept off Phi Phi island in Thailand. He was walking along the beach with his wife Trisha when the tsunami struck. His body was found on 3 January 2005, and brought home. A funeral was held on 20 January 2005 in recognition to the No. 20 guernsey he wore during his playing days. During the 2005 off - season, the whole team travelled to the island in which Broadbridge was killed to build a new school for those struck by the tsunami. The No. 20 jumper was then rested for two years.
Melbourne started 2005 strongly, being second after round 12, however losing momentum by round 19 appeared unlikely to play finals, then wins against Western Bulldogs, Geelong at Geelong (where Melbourne had not won since the late 1980s), and Essendon in round 22, placed the club seventh and a finals berth, only to lose the Elimination Final to Geelong by 55 points.
In 2006, after a slow start, Melbourne again finished the season in seventh position. After defeating St Kilda in the second Elimination Final by 18 points the season ended the following week when Fremantle beat the Demons by 28 points. Melbourne 's coach Neale Daniher had become the second longest - serving coach of Melbourne, and the longest - surviving in the entire history of the VFL / AFL not to have coached a premiership side.
Season 2007 was a poor one for Melbourne. After losing their first nine games through a combination of injury and poor form, they finally broke through with wins against Adelaide and Collingwood. But, following a loss to Richmond the next week, Daniher resigned from the club, and Mark Riley was appointed as caretaker coach. The resignation of Daniher caused significant tension at the club. It was an unpopular move with the leadership group, and captain David Neitz expressed his dissatisfaction over the decision. Winning three of their remaining nine games, Melbourne avoided the wooden spoon and finished 14th.
Dean Bailey was appointed as coach for the 2008 season, but success did not follow, as Melbourne lost their first six matches, before breaking through with a record comeback win in round seven against Fremantle. They showed signs of improvement, putting up a good fight in round nine against top - of - the - ladder team Hawthorn, who was undefeated at the time. Melbourne had to wait until round 14 for the second win. After good performances, against Collingwood, Richmond, and Sydney in the preceding weeks, the Demons defeated Brisbane by a solitary point in the two teams ' first encounter at the MCG in nine years.
Off field, the club remained in serious turmoil. In the first sign of troubles in February 2008, CEO Steve Harris resigned. Paul Gardner addressed the media in response to comments from the club 's auditors spelling disaster for the club. Gardner reiterated that the club had posted a $97,000 profit at the end of 2007. Harris was replaced by the high - profile former Wimbledon tennis champion Paul McNamee. Despite celebrating the club 's birthday with an official mid-season function at Crown Casino, shortly afterward chairman Paul Gardner resigned, handing the presidency to former club champion Jim Stynes who inherited a $4.5 million debt, which media pundits suggested would cripple the club. Hawthorn 's president Jeff Kennett caused controversy with remarks about relocating the Demons to the Gold Coast, something which Stynes spoke against. AFL CEO Andrew Demetriou dispelled the notion that the club 's future was in doubt, but admitted that Stynes ' board faced a huge challenge. Demons legend, games and goalkicking record holder, David Neitz, announced his immediate retirement due to injury on 19 May.
Stynes wasted no time attempting to change the club 's direction and eliminate debt, introducing a drive called "Debt Demolition '', beginning with a call for members to sign - up. Under Stynes ' direction, the new board sacked Paul McNamee after just four months. During McNamee 's tenure, he had drawn criticisms for holidaying in Wimbledon to compete in a legends match and after his sacking an attempt to lure Brisbane Lions star Jonathan Brown was also revealed. A 5 August fundraiser raised $1.3 million. The club raised well over $3 million. Despite the reduced debt, in November new club CEO Cameron Schwab declared that it required urgent AFL assistance to continue, requesting additional funding to its special annual distribution. In December, a fallout in negotiations between the Melbourne Cricket Club resulted in the MCC not committing an expected $2 million to the club and Schwab declared that the club 's immediate future was in doubt.
This doubt was quickly put to bed when the AFL and MCC finalised negotioations. The AFL committed $1 million to the club in 2009, with the MCC matching the AFL contribution.
By the midpoint of the 2009 season, things had improved both on and off - field for Melbourne. They had secured a record number of members, re-merged with the MCC, knocked - off more debt and were starting to show some fight on - field. Players such as Liam Jurrah had begun to emerge as top young talents and were catching the eye of the footballing public. However, on the eve of the round 14 clash against West Coast, influential president Jim Stynes announced that he had cancer, this evoked a very emotional response from the footballing public and the club lifted from three embarrassing defeats the weeks before to convincingly beat West Coast in front of a passionate MCG crowd. At the end of the season, Melbourne finished 16th on the ladder and for the second year in a row won no more than four games which granted them a Priority Pick in the National draft. Melbourne, therefore, had picks 1 and 2 in the draft to build on their young talent. At the end of the season fan favourites Russell Robertson, Matthew Whelan and Paul Wheatley announced that they would no longer be playing for Melbourne in 2010 and beyond. During September 2009, midfielder Brock McLean asked to be a traded and a deal involving Carlton 's pick 11 in the National draft was agreed to.
After losing their first game against Hawthorn by 50 points and a narrow defeat to Collingwood, Melbourne strung together three consecutive wins against Adelaide, Richmond and Brisbane, making it the first time they have won three games in a row since 2006. Their 50 - point win over the previously undefeated and top - of - the - table Brisbane Lions, was the upset of the round, along with Port Adelaide 's shock win against St Kilda. It was the Demons ' victory over Brisbane that started their freefall, winning only three more games for the season. However, losses to North Melbourne, Western Bulldogs and the poorly performing West Coast seemed to end the Dees finals dream. However, the Demons made a comeback when they narrowly defeated Port Adelaide by one point, at a home game in Darwin. Though subsequent losses to Geelong and Carlton lowered the Demons spirits, they fought a hard battle against arch - enemy Collingwood and came out with a draw. Despite showing great resilience against Collingwood, the Demons were handed two further blows with losses to Adelaide and St Kilda. The following round saw a match - up with Essendon that would decide either team 's fate. Though both teams fought hard, the Demons came out on top by 19 points, keeping their finals dreams alive and moving above Essendon on the ladder. The Demons then travelled to Perth, where after a poor start, they fought back, but fell away to lose by 11 points to finals aspirant Fremantle. The next week they faced Sydney at the MCG, for the first time since 2006. Melbourne defeated Sydney by 73 points, thereby inflicting the worst loss Sydney has ever had, under premiership - winning coach, Paul Roos. This was followed up with a 10 - point win over the Brisbane Lions at the Gabba where the Demons had not won since 2006. The Demons finished the 2010 season in 12th position with eight and a half wins (more than double their win tallies from 2008 and 2009 combined); that could have easily been eleven if not for close results against 2010 Premiers Collingwood during the course of the year (a one - point loss in round 2 and a draw in round 12) and the Western Bulldogs (a four - point loss in round seven).
On 5 August, the club announced that Jim Stynes ' goal of wiping out the club 's debt that had plagued them for so long had finally been achieved. The event also saw Melbourne unveil its proposed new logo, which incorporates a trident, the Southern Cross, as well as the inaugural rules of Australian rules football.
Melbourne 's 2011 season started with a dramatic draw against Sydney, tying 11.18. (84) apiece after Melbourne captain Brad Green had soccered through a goal with four minutes remaining, only to see their short lead disappear by the final siren. Melbourne, heading into the match, had not won its season - opening match since 2005, nor did Sydney. round 2 saw Melbourne lose dramatically to Hawthorn by 45 points after leading by 19 at halftime. Their next two matches leading into the round 5 bye saw them defeat Brisbane by 11 points and the Gold Coast by 90 points.
However, in an eventful twist to their season, the Demons only recorded four wins between the bye in round 5 and the second bye in round 16, that being a record 96 - point thrashing of Adelaide at the MCG in round 7 and a convincing 33 - point win over top eight side Essendon in round 11, a record 89 - point thrashing of Fremantle in Rround 13, and a 27 - point victory over Richmond in round 14.
In round 19, the Demons suffered the second - heaviest defeat in AFL / VFL history -- a 186 - point humiliation at the hands of Geelong. Twenty - four hours later, the Melbourne Football Club called an urgent board meeting after which coach Dean Bailey was sacked with five games remaining in the 2011 season. He left the club with only 22 wins from 83 games -- a winning percentage of just over 25 %, however, he was credited for rebuilding the club following the retirements of David Neitz, Adem Yze and Russell Robertson early in Bailey 's coaching career. Demons assistant coach and former player Todd Viney was appointed the caretaker coach for the remainder of the season, achieving 1 win the five games he coached. On 17 September 2011, Mark Neeld was appointed as senior coach for a three - year term.
On 13 April 2012, it was announced that Webjet would take over the sponsorship of Melbourne Football Club after the controversial comments by former Melbourne sponsor, Ben Pollis, of Energy Watch. On the field, the Demons had a poor start to the season, losing the first nine matches of the season before finally winning in round 10, upsetting then top - placed Essendon by six points.
Despite the off - season acquisitions of several players, such as Shannon Byrnes, Tom Gillies, Chris Dawes, David Rodan and Jack Viney, the Demons underachieved in the first half of the 2013 season, managing just one win in their first 11 games. As the result of this poor start to the season, during the Demons ' mid-season bye on 17 June 2013, Mark Neeld was sacked as head coach. His sacking came within weeks of the departures of senior Demons ' staff members Cameron Schwab and Don McLardy. Neeld left the Demons with just five wins in 33 games coached, for a winning percentage of just 15 %. Demons ' senior assistant coach, Neil Craig, was appointed as the caretaker coach for the remainder of the season. Following a disastrous season finish of 17th on the ladder with two wins, on 6 September the club announced that Sydney premiership coach Paul Roos had signed a two - year deal to coach the Demons, with the option of a third year.
On 31 July 2012, the AFL 's Integrity Officer, Brett Clothier, announced a full investigation into Melbourne 's 2009 season regarding allegations that the Demons had "tanked '' (set out to lose) games during the season to secure a priority draft - pick that year, available to clubs winning fewer than five games. Although the press had published such allegations previously, the investigation was prompted by specific statements from former player Brock McLean during a TV interview on On The Couch earlier in July 2012. Melbourne club officials, led by board chairman Don McLardy, vigorously denied the tanking allegations. The investigation lasted 203 days and Clothier interviewed over 50 people associated with the club. The AFL released its findings on 19 February 2013. Clothier effectively cleared Melbourne of tanking, stating "there was no directive from the board and executive of the Melbourne Football Club to deliberately lose matches and that the club, coach and players did not deliberately set out to lose matches. '' However, the investigation did establish a ' secret ' meeting, known as "The Vault '', had taken place during 2009 at which club football manager Chris Connolly impressed upon then - coach Dean Bailey the desirability of procuring a priority draft pick. The AFL fined Melbourne $500,000 and suspended Connolly for one year from involvement in Melbourne 's training and match - day duties and Bailey (subsequently an assistant coach of Adelaide) for 16 weeks from coaching duties, on the basis they had contravened rule 1.6 by "acting in a manner prejudicial to the interests of the AFL. '' Neither Melbourne, Connolly or Bailey contested these penalties.
Paul Roos 's first year in his tenure as Demon 's head coach saw an improvement from their 2013 season, with the Demons doubling their win tally and their points tally, in addition to increasing their percentage and reducing the number of points conceded by the team. However, the Demons finished the season in 17th place for the second consecutive season.
Under Roos, the club continued to steadily improve winning 7 games in 2015 as well as blooding and developing more young talent into the team. Key forward Jesse Hogan would win the Ron Evans Medal as the AFL rising star kicking 44 goals in his first season. 2016 would embark a 10 - 12 season for the team, ruckman Max Gawn would receive All Australian honours as well polling 16 votes in the Brownlow Medal.
2017 saw the addition of a Melbourne AFL Women 's team captained by Daisy Pearce, the team narrowly missed out on making the grand final by percentage finishing 5 - 2. The club would surpass 40,000 members for the first time in their history in May.
Melbourne started their 2017 campaign with an emphatic win against fellow top eight contenders, St Kilda before a tight win against Carlton saw the Demons claim victory in the first two rounds of a season for the first time since 2005. By the midway point of the season, Melbourne sat on five wins and six losses with the main highlight being a 41 - point victory over Adelaide at the Adelaide Oval. Following their bye, the Demons claimed three victories in a row including a thriller against Collingwood on Queens Birthday, a 57 - point win against 2016 premiers the Western Bulldogs and a last - minute miracle against the West Coast Eagles where defender turned forward Tom McDonald kicked a goal over his head in the dying seconds to secure Melbourne 's first win in Perth in over a decade.
The Demons also had a tough time with injury. Key forward Jesse Hogan was diagnosed with testicular cancer before successful surgery and recovery saw him return in round 16, 2016 All - Australian ruckman Max Gawn missed half the season with a serious hamstring injury and co-captains Jack Viney and Nathan Jones found themselves on the sidelines during late - season games with a foot and calf injury respectively. To add insult to injury, undisciplined on - field acts found the Demons losing key players to suspension. The long list included: Jordan Lewis 3 games, Jesse Hogan 2 games, Bernie Vince 2 games and Tomas Bugg 6 games.
Melbourne finished the 2017 home - and - away season in ninth place with a win - loss record of 12 - 10, missing out on eighth spot to West Coast by 0.5 % after West Coast beat minor premiers Adelaide in the last round to leapfrog Melbourne on percentage.
Second - year player Clayton Oliver claimed his first Keith ' Bluey ' Truscott Trophy over co-captain Jack Viney while small forward Jeff Garlett topped the club goalkicking list with 42 majors for the season. Essendon recruit Michael Hibberd also enjoyed a successful debut season in the red and blue and was named as Melbourne 's sole player in the final 22 of the 2017 All - Australian team.
In 2018 Melbourne had a much improved season, but their form was relatively shaky as they started the season 2 wins to 3 losses, with large losses to Hawthorn and reigning premiers Richmond. However the club rallied behind a 36 point win over Essendon and go on to win the next 5 games in a row, and eventually finish in 5th place with a record of 14 - 8, to qualify for the finals for the first time in 12 years, narrow losses to Geelong and St Kilda proving to be the difference between an elimination final and a double chance. In spite of this the Demons began well in the finals, defeating Geelong in the first elimination final and eliminating Hawthorn in straight sets to earn a preliminary final spot for the first time since 2000, in which they were eliminated by the eventual premier, the West Coast Eagles by 66 points.
The former club mascot was Ronald Deeman, or also known as Ruckle. He carried a trident, had devil horns and a pointed devil tail.
The current club mascots are Chuck, Checker Cheeky, named after legendary coach "Checker '' Hughes, Daisy named after captain of the women 's team Daisy Pearce and Flash named after 2009 Keith ' Bluey ' Truscott Medallist, Aaron Davey.
The current Melbourne club jumper consists of a red V - neck on a navy blue background, with the AFL logo on the front as well. The major sponsors, Zurich and iSelect, appear on the front and back of the guernsey respectively.
The Melbourne clash strip, new in 2018, consists of a "retro '' inspired home strip of royal blue with a red yoke with white shorts as worn between 1975 and 1986. The alternate away strip is the same as the home strip with the difference being the back entirely in red to allow the club to wear a non white alternate strip. New Balance have manufactured Melbourne 's on and off field apparel since 2011.
The official Melbourne Football Club song is called "It 's a Grand Old Flag '' (sung to the tune of "You 're a Grand Old Flag ''). The club resurrected the original second verse in February 2011 for the 2011 season.
Melbourne has traditionally had one of the smallest supporter bases of the Victorian teams but has improved their membership and attendances steadily since the failed Hawthorn merger in 1996, building a membership base of over 30,000 since 2009. The membership record of 36,937 was set in 2011 before it was broken in April 2016 to finish with 39,211 for the 2016 season, this record was broken the next year in April 2017. In May 2017, Melbourne signed up 40,000 members for the first time.
The Melbourne Football Club Team of the Century was announced on 24 June 2000 at Crown Casino. The selectors were Percy Beames (former player and journalist), Lynda Carroll (club historian), Bill Guest (MFC Director), Greg Hobbs (journalist), John Mitchell (former MFC and MCC President), Linda Pearce (journalist), Dudley Phillips (supporter), Stephen Phillips (media consultant) and Mike Sheahan (journalist), with CEO John Anderson as non-voting chairman.
Stan Alves, Ian Ridley, Bob Johnson and Greg Wells were all named as emergencies.
The Hall of Fame was introduced in 2001 with Norm Smith inducted directly as a legend. The Hall of Fame consists of five legends and forty - four inductees.
Ron Barassi
Don Cordner
Ian Ridley
Norm Smith
Ivor Warne - Smith
Frank Adams Sam Allica Stan Alves Ron Baggott Percy Beames John Beckwith Joe Blair Barry Bourke Jim Cardwell
Geoff Case Albert Chadwick Denis Cordner Brian Dixon Robert Flower Maurie Gibb Gary Hardeman H.C.A. Harrison Greg Healy
Frank Hughes Alan Johnson Bob Johnson Tassie Johnson Allan La Fontaine Clyde Laidlaw Wally Lock Brett Lovett Garry Lyon
Hassa Mann William McClelland Fred McGinis Shane McGrath Noel McMahen Laurie Mithen Jack Mueller David Neitz Percy Page
Dudley Phillips Stuart Spencer Jim Stynes Todd Viney Greg Wells Sean Wight Don Williams Tom Wills
Melbourne FC announced its "150 Heroes '' to celebrate its 150th anniversary at Crown Casino on 7 June 2008. Each player, or their closest relative, was presented with an official 150 heroes medallion. The criteria for inclusion was games played (minimum of 100), best - and - fairest awards, premierships, Brownlow Medals, contribution to the club and state representation. Those who died in the war were judged based on their achievements before their death.
The heroes named were:
Jim Abernethy, Frank Adams, Bill Allen, Stan Alves, Syd Anderson, Tony Anderson, Lance Arnold, Ron Baggott, Garry Baker, Harold Ball, Ron Barassi, Percy Beames, John Beckwith, George Bickford, Ray Biffin, Barry Bourke, Harry Brereton, Cameron Bruce, Keith Carroll, Geoff Case, Albert Chadwick, Noel Clarke, Geoff Collins, Jack Collins, Chris Connolly, Bob Corbett, Denis Cordner, Don Cordner, Ted Cordner, Vin Coutie, Harry Coy, Jim Davidson, Frank Davis, Ross Dillon, Carl Ditterich, Brian Dixon, Len Dockett, Adrian Dullard, Hugh Dunbar, Richie Emselle, Fred Fanning, Jeff Farmer, Matthew Febey, Steven Febey, Dick Fenton - Smith, Rowley Fischer, Robert Flower, Laurie Fowler, Maurie Gibb, Peter Giles, Terry Gleeson, Brad Green, Rod Grinter, George Haines, Gary Hardeman, Henry Harrison, Gerard Healy, Greg Healy, Dick Hingston, Paul Hopgood, Danny Hughes, Anthony Ingerson, Eddie Jackson, Alan Johnson, Bob Johnson, Tassie Johnson, Trevor Johnson, Travis Johnstone, Gordon Jones, Les Jones, Bryan Kenneally, Allan La Fontaine, Clyde Laidlaw, Frank Langley, Jack Leith, Andrew Leoncelli, Charlie Lilley, Wally Lock, Harry Long, John Lord, Andy Lovell, Brett Lovett, Glenn Lovett, Garry Lyon, Hassa Mann, George Margitich, Peter Marquis, Bernie Massey, Anthony McDonald, James McDonald, Fred McGinis, Shane McGrath, Bob McKenzie, Col McLean, Ian McLean, Noel McMahen, Ken Melville, Laurie Mithen, Peter Moore, Jack Mueller, David Neitz, Stephen Newport, Jack O'Keefe, Andrew Obst, Gordon Ogden, Greg Parke, Joe Pearce, Jack Purse, Ian Ridley, Guy Rigoni, Frank Roberts, Russell Robertson, Alby Rodda, Brian Roet, Peter Rohde, Alan Rowarth, David Schwarz, Norm Smith, Steven Smith, Earl Spalding, Stuart Spencer, Charlie Streeter, Steven Stretch, Jim Stynes, Tony Sullivan, Dick Taylor, Ted Thomas, Ian Thorogood, Stephen Tingay, John Townsend, Keith Truscott, Geoff Tunbridge, Bill Tymms, Barrie Vagg, Francis Vine, Todd Viney, Ivor Warne - Smith, Ray Wartman, Athol Webb, Greg Wells, Jeff White, Sean Wight, Don Williams, Brian Wilson, Stan Wittman, Shane Woewodin, Graeme Yeats, Charlie Young, Adem Yze
Head coach
Assistant coaches
Updated: 27 October 2018 Source (s): Players, Coaches
The honour board is listed from the first VFL / AFL season and includes the following individual awards:
Legend: ^ Premiers, * Grand finalist, † Finals, ‡ Wooden spoon Bold italics: competition leading goal kicker
In June 2013, the club fielded a women 's representative side against Western Bulldogs in the first AFL - sanctioned women 's exhibition match, held at the MCG. The two teams competed annually over the next three years for the Hampson - Hardeman Cup. In 2016, when the AFL announced plans for AFL Women 's, an eight team national women 's league competition, Melbourne was asked to submit an application for a licence alongside other AFL clubs. The club was one of four Melbourne - based clubs to be granted a licence that year.
The club 's first players were marquee signings Daisy Pearce and Melissa Hickey. The full list was completed later in the year with signings and selections made in the October draft period.
Oakleigh Chargers coach Mick Stinear was appointed the team 's inaugural head coach in September 2016.
Head coach
Assistant coaches
Updated: 25 October 2018 Source (s): Players, Coaches
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the office season 3 episode 11 online free | List of the Office (us TV series) episodes - wikipedia
The Office is an American television sitcom broadcast on NBC. Created as an adaptation by Greg Daniels of the British series of the same name, it is a mockumentary that follows the day - to - day lives of the employees of the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of Dunder Mifflin, a fictional paper supply company. The series ran on NBC in the United States from March 24, 2005 to May 16, 2013. Additionally, nine spin - off series of webisodes of The Office have been aired on NBC.com.
The Office aired a short first season in 2005 that consisted of six episodes. This was followed by a full - length second season in 2005 -- 06 that consisted of 22 episodes, and a third season in 2006 -- 07, with 25 episodes. Due to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike, the fourth season that aired in 2007 -- 08 consisted of 19 episodes. The fifth season aired during 2008 -- 09 and consisted of 28 episodes. The sixth season aired during 2009 -- 10 and consisted of 26 episodes. The seventh season aired during 2010 -- 11 and consisted of 26 episodes. The eighth season aired during 2011 -- 12 and consisted of 24 episodes. The ninth season aired during 2012 -- 13 and consisted of 25 episodes. A total of 201 episodes of The Office aired over nine seasons.
The first set of webisodes, titled The Accountants, consisted of ten episodes and ran between the second and third seasons. Kevin 's Loan consisted of four episodes and ran between the fourth and fifth seasons. The Outburst aired in the middle of the fifth season and consisted of four episodes. Blackmail aired during the end of the fifth season and consisted of four episodes. Subtle Sexuality aired during the beginning of the sixth season and consisted of three episodes. The Mentor aired near the end of the sixth season and consisted of four episodes. The 3rd Floor aired during the beginning of the seventh season and consisted of three episodes. The Podcast aired near the middle of the seventh season (was previously available on the season 6 DVD) and consisted of three episodes. The latest webisode series, The Girl Next Door aired near the end of the seventh season and consisted of two episodes.
The first eight seasons are available on DVD in region 1, while the first seven seasons are available in regions 2 and 4. Starting with season five, the series is available on Blu - ray Disc. This list is ordered by the episodes ' original air dates and not by the production code numbers provided by NBC 's official episode guide, which show the order in which episodes were filmed.
Season one aired between March 24 and April 26, 2005. It originally debuted as a midseason replacement for Committed. It carried over general plot ideas from the earlier British series created by Stephen Merchant and Ricky Gervais, and particularly the threat of wholesale downsizing. However, only the pilot was a direct adaptation of one of the UK version 's episodes.
This season introduced the main characters, and established the general plot as a documentary crew is recording the lives of the employees of the fictitious Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In a mockumentary format, it shows Michael Scott (Steve Carell), regional manager of the Scranton branch office, as he tries to convince the filmmakers of the documentary that he presides over a happy, well - running office. Meanwhile, sales rep Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) finds methods to undermine his cube - mate, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson); receptionist Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) is trying to deal with Michael 's insensitivities and flubs; and the temporary employee Ryan Howard (B.J. Novak) is acting mostly as an observer of the insanity around him.
Season two of The Office premiered on September 20, 2005, and ended on May 11, 2006. NBC initially ordered only six episodes for the season, and in September, ordered seven more. On November 3, 2005, NBC ordered an additional three, and in the end it had ordered a full season of 22 episodes. Season two featured the first "super-sized '' 40 - minute episode of The Office.
The second season further developed into the plot of the fear of company downsizing, along with the introduction of new characters and developing some of the minor ones -- especially that of Dwight. As Michael starts a relationship with his boss Jan Levenson (Melora Hardin), Pam and Jim 's relationship become one of the focal points of the season. Their compatibility becomes more obvious as Jim 's feelings for Pam continue to grow, while she struggles with her relationship with the warehouse worker Roy Anderson (David Denman).
Season three premiered on September 21, 2006, and ended on May 17, 2007. It featured 25 episodes, including two hour - long episodes, four "super-sized '' episodes, and guest directors such as J.J. Abrams, Joss Whedon and Harold Ramis.
The season marked the move of main character Jim Halpert from Scranton to Stamford, and also introduced Rashida Jones as Karen Filippelli, and Ed Helms as Andy Bernard (both members of Dunder Mifflin Stamford) as recurring characters. Helms would later be promoted to series regular. The main plot for the early episodes of the season deals with a recurring problem in seasons one and two -- the problem of company downsizing -- while in the last half of the season, inter-office relationships also became a major plot point. Metacritic, which assigns normalized ratings out of 100 to critics ' reviews, calculated an average score of 85 / 100 based on five collected reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
NBC ordered a full fourth season of The Office consisting of 30 episodes, which included five one - hour specials. However, the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike shut down production for nearly five months in the middle of the season (between the episodes "The Deposition '' and "Dinner Party ''). Because of the shutdown, the fourth season of The Office only consisted of 19 half - hour episodes, ten of which were paired as five hour - long episodes. The season premiered on September 27, 2007.
Season four marked the departure of Karen Filippelli as a regular character, although she appeared for a few seconds in the first episode, "Fun Run '' and in the sixth episode, "Branch Wars '', as the regional manager of the Utica branch. Relationships emerged as the main theme of the season, with Jim and Pam 's rising, and Michael and Jan 's, as well as Dwight and Angela 's declining. Technology was another theme as the office staff struggled with initiatives introduced by Ryan to modernize the company.
On April 10, 2008, NBC ordered a fifth season consisting of 28 half - hour episodes, four of which were paired as two hour - long episodes. The season premiered on September 25, 2008.
This season highlighted Michael 's roller coaster relationship with corporate, as he is first praised and rewarded for impressive numbers despite the economic downturn. However, when a new boss is hired Michael feels slighted by his controlling manner. The theme of the beginning and middle of the season was mostly personal relationships with Dwight, Angela, Andy, Jim, Pam, Michael, Jan, and Holly. However, the theme transformed into career growth, as Ryan, Pam, and Michael set up the Michael Scott Paper Company, Pam and Michael go on a lecture circuit, Charles takes Jan 's and Ryan 's job, and Jim has trouble getting on with Charles. The last two or so episodes of the season focused on relationships once again, with major events taking place in Jim and Pam 's relationship, and also with Holly and Michael.
On January 15, 2009, it was announced that NBC renewed the series for a sixth season, consisting of 26 half - hour episodes, four of which were paired as two hour - long episodes. The season premiered on September 17, 2009.
Story arcs in the sixth season include Jim becoming co-manager with Michael of the Scranton branch, Michael dating Pam 's mother, Dwight attempting to get Jim fired, and Dunder Mifflin facing an uncertain future due to rumors of insolvency, eventually becoming part of a larger corporation called Sabre. The season also prominently features the long - awaited wedding between Jim and Pam, as well as the birth of their first child.
On March 5, 2010, NBC officially announced that it had renewed The Office for a seventh season, consisting of 26 half - hour episodes, four of which were paired as two hour - long episodes. Steve Carell confirmed the season would be his last on the series. The season premiered on September 23, 2010.
The seventh season of The Office largely revolves around the character development and departure of Michael from the series. After Toby is called for jury duty, Holly returns, causing Michael to once again pursue her, despite her being in a relationship. After eventually proving himself to her, the two get engaged, but Michael decides to move to Boulder, Colorado to help Holly take care of her elderly parents. After Michael leaves, the office is forced to choose a new manager.
On March 17, 2011, NBC renewed The Office for an eighth season, consisting of 24 episodes. This season focuses on Andy Bernard becoming manager of the Scranton branch, before being replaced as manager by Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) midway through the season. James Spader also became a regular cast member, playing the role of Robert California, the new CEO of Sabre. Also, Jim and Pam welcome their second child.
The eighth season of The Office largely centers around the antics of the new Sabre CEO, Robert California. Initially, he appears calm, collected, and calculating. However, as the season progresses, it becomes obvious that his management style is slowly destroying the company. Dwight -- along with Jim, Stanley, Ryan, Erin, and Cathy (Lindsay Broad) -- travel to Florida to help set up a Sabre Store, where Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) is introduced. Eventually, former CFO of Dunder Mifflin David Wallace buys back the company, firing California.
On May 11, 2012, NBC renewed The Office for a ninth season, which was later announced to be the final season. The season consists of 25 episodes.
The ninth season largely focuses on the relationship between Jim and Pam Halpert. After Jim decides to follow his dream and start a sports marketing company in Philadelphia, Pam begins to worry about moving, and the couple 's relationship experiences stress. Meanwhile, Andy abandons the office for a three - month boating trip, and eventually quits his job to pursue his dream of becoming a star. Dwight is then promoted to regional manager.
NBC announced on March 16, 2006 that there would be ten original, stand - alone webisode shorts on NBC.com. They debuted on July 13, and concluded on September 7, 2006. They were directed by Randall Einhorn and written by Michael Schur and Paul Lieberstein, and were edited by Michael Zurer, an assistant editor on the series. It took two days to film them, and in June 2007, The Accountants won the Comedy Short Award at the inaugural Webby Awards and a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Broadband Program -- Comedy. In November 2007, the webisodes became a point of argument for the Writers Guild of America for the 2007 strike, as none of the writers or actors featured in the webisodes were paid residuals for their participation.
Major characters Michael, Jim and Pam do not appear in The Accountants webisodes. Instead, the focus is on the three members of the accounting department: Oscar, Angela and Kevin -- who appear in each webisode -- as they try to find $3000 missing from the office budget.
NBC ordered a new set of webisodes for the summer of 2008. The webisode series began its run on July 10, 2008, and ended on July 31, 2008. The webisodes feature Kevin, who pursues a unique solution in an effort to pay back his looming gambling debts. The other characters who appeared are Oscar, Stanley and Darryl.
NBC ordered a new set of webisodes for the winter of 2008. The webisode series began its run on November 20, 2008. The webisodes feature all of The Office characters except for Michael, Pam, Jim, Dwight and Ryan. Oscar has an outburst in the middle of the office and his coworkers start an investigation.
Creed decides to take up blackmail, and attempts to get money out of Oscar, Andy, Kelly, Angela, and Meredith.
Kelly and Erin form their own girl group, Subtle Sexuality, and get Ryan and Andy to assist them with their first music video, "Male Prima Donna ''.
Erin wants to make a career change and finds herself a mentor: Angela.
Ryan attempts to make a horror film titled The 3rd Floor using Dunder Mifflin as a location, and workers such as Kelly, Erin, Gabe, Kevin and Meredith as actors. The 3rd Floor was written by Jonathan Hughes, Kelly Hannon and Mary Wall and directed by Mindy Kaling.
Gabe attempts to record a podcast in the office about the Sabre website, hoping to impress corporate. The webisodes were made available on January 20, 2011 on NBC.com, but were previously included on the season 6 DVD release.
The series focuses on Kelly and Erin 's girl group called Subtle Sexuality. The first webisode documents the behind - the - scenes aspects of their second single "The Girl Next Door '', while the second and final webisode is the music video itself, which features Ryan. The webisodes were made available on May 4, 2011 on NBC.com.
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how many stars is there in the american flag | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include the Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and the Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the U.S. flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean. Benjamin Franklin once gave a speech endorsing the adoption of the Company 's flag by the United States as their national flag. He said to George Washington, "While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements. There is already in use a flag, I refer to the flag of the East India Company. '' This was a way of symbolising American loyalty to the Crown as well as the United States ' aspirations to be self - governing, as was the East India Company. Some colonists also felt that the Company could be a powerful ally in the American War of Independence, as they shared similar aims and grievances against the British government tax policies. Colonists therefore flew the Company 's flag, to endorse the Company.
However, the theory that the Grand Union Flag was a direct descendant of the flag of the East India Company has been criticised as lacking written evidence. On the other hand, the resemblance is obvious, and a number of the Founding Fathers of the United States were aware of the East India Company 's activities and of their free administration of India under Company rule. In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower ''. Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship ''. This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Vietnam has borrowed the term for the United States, as Hoa Kỳ or 花旗 ("Flower Flag '') in Vietnamese language.
Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called flower flag ginseng (simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參) in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as Flower Flag Bank (花旗 银行).
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The modern signficance of the flag was forged in April 1861, when Major Robert Anderson defended Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The Confederates shot at the Fort Sumter Flag and forced Anderson to surrender. The modern meaning of the flag was forged by Anderson 's stand at Fort Sumter; he was celebrated in the North as a hero. Harold Holzer states that New York City:
Adam Goodheart argues that after this opening event of the American Civil War, American citizens throughout northern states co-opted the national flag to symbolize U.S. nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson 's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew -- as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001 -- from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and on clothing ornamentation such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Reverence for the flag has at times reached religion - like fervor: in 1919 William Norman Guthrie 's book The Religion of Old Glory discussed "the cult of the flag '' and formally proposed vexillolatry.
Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as free speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. Comparing practice worldwide, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
The man credited with designing the current 50 star American flag was Robert G. Heft. He was 17 years old at the time and created the flag design in 1958 as a high school class project while living with his grandparents in Ohio. He received a B − on the project. According to Heft, his history teacher honored their agreement to change his grade to an A after his design was selected.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that Boy Scout uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
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which of the following is not an important element in the definition of reliability | Reliability engineering - wikipedia
Reliability engineering is a sub-discipline of systems engineering that emphasizes dependability in the lifecycle management of a product. Dependability, or reliability, describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time. Reliability is closely related to availability, which is typically described as the ability of a component or system to function at a specified moment or interval of time.
Reliability is theoretically defined as the probability of success (Reliability = 1 − Probability of Failure); (\ displaystyle ((\ text (Reliability)) = 1 - (\ text (Probability of Failure)));) as the frequency of failures; or in terms of availability, as a probability derived from reliability, testability and maintainability. Testability, maintainability and maintenance are often defined as a part of "reliability engineering '' in Reliability Programs. Reliability plays a key role in the cost - effectiveness of systems.
Reliability engineering deals with the estimation, prevention and management of high levels of "lifetime '' engineering uncertainty and risks of failure. Although stochastic parameters define and affect reliability, reliability is not (solely) achieved by mathematics and statistics. You can not really find a root cause (needed to effectively prevent failures) by only looking at statistics. "Nearly all teaching and literature on the subject emphasize these aspects, and ignore the reality that the ranges of uncertainty involved largely invalidate quantitative methods for prediction and measurement. ''
Reliability engineering relates closely to safety engineering and to system safety, in that they use common methods for their analysis and may require input from each other. Reliability engineering focuses on costs of failure caused by system downtime, cost of spares, repair equipment, personnel, and cost of warranty claims. Safety engineering normally focuses more on preserving life and nature than on cost, and therefore deals only with particularly dangerous system - failure modes. High reliability (safety factor) levels also result from good engineering and from attention to detail, and almost never from only reactive failure management (using reliability accounting and statistics).
The word reliability can be traced back to 1816, and is first attested to the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Before World War II the term was linked mostly to repeatability; a test (in any type of science) was considered "reliable '' if the same results would be obtained repeatedly. In the 1920s product improvement through the use of statistical process control was promoted by Dr. Walter A. Shewhart at Bell Labs, around the time that Waloddi Weibull was working on statistical models for fatigue. The development of reliability engineering was here on a parallel path with quality. The modern use of the word reliability was defined by the U.S. military in the 1940s, characterizing a product that would operate when expected and for a specified period of time.
In World War II, many reliability issues were due to the inherent unreliability of electronic equipment available at the time, and to fatigue issues. In 1945, M.A. Miner published the seminal paper titled "Cumulative Damage in Fatigue '' in an ASME journal. A main application for reliability engineering in the military was for the vacuum tube as used in radar systems and other electronics, for which reliability proved to be very problematic and costly. The IEEE formed the Reliability Society in 1948. In 1950, the United States Department of Defense formed group called the "Advisory Group on the Reliability of Electronic Equipment '' (AGREE) to investigate reliability methods for military equipment. This group recommended the following 3 main ways of working:
In the 1960s more emphasis was given to reliability testing on component and system level. The famous military standard 781 was created at that time. Around this period also the much - used (and also much - debated) military handbook 217 was published by RCA (Radio Corporation of America) and was used for the prediction of failure rates of components. The emphasis on component reliability and empirical research (e.g. Mil Std 217) alone slowly decreases. More pragmatic approaches, as used in the consumer industries, are being used. In the 1980s, televisions were increasingly made up of solid - state semiconductors. Automobiles rapidly increased their use of semiconductors with a variety of microcomputers under the hood and in the dash. Large air conditioning systems developed electronic controllers, as had microwave ovens and a variety of other appliances. Communications systems began to adopt electronics to replace older mechanical switching systems. Bellcore issued the first consumer prediction methodology for telecommunications, and SAE developed a similar document SAE870050 for automotive applications. The nature of predictions evolved during the decade, and it became apparent that die complexity was n't the only factor that determined failure rates for Integrated Circuits (ICs). Kam Wong published a paper questioning the bathtub curve -- see also reliability - centered maintenance. During this decade, the failure rate of many components dropped by a factor of 10. Software became important to the reliability of systems. By the 1990s, the pace of IC development was picking up. Wider use of stand - alone microcomputers was common, and the PC market helped keep IC densities following Moore 's law and doubling about every 18 months. Reliability engineering now was more changing towards understanding the physics of failure. Failure rates for components kept on dropping, but system - level issues became more prominent. Systems thinking became more and more important. For software, the CCM model (Capability Maturity Model) was developed, which gave a more qualitative approach to reliability. ISO 9000 added reliability measures as part of the design and development portion of Certification. The expansion of the World - Wide Web created new challenges of security and trust. The older problem of too little reliability information available had now been replaced by too much information of questionable value. Consumer reliability problems could now have data and be discussed online in real time. New technologies such as micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), handheld GPS, and hand - held devices that combined cell phones and computers all represent challenges to maintain reliability. Product development time continued to shorten through this decade and what had been done in three years was being done in 18 months. This meant that reliability tools and tasks must be more closely tied to the development process itself. In many ways, reliability became part of everyday life and consumer expectations.
The objectives of reliability engineering, in decreasing order of priority, are:
The reason for the priority emphasis is that it is by far the most effective way of working, in terms of minimizing costs and generating reliable products. The primary skills that are required, therefore, are the ability to understand and anticipate the possible causes of failures, and knowledge of how to prevent them. It is also necessary to have knowledge of the methods that can be used for analysing designs and data.
Reliability engineering for "complex systems '' requires a different, more elaborate systems approach than for non-complex systems. Reliability engineering may in that case involve:
Effective reliability engineering requires understanding of the basics of failure mechanisms for which experience, broad engineering skills and good knowledge from many different special fields of engineering, for example:
Reliability may be defined in the following ways:
Many engineering techniques are used in reliability risk assessments, such as reliability hazard analysis, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), fault tree analysis (FTA), Reliability Centered Maintenance, (probabilistic) load and material stress and wear calculations, (probabilistic) fatigue and creep analysis, human error analysis, manufacturing defect analysis, reliability testing, etc. It is crucial that these analysis are done properly and with much attention to detail to be effective. Because of the large number of reliability techniques, their expense, and the varying degrees of reliability required for different situations, most projects develop a reliability program plan to specify the reliability tasks (statement of work (SoW) requirements) that will be performed for that specific system.
Consistent with the creation of a safety cases, for example ARP4761, the goal of reliability assessments is to provide a robust set of qualitative and quantitative evidence that use of a component or system will not be associated with unacceptable risk. The basic steps to take are to:
Risk is here the combination of probability and severity of the failure incident (scenario) occurring.
In a de minimis definition, severity of failures include the cost of spare parts, man - hours, logistics, damage (secondary failures), and downtime of machines which may cause production loss. A more complete definition of failure also can mean injury, dismemberment, and death of people within the system (witness mine accidents, industrial accidents, space shuttle failures) and the same to innocent bystanders (witness the citizenry of cities like Bhopal, Love Canal, Chernobyl, or Sendai, and other victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami) -- in this case, reliability engineering becomes system safety. What is acceptable is determined by the managing authority or customers or the affected communities. Residual risk is the risk that is left over after all reliability activities have finished, and includes the un-identified risk -- and is therefore not completely quantifiable.
The complexity of the technical systems such as Improvements of Design and Materials, Planned Inspections, Fool - proof design, and Backup Redundancy decreases risk and increases the cost. The risk can be decreased to ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) or ALAPA (as low as practically achievable) levels.
Implementing a reliability program is not simply a software purchase; it 's not just a checklist of items that must be completed that will ensure you have reliable products and processes. A reliability program is a complex learning and knowledge - based system unique to your products and processes. It is supported by leadership, built on the skills that you develop within your team, integrated into your business processes and executed by following proven standard work practices.
A reliability program plan is used to document exactly what "best practices '' (tasks, methods, tools, analysis, and tests) are required for a particular (sub) system, as well as clarify customer requirements for reliability assessment. For large - scale complex systems, the reliability program plan should be a separate document. Resource determination for manpower and budgets for testing and other tasks is critical for a successful program. In general, the amount of work required for an effective program for complex systems is large.
A reliability program plan is essential for achieving high levels of reliability, testability, maintainability, and the resulting system Availability, and is developed early during system development and refined over the system 's life - cycle. It specifies not only what the reliability engineer does, but also the tasks performed by other stakeholders. A reliability program plan is approved by top program Management, which is responsible for allocation of sufficient resources for its implementation.
A reliability program plan may also be used to evaluate and improve availability of a system by the strategy of focusing on increasing testability & maintainability and not on reliability. Improving maintainability is generally easier than improving reliability. Maintainability estimates (repair rates) are also generally more accurate. However, because the uncertainties in the reliability estimates are in most cases very large, they are likely to dominate the availability calculation (prediction uncertainty problem), even when maintainability levels are very high. When reliability is not under control, more complicated issues may arise, like manpower (maintainers / customer service capability) shortages, spare part availability, logistic delays, lack of repair facilities, extensive retro - fit and complex configuration management costs, and others. The problem of unreliability may be increased also due to the "domino effect '' of maintenance - induced failures after repairs. Focusing only on maintainability is therefore not enough. If failures are prevented, none of the other issues are of any importance, and therefore reliability is generally regarded as the most important part of availability. Reliability needs to be evaluated and improved related to both availability and the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) due to cost of spare parts, maintenance man - hours, transport costs, storage cost, part obsolete risks, etc. But, as GM and Toyota have belatedly discovered, TCO also includes the downstream liability costs when reliability calculations have not sufficiently or accurately addressed customers ' personal bodily risks. Often a trade - off is needed between the two. There might be a maximum ratio between availability and cost of ownership. Testability of a system should also be addressed in the plan, as this is the link between reliability and maintainability. The maintenance strategy can influence the reliability of a system (e.g., by preventive and / or predictive maintenance), although it can never bring it above the inherent reliability.
The reliability plan should clearly provide a strategy for availability control. Whether only availability or also cost of ownership is more important depends on the use of the system. For example, a system that is a critical link in a production system -- e.g., a big oil platform -- is normally allowed to have a very high cost of ownership if that cost translates to even a minor increase in availability, as the unavailability of the platform results in a massive loss of revenue which can easily exceed the high cost of ownership. A proper reliability plan should always address RAMT analysis in its total context. RAMT stands for Reliability, Availability, Maintainability / Maintenance, and Testability in context to the customer needs.
For any system, one of the first tasks of reliability engineering is to adequately specify the reliability and maintainability requirements allocated from the overall availability needs and, more importantly, derived from proper design failure analysis or preliminary prototype test results. Clear requirements (able to designed to) should constrain the designers from designing particular unreliable items / constructions / interfaces / systems. Setting only availability, reliability, testability, or maintainability targets (e.g., max. failure rates) is not appropriate. This is a broad misunderstanding about Reliability Requirements Engineering. Reliability requirements address the system itself, including test and assessment requirements, and associated tasks and documentation. Reliability requirements are included in the appropriate system or subsystem requirements specifications, test plans, and contract statements. Creation of proper lower - level requirements is critical. Provision of only quantitative minimum targets (e.g., MTBF values or failure rates) is not sufficient for different reasons. One reason is that a full validation (related to correctness and verifiability in time) of a quantitative reliability allocation (requirement spec) on lower levels for complex systems can (often) not be made as a consequence of (1) the fact that the requirements are probabilistic, (2) the extremely high level of uncertainties involved for showing compliance with all these probabilistic requirements, and because (3) reliability is a function of time, and accurate estimates of a (probabilistic) reliability number per item are available only very late in the project, sometimes even after many years of in - service use. Compare this problem with the continuous (re -) balancing of, for example, lower - level - system mass requirements in the development of an aircraft, which is already often a big undertaking. Notice that in this case masses do only differ in terms of only some %, are not a function of time, the data is non-probabilistic and available already in CAD models. In case of reliability, the levels of unreliability (failure rates) may change with factors of decades (multiples of 10) as result of very minor deviations in design, process, or anything else. The information is often not available without huge uncertainties within the development phase. This makes this allocation problem almost impossible to do in a useful, practical, valid manner that does not result in massive over - or under - specification. A pragmatic approach is therefore needed -- for example: the use of general levels / classes of quantitative requirements depending only on severity of failure effects. Also, the validation of results is a far more subjective task than for any other type of requirement. (Quantitative) reliability parameters -- in terms of MTBF -- are by far the most uncertain design parameters in any design.
Furthermore, reliability design requirements should drive a (system or part) design to incorporate features that prevent failures from occurring, or limit consequences from failure in the first place. Not only would it aid in some predictions, this effort would keep from distracting the engineering effort into a kind of accounting work. A design requirement should be precise enough so that a designer can "design to '' it and can also prove -- through analysis or testing -- that the requirement has been achieved, and, if possible, within some a stated confidence. Any type of reliability requirement should be detailed and could be derived from failure analysis (Finite - Element Stress and Fatigue analysis, Reliability Hazard Analysis, FTA, FMEA, Human Factor Analysis, Functional Hazard Analysis, etc.) or any type of reliability testing. Also, requirements are needed for verification tests (e.g., required overload stresses) and test time needed. To derive these requirements in an effective manner, a systems engineering - based risk assessment and mitigation logic should be used. Robust hazard log systems must be created that contain detailed information on why and how systems could or have failed. Requirements are to be derived and tracked in this way. These practical design requirements shall drive the design and not be used only for verification purposes. These requirements (often design constraints) are in this way derived from failure analysis or preliminary tests. Understanding of this difference compared to only purely quantitative (logistic) requirement specification (e.g., Failure Rate / MTBF target) is paramount in the development of successful (complex) systems.
The maintainability requirements address the costs of repairs as well as repair time. Testability (not to be confused with test requirements) requirements provide the link between reliability and maintainability and should address detectability of failure modes (on a particular system level), isolation levels, and the creation of diagnostics (procedures). As indicated above, reliability engineers should also address requirements for various reliability tasks and documentation during system development, testing, production, and operation. These requirements are generally specified in the contract statement of work and depend on how much leeway the customer wishes to provide to the contractor. Reliability tasks include various analyses, planning, and failure reporting. Task selection depends on the criticality of the system as well as cost. A safety - critical system may require a formal failure reporting and review process throughout development, whereas a non-critical system may rely on final test reports. The most common reliability program tasks are documented in reliability program standards, such as MIL - STD - 785 and IEEE 1332. Failure reporting analysis and corrective action systems are a common approach for product / process reliability monitoring.
In practice, most failures can be traced back to some type of human error, for example in:
However, humans are also very good at detecting such failures, correcting for them, and improvising when abnormal situations occur. Thererfore policies that completely rule out human actions in design and production processes to improve reliability may not be effective. Some tasks are better performed by humans and some are better performed by machines.
Furthermore, human errors in management; the organization of data and information; or the misuse or abuse of items, may also contribute to unreliability. This is the core reason why high levels of reliability for complex systems can only be achieved by following a robust systems engineering process with proper planning and execution of the validation and verification tasks. This also includes careful organization of data and information sharing and creating a "reliability culture '', in the same way that having a "safety culture '' is paramount in the development of safety critical systems.
Reliability prediction combines:
Some recognized reliability engineering specialists (e.g. Patrick O'Connor, R. Barnard) have argued that too much emphasis is often given to the prediction of reliability parameters, instead more effort should be devoted to the prevention of failure (reliability improvement). Failures can and should be prevented in the first place for most cases. The emphasis on quantification and target setting (e.g. MTBF) might imply there is a limit to achievable reliability, however there is no inherent limit and development of higher reliability does not need to be more costly. In addition they argue that prediction of reliability from historic data can be very misleading, with comparisons only valid for identical designs, products, manufacturing processes, and maintenance with identical operating loads and usage environments. Even minor changes in any of these could have major effects on reliability. Furthermore, the most unreliable and important items (i.e. the most interesting candidates for a reliability investigation) are most likely to be modified and re-engineered since historical data was gathered, making the standard (re-active or pro-active) statistical methods and processes used in e.g. medical or insurance industries less effective. Another surprising -- but logical -- argument is that to be able to accurately predict reliability by testing, the exact mechanisms of failure must be known and therefore -- in most cases -- could be prevented! Following the incorrect route of trying to quantify and solve a complex reliability engineering problem in terms of MTBF or probability using an - incorrect -- for example, the re-active -- approach is referred to by Barnard as "Playing the Numbers Game '' and is regarded as bad practice.
For existing systems, it is arguable that any attempt by a responsible programs to correct the root cause of discovered failures may render the initial MTBF estimate invalid, as new assumptions (themselves subject to high error levels) of the effect of this correction must be made. Another practical issue is the general un-availability of detailed failure data, with those available often featuring inconsistent filtering of failure (feedback) data, and ignoring statistical errors (which are very high for rare events like reliability related failures). Very clear guidelines must be present to count and compare failures related to different type of root - causes (e.g. manufacturing -, maintenance -, transport -, system - induced or inherent design failures). Comparing different types of causes may lead to incorrect estimations and incorrect business decisions about the focus of improvement.
To perform a proper quantitative reliability prediction for systems may be difficult and very expensive if done by testing. At the individual part - level, reliability results can often be obtained with comparatively high confidence, as testing of many sample parts might be possible using the available testing budget. However, unfortunately these tests may lack validity at a system - level due to assumptions made at part - level testing. These authors emphasized the importance of initial part - or system - level testing until failure, and to learn from such failures to improve the system or part. The general conclusion is drawn that an accurate and absolute prediction -- by either field - data comparison or testing -- of reliability is in most cases not possible. An exception might be failures due to wear - out problems such as fatigue failures. In the introduction of MIL - STD - 785 it is written that reliability prediction should be used with great caution, if not used solely for comparison in trade - off studies.
Reliability design begins with the development of a (system) model. Reliability and availability models use block diagrams and Fault Tree Analysis to provide a graphical means of evaluating the relationships between different parts of the system. These models may incorporate predictions based on failure rates taken from historical data. While the (input data) predictions are often not accurate in an absolute sense, they are valuable to assess relative differences in design alternatives. Maintainability parameters, for example Mean time to repair (MTTR), can also be used as inputs for such models.
The most important fundamental initiating causes and failure mechanisms are to be identified and analyzed with engineering tools. A diverse set of practical guidance as to performance and reliability should be provided to designers so that they can generate low - stressed designs and products that protect, or are protected against, damage and excessive wear. Proper validation of input loads (requirements) may be needed, in addition to verification for reliability "performance '' by testing.
One of the most important design techniques is redundancy. This means that if one part of the system fails, there is an alternate success path, such as a backup system. The reason why this is the ultimate design choice is related to the fact that high - confidence reliability evidence for new parts or systems is often not available, or is extremely expensive to obtain. By combining redundancy, together with a high level of failure monitoring, and the avoidance of common cause failures; even a system with relatively poor single - channel (part) reliability, can be made highly reliable at a system level (up to mission critical reliability). No testing of reliability has to be required for this. In conjunction with redundancy, the use of dissimilar designs or manufacturing processes (e.g. via different suppliers of similar parts) for single independent channels, can provide less sensitivity to quality issues (e.g. early childhood failures at a single supplier), allowing very - high levels of reliability to be achieved at all moments of the development cycle (from early life to long - term). Redundancy can also be applied in systems engineering by double checking requirements, data, designs, calculations, software, and tests to overcome systematic failures.
Another design technique to prevent failures is called physics of failure. This technique relies on understanding the physical static and dynamic failure mechanisms. It accounts for variation in load, strength, and stress that lead to failure with a high level of detail, made possible with the use of modern finite element method (FEM) software programs that can handle complex geometries and mechanisms such as creep, stress relaxation, fatigue, and probabilistic design (Monte Carlo simulations / DOE). The material or component can be re-designed to reduce the probability of failure and to make it more robust against such variations. Another common design technique is component derating: i.e. selecting components whose specifications significantly exceed the expected stress levels, such as using heavier gauge electrical wire than might normally be specified for the expected electric current.
Another effective way to deal with reliability issues is to perform analysis that predicts degradation, enabling the prevention of unscheduled downtime events / failures. RCM (Reliability Centered Maintenance) programs can be used for this.
Many of the tasks, techniques, and analyses used in Reliability Engineering are specific to particular industries and applications, but can commonly include:
Results from these methods are presented during reviews of part or system design, and logistics. Reliability is just one requirement among many for a complex part or system. Engineering trade - off studies are used to determine the optimum balance between reliability requirements and other constraints.
Reliability engineers, whether using quantitative or qualitative methods to describe a failure or hazard, rely on language to pinpoint the risks and enable issues to be solved. The language used must help create an orderly description of the function / item / system and its complex surrounding as it relates to the failure of these functions / items / systems. Systems engineering is very much about finding the correct words to describe the problem (and related risks), so that they can be readily solved via engineering solutions. Jack Ring said that a systems engineer 's job is to "language the project. '' (Ring et al. 2000). For part / system failures, reliability engineers should concentrate more on the "why and how '', rather that predicting "when ''. Understanding "why '' a failure has occurred (e.g. due to over-stressed components or manufacturing issues) is far more likely to lead to improvement in the designs and processes used than quantifying "when '' a failure is likely to occur (e.g. via determining MTBF). To do this, first the reliability hazards relating to the part / system need to be classified and ordered (based on some form of qualitative and quantitative logic if possible) to allow for more efficient assessment and eventual improvement. This is partly done in pure language and proposition logic, but also based on experience with similar items. This can for example be seen in descriptions of events in Fault Tree Analysis, FMEA analysis, and hazard (tracking) logs. In this sense language and proper grammar (part of qualitative analysis) plays an important role in reliability engineering, just like it does in safety engineering or in - general within systems engineering.
Correct use of language can also be key to identifying or reducing the risks of human error, which are often the root - cause of many failures. This can include proper instructions in maintenance manuals, operation manuals, emergency procedures, and others to prevent systematic human errors that may result in system failures. These should be written by trained or experienced technical authors using so - called simplified English or Simplified Technical English, where words and structure are specifically chosen and created so as to reduce ambiquity or risk of confusion (e.g. an "replace the old part '' could ambiguously refer to a swapping a worn - out part with a non worn - out part, or replacing a part with one using a more recent and hopefully improved design).
Reliability modeling is the process of predicting or understanding the reliability of a component or system prior to its implementation. Two types of analysis that are often used to model a complete system 's availability behavior (including effects from logistics issues like spare part provisioning, transport and manpower) are Fault Tree Analysis and reliability block diagrams. At a component level, the same types of analyses can be used together with others. The input for the models can come from many sources including: Testing; prior operational experience; field data; as well as data handbooks from similar or related industries. Regardless of source, all model input data must be used with great caution, as predictions are only valid in cases where the same product was used in the same context. As such, predictions are often only used to help compare alternatives.
For part level predictions, two separate fields of investigation are common:
Software reliability is a more challenging area that must be considered when computer code provides a considerable component of a system 's functionality.
Reliability is defined as the probability that a device will perform its intended function during a specified period of time under stated conditions. Mathematically, this may be expressed as,
where f (x) (\ displaystyle f (x) \!) is the failure probability density function and t (\ displaystyle t) is the length of the period of time (which is assumed to start from time zero).
There are a few key elements of this definition:
Quantitative Requirements are specified using reliability parameters. The most common reliability parameter is the mean time to failure (MTTF), which can also be specified as the failure rate (this is expressed as a frequency or conditional probability density function (PDF)) or the number of failures during a given period. These parameters may be useful for higher system levels and systems that are operated frequently (i.e. vehicles, machinery, and electronic equipment). Reliability increases as the MTTF increases. The MTTF is usually specified in hours, but can also be used with other units of measurement, such as miles or cycles. Using MTTF values on lower system levels can be very misleading, especially if they do not specify the associated Failures Modes and Mechanisms (The F in MTTF).
In other cases, reliability is specified as the probability of mission success. For example, reliability of a scheduled aircraft flight can be specified as a dimensionless probability or a percentage, as often used in system safety engineering.
A special case of mission success is the single - shot device or system. These are devices or systems that remain relatively dormant and only operate once. Examples include automobile airbags, thermal batteries and missiles. Single - shot reliability is specified as a probability of one - time success, or is subsumed into a related parameter. Single - shot missile reliability may be specified as a requirement for the probability of a hit. For such systems, the probability of failure on demand (PFD) is the reliability measure -- this is actually an "unavailability '' number. The PFD is derived from failure rate (a frequency of occurrence) and mission time for non-repairable systems.
For repairable systems, it is obtained from failure rate, mean - time - to - repair (MTTR), and test interval. This measure may not be unique for a given system as this measure depends on the kind of demand. In addition to system level requirements, reliability requirements may be specified for critical subsystems. In most cases, reliability parameters are specified with appropriate statistical confidence intervals.
The purpose of reliability testing is to discover potential problems with the design as early as possible and, ultimately, provide confidence that the system meets its reliability requirements.
Reliability testing may be performed at several levels and there are different types of testing. Complex systems may be tested at component, circuit board, unit, assembly, subsystem and system levels. (The test level nomenclature varies among applications.) For example, performing environmental stress screening tests at lower levels, such as piece parts or small assemblies, catches problems before they cause failures at higher levels. Testing proceeds during each level of integration through full - up system testing, developmental testing, and operational testing, thereby reducing program risk. However, testing does not mitigate unreliability risk.
With each test both a statistical type 1 and type 2 error could be made and depends on sample size, test time, assumptions and the needed discrimination ratio. There is risk of incorrectly accepting a bad design (type 1 error) and the risk of incorrectly rejecting a good design (type 2 error).
It is not always feasible to test all system requirements. Some systems are prohibitively expensive to test; some failure modes may take years to observe; some complex interactions result in a huge number of possible test cases; and some tests require the use of limited test ranges or other resources. In such cases, different approaches to testing can be used, such as (highly) accelerated life testing, design of experiments, and simulations.
The desired level of statistical confidence also plays a role in reliability testing. Statistical confidence is increased by increasing either the test time or the number of items tested. Reliability test plans are designed to achieve the specified reliability at the specified confidence level with the minimum number of test units and test time. Different test plans result in different levels of risk to the producer and consumer. The desired reliability, statistical confidence, and risk levels for each side influence the ultimate test plan. The customer and developer should agree in advance on how reliability requirements will be tested.
A key aspect of reliability testing is to define "failure ''. Although this may seem obvious, there are many situations where it is not clear whether a failure is really the fault of the system. Variations in test conditions, operator differences, weather and unexpected situations create differences between the customer and the system developer. One strategy to address this issue is to use a scoring conference process. A scoring conference includes representatives from the customer, the developer, the test organization, the reliability organization, and sometimes independent observers. The scoring conference process is defined in the statement of work. Each test case is considered by the group and "scored '' as a success or failure. This scoring is the official result used by the reliability engineer.
As part of the requirements phase, the reliability engineer develops a test strategy with the customer. The test strategy makes trade - offs between the needs of the reliability organization, which wants as much data as possible, and constraints such as cost, schedule and available resources. Test plans and procedures are developed for each reliability test, and results are documented.
Reliability testing is common in the Photonics industry. Examples of reliability tests of lasers are life test and burn - in. These tests consist of the highly accelerated ageing, under controlled conditions, of a group of lasers. The data collected from these life tests are used to predict laser life expectancy under the intended operating characteristics.
Reliability test requirements can follow from any analysis for which the first estimate of failure probability, failure mode or effect needs to be justified. Evidence can be generated with some level of confidence by testing. With software - based systems, the probability is a mix of software and hardware - based failures. Testing reliability requirements is problematic for several reasons. A single test is in most cases insufficient to generate enough statistical data. Multiple tests or long - duration tests are usually very expensive. Some tests are simply impractical, and environmental conditions can be hard to predict over a systems life - cycle.
Reliability engineering is used to design a realistic and affordable test program that provides empirical evidence that the system meets its reliability requirements. Statistical confidence levels are used to address some of these concerns. A certain parameter is expressed along with a corresponding confidence level: for example, an MTBF of 1000 hours at 90 % confidence level. From this specification, the reliability engineer can, for example, design a test with explicit criteria for the number of hours and number of failures until the requirement is met or failed. Different sorts of tests are possible.
The combination of required reliability level and required confidence level greatly affects the development cost and the risk to both the customer and producer. Care is needed to select the best combination of requirements -- e.g. cost - effectiveness. Reliability testing may be performed at various levels, such as component, subsystem and system. Also, many factors must be addressed during testing and operation, such as extreme temperature and humidity, shock, vibration, or other environmental factors (like loss of signal, cooling or power; or other catastrophes such as fire, floods, excessive heat, physical or security violations or other myriad forms of damage or degradation). For systems that must last many years, accelerated life tests may be needed.
The purpose of accelerated life testing (ALT test) is to induce field failure in the laboratory at a much faster rate by providing a harsher, but nonetheless representative, environment. In such a test, the product is expected to fail in the lab just as it would have failed in the field -- but in much less time. The main objective of an accelerated test is either of the following:
An Accelerated testing program can be broken down into the following steps:
Common way to determine a life stress relationship are
Software reliability is a special aspect of reliability engineering. System reliability, by definition, includes all parts of the system, including hardware, software, supporting infrastructure (including critical external interfaces), operators and procedures. Traditionally, reliability engineering focuses on critical hardware parts of the system. Since the widespread use of digital integrated circuit technology, software has become an increasingly critical part of most electronics and, hence, nearly all present day systems.
There are significant differences, however, in how software and hardware behave. Most hardware unreliability is the result of a component or material failure that results in the system not performing its intended function. Repairing or replacing the hardware component restores the system to its original operating state. However, software does not fail in the same sense that hardware fails. Instead, software unreliability is the result of unanticipated results of software operations. Even relatively small software programs can have astronomically large combinations of inputs and states that are infeasible to exhaustively test. Restoring software to its original state only works until the same combination of inputs and states results in the same unintended result. Software reliability engineering must take this into account.
Despite this difference in the source of failure between software and hardware, several software reliability models based on statistics have been proposed to quantify what we experience with software: the longer software is run, the higher the probability that it will eventually be used in an untested manner and exhibit a latent defect that results in a failure (Shooman 1987), (Musa 2005), (Denney 2005).
As with hardware, software reliability depends on good requirements, design and implementation. Software reliability engineering relies heavily on a disciplined software engineering process to anticipate and design against unintended consequences. There is more overlap between software quality engineering and software reliability engineering than between hardware quality and reliability. A good software development plan is a key aspect of the software reliability program. The software development plan describes the design and coding standards, peer reviews, unit tests, configuration management, software metrics and software models to be used during software development.
A common reliability metric is the number of software faults, usually expressed as faults per thousand lines of code. This metric, along with software execution time, is key to most software reliability models and estimates. The theory is that the software reliability increases as the number of faults (or fault density) decreases or goes down. Establishing a direct connection between fault density and mean - time - between - failure is difficult, however, because of the way software faults are distributed in the code, their severity, and the probability of the combination of inputs necessary to encounter the fault. Nevertheless, fault density serves as a useful indicator for the reliability engineer. Other software metrics, such as complexity, are also used. This metric remains controversial, since changes in software development and verification practices can have dramatic impact on overall defect rates.
Testing is even more important for software than hardware. Even the best software development process results in some software faults that are nearly undetectable until tested. As with hardware, software is tested at several levels, starting with individual units, through integration and full - up system testing. Unlike hardware, it is inadvisable to skip levels of software testing. During all phases of testing, software faults are discovered, corrected, and re-tested. Reliability estimates are updated based on the fault density and other metrics. At a system level, mean - time - between - failure data can be collected and used to estimate reliability. Unlike hardware, performing exactly the same test on exactly the same software configuration does not provide increased statistical confidence. Instead, software reliability uses different metrics, such as code coverage.
Eventually, the software is integrated with the hardware in the top - level system, and software reliability is subsumed by system reliability. The Software Engineering Institute 's capability maturity model is a common means of assessing the overall software development process for reliability and quality purposes.
Reliability engineering is concerned with overall minimisation of failures that could lead to financial losses for the responsible entity, whereas safety engineering focuses on minimising a specific set of failure types that in general could lead to large scale, widespread issues beyond the responsible entity.
Reliability hazards could transform into incidents leading to a loss of revenue for the company or the customer, for example due to direct and indirect costs associated with: loss of production due to system unavailability; unexpected high or low demands for spares; repair costs; man - hours; (multiple) re-designs; interruptions to normal production etc.
Safety engineering is often highly specific, relating only to certain tightly regulated industries, applications, or areas. It primarily focuses on system safety hazards that could lead to severe accidents including: loss of life; destruction of equipment; or environmental damage. As such, the related system functional reliability requirements are often extremely high. Although it deals with unwanted failures in the same sense as reliability engineering, it however has less of a focus on direct costs, and is not concerned with post failure repair actions. Another difference is the level of impact of failures on society, leading to a tendency for strict control by governments or regulatory bodies (e.g. nuclear, aerospace, defense, rail and oil industries).
This can occasionally lead to safety engineering and reliability engineering having contradictory requirements or conflicting choices at a system architecture level. For example, in train signal control systems it is common practice to use a "fail - safe '' system design concept. In this example, a wrong - side failure needs an extremely low failure rate as such failures can lead to such severe effects, like frontal collisions of two trains where a signalling failure leads to two oncoming trains on the same track being given GREEN lights. Such systems should be (and thankfully are) designed in a way that the vast majority of failures (e.g. temporary or total loss of signals or open contacts of relays) will generate RED lights for all trains. This is the safe state. This means in the event of a failure, all trains are stopped immediately. This fail - safe logic might unfortunately lower the reliability of the system. The reason for this is the higher risk of false tripping, as any failure whether temporary or not may be trigger such a safe -- but costly -- shut - down state. Different solutions can be applied for similar issue. See the section on fault tolerance below.
Reliability can be increased by using "1oo2 '' (1 out of 2) redundancy at a part or system level. However, if both redundant elements disagree it can be difficult to know which is to be relied upon. In the previous train signalling example this could lead to lower safety levels as there are more possibilities for allowing "wrong side '' or other undetected dangerous failures. Fault tolerant systems often rely on additional redundancy (e.g. 2oo3 voting logic) where multiple redundant elements must agree on a potentially unsage action before it is performed. This increases both reliability and safety at a system level and is often used for so - called "operational '' or "mission '' systems. This is common practice in Aerospace systems that need continued availability and do not have a fail - safe mode. For example, aircraft may use triple modular redundancy for flight computers and control surfaces (including occasionally different modes of operation e.g. electrical / mechanical / hydraulic) as these need to always be operational, due to the fact that there are no "safe '' default positions for control surfaces such as rudders or ailerons when the aircraft is flying.
The above example of a 2oo3 fault tolerant system increases both mission reliability as well as safety. However, the "basic '' reliability of the system will in this case still be lower than a non redundant (1oo1) or 2oo2 system. Basic reliability engineering covers all failures, including those that might not result in system failure, but do result in additional cost due to: maintenance repair actions; logistics; spare parts etc. For example, replacement or repair of 1 faulty channel in a 2oo3 voting system, (the system is still operating, although with one failed channel it has actually become a 2oo2 system) is contributing to basic unreliability but not mission unreliability. As an example, the failure of the tail - light of an aircraft will not prevent the plane from flying (and so is not considered a mission failure), but it does need to be remedied (with a related cost, and so does contribute to the basic unreliability levels).
When using fault tolerant (redundant architectures) systems or systems that are equipped with protection functions, detectability of failures and avoidance of common cause failures becomes paramount for safe functioning and / or mission reliability.
Six Sigma has its roots in manufacturing. Reliability engineering is a specialty engineering part of systems engineering. The systems engineering process is a discovery process that is quite unlike a manufacturing process. A manufacturing process is focused on repetitive activities that achieve high quality outputs with minimum cost and time. The systems engineering process must begin by discovering a real (potential) problem that needs to be solved; the biggest failure that can be made in systems engineering is finding an elegant solution to the wrong problem (or in terms of reliability: "providing elegant solutions to the wrong root causes of system failures '').
The everyday usage term "quality of a product '' is loosely taken to mean its inherent degree of excellence. In industry, a more precise definition of quality as "conformance to requirements or specifications at the start of use '' is used. Assuming the final product specification adequately captures the original requirements and customer / system needs, the quality level can be measured as the fraction of product units shipped that meet specifications.
Variation of this static output may affect quality and reliability, but this is not the total picture. More inherent aspects may play a role, and in some cases these may not be readily measured or controlled by any means. At a part level microscopic material variations such as unavoidable micro-cracks and chemical impurities may over time (due to physical or chemical "loading '') become macroscopic defects. At a system level, systematic failures may play a dominant role (e.g. requirement errors or software or software compiler or design flaws).
Furthermore, for more complex systems it should be questioned if derived or lower - level requirements and related product specifications are truly valid and correct? Will these result in premature failure due to excessive wear, fatigue, corrosion, and debris accumulation, or other issues such as maintenance induced failures? Are there any interactions at a system level (as investigated by for example Fault Tree Analysis)? How many of these systems still meet function and fulfill the needs after a week of operation? What performance losses occurred? Did full system failure occur? What happens after the end of a one - year warranty period? And what happens after 50 years (a common lifetime for aircraft, trains, nuclear systems, etc.)? That is where "reliability '' comes in. These issues are far more complex and can not be controlled only by a standard "quality '' (six sigma) way of working. They need a systems engineering approach. (Statement of creed, not fact.)
Quality is a snapshot at the start of life and mainly related to control of lower - level product specifications. This includes time - zero defects i.e. where manufacturing mistakes escaped final Quality Control. In theory the quality level might be described by a single fraction of defective products. Reliability (as a part of systems engineering) acts as more of an ongoing account of operational capabilities, often over many years. Theoretically, all items will fail over an infinite period of time. Defects that appear over time are referred to as reliability fallout. To describe reliability fallout a probability model that describes the fraction fallout over time is needed. This is known as the life distribution model. Some of these reliability issues may be due to inherent design issues, which may exist even though the product conforms to specifications. Even items that are produced perfectly may fail over time due to one or more failure mechanisms (e.g. due to human error or mechanical, electrical, and chemical factors). These reliability issues can also be influenced by acceptable levels of variation during initial production.
Quality is therefore related to manufacturing, and reliability is more related to the validation of sub-system or lower item requirements, (system or part) inherent design and life cycle solutions. Items that do not conform to (any) product specification will generally do worse in terms of reliability (having a lower MTTF), but this does not always have to be the case. The full mathematical quantification (in statistical models) of this combined relation is in general very difficult or even practically impossible. In cases where manufacturing variances can be effectively reduced, six sigma tools may be useful to find optimal process solutions which can increase reliability. Six Sigma may also help to design products that are more robust to manufacturing induced failures.
In contrast with Six Sigma, reliability engineering solutions are generally found by focusing on a (system) design and not on the manufacturing process. Solutions are found in different ways, such as by simplifying a system to allow more of the mechanisms of failure involved to be understood; performing detailed calculations of material stress levels allowing suitable safety factors to be determined; finding possible abnormal system load conditions and using this to increase robustness of a design to manufacturing variance related failure mechanisms. Furthermore, reliability engineering uses system - level solutions, like designing redundant and fault tolerant systems for situations with high availability needs (see Reliability engineering vs Safety engineering above).
Six - Sigma is also more quantified (measurement based). The core of Six - Sigma is built on empirical research and statistical analysis (e.g. to find transfer functions) of directly measurable parameters. This can not be translated practically to most reliability issues, as reliability is not (easily) measurable due to being very much a function of time (large times may be involved), especially during the requirements - specification and design phases, where reliability engineering is the most efficient. Full quantification of reliability is in this phase extremely difficult or costly (due to the amount of testing required). It also may foster re-active management (waiting for system failures to be measured before a decision can be taken). Furthermore, as explained on this page, Reliability problems are likely to come from many different causes (e.g. inherent failures, human error, systematic failures) besides manufacturing induced defects.
Note: A "defect '' in six - sigma / quality literature is not the same as a "failure '' (Field failure e.g. fractured item) in reliability. A six - sigma / quality defect refers generally to non-conformance with a requirement (e.g. basic functionality or a key dimension). Items can however fail over time, even if these requirements are all fulfilled. Quality is generally not concerned with asking the crucial question "are the requirements actually correct? '', whereas reliability is.
Within an entity, departments related to Quality (i.e. concerning manufacturing), Six Sigma (i.e. concerning process control), and Reliability (product design) should provide input to each other to cover the complete risks more efficiently.
Once systems or parts are being produced, reliability engineering attempts to monitor, assess, and correct deficiencies. Monitoring includes electronic and visual surveillance of critical parameters identified during the fault tree analysis design stage. Data collection is highly dependent on the nature of the system. Most large organizations have quality control groups that collect failure data on vehicles, equipment and machinery. Consumer product failures are often tracked by the number of returns. For systems in dormant storage or on standby, it is necessary to establish a formal surveillance program to inspect and test random samples. Any changes to the system, such as field upgrades or recall repairs, require additional reliability testing to ensure the reliability of the modification. Since it is not possible to anticipate all the failure modes of a given system, especially ones with a human element, failures will occur. The reliability program also includes a systematic root cause analysis that identifies the causal relationships involved in the failure such that effective corrective actions may be implemented. When possible, system failures and corrective actions are reported to the reliability engineering organization.
One of the most common methods to apply to a reliability operational assessment are failure reporting, analysis, and corrective action systems (FRACAS). This systematic approach develops a reliability, safety, and logistics assessment based on Failure / Incident reporting, management, analysis, and corrective / preventive actions. Organizations today are adopting this method and utilizing commercial systems (such as Web - based FRACAS applications) that enable them to create a failure / incident data repository from which statistics can be derived to view accurate and genuine reliability, safety, and quality metrics.
It is extremely important for an organization to adopt a common FRACAS system for all end items. Also, it should allow test results to be captured in a practical way. Failure to adopt one easy - to - use (in terms of ease of data - entry for field engineers and repair shop engineers) and easy - to - maintain integrated system is likely to result in a failure of the FRACAS program itself.
Some of the common outputs from a FRACAS system includes: Field MTBF, MTTR, Spares Consumption, Reliability Growth, Failure / Incidents distribution by type, location, part no., serial no, symptom etc.
The use of past data to predict the reliability of new comparable systems / items can be misleading as reliability is a function of the context of use and can be affected by small changes in design / manufacturing.
Systems of any significant complexity are developed by organizations of people, such as a commercial company or a government agency. The reliability engineering organization must be consistent with the company 's organizational structure. For small, non-critical systems, reliability engineering may be informal. As complexity grows, the need arises for a formal reliability function. Because reliability is important to the customer, the customer may even specify certain aspects of the reliability organization.
There are several common types of reliability organizations. The project manager or chief engineer may employ one or more reliability engineers directly. In larger organizations, there is usually a product assurance or specialty engineering organization, which may include reliability, maintainability, quality, safety, human factors, logistics, etc. In such case, the reliability engineer reports to the product assurance manager or specialty engineering manager.
In some cases, a company may wish to establish an independent reliability organization. This is desirable to ensure that the system reliability, which is often expensive and time consuming, is not unduly slighted due to budget and schedule pressures. In such cases, the reliability engineer works for the project day - to - day, but is actually employed and paid by a separate organization within the company.
Because reliability engineering is critical to early system design, it has become common for reliability engineers, however the organization is structured, to work as part of an integrated product team.
Some universities offer graduate degrees in reliability engineering. Other reliability engineers typically have an engineering degree, which can be in any field of engineering, from an accredited university or college program. Many engineering programs offer reliability courses, and some universities have entire reliability engineering programs. A reliability engineer may be registered as a professional engineer by the state, but this is not required by most employers. There are many professional conferences and industry training programs available for reliability engineers. Several professional organizations exist for reliability engineers, including the American Society for Quality Reliability Division (ASQ - RD), the IEEE Reliability Society, the American Society for Quality (ASQ), and the Society of Reliability Engineers (SRE).
A group of engineers have provided a list of useful tools for reliability engineering. These include: RelCalc software, Military Handbook 217 (Mil - HDBK - 217), and the NAVMAT P - 4855 - 1A manual. Analyzing failures and successes coupled with a quality standards process also provides systemized information to making informed engineering designs.
http://standards.sae.org/ja1000/1_199903/ SAE JA1000 / 1 Reliability Program Standard Implementation Guide
In the UK, there are more up to date standards maintained under the sponsorship of UK MOD as Defence Standards. The relevant Standards include:
DEF STAN 00 - 40 Reliability and Maintainability (R&M)
DEF STAN 00 - 42 RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY ASSURANCE GUIDES
DEF STAN 00 - 43 RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY ASSURANCE ACTIVITY
DEF STAN 00 - 44 RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY DATA COLLECTION AND CLASSIFICATION
DEF STAN 00 - 45 Issue 1: RELIABILITY CENTERED MAINTENANCE
DEF STAN 00 - 49 Issue 1: RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY MOD GUIDE TO TERMINOLOGY DEFINITIONS
These can be obtained from DSTAN. There are also many commercial standards, produced by many organisations including the SAE, MSG, ARP, and IEE.
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jingle all the way where was it filmed | Jingle All the Way - wikipedia
Jingle All the Way is a 1996 American comedy film directed by Brian Levant and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sinbad, with Phil Hartman, Rita Wilson, Jake Lloyd, James Belushi and Robert Conrad. The plot focuses on two rival fathers, workaholic Howard Langston (Schwarzenegger) and stressed out postal worker Myron Larabee (Sinbad), both desperately trying to get a Turbo - Man action figure for their respective sons on a last minute shopping spree on Christmas Eve.
Inspired by real - life Christmas toy sell - outs for products such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, the film was written by Randy Kornfield. Producer Chris Columbus rewrote the script, adding in elements of satire about the commercialization of Christmas, and the project was picked up by 20th Century Fox. Delays on Fox 's reboot of Planet of the Apes allowed Schwarzenegger to come on board the film, while Columbus opted to cast Sinbad ahead of Joe Pesci as Myron. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul at a variety of locations, including the Mall of America. After five weeks filming, production moved to California where scenes such as the end parade were shot. The film 's swift production meant merchandising was limited to a replica of the Turbo - Man action figure used in the film.
Although some critics felt the film was good family entertainment, it was met with a broadly negative response. Much criticism was attached to the film 's script, its focus on the commercialism of Christmas, Levant 's direction and Schwarzenegger 's performance. Nevertheless, it proved a success at the box office, generating $129 million worldwide, and it receives regular broadcasts on television during the Christmas season. In 2001, Fox was ordered to pay $19 million to Murray Hill Publishing for stealing the idea for the film; the verdict was overturned three years later.
Jingle All the Way is also Sinbad and Hartman 's third collaboration after Coneheads (1993) and Houseguest (1995).
Howard Langston is a workaholic mattress salesman with no time for his wife, Liz, and his 9 - year - old son, Jamie -- especially when compared to next door "superdad '' divorcee, Ted Maltin, who continually puts Howard in a bad light. After missing Jamie 's karate class graduation, Howard resolves to redeem himself by fulfilling Jamie 's ultimate Christmas wish: getting an action figure toy of Turbo - Man, a wildly popular TV superhero. On Christmas Eve, Howard sets out to buy a Turbo - Man doll at a store, telling Liz that he already has one at work that he must retrieve.
Along the way, Howard meets Myron Larabee, a postal worker dad with a rival ambition, and the two soon become bitter competitors in their race for the action figure. During his search, Howard runs his car into the parked police motorcycle of Officer Hummel, who earlier pulled him over and gave him a ticket. After several failed attempts to find the toy in a store, Howard attempts to buy a Turbo - Man from a Mall of America Santa, who is actually the leader of a band of counterfeit toy makers. When he accuses the Santa of undermining the values of Christmas (having been ripped off and sold a defective toy that falls apart the moment he opened the package), Howard ends up in a brawl with the gang. He narrowly escapes when the police raid their warehouse and gets out by posing as an undercover detective using a toy badge.
Later, Howard arrives at Mickey 's Diner and uses their phone to call home. As he tried to get a hold of Liz, he unintentionally scolds Jamie on the phone over Turbo - Man. Jamie, in turn, rebukes his father about how he never keeps his promises, and hangs up. Liz overhears the argument and becomes disappointed in her husband. Howard then encounters Myron at the diner. As they sat down and talk, Myron tells Howard about the time when his father was unable to get him a Johnny Seven OMA toy on Christmas. They hear on the KQRS radio station that there is a trivia competition in which the winner will receive a Turbo - Man doll. They rush to the studio, with Howard breaking the door to the recording booth, under the impression that the DJ has a Turbo - Man doll in the studio. After Myron threatens to blow up the studio with a package he claims is a mail bomb, he and Howard find out that whoever wins the competition will get a doll "eventually. '' The package is revealed to be a music box. The police, led by Officer Hummell, arrive in the studio, and Myron bluffs the police into backing off by threatening them with another "mail bomb, '' allowing him and Howard to escape. Hummell confidently rips open the package and it explodes, leaving his face covered in soot.
After his car is stripped by thieves, Howard is ultimately forced to return home empty - handed. Outside his home, he sees Ted in his house placing the star on his tree. In anger, Howard breaks into Ted 's house and steals the Turbo - Man doll from under his tree. He realizes that he is stealing from a child and changes his mind. He is attacked by Ted 's pet reindeer, accidentally setting one of Ted 's decorations on fire, and kicking it out the window trying to stamp it out, drawing the attention of Ted and Liz. Liz, having had enough, leaves with Jamie, Ted, and his son Johnny to the local Christmas parade; Howard follows, aiming to make amends.
At the parade, Ted makes a pass at Liz and she hits him with a thermos of eggnog. Howard witnesses Ted 's actions from a distance, and on his way to confront him, he runs into Officer Hummel, spilling his hot coffee all over him. Howard runs and Hummell chases him, and Howard enters a room where he is mistaken as the replacement actor for Turbo - Man. As the "real '' Turbo - Man, he presents the coveted limited - edition Turbo - Man doll to his son. Before he recognizes his father, Jamie is chased by Myron, who has dressed as Turbo - Man 's arch enemy Dementor (having caught, tied up and gagged the real actor). As the crowd assumes this is all part of the show, Howard attempts to rescue his son by utilizing the Turbo - Man suit 's equipment.
Howard catches Jamie as he falls from a roof and reveals himself to his son. Officer Hummell gives the doll to Jamie, then asks Howard (as Turbo - Man) to join the police force, saluting him. Howard turns and reveals himself and Hummell is dumbfounded, as Howard apologizes for all the trouble. Myron is arrested while ranting about having to explain his failure to get the Turbo - Man toy for his son. Jamie decides to give the doll to him, telling Howard that he has "the real Turbo - Man at home. ''
Later, Howard puts the star on the top of his tree and celebrates Christmas with Jamie and Liz. Liz commends Howard for everything he 's done just to make Jamie happy, and then asks Howard what he got her for Christmas. Howard stares in shock at the camera before the fadeout.
The film draws inspiration from the high demand for Christmas toys such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in the late 1980s and early 1990s, which often led to intense searching and occasional violence amongst shoppers. Randy Kornfield wrote the film 's original screenplay after witnessing his in - laws go to a Santa Monica toy store at dawn in order to get his son a Power Ranger. While admitting to missing the clamor for the Cabbage Patch Kids and Power Rangers, producer Chris Columbus experienced a similar situation in 1995 when he attempted to obtain a Buzz Lightyear action figure from the film Toy Story, released that year. As a result, he rewrote Kornfield 's script, which was accepted by 20th Century Fox. Columbus was always "attracted to the dark side of the happiest holiday of the year '', so wrote elements of the film as a satire of the commercialization of Christmas. Brian Levant was hired to direct the film. Columbus said Levant "underst (ood) the humor in the material '' and "was very animated and excited, and he had a vision of what he wanted to do ''. Levant said "The story that was important to me was between the father and son... it 's a story about love, and a father 's journey to deliver it in the form of a Turbo Man doll. The fact that I got to design a toy line and do the commercials and make pajamas and comic books was fun for me as a filmmaker. But at its root, the movie 's about something really sweet. It 's about love and building a better family. I think that 's consistent with everything I 've done. ''
Arnold Schwarzenegger was quickly cast. He became available in February 1996 after Fox 's remake of Planet of the Apes was held up again; Columbus also exited that project to work on Jingle All the Way. The film marks Schwarzenegger 's fourth appearance as the lead in a comedy film, following Twins (1988), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and Junior (1994). Schwarzenegger was paid a reported $20 million for the role. He enjoyed the film, having experienced last - minute Christmas shopping himself, and was attracted to playing an "ordinary '' character in a family film. Columbus initially wanted Joe Pesci to play Myron. Comedian Sinbad was chosen instead, partly due to his similar height and size to Schwarzenegger. Sinbad was suggested for the part by Schwarzenegger 's agent, but the producers felt he was unsuited to the role of a villain as it could harm his clean, family - oriented comedy act and reputation, although Sinbad felt the character would generate the audience 's sympathy rather than hate. Furthermore, he missed the audition due to his appearance with First Lady Hillary Clinton and musician Sheryl Crow on the USO tour of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but Columbus waited for him to return to allow him to audition and, although Sinbad felt he had "messed '' it up, he was given the part. He improvised the majority of his lines in the film; Schwarzenegger also improvised many of his responses in his conversations with Sinbad 's character.
Filming took place in Minnesota for five weeks from April 15, 1996; at the time, it was the largest film production to ever take place in the state. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota at locations such as Bloomington 's Mall of America, Mickey 's Diner, downtown Minneapolis, Linden Hills, residential areas of Edina and primarily downtown Saint Paul. Unused shops in the Seventh Place Mall area were redecorated to resemble Christmas decorated stores, while the Energy Park Studios were used for much of the filming and the Christmas lights stayed up at Rice Park for use in the film. The Mall of America and the state 's "semi-wintry weather '' proved attractive for the studio. Although Schwarzenegger stated that the locals were "well - behaved '' and "cooperative '', Levant often found filming "impossible '' due to the scale and noise of the crowds who came to watch production, especially in the Mall of America, but overall found the locals to be "respectful '' and "lovely people. '' Levant spent several months in the area before filming in order to prepare. The film uses artistic license by treating Minneapolis and Saint Paul as one city, as this was logistically easier; the police are labeled "Twin Cities Police '' in the film. Additionally, the city 's Holidazzle Parade is renamed the Wintertainment Parade and takes place on 2nd Avenue during the day, rather than Nicollet Mall at night. Levant wanted to film the parade at night but was overruled for practical reasons.
The parade was filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood in California on the New York Street set, due to safety concerns. The set was designed to resemble 2nd Avenue; the parade was shot from above by helicopters and stitched into matte shots of the real - life street. It took three weeks to film, with 1,500 extras being used in the scene, along with three custom designed floats. Other parts of the film to be shot in Los Angeles, California included store interiors, and the warehouse fight scene between Howard and the criminal Santas, for which a Pasadena furniture warehouse was used. Turbo - Man was created and designed for the film. This meant the commercials and scenes from the Turbo - Man TV series were all shot by Levant, while all of the Turbo - Man merchandise, packaging and props shown in the film were custom made one - offs and designed to look "authentic, as if they all sprang from the same well. '' Along with Columbus and Levant, production designer Leslie McDonald and character designer Tim Flattery crafted Turbo - Man, Booster and Dementor and helped make the full - size Turbo - Man suit for the film 's climax. Principal production finished in August; Columbus "fine - tun (ed) the picture until the last possible minute, '' using multiple test audiences "to see where the big laughs actually lie. ''
TVT Records released the film 's soundtrack album on Audio CD on November 26, 1996. It features only two of composer David Newman 's pieces from Jingle All the Way, but features many of the songs by other artists included in the film, as well as other Christmas songs and new tracks by the Brian Setzer Orchestra. Intrada Music Group released a Special Collection limited edition of Newman 's full 23 - track score on November 3, 2008.
As Schwarzenegger only signed on for the film in February and the film was shot so quickly, only six and a half months were available for merchandising, instead of the ideal year. As such, merchandising was limited to a 13.5 inch replica $25 Talking Turbo - Man action figure and the West Coast exclusive Turbo - Man Time Racer vehicle, while no tie - in promotions could be secured. Despite this, several critics wrote that the film was only being made in order to sell the toy. Columbus dismissed this notion, stating that with only roughly 200,000 Turbo - Man toys being made, the merchandising was far less than the year 's other releases, such as Space Jam and 101 Dalmatians. The film 's release coincided with the Tickle Me Elmo craze, in which high demand for the doll during the 1996 Christmas season lead to store mobbing similar to that depicted for Turbo - Man.
The world premiere was held on November 16, 1996 at the Mall of America in Bloomington where parts of the film were shot. A day of events was held to celebrate the film 's release and Schwarzenegger donated memorabilia from the film to the Mall 's Planet Hollywood. Opening on November 22 in 2,401, Jingle All the Way made $12.1 million in its first weekend, opening at # 4 behind Star Trek: First Contact, Space Jam and Ransom; it went on to gross $129 million worldwide, recouping its $75 million budget. The film was released on VHS in October 1997, and in November 1998 it was released on DVD. It was rereleased on DVD in December 2004, followed by an extended director 's cut in October 2007, known as the "Family Fun Edition ''. It contained several minutes of extra footage, as well as other DVD extras such as a behind the scenes featurette. In December of the following year, the Family Fun Edition was released on Blu - ray Disc. The film was released in the United Kingdom on December 6, 1996, and topped the country 's box office that weekend.
The film received a 17 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes, where it has 35 negative reviews out of 42 counted. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale. Emanuel Levy felt the film "highly formulaic '' and criticized Levant 's direction as little more advanced than a television sitcom. Although he felt Hartman, Wilson and Conrad were not given much opportunity to shine due to the script, he opined that "Schwarzenegger has developed a light comic delivery, punctuated occasionally by an ironic one - liner, '' while "Sinbad has good moments ''. Neil Jeffries of Empire disagreed, feeling Schwarzenegger to be "wooden '' and Sinbad to be "trying desperately to be funnier than his hat '' but praised Lloyd as the "saving grace '' of the film.
The New York Times critic Janet Maslin felt the film lacked any real plot, failed in its attempt at satire, should have included Myron 's only mentioned son and "mostly wasted '' Hartman, while Levant 's direction was "listless ''. Similarly, the BBC 's Neil Smith criticized the film 's script, its focus on the commercialization of Christmas, as well as Schwarzenegger 's performance which shows "the comic timing of a dead moose, '' but singled out Hartman for praise. Chicago Tribune critic Michael Wilmington panned the film, wondering why the characters (primarily Howard) acted so illogically: "Howard Langston is supposed to be a successful mattress manufacturer, but the movie paints him as a hot - tempered buffoon without a sensible idea in his head. '' Jack Garner of USA Today condemned the film, finding it more "cynical '' than satirical, stating "this painfully bad movie has been inspired strictly by the potential jingle of cash registers. '' He wrote of Levant 's directorial failure as he "offers no... sense of comic timing, '' while "pauses in the midst of much of the dialogue are downright painful. '' Trevor Johnston suggested that the film "seems to mark a point of decline in the Schwarzenegger career arc '' and the anti-consumerism message largely failed, with "Jim Belushi 's corrupt mall Santa with his stolen - goods warehouse... provid (ing) the film 's sole flash of dark humour. ''
IGN 's Mike Drucker praised its subject matter as "one of the few holiday movies to directly deal with the commercialization of Christmas '' although felt the last twenty minutes of the film let it down, as the first hour or so had "some family entertainment '' value if taken with a "grain of salt ''. He concluded the film was "a member of the so - corny - its - good genre, '' while "Arnold delivers plenty of one - liners ripe for sound board crank callers. '' Jamie Malanowski of The New York Times praised the film 's satirical premise but felt it was "full of unrealized potential '' because "the filmmakers (wrongly) equate mayhem with humor. '' Roger Ebert gave the film two - and - a-half stars, writing that he "liked a lot of the movie '', which he thought had "energy '' and humor which would have mass audience appeal. He was, though, disappointed by "its relentlessly materialistic view of Christmas, and by the choice to go with action and (mild) violence over dialogue and plot. '' Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures concluded that while the film is not very good, as a form of family entertainment it is "surprisingly fun. ''
Brian Levant was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst Director, but lost to Andrew Bergman for Striptease; Sinbad, however, won the Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actor in a Family film.
In 1998, Murray Hill Publishing sued 20th Century Fox for $150,000, claiming that the idea for the film was stolen from a screenplay they had purchased from high school teacher Brian Webster entitled Could This Be Christmas?. They said the script had 36 similarities with Jingle All the Way, including the plot, dialogue and character names. Murray Hill President Bob Laurel bought the script from Webster in 1993, and sent it to Fox and other studios in 1994 but received no response and claimed the idea was copied by Kornfield, who was Fox 's script reader. In 2001, Fox were found guilty of stealing the idea and ordered to pay $19 million ($15 million in damages and $4 million in legal costs) to Murray Hill, with Webster to receive a portion. Laurel died a few months after the verdict, before receiving any of the money. On appeal, the damages figure was lowered to $1.5 million, before the verdict itself was quashed in 2004 after a judge decided the idea was not stolen, as Fox had bought Kornfield 's screenplay before he or anybody else at Fox had read Could This Be Christmas?.
A stand - alone sequel, Jingle All the Way 2, was released straight - to - DVD in December 2014. Directed by Alex Zamm and produced by WWE Studios and 20th Century Fox, the film has a similar plot to the original, but is otherwise not connected and none of the original cast or characters returned. The lead roles were instead played by Larry the Cable Guy and Santino Marella.
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who voiced the verminator in over the hedge | Over the Hedge (film) - wikipedia
Over the Hedge is a 2006 American computer - animated comedy film based on the United Media comic strip of the same name, produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. The film was directed by Tim Johnson and Karey Kirkpatrick from a screenplay by Len Blum, Lorne Cameron, David Hoselton, and Kirkpatrick, and features the voices of Bruce Willis, Garry Shandling, Steve Carell, William Shatner, Wanda Sykes, and Nick Nolte. This was the first DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by Paramount Pictures, which acquired the live - action DreamWorks studio in 2006. The film was released on May 19, 2006, and earned $336 million on an $80 million budget.
While scavenging for food, RJ the raccoon enters the cave of Vincent the bear, who has a wagon full of human food taken from a nearby rest stop. RJ accidentally wakes Vincent from his hibernation, and in a race to escape, causes the stash to roll out onto the nearby highway and get run over by a large truck. To avoid being eaten himself, RJ promises Vincent that he will completely replace the stash within the week.
RJ heads towards a recently built suburban housing development in Chesterton, Indiana, separated from a forest glade by a large hedge. There he discovers a pack of animals recently awoken from their hibernation, led by Verne the turtle; the others include squirrel Hammy, skunk Stella, porcupines Penny and Lou, along with their triplet sons, Spike, Bucky and Quillo; and opossum Ozzie and his daughter Heather. The animals are scared, as the development had been built during their hibernation and they fear they will be unable to forage for food in the small glade. RJ shows them the amount of food humans consume and waste and suggests they forage from the humans. Verne is hesitant but the other animals acquiesce. They make bold attempts to steal food directly from the humans, with RJ secretly guiding them to help collect the food he needs to replace Vincent 's stash.
When the animals raid the trash cans of the homeowners - association chairwoman Gladys Sharp, she calls an animal exterminator named Dwayne LaFontant, who offers to install in her backyard an illegal, lethal trap called the "Depelter Turbo ''. Verne sees this and tries to warn the others, but RJ insists they will be okay. Fearing for the safety of the pack, Verne attempts to return what they stole; he and RJ argue, causing a small rampage through the development and destroying the stash RJ had collected for Vincent. After a brief argument, RJ and Verne make up and RJ rallies the others to raid Gladys ' home directly on the night before a large party. With Stella disguised as a cat to distract Gladys ' own cat, Tiger, the others enter Gladys ' home and collect all the food. RJ inadvertently reveals his duplicity to the animals, just as they are discovered by Gladys who calls Dwayne. RJ escapes with the food for Vincent but leaves the other animals to be captured by Dwayne.
As RJ returns the food to Vincent, he sees Dwayne 's truck drive by and, consumed by remorse, uses the food to knock the truck off the road, enraging Vincent. Dwayne is knocked out while the animals get free, and Spike, Bucky and Quillo use skills they learned from a videogame to drive the truck back to the development. RJ pleads to be let in the truck as Vincent tries to catch him, but the others, angry at his treachery, refuse. Verne convinces the group to forgive RJ since he came back to save them. They return the truck to the development, crashing through Gladys ' home, and the animals flee into the hedge. Gladys and Dwayne converge on the animals from one side with a String trimmer and a Cattle prod respectively, while Vincent tries to swipe at them from the other. To escape, RJ gives Hammy a caffeinated beverage, allowing the hyperactive squirrel to move incredibly fast. Hammy is able to manipulate Dwayne into capturing Vincent, causing Vincent, Gladys, and Dwayne to be trapped by the Depelter Turbo while the animals escape. The police and animal control arrive, and Vincent is sent to the Rocky Mountains while Gladys is arrested for using the Depelter Turbo. Dwayne escapes when Gladys gets arrested only to get bitten by Nugent.
RJ and Verne apologize to each other, and RJ is brought into the group, as is Tiger, who became infatuated with Stella even after learning she was a skunk. Verne realizes they have not had a chance to forage for food until Hammy reveals that while sped up, he had been able to collect enough nuts for them all to last the year.
Two minor human characters, appearing during the dog chase scene, were voiced by Lee Bienstock and Sean Yazbeck, two participants on The Apprentice 5 as part of a reward for winning a task.
In July 2002, Jim Carrey announced he would co-star with Shandling in Over the Hedge. In October 2004, however, he left the project and was replaced with Willis.
On opening weekend, the film was in second place to The DaVinci Code, but its gross of $38,457,003 did not quite live up to DreamWorks Animation 's other titles released over the past few years. The film had a per - theater average of $9,474 from 4,059 theaters. In its second weekend, the film dropped 30 % to $27,063,774 for a $6,612 average from an expanded 4,093 theaters and finishing third, behind X-Men: The Last Stand and The DaVinci Code. Since it was Memorial Day Weekend, the film grossed a total of $35,322,115 over the four - day weekend, resulting in only an 8 % slide. In its third weekend, the film held well with a 24 % drop to $20,647,284 and once again placing in third behind The Break - Up and X-Men: The Last Stand, for a $5,170 average from 3,993 theaters. The film closed on September 4, 2006 after 112 days of release, grossing $155,019,340 in the United States and Canada, along with $180,983,656 overseas for a worldwide total of $336,002,996. Produced on an $80 million budget, the film was a commercial success.
On the film - critics aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has received 75 % positive reviews, based on 168 reviews with an average of 6.8 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "Even if it 's not an animation classic, Over the Hedge is clever and fun, and the jokes cater to family members of all ages. '' On another aggregator, Metacritic, the film has a rating of 67 / 100, indicating "generally favorable. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Critic Frank Lovece of Film Journal International found that, "DreamWorks ' slapstick animated adaptation of the philosophically satiric comic strip... is a lot of laughs and boasts a much tighter story than most animated features. '' Ken Fox of TVGuide.com called it "a sly satire of American ' enough is never enough ' consumerism and blind progress at the expense of the environment. It 's also very funny, and the little woodland critters that make up the cast are a kiddie - pleasing bunch ''.
The film was screened as a "work - in - progress '' on April 29, 2006, at the Indianapolis International Film Festival, and it premiered on April 30, 2006, in Los Angeles. Nick Nolte, Bruce Willis, Avril Lavigne, Garry Shandling, Wanda Sykes, Catherine O'Hara and Steve Carell attended the premiere. The film was theatrically released in the United States on May 19, 2006. In select New York and Los Angeles theatres, it was accompanied by a DreamWorks Animation 's animated short film First Flight. The film was also screened out of competition on May 21, 2006, at the Cannes Film Festival.
Over the Hedge was released on DVD by DreamWorks Animation 's newly formed home entertainment division and Paramount Home Entertainment on October 17, 2006. A short film based on Over the Hedge, titled Hammy 's Boomerang Adventure, was released with the DVD.
The soundtrack for the film was released on May 16, 2006 by Epic Records. Rupert Gregson - Williams composed the original score, while Ben Folds contributed three original songs, along with a rewrite of his song "Rockin ' the Suburbs '' and a cover of The Clash 's "Lost in the Supermarket. ''
Track list:
A video game based on the film was released on May 9, 2006. Developed by Edge of Reality, Beenox and Vicarious Visions it was published by Activision for PlayStation 2, Microsoft Windows, Xbox, GameCube, Nintendo DS and Game Boy Advance. Three different versions of Over the Hedge: Hammy Goes Nuts! were released by Activision in the fall of 2006: a miniature golf game for Game Boy Advance, an action adventure game for Nintendo DS, and a platform game for PlayStation Portable.
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darth maul was _ in star wars episode 1 | Darth Maul - wikipedia
Darth Maul, later known simply as Maul, is a fictional character in the Star Wars franchise. Trained as Darth Sidious 's first apprentice, he serves as a Sith Lord and a master of wielding a double - bladed lightsaber. He first appears in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace (portrayed by Ray Park and voiced by Peter Serafinowicz), and later makes appearances in Star Wars: The Clone Wars and Star Wars Rebels, voiced by Samuel Witwer.
After getting frustrated with a drawing of production designer Gavin Bocquet, Iain McCaig started covering it in tape. Both he and Lucas liked the result, described as "a kind of Rorschach pattern ''. The final drawing had McCaig 's own face, with the skin removed, and some Rorschach experimentation (dropping ink onto paper, folding it in half then opening).
Darth Maul 's head originally had feathers, based on prayer totems, but the Creature Effects crew led by Nick Dudman interpreted those feathers as horns, modifying his features into those common in popular depictions of the devil.
His clothing was also modified, from a tight body suit with a muscle pattern to the Sith robe based on samurai pleats, because the lightsabre battles involved much jumping, spinning, running, and rolling. Another concept had Maul a masked figure, something that could rival Darth Vader, while the senatorial characters would sport painted and tattooed faces. It was later decided to apply the painted and tattooed faces to Maul rather than the senator.
Darth Maul was physically portrayed by actor and martial artist Ray Park in The Phantom Menace. The character was voiced by comedian / voice actor / director Peter Serafinowicz in The Phantom Menace and Lego videogame adaptation of the prequel trilogy; while Samuel Witwer performed the character 's voice in the animated series The Clone Wars and Rebels. while actors Gregg Berger, Jess Harnell, Stephen Stanton, Clint Bajakian, David W. Collins, and have all voiced him in Legends adaptations and minor appearances.
Introduced in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul is ordered by Darth Sidious to capture Queen Padmé Amidala. On Tatooine, Maul fights Qui - Gon Jinn while approaching the Queen 's starship. While Anakin Skywalker (the future Darth Vader) gets on board, Qui - Gon engages Maul in a lightsaber duel, but the Jedi Master escapes. Eventually, Maul fights Qui - Gon and Obi - Wan Kenobi at the same time. Maul duels Qui - Gon and eventually kills him. Although Obi - Wan gets almost knocked down into a reactor pit, he uses the Force to propel himself out of the pit, and equips himself with Qui - Gon 's lightsaber to bisect Maul, seemingly killing him, after which the two pieces of Maul 's body fall into the pit.
Darth Maul appears in the fourth and fifth seasons of the animated series Star Wars: The Clone Wars.
In the third season, Darth Maul 's origins are elaborated upon: he is portrayed as a warrior of the Nightbrother clan on the planet Dathomir inhabited by the dominant Nightsister witchcraft society led by Mother Talzin. Maul 's tattoos are described as the markings of a warrior (in contrast to earlier sources which identify his body art as Sith markings). Talzin has Savage Opress find his long lost brother.
In the fourth season, Darth Maul is revealed to be alive, having survived his presumed death at Obi - Wan Kenobi 's hands. Having ended up on the junkyard planet Lotho Minor via landing in a dumpster craft, Maul has become insane and suffers amnesia since Obi - Wan defeated him. Opress finds Maul and brings him to the devastated Dathomir, where Talzin restores Maul 's mind and gives him robotic legs. Maul learns that the Clone Wars have started without him as he is aided by Opress to exact his revenge on Obi - Wan. Maul proceeds to attack a village on planet Raydonia as his first attempt on Obi - Wan 's life, only to be thwarted due to Asajj Ventress ' unexpected appearance to collect a bounty on Opress. Obi - Wan and Ventress flee due to Maul and Opress overpowering them, the former deciding to await another opportunity while realizing that the Jedi already know of his continued existence through the Force.
In the fifth season, Darth Maul continues to appear with Savage Opress. With Opress as his apprentice, Maul begins building a criminal empire. Needing followers, they travel to Florrum and manage to convince Weequay pirate Jiro and his crew to join them and betray their leader Hondo Ohnaka. Maul once again duels Obi - Wan, while Opress fights and kills Jedi Master Adi Gallia while Maul 's pirates attack Hondo 's loyal forces. Obi - wan and Hondo forces retreat and regroup inside Hondo 's compound. Maul 's forces eventually break in and Obi - Wan draws the two brothers away form the pirates, engaging them in a two on one due while the pirate factions fight elsewhere in the compound. Things go badly for Maul however, as Obi - Wan, thought numbered, cuts off Opress 's arm and forces the Sith Lords to retreat. Meanwhile, Honda wins back his crew by "persuading '' them under threat of heavy artillery. Both the Pirates and Kenobi chase off, blowing off one of Maul 's robotic legs and badly damaging Maul 's ship. Maul and Opress manage to escape, however, but get stuck in dead space due to the damage to their ship. After several days are found close to death by the Death Watch Mandalorian warriors, led by Pre Vizsla, who gives Maul a new set of legs and Opress a new mechanical arm. Maul offers Vizsla the chance to reclaim Mandalore by recruiting the Black Sun and Pyke crime families and Jabba the Hutt 's minions to create the criminal syndicate named The Shadow Collective.
From there, Maul engineers Vizsla 's rise to power: he orders his henchmen to attack Mandalore so the Death Watch can arrest them and appear as heroes to the denizens who have long lived under Duchess Satine Kryze 's pacifist rule. Vizsla, however, betrays Maul, imprisoning both he and Savage. Easily breaking free, Maul challenges Vizsla to a duel to take over the Death Watch and Mandalore; he succeeds in killing Vizsla and then claims his former co-conspirator's darksaber. He wins the loyalty of most Death Watch members, but Bo Katan retreats along with those loyal to their previous leader. Maul then puts the disgraced former prime minister Almec, whom Satine had imprisoned for corruption, in power as a puppet leader, thus solidifying his control over Mandalore. Maul then anticipates Satine being broken out of prison and her attempt to contact the Jedi Council as part of his plan to get Obi - Wan to Mandalore. Once Obi - Wan arrives and attempts to rescue Satine, Maul captures him and exacts revenge on the Jedi by murdering Satine right in front of him, hoping to make the Jedi suffer as much has he once did. Obi - Wan is later freed by the Night Owl rebels (Bo Katan 's Death Watch faction) who request Republic aid.
Maul senses Darth Sidious arriving on Mandalore. Although impressed with his former apprentice 's survival, Sidious declares Maul a rival and uses the Force to push and choke him and Opress. He then engages them both in lightsaber combat, fatally injuring Opress. After Opress dies from his wounds, Sidious reminds Maul of the Rule of Two and that he had been replaced. Enraged, Maul pulls out both his lightsaber and darksaber and proceeds to fight Sidious on equal ground, but Sidious ultimately defeats him. Maul pleads for mercy, but Sidious ignores him and tortures him with blasts of Force lightning. However, Sidious reveals that he has no intention of killing Maul, remarking that he has other uses for his former apprentice.
An older Maul appears in the season 2 finale of Star Wars Rebels. Tracked by an Inquisitor named the Eighth Brother, Maul has become stranded on the ancient Sith world of Malachor, where he is discovered by Ezra Bridger among the ruins. Introducing himself as "Old Master '' and seeking revenge for Sidious ' actions against himself and his family, Maul leads Ezra into an ancient Sith temple, where they discover a holocron that Maul claims can give them the knowledge needed to defeat the Sith. After recovering it by gaining Ezra 's trust, the two find Ezra 's master Kanan Jarrus and former Jedi Ahsoka Tano locked in battle with the Eighth Brother and two more, the Fifth Brother and the Seventh Sister, who have been pursuing the rebels for some time. Maul -- having cast aside the title of Darth -- then reveals a new lightsaber disguised as a component of a walking stick and joins the Jedi in battling their enemies.
After the Inquisitors retreat, Maul convinces the Jedi that he can be trusted due to his shared antagonism of the Sith, and expresses his conviction that he lacks the ability to defeat Darth Vader on his own. Working together, he and the Jedi ascend towards the top of the Sith temple and successfully defeat the three Inquisitors. It is then that Maul reveals his intention to take Ezra as his apprentice, having already tricked him into activating the temple. After blinding Kanan, Maul briefly duels Ahsoka before facing Kanan again, only to be knocked off the temple 's edge. However, he survives the fall and escapes Malachor in the Eighth Brother 's TIE Fighter.
Months after the events on Malachor, Maul once again reveals himself to the Jedi as he takes the Ghost 's crew hostage. He threatens to kill them unless Kanan and Ezra bring both the Sith and Jedi holocrons to him. Despite an attempt by the Rebels to escape, Maul successfully recaptures them and takes them to a remote base in the Outer Rim where he awaits the arrival of the Jedi. After they arrive, the holocrons are hazardously united allowing Ezra and Maul to see visions of their desires: Ezra sees images of a way to destroy the Sith, images including "twin suns '', while Maul sees a vision of his own. Kanan begs Ezra to look away before he sees something he does n't want to while Maul tells him to ignore Kanan and keep looking. Ezra heeds his master 's words and breaks off the connection, which causes a great explosion. Maul escapes in the confusion uttering, "He lives. ''
Maul reappears after finding the Rebellion 's secret base. He tells Ezra that because the connection was severed, they got bits and pieces of each other 's visions. With the holocrons destroyed from the events of their previous meeting, Maul discovered another way to get the information he needed. With Ezra he travels to Dathomir, former home of the Night Sisters, and recreates one of their spells to temporarily meld his and Ezra 's minds. After the spell is completed Ezra, who was still looking for a way to destroy the Sith, and Maul realize they are both looking for Obi - Wan Kenobi.
In the episode "Twin Suns '', Maul is shown lost on Tatooine. He decides to use Ezra to lure Obi - Wan out of hiding. During their confrontation Maul deduces that Obi - Wan is not only hiding, but is protecting someone. In a swift duel, Obi - Wan delivers a fatal injury to Maul. As he dies in the arms of Obi - Wan, Maul asks if the person he is protecting is the Chosen One, to which Obi - Wan replies "he is '', which convinces him that the boy will avenge them.
Marvel will release Star Wars: Darth Maul a 5 - issue prequel series centered on Darth Maul before the events of The Phantom Menace.
Dark Horse Comics produced Darth Maul: Son of Dathomir based on the scripts and storyboards of an unproduced 4 - episode story arc intended for The Clone Wars Season 6. Set after Darth Sidious killed Savage Opress and captured Maul, taking him to a Separatist prison, where Count Dooku tortures him about the Shadow Collective and the allies he made. Prime Minister Almec arranges Maul 's escape and the latter then heads back to Zanbar to command the Death Watch army. However, he is followed there by General Grievous and his droids, who then battle with Maul and the Mandalorians. While they put up a fierce fight, Maul and his minions are ultimately overwhelmed by the droids. During the battle, Maul tears through the droid ranks and attacks Grievous, but is overpowered and forced to retreat. Afterwards, Maul confers with Mother Talzin (revealed to be his biological mother) and plots to draw out Sidious by capturing Dooku and General Grievous. The scheme works, and Talzin is able to restore herself to her physical form, but she sacrifices herself to save Maul and is killed by Grievous. Although Maul escapes with a company of loyal Mandalorians, the Shadow Collective has fallen apart due to the conflict with Sidious, as the Hutts, Pykes, and Black Sun have all abandoned Maul.
In flashbacks during the novel Star Wars: Ahsoka, it is revealed that during the final days of the Clone Wars, Maul and his forces were besieged on Mandalore by an army of clone troopers led by Ahsoka Tano and Captain Rex. During the siege, Maul confronts and duels Ahsoka, and though he proves to be the stronger fighter, the former Jedi outwits him and traps him in a ray shield. However, before Maul can be taken into official custody, Order 66 is enacted and the clone troopers following Ahsoka turn on her, with the exception of Rex. With Rex 's life in peril, Ahsoka abandons the chance of killing Maul, allowing the former Sith to escape once again. This battle was also originally intended to be the real series finale of The Clone Wars had the series never been cancelled -- Anakin and Obi - Wan were dispatched to Mandalore with Ahsoka, but were immediately called back to Coruscant to rescue Chancellor Palpatine, thus leading into the opening sequence of Revenge of the Sith.
With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.
As portrayed in the novel Darth Plagueis, the titular Sith Lord sends his apprentice, Darth Sidious, to the Force - rich world of Dathomir. A Dathomiri witch, or Night - sister, senses Sidious ' power in the Force and approaches him. She assumes he is a Jedi and begs him to take her Zabrak infant son. She realizes Sidious is not a Jedi, and explains how she is trying to save her son from a Nightsister named Talzin, who killed Maul 's father. It is implied that Maul has a twin brother and that Talzin is only aware of one child. Sidious realizes the infant is strong in the Force, and would become a threat if found by the Jedi. Concealing the existence of his own master, Sidious raises Maul to believe that he is a Sith apprentice, but he actually intends him to be an expendable -- albeit useful -- minion rather than an heir. Maul himself acknowledges his shortcomings, such as his limited understanding of politics, even as he tries to become a true Sith.
As portrayed in the novel Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter, Maul was raised by Sidious for as long as he can remember. He then trains Maul as a Sith, marking his body with Sith tattoos. Maul initially goes on several missions of terror for his master, killing politicians, crime bosses, merchants and warlords.
Several sources depict Maul returning from the dead in several different forms. The story "Resurrection '' from Star Wars Tales 9 depicts a cult creating a duplicate of Maul as a replacement for Darth Vader, only for Vader to kill him. The story "Phantom Menaces '' in Star Wars Tales # 17 (set after Return of the Jedi) depicts Luke Skywalker visiting Maul 's home planet of Iridonia in an ambassadorial capacity, where he faces a "solid state hologram '' of Maul projected from Maul 's salvaged brain as part of a scientist 's attempt to recreate Maul as Iridonia 's "champion ''. Luke recognizes the disruption that Maul 's existence is causing in the Force, and shuts down the life - support systems keeping the brain alive.
In 2005, Dark Horse Comics published Star Wars: Visionaries, a compilation of comic art short stories. One story "Old Wounds '', considered to be non-canonical to Star Wars lore, depicts Maul, now with longer horns on his head, surviving his bisection at Obi - Wan 's hands, replacing his missing bottom half with cybernetic legs, similar to those of General Grievous. He then follows Obi - Wan throughout the galaxy, finally tracking him down on Tatooine a few years after the events of Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith. Maul taunts Obi - Wan, saying that after he kills him, he will take a toddler - aged Luke Skywalker to his master, Emperor Palpatine. Maul plans to kill Darth Vader, and resume his rightful place at Palpatine 's side as his apprentice. He ignites his new double - bladed lightsaber, and engages Obi - Wan in a lightsaber duel, but Obi - Wan again bests him in combat, cutting off his opponent 's horns. The Sith Lord is killed, unexpectedly, by a blaster bolt to the head from Owen Lars. Obi - Wan thanks Owen, and says he will take Maul 's body into the desert and burn it so he can never come back.
In early 2012, a young adult novel entitled Star Wars: The Wrath of Darth Maul was released by Scholastic. In the 2014 novel, Star Wars: Maul: Lockdown, set before The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul is sent into an infamous galactic prison. Maul is also featured prominently in comic series starting in this period, Star Wars: The Clone Wars: The Sith Hunters & Darth Maul: Death Sentence. Set in the period of the Clone Wars around the various episodes that featured Maul, Sith Hunters and Death Sentence detail his and Savage Opress ' journey across the galaxy as they seek vengeance on the Jedi.
Since the release of The Phantom Menace, Darth Maul has proven to be a popular character. IGN named Darth Maul the 16th greatest Star Wars character, noting, "Of the countless characters to walk in and out of the Star Wars saga, none looks or acts more badass than Darth Maul. ''
Darth Maul - related merchandise was popular among Hasbro Star Wars toy lines, with plastic recreations of his double bladed lightsaber and various action figures in his likeness developed. Darth Maul has been the focal point of the toy marketing campaign surrounding the 2012 re-release of The Phantom Menace, being featured on the packaging for the toy line.
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how to be the head boy of the school | Head girl and head boy - wikipedia
Head boy and head girl are roles of prominent student responsibility. The terms are commonly used in the British education system and in private schools throughout the Commonwealth organisations.
In some British schools, the pupil body (or the headteacher) may elect a head boy and / or a head girl from the pupils / students. Head boys and head girls are usually responsible for representing the school at events, and therefore must be able to make public speeches. They also serve as a good role model for students, and share pupils ' ideas with the schools leadership. He or she may also be expected to lead fellow prefects in their duties. Deputy head boys and girls may also be appointed, taking on the day - to - day management of the prefects in some institutions, as well as looking after the school and creating a link between teachers and pupils.
All schools in Hong Kong, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Singapore, UAE and Malaysia, and many in the Commonwealth Caribbean, as well as South Africa, New Zealand and Canada, follow the same system as that in the United Kingdom, having a head girl and head boy or head prefect, a vice-head girl / boy, prefects, house captains, monitors and class representatives. (source?) The head girl and boy assist the teachers and administration of the school. Nigerian and Ghanaian schools follow a similar system although some schools appoint a head prefect or senior prefect and assistant senior prefect. Another term used is "Senior Ring '' (for boys) and "Senior Pin '' (for girls), which is used in some schools such as Aden Bowman Collegiate in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
In Australia, the system is much the same as that of the United Kingdom. Almost all public secondary schools will have a student council with each year group having elected representatives. The head boy and head girl are generally the "chair '' of this council and will represent the school on a government or community level and will represent the students at the school level.
Class or school president is a similar position; these are commonly found in elementary and secondary schools in the United States and Canada and may or may not necessarily be gender - specific.
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where did buffy's sister dawn come from | Dawn Summers - wikipedia
Dawn Summers is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon and introduced by Marti Noxon and David Fury on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer, portrayed by Michelle Trachtenberg. She made her debut in the premiere episode of the show 's fifth season and subsequently appeared in every episode of its remaining three seasons. Within the series, Dawn is the little sister of main character Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), a girl chosen by fate to be a vampire Slayer. Whedon introduced Dawn to the series because he wanted to introduce a character with whom Buffy could have an intensely emotional non-romantic relationship.
After years of foreshadowing, Dawn was introduced at the start of the fifth season as part of a large in - story retcon: Characters accepted Dawn 's presence as if she had always been there, and as if Buffy always had a sister, with only the audience aware that this was not the case. As the series went on, the significance of Dawn 's arrival is revealed to the series 's other characters, and they come to understand that she has not always been Buffy 's sister, or indeed a sentient being; Dawn had originally been the mystical "key '' to unlocking dimensions and was made into Buffy 's sister so the Slayer would protect her. Dawn is, however, a real girl, Buffy 's biological sister, and has real memories of her fictional childhood. She struggles in a very human way when she discovers the truth about her origins and later endures problems with self - harm and kleptomania. The show 's sixth and seventh seasons, as well as its canonical comic book continuation, follow Dawn 's journey toward adulthood.
Dawn was included in TV Guide 's list of Most Loathed TV Characters. Similarly, Entertainment Weekly named her one of the "21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever ''.
Dawn is first introduced as Buffy 's (Sarah Michelle Gellar) younger sister at the end of Buffy season five premiere "Buffy vs. Dracula '', though Buffy had been previously established as an only child. Initially, the mystery of Dawn 's sudden existence is not acknowledged in the series, with the other characters accepting her as a part of the status quo. Four episodes later Buffy discovers Dawn is in fact a mystical object known as The Key; a group of monks transformed The Key into human form and sent it to the Slayer for protection from the villainous Glory (Clare Kramer). The memories of Buffy and her associates were altered, along with relevant records, so that they believed her to have always existed as Buffy 's sister. She is shown to look up greatly to Willow and Tara and has a crush on Xander. She also is friendly with Spike, who is as protective of her as Buffy herself. When Dawn learns of her origin, she resorts to self - harm and runs away from home, until Buffy assures her they are real sisters no matter what, securing it with a blood oath. Her relationship with Buffy, having been portrayed with a typical sister dynamic in the first half of the season, changes when she discovers what she is. The two become closer as Dawn becomes Buffy 's sole focus once she drops out from college to protect her, going as far as to warn her friends she is prepared to kill anyone who attempts to go near Dawn in the finale. Dawn suffers more pain when her mother (Kristine Sutherland) dies unexpectedly from a brain aneurysm, which leads to Dawn resorting to black magic to try to bring her back from the grave, an action she immediately reverses upon realizing the consequences of her actions. It is eventually revealed that Dawn 's purpose as The Key is to open portals to alternate dimensions, a power the hell - god Glory wishes to exploit to return home. When Glory successfully uses Dawn 's blood to break down the dimensional barriers, Buffy sacrifices her own life, realizing that their blood is now the same, to end the apocalypse and save Dawn. Buffy 's sacrifice also neutralizes the power of The Key, giving Dawn the opportunity of a normal life.
The following season opening sees Dawn struggle with abandonment issues, as well as her escalating kleptomania. Having been devastated by her sister 's death, Dawn is overjoyed when Willow (Alyson Hannigan) casts a spell to bring her back to life. However, with Buffy spiralling into a deep depression, Dawn feels highly neglected and is often seen alone and seeking attention from her sister as well as other members of the group. She later experiences her first kiss with a vampire named Justin, whom she is reluctantly forced to stake (her first vampire kill) when he tries to turn her. Dawn 's isolation from the other characters reaches its apex when she inadvertently makes a wish to the vengeance demon Halfrek (Kali Rocha) which results in trapping everyone who enters the Summers house. Halfrek herself is inadvertently trapped, and undoes the curse to free herself; meanwhile Dawn 's kleptomania and feelings of neglect by her friends and family are exposed. Buffy vows to mend their relationship and starts spending more time with her sister, whilst still trying to shield her from her life as a Slayer -- much to Dawn 's disappointment as she is eager to help Buffy in her duties. While helping Buffy battle demons in the season finale, Dawn proves herself to be capable in a fight, finally earning her sister 's respect and a promise to train her.
In the final season, Dawn becomes more grown - up and a full - fledged member of the "Scooby Gang '' as witnessed in the first few episodes as she aids Buffy and Xander during Willow 's absence and is trained by Buffy in combat. Falling victim to a love spell in the episode "Him '', she displays dangerous behavior such as attacking people and trying to commit suicide to prove her "love '' for classmate RJ Brooks. While home alone one night, Dawn is forced to perform a solo exorcism to protect what she believes to be her mother from a demon, though it is revealed to be The First Evil attempting to cause Dawn to doubt her bond with Buffy, which she does for several episodes following this. Dawn 's feelings of neglect begin to resurface as Buffy spends time training the potentials now living in their home. After wrongly believing herself to be a Potential Slayer, Xander (Nicholas Brendon) explains to Dawn that being normal is perhaps the hardest burden of all, as nobody understands the pain of being overlooked -- as he has been in Dawn 's shoes. Dawn then falls into a watcher-esque role offering the group answers from research, such as ways to communicate with The Bringers and translating texts given to Buffy in a ' slayer keepsake '. When Buffy tricks her into leaving town before the impending apocalypse, Dawn adamantly returns to fight against the First, during which she battles alongside Xander and once again proves her worth by killing several Ubervamps and survives. Dawn was intended to appear in the Angel episode "The Girl in Question '', but Michelle Trachtenberg was unavailable for filming, so Andrew Wells (played by Tom Lenk) replaced her.
In the canonical comic book continuation to the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight (2007 -- 2011), it is revealed that Buffy and Dawn 's relationship has been strained and conflicted since the events of "Chosen. '' Dawn is revealed to have been cursed, apparently as a result of sleeping with a "thricewise demon '' named Kenny while a college student, and is a giant. Throughout her affliction she spends a lot of time with Xander, to whom she reveals she was cursed as a result of cheating on Kenny with his roommate. While her personal issues are made to take a backseat with Buffy, in battles, her gigantism shows some utility; she is able to assist fighting Amy in "The Long Way Home '', and rampages through Tokyo to distract their enemies in "Wolves at the Gate ''. In "Time of Your Life, Part One '' she shrinks to normal size again, but then turns into a centaur. Xander surmises she will likely experience a third such transformation before she can return to normal. In "Living Doll '', the twenty - fifth issue of the series, Dawn undergoes a transformation into a living doll and is kidnapped by a disturbed dollmaker for her ' protection '. After her sister, Andrew and Willow track down Kenny, he later appears to undo the curse, and the two have a heart - to - heart, where Dawn apologises for her infidelity and explains she had been unprepared for the seriousness of her feelings for Kenny. She subsequently spends some time bonding with Buffy. Dawn and Xander 's growing friendship leads to them kissing, where they are discovered by Buffy, in "Retreat ''. In the series ' final arc, Buffy brings about the end of magic, following which Xander and Dawn decide to settle down in San Francisco. They allow Buffy to live with them until she finds her own place.
Season Nine (2012 -- 13) begins with Dawn and Xander living an ordinary domestic life, with much less contact with Buffy than before since she has moved out. They intend to capitalize on a world without magic and embark upon a life of normalcy. Their relationship is seen to be going through some difficulties, such as when Xander forgets Dawn 's birthday. Buffy also reflects that Dawn is not on her mind much of late. In "Welcome to the Team, '' Dawn becomes sick with what appears to be a very serious flu. Buffy also forgets about one of Dawn 's allergies. In the concurrent second issue of spin - off series Willow: Wonderland, Willow sees a worrying omen about Dawn while in an alternate dimension. Later in the Buffy arc, Dawn begins to die and the gang recognise it is due to magic leaving her body. Buffy contacts Faith for help, but (as seen in Angel & Faith) neither she nor Angel can remember Dawn. Spike, however, heads straight from Faith 's apartment in London to be by Dawn 's side, and Willow returns to California with her powers restored and attempts to prolong Dawn 's life. In final arc "The Core '', Buffy, Willow and Xander head to the Deeper Well in England in hopes of finding enough magic to restore Dawn. Fearing for his memories, Spike tries to record himself talking about Dawn but the tapes all become static, indicating that everything Dawn affected is also fading. Dawn continues to rapidly fade until she disappears altogether. After the gang restart magic, they return to San Francisco where Willow is able to bring back Dawn using Buffy 's blood in conjunction with the spell which created her. Willow expresses that something feels different as she brings Dawn back, and Xander is suspicious of Dawn 's knowledge of very recent events. Buffy tries to tell Xander that he is being paranoid.
In Season Ten (2014 - 2016), Xander continues to be suspicious of Dawn, and insecure concerning their relationship. Buffy compares their behavior to that of her parents prior to their divorce. It is revealed that when Dawn was brought back she was reset emotionally. While she still remembers her relationship with Xander she does not feel love for him anymore and recently re-experienced her grief for her mother 's death, among other traumas.
The arrival of Dawn Summers is foreshadowed in cryptic dream sequences in both the Season Three finale "Graduation Day, Part Two '' and the Season Four episode "This Year 's Girl '', in which a still - comatose Faith says, while making a bed with Buffy in her bedroom, "Little sis coming, I know. '' Buffy replies, "So much to do before she gets here. '' (the first appearance of Dawn is in Buffy 's room) In the season four finale, "Restless '', Tara warns Buffy to "be back before Dawn. ''
According to Buffy creator Joss Whedon, the introduction of Dawn in Season Five was partly so protagonist Buffy Summers could experience a "really important, intense emotional relationship '' with someone other than a boyfriend. "She 's as intense as she was in Season Two with Angelus, but it 's about her sister, '' Whedon says. "To me that was really beautiful. '' Trachtenberg says she was thrust into the role without knowing much about Dawn 's personality; she describes her initial meeting with Joss Whedon as "Alright, welcome to the cast, you 're a teenager, you 're a Key, have fun. ''
In the beginning of season five Dawn is portrayed as less mature than her age of fourteen. She is seen to be immature, sulky and klutzy, often breaking objects, and she keeps a diary. Buffy and Joyce also infantilise her to some degree; they are shown finding someone to babysit her, although they later become more relaxed about this as seen in "No Place Like Home ''.
Responding to fan complaints of Dawn being whiny throughout Season Six, Joss Whedon says, "I scratched my head. I was like, ' Excuse me, she 's been abandoned by about six parental figures. The girl has huge issues. ' '' However, he acknowledges that he and the writers hit "the same note for a while... We needed to make some changes. '' Whedon has expressed regret over not being able to go further with Dawn 's character in season seven, but, as he says, "You get into a situation that you do like to stand alone (but) ' Dawn Goes on a Date ' is not something that people would really sit for. ''
Author Nikki Stafford saw the season seven episode "Potential '' as an example of Dawn 's growing maturity. She praises the character for taking charge and accepting the possibility she might be a Potential Slayer, and for quietly stepping back when she turns out to be wrong, without revealing how disappointed she really is. Stafford states, "Dawn has come a long way from the annoying adolescent she was in season five, and the screechy, difficult teen she was in season six (' get out, Get Out, GET OUT! '). She is a mature young woman, the same age as Buffy was in season one, but she is handling her problems with even more grace and acceptance than her older sister did. ''
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how far can the farthest sniper rifle shoot | Longest recorded sniper kills - wikipedia
Reports regarding the longest recorded sniper kills that contain information regarding the shooting distance and the identity of the sniper have been presented to the general public since 1967. Snipers in modern warfare have had a substantial history following the development of long distance weaponry. As weapons, ammunition, and aids to determine ballistic solutions improved, so too did the distance from which a kill could be targeted. In mid-2017 it was reported that an unnamed Canadian special forces operator, based in Iraq, had set a new record of 3,540 m (3,871 yd), beating the record previously held by British Corporal Craig Harrison at 2,475 m (2,707 yd).
Although technology such as electronics have improved, optical equipment such as rangefinders and ballistic calculators have eliminated manual mathematical calculations to determine elevation and windage, the fundamentals of accurate and precise long - range shooting are the same as throughout the history of shooting, and the skill and training of the shooter and his spotter where applicable are the primary factors. Accuracy and precision of ammunition and firearms are also still reliant primarily on human factors and attention to detail in the complex process of producing maximum performance.
The modern method of long - distance sniping (shots over 1.1 kilometres or 0.7 miles) requires intense training and practice. A sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet 's trajectory and point of impact, such as range to the target, wind direction, wind speed, air density, elevation, and even the Coriolis effect due to the rotation of the Earth. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can cause a shot to only injure, or to miss completely. Any given combination of firearm and ammunition will have an associated value, known as the circular error probable (CEP), defined as the radius of a circle whose boundary is expected to contain the impact points of half of the rounds fired.
If the shooter wishes to improve accuracy and precision, wishes to increase range or wishes to do all of these things, the accuracy of "estimates '' of external factors must improve accordingly. At extreme ranges, extremely accurate "estimates '' are required and even with the most accurate estimates, hitting the target becomes subject to uncontrollable factors. For example, a rifle capable of firing a 1 / 2 MOA (approximately 1 / 2 '' center to center of the two holes furthest apart) 5 - round group (often referred to as "grouping '') at 100 yards will fire a theoretical 12.5 '' group at 2500 yards. Unless the group is centered perfectly on the target at 100 yards, the 2500 - yard group will be centered 25 times the off - center error at 100 yards. This example ignores all other factors and assumes "perfect '' no - wind shooting conditions and identical muzzle velocities and ballistic performance for each shot.
USMC Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock 's confirmed 2500 - yard kill in Vietnam was primarily due to the enemy soldier stopping his bicycle on the spot Hathcock had fired at while sighting in his Browning M2 heavy machine - gun.
Devices such as laser rangefinders, handheld meteorological measuring equipment, handheld computers, and ballistic - prediction software can contribute to increased accuracy (i.e. reduced CEP), although they rely on proper use and training to realize any advantages. In addition, as instruments of measure, they are subject to accuracy errors and malfunction. Handheld meteorological instruments only measure conditions at the location they are used. Wind direction and speed can vary dramatically along the path of the bullet.
The science of long - range sniping came to fruition in the Vietnam War. Carlos Hathcock held the record from 1967 to 2002 at 2,286 m (2,500 yd). He recorded 93 official kills. After returning to the U.S., Hathcock helped to establish the Marine Corps Scout Sniper School at Quantico, Virginia.
In addition to his success as a USMC Scout - Sniper during multiple deployments to Vietnam, Gunnery Sergeant Hathcock competed in multiple USMC shooting teams. Hathcock also won the 1966 Wimbledon Cup, which is earned by the winner of the U.S. 1000 - yard high - powered rifle National Championship. Even after being severely burned during an attack on an Amtrac on which he was riding and his efforts to rescue other soldiers, and after being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis, Hathcock continued to serve, shoot and instruct. In Vietnam, Hathcock also completed missions involving a "through the scope '' shot which killed an enemy sniper specifically hunting him, and a multiple - day solo stalk and kill of an enemy general.
Hathcock 's record stood until Canadian Master Corporal Arron Perry of Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry beat it with a shot of 2,310 metres. Perry held the title for only a few days, as another man in his unit (Corporal Rob Furlong) beat Perry 's distance with a 2,430 m (2,657 yd) shot in March 2002. Perry and Furlong were part of a six - man sniper team during 2002 's Operation Anaconda, part of the War in Afghanistan.
Corporal Furlong 's record was bested by a British soldier, Corporal of Horse Craig Harrison, of the Blues and Royals, Household Cavalry, who recorded two 2,475 m (2,707 yd) shots (confirmed by GPS) in November 2009, also during the War in Afghanistan, in which he hit two Taliban insurgents consecutively. Harrison killed the two Taliban machine gunners with shots that took the 8.59 mm rounds almost five seconds to hit their targets, which were 900 metres (1000 yd) beyond the L115A3 sniper rifle 's recommended range. A third shot took out the insurgents ' machine gun. The rifle used was made by Accuracy International.
In June 2017, an unnamed sniper of Canada 's special forces Unit Joint Task Force 2 surpassed the 2009 record by over a kilometre, with a 3,540 m (3,871 yd) shot in the Iraqi Civil War. As with the previous two Canadian records, a McMillan Tac - 50 with Hornady A-MAX. 50 (. 50 BMG) ammunition was used.
This list is not exhaustive, as such data is generally not tracked nor managed under any official procedure. For example, the Canadian Army 2002 sniper team that saw two soldiers (Arron Perry / 2,310 m and Rob Furlong / 2,430 m) set consecutive new records, also made a number of kills at 1,500 m that are not counted here. The list also shows that, in some cases, an armed force command may choose to withhold the name of the actual sniper for security reasons. The United Nations Security Forces, such as in the Balkans, also had one American Sniper (name withheld) attributed with a 1271 - metre shot.
While not on the list due to the range being less than the minimum distance used to compile it, Hathcock 's second - longest confirmed kill was 1,200 yards (1,100 m) using a "standard '' USMC sniper rifle chambered in. 30 - 06 Springfield. At the time of Hathcock 's service, snipers had essentially been eliminated from the USMC, and its sniper rifles were a hodgepodge mix of commercial Remington 700 and Winchester Model 70 rifles chambered for multiple cartridges. The major challenge for Hathcock and other scout - snipers was improving the performance and reliability of their rifles and ammunition.
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how many presidents of the united states were catholic | Religious affiliations of presidents of the United States - Wikipedia
The religious affiliations of Presidents of the United States can affect their electability, shape their stances on policy matters and their visions of society and also how they want to lead it. Speculation of Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and William Howard Taft being atheists was reported during election campaigns, while others, such as Jimmy Carter, used faith as a defining aspect of their campaigns and tenure to hold the office. Almost all of the presidents can be characterized as Christian, at least by upbringing, though some were unaffiliated with any specific religious body. Protestants predominate, with Episcopalians and Presbyterians being the most prevalent. There have been four Nontrinitarian presidents, and a single Roman Catholic president (John F. Kennedy). No president thus far has been openly an atheist. However, it has been acknowledged that two US Presidents -- Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Johnson -- had no religious affiliation.
Most presidents have been formal members of a particular church or religious body, and a specific affiliation can be assigned to every president from James A. Garfield on. For many earlier presidents, however, formal church membership was forestalled until they left office; and in several cases a president never joined any church. Conversely, though every president from George Washington to John Quincy Adams can be definitely assigned membership in an Anglican or Unitarian body, the significance of these affiliations is often downplayed as unrepresentative of their true beliefs.
The pattern of religious adherence has changed dramatically over the course of United States history, so that the pattern of presidential affiliations is quite unrepresentative of modern membership numbers. For example, Episcopalians are extraordinarily well represented among the presidents compared to a current membership of about 2 % of the population; this is partly because the Church of England, from which the Episcopal Church is derived, was the established church in some states (such as New York and Virginia) before the American Revolution. The Episcopal Church has been much larger previously, with its decline in membership occurring only in more recent decades. The first seven presidents listed as Episcopalians were all from Virginia. Unitarians are also overrepresented, reflecting the importance of those colonial churches. Conversely, Baptists are underrepresented, a reflection of their quite recent expansion in numbers; there has been only one Catholic president, although they are currently the largest single denomination, and there have been no Adventist, Anabaptist, Lutheran, Orthodox, Pentecostal, or Latter Day Saint presidents.
While many presidents did not formally join a church until quite late in life, there is a genre of tales of deathbed conversions. Biographers usually doubt these, though the baptism of James K. Polk is well documented.
The inner beliefs of the presidents are much more difficult to establish than church membership. While some presidents have been relatively voluble about religion, many have been reticent to the point of complete obscurity. Researchers have tried to draw conclusions from patterns of churchgoing or religious references in political speeches. When explicit statements are absent, it is difficult to assess whether the presidents in question were irreligious, were unorthodox in their beliefs, or simply believed that religion was not a matter for public revelation.
On the other hand, there are several presidents who considered themselves aligned with a particular church, but who withheld from formal affiliation for a time. James Buchanan, for instance, held himself allied with the Presbyterian church, but refrained from joining it until he left office.
Some presidents changed their beliefs and affiliation at some point in their lives; synthesis of statements and membership from different periods can be misleading.
Deism was a religious philosophy in common currency in colonial times, and some Founding Fathers (most notably Thomas Paine, who was an explicit proponent of it, and Benjamin Franklin, who spoke of it in his Autobiography) are identified more or less with this system. Thomas Jefferson became a deist in later life, and Washington, James Madison, James Monroe, and John Tyler are often identified as having some degree of deistic beliefs.
Four presidents are affiliated with Unitarian churches, and a fifth (Jefferson) was an exponent of ideas now commonly associated with Unitarianism. Unitarians fall outside of Trinitarian Christianity, and the question arises as to the degree to which the presidents themselves held Christian precepts. The information is generally available in the statements of the presidents themselves; for example, John Quincy Adams left detailed statements of his beliefs. William Howard Taft, a Unitarian, is noted to have said in a letter to a friend, "I am interested in the spread of Christian civilization, but to go into a dogmatic discussion of creed I will not do whether I am defeated or not... If the American electorate is so narrow as not to elect a Unitarian, well and good. I can stand it. ''
Two presidents were Quakers (Herbert Hoover and Richard Nixon) and information about their religion is harder to come by. Quakerism is, by its nature, not circumscribed by doctrines, but even so it is hard to determine whether either Hoover or Nixon had much adherence even to Quaker practice. For instance, it is common among Quakers to refuse to swear oaths; however, recordings show that Nixon did swear the oath of office in the conventional manner in all cases, and while the matter is clouded for Hoover, there is newspaper and circumstantial evidence that he did likewise. While Abraham Lincoln never officially joined a church, there has been some research indicating that he may have had Quaker leanings. During his time in office, he had numerous meetings with Quakers and had investigated a supposed Quaker ancestry.
The only other president with any association with a definitely non-Trinitarian body is Dwight D. Eisenhower, whose parents moved from the River Brethren to the antecedents of the Jehovah 's Witnesses. Eisenhower himself was baptized in the Presbyterian church shortly after assuming the presidency, the only president thus far to undergo such a rite while in office; and his attendance at West Point was in sharp opposition to the tenets of the groups to which his parents belonged.
There are some presidents for whom there is little evidence as to the importance of religion in their lives. For example, almost no evidence exists for Monroe 's personal religious beliefs, though this may be the result of the destruction of most of his personal correspondence, in which religious sentiments may have been recorded. As with claims of deism, these identifications are not without controversy. No president has declared himself to be atheist.
St. John 's Episcopal Church (built 1815 - 1816) just across Lafayette Square and north of the White House, is the church nearest to the White House, and its services have been attended at least once by nearly every President since James Madison (1809 -- 1817). Another Episcopal church, Washington National Cathedral, chartered by Congress in 1893, has been the scene of many funeral and memorial services of Presidents and other dignitaries, as well as the site of interfaith presidential prayer services after their inaugurations, and the burial place of Woodrow Wilson.
Presidential proclamations, from the earliest days, have often been laden with religious if not explicitly Christian language. In at least two cases, Presidents saw fit to issue denials that they were atheists. At the same time, this was tempered, especially in early years, by a strong commitment to disestablishment. Several Presidents especially stand out as exponents of this. Consideration of this has become increasingly contentious as topics such as civil rights and human sexuality have increasingly put churches at odds with each other and with the government.
Presidential biographers have often been brought to consider the issue of presidential religion. In the case of certain key figures (particularly Washington, Jefferson, and Lincoln), they have devoted considerable attention to the subject.
Some researchers have produced general surveys of presidential religion. A recent example is The Faiths of the Founding Fathers by David L. Holmes (New York, Oxford University Press USA, 2006), which examines the views of some early presidents as well as other political figures of the period. The Adherents.com website maintains a list of presidential affiliations, with subpages for each president. Most of these subpages refer to a site by one Peter Roberts, which has links and some more detailed information on the religion of the presidents, vice presidents, and founding fathers.
For each president, the formal affiliation at the time of his presidency is listed first, with other affiliations listed after. Further explanation follows if needed, as well as notable detail.
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