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house of cards season 2 episode 1 explained | Chapter 1 (House of Cards) - wikipedia
"Chapter 1 '' (sometimes "Episode 101 '') is the pilot episode of the American political thriller drama television series House of Cards and is the first episode of the first season. It premiered on February 1, 2013, when it was released along with the rest of the first season on the American streaming service Netflix. This episode became the first web television webisode to earn Primetime Emmy Awards and nominations. "Chapter 1 '' was written by series developer Beau Willimon and directed by executive producer David Fincher. The episode also earned 3 other Emmy nominations as well as WGA: Episodic Drama and DGA -- Drama Series nominations.
Frank Underwood (Kevin Spacey) is an ambitious Democratic congressman and the House Majority Whip. Underwood helped ensure the election of President Garrett Walker (Michel Gill), who promised to appoint Underwood as Secretary of State. However, before Walker is sworn in, Chief of Staff Linda Vasquez (Sakina Jaffrey) announces that the president will not honor the agreement and will instead nominate Senator Michael Kern. Furious at Walker 's betrayal, Underwood and his wife Claire (Robin Wright), an environmental activist, make a pact to destroy Kern. When Zoe Barnes (Kate Mara) makes her resources available, she becomes one of their pawns.
The episode was well received by most television critics. They praised the production values of the series as well as the performances of the lead actors.
-- Episode 1 synopsis from The New York Times
South Carolina Congressman Frank Underwood (Kevin Spacey), the Democratic Majority Whip, leaves his Washington, D.C. residence after hearing his neighbors ' dog get hit by a car. As he comforts the mortally - wounded dog, he addresses the audience before calmly strangling it, introducing his cold and vicious nature. Frank and his wife, Claire (Robin Wright), go on to attend a New Year 's Eve party in honor of the new President - elect, Garrett Walker (Michel Gill). Frank confesses to the viewer that he does not like Walker, but ingratiated himself to him in the hopes of being nominated as Walker 's Secretary of State.
Frank meets with Walker 's Chief of Staff, Linda Vasquez (Sakina Jaffrey), and is initially incensed to learn that she and Walker have decided to go back on their promise of nominating Frank so that he can aid the President - elect 's education agenda in Congress. Despite his assurances to Linda that he will remain Walker 's ally, Frank feels personally betrayed and, with help from Claire and Chief of Staff Doug Stamper (Michael Kelly), formulates a plot for revenge. Meanwhile, Claire is forced to downsize her non-profit organization, the Clean Water Initiative, which had been promised a large donation upon her husband 's confirmation, without which the organization is forced to substantially curtail its budget.
On a whim, Washington Herald reporter Zoe Barnes (Kate Mara) pays a late - night visit to Frank at his home. She offers to be Frank 's undercover mouthpiece in the press in exchange for the elevated profile that she would gain from breaking substantive stories. Meanwhile, Peter Russo (Corey Stoll), a young, inexperienced congressman from Philadelphia, is arrested for drunk driving with a prostitute (Rachel Brosnahan). Stamper finds out about the arrest and immediately contacts the D.C. police commissioner, offering Underwood 's support for his mayoral campaign in exchange for releasing Russo. Russo is picked up from jail by his secretary and romantic partner, Christina Gallagher (Kristen Connolly), and falsely tells her that he was alone when he was arrested.
Frank meets with Donald Blythe (Reed Birney), a progressive congressman with whom the Walker administration wants to work on an education bill. Frank dismisses his proposal as too ambitious and asks him to rewrite it, but secretly passes a copy to Zoe. He then meets with Senator Catherine Durant (Jayne Atkinson) and suggests that she ought to consider seeking the nomination for Secretary of State. He also privately confronts Russo about his arrest and past behavior, and demands his loyalty in exchange for making the incident disappear. Zoe takes the draft of Blythe 's bill to the Herald 's political editor, Lucas Goodwin (Sebastian Arcelus), and its chief editor, Tom Hammerschmidt (Boris McGiver), who gives her the lead on the story over chief political correspondent Janine Skorsky (Constance Zimmer). The episode ends the morning after Walker 's inauguration, with Frank visiting his favorite restaurant, Freddy 's BBQ Joint, for breakfast. On the front page of the Herald is Zoe 's story about Blythe 's "far left '' education plan.
The episode was directed by David Fincher and was written by Beau Willimon, who has served as an aide to Charles Schumer, Howard Dean and Hillary Clinton. Independent studio Media Rights Capital purchased the rights to House of Cards, with the intent on creating a series. Netflix agreed to contribute an undisclosed fixed fee to production costs in March 2011. As he was completing his work on The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, Fincher was introduced to the original miniseries by his agent and sought to develop a series with Eric Roth. House of Cards was pitched to several cable networks, including HBO, AMC and Showtime. Netflix, interested in launching their own original programming, outbid the networks, picking the series up for 26 episodes, totaling two seasons. Netflix was the only bidder that was interested in purchasing the rights without seeing a completed pilot. Thus, the show was not forced into manipulating story arcs introduced in the pilot to create artificial cliffhangers.
-- Kevin Spacey
Fincher stated that every main cast member was their first choice. In the first read through, he said "I want everybody here to know that you represent our first choice -- each actor here represents our first choice for these characters. So do not fuck this up. '' Spacey, whose last regular television role was in the series Wiseguy, responded positively to the script. He then played Richard III, which Fincher said was "great training ''. Spacey supported the decision to release all of the episodes at once, believing that this type of release pattern will be increasingly common with television shows. He said, "When I ask my friends what they did with their weekend, they say, ' Oh, I stayed in and watched three seasons of Breaking Bad ' or it 's two seasons of Game of Thrones ''. He was officially cast on March 18, 2011. Robin Wright was approached by Fincher to star in the series when they worked together in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. She was cast as Claire Underwood in June 2011. Kate Mara was cast as Zoe Barnes in early February 2012. Mara 's sister, Rooney Mara, worked with Fincher in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, and when Kate Mara read the part of Zoe, she "fell in love with the character '' and asked her sister to "put in a word for me with Fincher ''. The next month, she got a call for an audition.
In order billed in the episode opening credits:
While Netflix had ventured into original programming by greenlighting foreign shows that were new to United States audiences with shows such as Lilyhammer, House of Cards represented the first show made for Netflix. Filming for the first season began in January 2012 in Harford County, Maryland.
"Chapter 1 '' sets the tone for the environs of the series. According to David Carr the political environs have such "marbleness '' that it belies the clandestine nature of political activities, including those of Underwood who says he is there to "clear the pipes and keep the sludge moving ''. The fictional newspaper, The Washington Herald, is set with "brutal '' lighting and drab furniture, in part because it was filmed at the real life Baltimore Sun offices. Carr uses several pejorative adjectives to describe Barnes ' apartment including sad, grubby, dirty, dreary and humble but note that this implies that the digital revolution is dominated by people "on laptops who have no furniture ''. Similarly, Underwood and his associates are nattily clad, Barnes shows a lack of fashion recognition.
The episode was broadcast online by Netflix on February 1, 2013 as part of the simultaneous release of all 13 episodes of season 1 of the series. The debut date was a weekend when there was little competition on television other than Super Bowl XLVII and a new episode of Downton Abbey on PBS. Netflix broadcast "Chapter 1 '' and "Chapter 2 '' to critics several days in advance of the release.
The episode received positive reviews from critics. Elements of the opening scene were lauded. Matt Roush of TV Guide praised Spacey 's self introduction as a Machiavellian politician in which he says "I have no patience for useless things. '' Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert noted that "the first two episodes were expertly directed by David Fincher '' and Spacey 's harmonious cadence such as those used in the first scene of this episode "makes even his character 's mercy killing of an injured dog -- which he does by hand -- seem a little less brutal. '' Not only is Underwood described as Machiavellian, one critic from The New York Times notes that his belief in the omnipresence of dirt expressed as "Nobody 's a Boy Scout, not even a Boy Scout '' harkens back to Willie Stark in All the King 's Men who said "There 's always something ''.
Time television critic James Poniewozik, notes that by the end of the first episode Frank establishes that his metaphor of choice is meat because both literally and figuratively it is his preference. He may begin a day with a celebratory rack of ribs, because "I 'm feelin ' hungry today! '', but also he describes life with meat metaphors: he describes the White House Chief of Staff with grudging admiration: "She 's as tough as a two - dollar steak. ''; he plans to destroy an enemy the way "you devour a whale. One bite at a time. ''; and he endures a tedious weekly meeting with House leaders, he tells us, by "(imagining) their lightly salted faces frying in a skillet. '' Poniewozik notes that all of this comes from a character whose name, Underwood is a reference to the hallmark deviled ham of the William Underwood Company.
Roush also notes that the first two weeks show how Claire "runs a charity with a brutally iron fist ''. While Frank is Machiavellian, Claire presents a woman urging on her husband 's assertion of power in the image of Lady Macbeth. Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an ice - queen wife. She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weakness saying "My husband does n't apologize... even to me. '' Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes what she sees of their relationship in the first two episodes as pivotal to the show 's success: "Benign though they may seem -- and their harmless air is what makes the Underwoods so effective as political plotters -- this is a power couple with the same malignant chemistry as pairs of serial killers, where each needs the other in order to become lethal ''.
Gilbert also notes that Mara 's surprising naivete is a welcome respite against a backdrop of a "terminally jaded '' cast. As the show begins, aspiring journalist Zoe Barnes is desperate to rise from covering the "Fairfax County Council '' beat to covering "' what 's behind the veil ' of power in the Capitol hallways. '' Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times notes that by the end of the first episode, Mara 's Barnes is among the cadre of Frank 's accomplices. After she pleads for a relationship with him by promising to earn his trust and not "ask any questions '', Frank uses her fiendishly. However, Ashley Parker of The New York Times considers her unfathomably aggressive and too overt, transactional and sexual. Parker points out that Barnes ' statement "I protect your identity, I print what you tell me, and I 'll never ask any questions '' almost discredits itself.
The Washington Post 's Stuever has many complaints about the show including the fact that it is about Washington, DC, but filmed in Baltimore. He also complains about its entrance into the television landscape littered with "more fictitious administrations than anyone can keep track of ''. He says that perspective will affect your perception of the show. Those not already inundated with "Type A personalities inside the Beltway '' in their daily lives may be drawn to the show. However, it is not likely a show that will serve well those who spend a lot of time with the issues that the show deals with. After viewing the first two episodes, Stuever also finds fault with the use of breaking the fourth wall, describing it as "the show 's unwise narrative trope ''. The Wall Street Journal 's Smith defends the fourth wall as an "artifice that generally works well here to loosen our bearings ''.
Ryan McGee of The A.V. Club notes Russo seems to employ vices without restraint, which is a respite from the other exacting characters in the episode and a makes him a sort of metaphor for the show. McGee also notes that the episode includes "establishing shots within Zoe 's apartment that offer up almost everything you need to know about her current position in life ''.
On July 18, 2013, House of Cards (along with Netflix 's other web series ' Arrested Development and Hemlock Grove) earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2013. Among House of Cards ' nine nominations, "Chapter 1 '' received four nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards and 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards becoming the first webisode (online - only episode) of a television series to receive a major Primetime Emmy Award nomination: Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for David Fincher. This episode also received several Creative Arts Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series, Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series, and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Original Dramatic). Although the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series is not a category that formally recognizes an episode, Spacey submitted "Chapter 1 '' for consideration due to his nomination.
On September 15, at the Creative Arts Emmy Award presentation, "Chapter 1 '' and Eigil Bryld earned the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series, making "Chapter 1 '' the first ever Emmy - awarded webisode. Then on September 22, David Fincher won Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for directing the pilot episode "Chapter 1 '', bringing the series to a total of three wins and marking the first ever win for a webisode at the Primetime Emmy award ceremony. None of the Emmy awards were considered to be in major categories, however.
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institute of management development & research (imdr) pune | Institute of Management Development and Research, Pune - wikipedia
The Institute of Management Development and Research (IMDR) in Pune, India, is the oldest management institution in Pune, and comes under the Deccan Education Society. Earlier IMDR was offering three full - time programmes: Post Graduate Diploma in Management (PGDM), Post Graduate Diploma in International Trade (PGDIT) and Post Graduate Diploma in Human Resources (PGDHR), along with its other part - time programmes. In 2011 IMDR got AICTE approval, and currently IMDR is offering PGDM course approved by AICTE and DTE.
The Institute of Management Development and Research (IMDR) was founded by Dr R.T. Doshi and Shri Sumatilal Shah in 1974, as a constituent unit of the Deccan Education Society. They were closely associated with Wrangler G.S. Mahajani, who had served as the Principal of Fergusson College in Pune and later, as the Vice Chancellor of Pune University.
In 1973, Wrangler Mahajani in his capacity as the Vice Chancellor, suggested to the D.E. Society that a new institution be formed to impart management education under its aegis. Dr Doshi and Shri Shah not only made large donations but also mobilized funds from their friends and associates. It is with these funds that the main building of IMDR was constructed on the historic Fergusson campus.
Wr. Mahajani made the suggestion to set up an institute outside the university, from a point of view that the professional and inter-disciplinary nature of management education required a different ambience. From 1974 to 1977, IMDR conducted the courses under affiliation to the university. It took over the MBA programme of the MBA Centre of the University of Pune and the DBM programme, run in the Brihan Maharashtra College of Commerce (BMCC, a sister institution) since 1968. Affiliated to the University of Pune, the IMDR was also a recognised centre for research leading to a Ph. D.
In 1977, the IMDR became an autonomous institution by voluntarily delinking from the University of Pune. Since then it has carried on its activities independent of the university or other statutory bodies.
The Instructional area available on the IMDR campus includes classrooms, tutorial room, library, computer centre and an auditorium with the seating capacity of 175. The main campus has an administrative block, students ' common room, canteen and other amenities, including the reprographic facility which is made available for students on the campus. The total built up area is over 24,000 sq feet. There are ten residential units for the non-teaching staff and three for the teaching staff.
The college shares its campus with Fergusson College and Jaganath Rathi Vocational Guidance and Training Institute (JRGVTI), both governed by the Deccan Education Society. Brihan Maharashtra College of Commerce (BMCC), established in 1943, is closely associated with Fergusson College. At the northern end of the campus, next to the New Academic Building, lies DES Law College.
The Deccan Gymkhana area of western Pune is well known for its educational institutes. Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Marathwada College of Commerce and Symbiosis International University are other well - known colleges situated around the Hanuman Tekdi hillock that overlooks Fergusson. Also located nearby are the ILS Law College, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute and the Agarkar Research Institute.
The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and the Directorate of Technical Education (DTE) have approved IMDR 's PGDM programme with an intake of 120 students. The institute is a member of the Association of Management Development Institutions in South Asia (AMDISA), the Confederation of Indian Industry International Chamber of Commerce (CII), the Indo - German Chamber of Commerce, the Indo - French Chamber of Commerce, and the Mahratta Chamber of Commerce Industries and Agriculture (MCCIA).
All candidates to the PGDM of IMDR are required to take the CAT (Common Admission Test) of the Indian Institutes of Management (IIM). Recently IMDR got AICTE approval and because of AICTE & DTE approval, other entrance tests may or may not be accepted. You can check the admission section on official institute website for latest updates.
The library at IMDR spans an area of 3,570 square feet (332 m). The library has a total collection of 17,058 books and reference sources, 763 CDs, 231 DVDs, 1,250 seminar reports / working papers, and 364 audio - visual cassettes. There are 77 journals and bound volumes of some prominent journals for over 12 years. It has eight English and four local language newspapers., which are preserved for six months and three months respectively.
The Institute of Management Development and Research is one among such institutes to have entered into this tie - up. Every year École supérieure des sciences commerciales d'Angers (ESSCA) endeavors to bring together management students of various countries to enable them to have a feel of international business with all its diversities. The learning focuses on several areas.
The Post Graduate Diploma in Management (PGDM) is a two year full - time programme. The programme is divided into four semesters, each of approximately 16 weeks. Classes are usually held from 9 am to 5 pm. The first two semesters are followed by an eight - week internship in a business organisation.
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what type of chocolate has the most sugar | Types of chocolate - wikipedia
Chocolate is a range of foods derived from cocoa (cacao), mixed with fat (e.g., cocoa butter) and finely powdered sugar to produce a solid confectionery. There are several types of chocolate, classified according to the proportion of cocoa used in a particular formulation.
The use of particular name designations is sometimes subject to international governmental regulation. Some governments assign chocolate solids and ranges of chocolate differently.
The cocoa bean (or other alternative) products from which chocolate is made are known under different names in different parts of the world. In the American chocolate industry:
Different forms and flavors of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavours can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.
Flavours such as mint, vanilla, coffee, orange, or strawberry are sometimes added to chocolate in a creamy form or in very small pieces. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as peanuts, nuts, fruit, caramel, and crisped rice. Pieces of chocolate, in various flavours, are sometimes added to breakfast cereals and ice cream.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the naming and ingredients of cocoa products:
In March 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association, whose members include Hershey 's, Nestlé, and Archer Daniels Midland, began lobbying the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to change the legal definition of chocolate to allow the substitution of "safe and suitable vegetable fats and oils '' (including partially hydrogenated vegetable oils) for cocoa butter in addition to using "any sweetening agent '' (including artificial sweeteners) and milk substitutes. Currently, the FDA does not allow a product to be referred to as "chocolate '' if the product contains any of these ingredients. To work around this restriction, products with cocoa substitutes are often branded or labeled as "chocolatey '' or "made with chocolate ''.
The legislation for cocoa and chocolate products in Canada is found in Division 4 of the Food and Drug Regulations (FDR), under the Food and Drugs Act (FDA). The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is responsible for the administration and enforcement of the FDR and FDA (as it relates to food).
The use of cocoa butter substitutes in Canada is not permitted. Chocolate sold in Canada can not contain vegetable fats or oils.
The only sweetening agents permitted in chocolate in Canada are listed in Division 18 of the Food and Drug Regulations. Artificial sweeteners such as aspartame, sucralose, acesulfame potassium, and sugar alcohols (sorbitol, maltitol, etc.) are not permitted.
Products manufactured or imported into Canada that contain non-permitted ingredients (vegetable fats or oils, artificial sweeteners) can not legally be called "chocolate '' when sold in Canada. A non-standardized name such as "candy '' must be used.
Products labelled as "Family Milk Chocolate '' elsewhere in the European Union are permitted to be labelled as simply "Milk Chocolate '' in Malta, the U.K. and the Republic of Ireland.
In Japan, ' chocolate products ' are classified on a complex scale (q.v. ja: チョコレート # チョコレート の 規格).
Chocolate materials (チョコレート 生地, chokorēto kiji):
Chocolate products (チョコレート 製品, chokorēto seihin):
Products using milk chocolate or quasi milk chocolate as described above are handled in the same way as chocolate / quasi chocolate.
Chocolate is a product based on cocoa solid or cocoa fat or both. The amount and types of cocoa solids and fat that the term implies is a matter of controversy. Manufacturers have an incentive to use the term for variations that are cheaper to produce, containing less cocoa and more cocoa substitutes.
There has been disagreement in the EU about the definition of chocolate; this dispute covers several ingredients, including the types of fat used and the quantity of cocoa. In 1999, however, the EU resolved the fat issue by allowing up to 5 % of chocolate 's content to be one of 5 alternatives to cocoa butter: illipe oil, palm oil, sal, shea butter, kokum gurgi, or mango kernel oil.
A recent workaround has been to reduce the amount of cocoa butter in candy bars without using vegetable fats by adding polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), which is an artificial castor oil - derived emulsifier that simulates the mouthfeel of fat. Up to 0.3 % PGPR may be added to chocolate for this purpose.
Cacao beans can be tested for their quality as a certain variety using DNA tests, especially by testing single - nucleotide polymorphisms that act as markers.
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say i love you episode 4 english dub | List of Say "I love you ''. Episodes - wikipedia
Say "I love you '' is a 2012 romance Japanese anime based on the manga written and illustrated by Kanae Hazuki. Mei Tachibana is a socially awkward teenager who not only believes that friendships end in betrayal, but has also never had a boyfriend in all of her 16 years of existence. One day she has a fateful encounter with the most popular boy at her high school: Yamato Kurosawa, when she kicks him straight in the face. Despite this an intrigued Yamato embarks on a campaign to get to know Mei better. The story follows Mei and the new experiences she finds herself in as she slowly allows Yamato to get closer to her while meeting and making new friends along the way.
The anime is produced by Zexcs and directed by Toshimasa Kuroyanagi with series composition by Takuya Satō, character designs by Yoshiko Okuda, art direction by Yuka Hirama and soundtrack music by Yuuji Nomi. The series premiered on October 6, 2012 on Tokyo MX with later airings on Chiba TV, tvk, SUN TV, KBA, TVA, TVh, AT - X and BS11. The thirteen episode series was followed by an OAD episode on July 24, 2013. The series was picked up by Crunchyroll for online simulcast streaming in North America and other select parts of the world. The Anime Network later obtained the series for streaming in an English dub. StarChild released the series in Japan on six Blu - ray and DVD volumes between December 26, 2012 and May 22, 2013. The anime was licensed by Sentai Filmworks for distribution via select digital outlets and a home media release in North America. The series was also acquired by Hanabee Entertainment for release in Australia.
The opening theme is "Friendship ~ for Say ' I Love You '. '' (Friendship ~ for 好き っ てい いなよ.) by Ritsuko Okazaki. The ending theme is "slow dance, '' by Suneohair. "Sarari '' (さらり, "Without Hesitation '') by Suneohair is used as the insert song of episode 12.
The following special episodes are included on the Blu - ray and DVD volumes of the series. The episodes are titled "Mei and Meowrsmellow '' with a few including content - specific titles.
StarChild released the series in Japan on six Blu - ray and DVD volumes between December 26, 2012 and May 22, 2013. The complete series was released on Blu - ray and DVD volumes by Sentai Filmworks on December 24, 2013. Hanabee Entertainment released the series on February 5, 2014 on DVD format only. These releases contained English and Japanese audio options and English subtitles.
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which of the following in not a si base unit | SI base unit - wikipedia
The International System of Units (SI) defines seven units of measure as a basic set from which all other SI units can be derived. The SI base units and their physical quantities are the metre for measurement of length, the kilogram for mass, the second for time, the ampere for electric current, the kelvin for temperature, the candela for luminous intensity, and the mole for amount of substance.
The SI base units form a set of mutually independent dimensions as required by dimensional analysis commonly employed in science and technology.
The names and symbols of SI base units are written in lowercase, except the symbols of those named after a person, which are written with an initial capital letter. For example, the metre (US English: meter) has the symbol m, but the kelvin has symbol K, because it is named after Lord Kelvin and the ampere with symbol A is named after André - Marie Ampère.
Several other units, such as the litre (US English: liter), are formally not part of the SI, but are accepted for use with SI.
2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles. '' 14th CGPM (1971, Resolution 3; CR, 78) "In this definition, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon 12, at rest and in their ground state, are referred to. '' (Added by CIPM in 1980)
The definitions of the base units have been modified several times since the Metre Convention in 1875, and new additions of base units have occurred. Since the redefinition of the metre in 1960, the kilogram is the only unit that is directly defined in terms of a physical artifact, rather than a property of nature. However, the mole, the ampere, and the candela are linked through their definitions to the mass of the platinum -- iridium cylinder stored in a vault near Paris.
It has long been an objective in metrology to define the kilogram in terms of a fundamental constant, in the same way that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. The 21st General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM, 1999) placed these efforts on an official footing, and recommended "that national laboratories continue their efforts to refine experiments that link the unit of mass to fundamental or atomic constants with a view to a future redefinition of the kilogram. '' Two possibilities have attracted particular attention: the Planck constant and the Avogadro constant.
In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved preparation of new definitions for the kilogram, the ampere, and the kelvin and it noted the possibility of a new definition of the mole based on the Avogadro constant. The 23rd CGPM (2007) decided to postpone any formal change until the next General Conference in 2011.
In a note to the CIPM in October 2009, Ian Mills, the President of the CIPM Consultative Committee - Units (CCU) catalogued the uncertainties of the fundamental constants of physics according to the current definitions and their values under the proposed new definition. He urged the CIPM to accept the proposed changes in the definition of the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole so that they are referenced to the values of the fundamental constants, namely the Planck constant (h), the electron charge (e), the Boltzmann constant (k), and the Avogadro constant (N).
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when did the modern period begin in india what changes took place soon after | Modern history - wikipedia
Modern history, the modern period or the modern era, is the linear, global, historiographical approach to the time frame after post-classical history. This view stands in contrast to the "organic, '' or non-linear, view of history first put forward by the renowned philosopher and historian, Oswald Spengler, early in the 20th century. Modern history can be further broken down into periods:
This article primarily covers the 1800 - 1950 time period with a brief summary of 1500 - 1800. For a more in depth article on modern times before 1800, see Early Modern period.
In the pre-modern era, many people 's sense of self and purpose was often expressed via a faith in some form of deity, be it that in a single God or in many gods. Pre-modern cultures have not been thought of creating a sense of distinct individuality, though. Religious officials, who often held positions of power, were the spiritual intermediaries to the common person. It was only through these intermediaries that the general masses had access to the divine. Tradition was sacred to ancient cultures and was unchanging and the social order of ceremony and morals in a culture could be strictly enforced.
The term modern was coined in the 16th century to indicate present or recent times (ultimately derived from the Latin adverb modo, meaning "just now ''). The European Renaissance (about 1420 -- 1630), which marked the transition between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern times, started in Italy and was spurred in part by the rediscovery of classical art and literature, as well as the new perspectives gained from the Age of Discovery and the invention of the telescope and microscope, expanding the borders of thought and knowledge.
In contrast to the pre-modern era, Western civilization made a gradual transition from pre-modernity to modernity when scientific methods were developed which led many to believe that the use of science would lead to all knowledge, thus throwing back the shroud of myth under which pre-modern peoples lived. New information about the world was discovered via empirical observation, versus the historic use of reason and innate knowledge.
The term Early Modern was introduced in the English language in the 1930s to distinguish the time between what has been called the Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form). It is important to note that these terms stem from European history. In usage in other parts of the world, such as in Asia, and in Muslim countries, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.
In the Contemporary era, there were various socio - technological trends. Regarding the 21st century and the late modern world, the Information Age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous but often present in everyday life. The development of Eastern powers was of note, with China and India becoming more powerful. In the Eurasian theater, the European Union and Russian Federation were two forces recently developed. A concern for Western world, if not the whole world, was the late modern form of terrorism and the warfare that has resulted from the contemporary terrorist acts.
The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of science, politics, warfare, and technology. It has also been an age of discovery and globalization. During this time, the European powers and later their colonies, began a political, economic, and cultural colonization of the rest of the world.
By the late 19th and 20th centuries, modernist art, politics, science and culture has come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, but almost every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the west and globalization. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism, capitalism, urbanization and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress.
Wars and other perceived problems of this era, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development. Optimism and belief in constant progress has been most recently criticized by postmodernism while the dominance of Western Europe and Anglo - America over other continents has been criticized by postcolonial theory.
One common conception of modernity is the condition of Western history since the mid-15th century, or roughly the European development of movable type and the printing press. In this context the "modern '' society is said to develop over many periods, and to be influenced by important events that represent breaks in the continuity.
The modern era includes the early period, called the early modern period, which lasted from c. 1500 to around c. 1800 (most often 1815). Particular facets of early modernity include:
Important events in the early modern period include:
The concept of the modern world as distinct from an ancient or medieval world rests on a sense that the modern world is not just another era in history, but rather the result of a new type of change. This is usually conceived of as progress driven by deliberate human efforts to better their situation.
Advances in all areas of human activity -- politics, industry, society, economics, commerce, transport, communication, mechanization, automation, science, medicine, technology, and culture -- appear to have transformed an Old World into the Modern or New World. In each case, the identification of the old Revolutionary change can be used to demarcate the old and old - fashioned from the modern.
Portions of the Modern world altered its relationship with the Biblical value system, revalued the monarchical government system, and abolished the feudal economic system, with new democratic and liberal ideas in the areas of politics, science, psychology, sociology, and economics.
This combination of epoch events totally changed thinking and thought in the early modern period, and so their dates serve as well as any to separate the old from the new modes.
As an Age of Revolutions dawned, beginning with those revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies.
The early period ended in a time of political and economic change as a result of mechanization in society, the American Revolution, the first French Revolution; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna and the peace established by Second Treaty of Paris which ended the Napoleonic Wars.
As a result of the Industrial Revolution and the earlier political revolutions, the worldviews of Modernism emerged. The industrialization of many nations was initiated with the industrialization of Britain. Particular facets of the late modernity period include:
Other important events in the development of the Late modern period include:
Our most recent era -- Modern Times -- begins with the end of these revolutions in the 19th century, and includes the World Wars era (encompassing World War I and World War II) and the emergence of socialist countries that led to the Cold War. The contemporary era follows shortly afterward with the explosion of research and increase of knowledge known as the Information Age in the latter 20th and the early 21st century. Today 's Postmodern era is seen in widespread digitality.
Historians consider the early modern period to be approximately between 1500 and 1800. It follows the Late Middle Ages period and is marked by the first European colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable nation - states that are the direct antecedents of today 's states.
In Africa and the Ottoman Empire, the Muslim expansion took place in North and East Africa. In West Africa, various native nations existed. The Indian Empires and civilizations of Southeast Asia were a vital link in the spice trade. On the Indian subcontinent, the Great Mughal Empire existed. The archipelagic empires, the Sultanate of Malacca and later the Sultanate of Johor, controlled the southern areas.
In Asia, various Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates controlled the Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. And in Korea, from the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong is referred to as the early modern period. In the Americas, Native Americans had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire and alliance, the Inca civilization, the Mayan Empire and cities, and the Chibcha Confederation. In the west, the European kingdoms and movements were in a movement of reformation and expansion. Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century.
Later religious trends of the period saw the end of the expansion of Muslims and the Muslim world. Christians and Christendom saw the end of the Crusades and end of religious unity under the Roman Catholic Church. It was during this time that the Inquisitions and Protestant reformations took place.
During the early modern period, an age of discovery and trade was undertaken by the Western European nations. Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and France went on a colonial expansion and took possession of lands and set up colonies in Africa, southern Asia, and North and South America. Turkey colonized Southeastern Europe, and parts of the West Asia and North Africa. Russia took possession in Eastern Europe, Asia, and North America.
In China, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small - scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the treasure voyages of Zheng He.
The Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1912) was founded after the fall of the Ming, the last Han Chinese dynasty, by the Manchus. The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchens. When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng 's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper. Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues, "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical ' reality '. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. ''
In pre-modern Japan following the Sengoku Period of "warring states '', central government had been largely reestablished by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Azuchi -- Momoyama period. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell to Tokugawa Ieyasu who completed this process and received the title of shōgun in 1603. Society in the Japanese "Tokugawa period '' (Edo society), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyōs (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the warrior - caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the Sakoku policy.
In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyōs might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well - to - do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much bigger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.
On the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India in the early 18th century. The "classic period '' ended with the death and defeat of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 by the rising Hindu Maratha Empire, although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During this period, the Empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterised by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The Maratha Empire was located in the south west of present - day India and expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas, the prime ministers of the Maratha empire. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat which halted imperial expansion and the empire was then divided into a confederacy of Maratha states.
The development of New Imperialism saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The commercial colonization of India commenced in 1757, after the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab of Bengal surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company, in 1765, when the Company was granted the diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in Bengal and Bihar, or in 1772, when the Company established a capital in Calcutta, appointed its first Governor - General, Warren Hastings, and became directly involved in governance.
The Maratha states, following the Anglo - Maratha wars, eventually lost to the British East India Company in 1818 with the Third Anglo - Maratha War. The rule lasted until 1858, when, after the Indian rebellion of 1857 and consequent of the Government of India Act 1858, the British government assumed the task of directly administering India in the new British Raj. In 1819 Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo - Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear.
The Dutch East India Company (1800) and British East India Company (1858) were dissolved by their respective governments, who took over the direct administration of the colonies. Only Thailand was spared the experience of foreign rule, although, Thailand itself was also greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. Colonial rule had a profound effect on Southeast Asia. While the colonial powers profited much from the region 's vast resources and large market, colonial rule did develop the region to a varying extent.
Many major events caused Europe to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the fall of Muslim Spain and the discovery of the Americas in 1492, and Martin Luther 's Protestant Reformation in 1517. In England the modern period is often dated to the start of the Tudor period with the victory of Henry VII over Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.
Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian / Ruthenian town - fortresses located on the border with the steppe and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts.
In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland - Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey 's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo - Polish War (1654 -- 1667). Finally, Ukraine was split along the river Dnieper, leaving the western part (or Right - bank Ukraine) under Polish rule and eastern part (Left - bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian. Later, in 1670 -- 71 the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar 's troops were successful in defeating the rebels. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian river routes, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov.
Traditionally, the European intellectual transformation of and after the Renaissance bridged the Middle Ages and the Modern era. The Age of Reason in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach, especially Scholasticism. Early 17th - century philosophy is often called the Age of Rationalism and is considered to succeed Renaissance philosophy and precede the Age of Enlightenment, but some consider it as the earliest part of the Enlightenment era in philosophy, extending that era to two centuries. The 18th century saw the beginning of secularization in Europe, rising to notability in the wake of the French Revolution.
The Age of Enlightenment is a time in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the 18th century in which reason was advocated as the primary source and legitimacy for authority. Enlightenment gained momentum more or less simultaneously in many parts of Europe and America. Developing during the Enlightenment era, Renaissance humanism as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the studia humanitatis, a novel curriculum that was competing with the quadrivium and scholastic logic.
Renaissance humanism took a close study of the Latin and Greek classical texts, and was antagonistic to the values of scholasticism with its emphasis on the accumulated commentaries; and humanists were involved in the sciences, philosophies, arts and poetry of classical antiquity. They self - consciously imitated classical Latin and deprecated the use of medieval Latin. By analogy with the perceived decline of Latin, they applied the principle of ad fontes, or back to the sources, across broad areas of learning.
The quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns was a literary and artistic quarrel that heated up in the early 1690s and shook the Académie française. The opposing two sides were, the Ancients (Anciens) who constrain choice of subjects to those drawn from the literature of Antiquity and the Moderns (Modernes), who supported the merits of the authors of the century of Louis XIV. Fontenelle quickly followed with his Digression sur les anciens et les modernes (1688), in which he took the Modern side, pressing the argument that modern scholarship allowed modern man to surpass the ancients in knowledge.
The Scientific Revolution was a period when European ideas in classical physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other classical sciences were rejected and led to doctrines supplanting those that had prevailed from Ancient Greece to the Middle Ages which would lead to a transition to modern science. This period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, and biology, in institutions supporting scientific investigation, and in the more widely held picture of the universe. Individuals started to question all manners of things and it was this questioning that led to the Scientific Revolution, which in turn formed the foundations of contemporary sciences and the establishment of several modern scientific fields.
Toward the middle and latter stages of the Age of Revolution, the French political and social revolutions and radical change saw the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy transform, changing to forms based on Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights. The first revolution led to government by the National Assembly, the second by the Legislative Assembly, and the third by the Directory.
The changes were accompanied by violent turmoil which included the trial and execution of the king, vast bloodshed and repression during the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional monarchy, and two different empires.
During the French Revolution, the National Assembly, which existed from June 17 to July 9 of 1789, was a transitional body between the Estates - General and the National Constituent Assembly.
The Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from October 1, 1791 to September 1792. It provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law - making between the periods of the National Constituent Assembly and of the National Convention.
The Executive Directory was a body of five Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the Consulate. The period of this regime (2 November 1795 until 10 November 1799), commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) era, constitutes the second to last stage of the French Revolution. Napoleon, before seizing the title of Emperor, was elected as First Consul of the Consulate of France.
The campaigns of French Emperor and General Napoleon Bonaparte characterized the Napoleonic Era. Born on Corsica as the French invaded, and dying suspiciously on the tiny British Island of St. Helena, this brilliant commander, controlled a French Empire that, at its height, ruled a large portion of Europe directly from Paris, while many of his friends and family ruled countries such as Spain, Poland, several parts of Italy and many other Kingdoms Republics and dependencies. The Napoleonic Era changed the face of Europe forever, and old Empires and Kingdoms fell apart as a result of the mighty and "Glorious '' surge of Republicanism.
Italian unification was the political and social movement that annexed different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy in the 19th century. There is a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and the end of this period, but many scholars agree that the process began with the end of Napoleonic rule and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and approximately ended with the Franco - Prussian War in 1871, though the last città irredente did not join the Kingdom of Italy until after World War I.
Toward the end of the early modern period, Europe was dominated by the evolving system of mercantile capitalism in its trade and the New Economy. European states and politics had the characteristic of Absolutism. The French power and English revolutions dominated the political scene. There eventually evolved an international balance of power that held at bay a great conflagration until years later.
The end date of the early modern period is usually associated with the Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in about 1750. Another significant date is 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, which drastically transformed the state of European politics and ushered in the Prince Edward Era and modern Europe.
The French and Indian Wars were a series of conflicts in North America that represented the actions there that accompanied the European dynastic wars. In Quebec, the wars are generally referred to as the Intercolonial Wars. While some conflicts involved Spanish and Dutch forces, all pitted Great Britain, its colonies and American Indian allies on one side and France, its colonies and Indian allies on the other.
The expanding French and British colonies were contending for control of the western, or interior, territories. Whenever the European countries went to war, there were actions within and by these colonies although the dates of the conflict did not necessarily exactly coincide with those of the larger conflicts.
Beginning the Age of Revolution, the American Revolution and the ensuing political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century saw the Thirteen Colonies of North America overthrow the governance of the Parliament of Great Britain, and then reject the British monarchy itself to become the sovereign United States of America. In this period the colonies first rejected the authority of the Parliament to govern them without representation, and formed self - governing independent states. The Second Continental Congress then joined together against the British to defend that self - governance in the armed conflict from 1775 to 1783 known as the American Revolutionary War (also called American War of Independence).
The American Revolution began with fighting at Lexington and Concord. On July 4, 1776, they issued the Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and their formation of a cooperative union. In June 1776, Benjamin Franklin was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the Committee, Franklin made several small changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson.
The rebellious states defeated Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, the first successful colonial war of independence. While the states had already rejected the governance of Parliament, through the Declaration the new United States now rejected the legitimacy of the monarchy to demand allegiance. The war raged for seven years, with effective American victory, followed by formal British abandonment of any claim to the United States with the Treaty of Paris.
The Philadelphia Convention set up the current United States; the United States Constitution ratification the following year made the states part of a single republic with a limited central government. The Bill of Rights, comprising ten constitutional amendments guaranteeing many fundamental civil rights and freedoms, was ratified in 1791.
The decolonization of the Americas was the process by which the countries in the Americas gained their independence from European rule. Decolonization began with a series of revolutions in the late 18th and early - to - mid-19th centuries. The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America that took place during the early 19th century, from 1808 until 1829, directly related to the Napoleonic French invasion of Spain. The conflict started with short - lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville.
Countries in the Americas by date of independence. Note that the United States did not complete its continental territorial expansion until 1867
Development of Spanish American Independence
Map of territories that became independent during those wars (blue).
When the Central Junta fell to the French, numerous new Juntas appeared all across the Americas, eventually resulting in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south, to Mexico in the north. After the death of the king Ferdinand VII, in 1833, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish -- American War in 1898. Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in America. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador (later relocated to Rio de Janeiro) which reported directly to the Portuguese Crown until its independence in 1822, becoming the Empire of Brazil.
The development of the steam engine started the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond groundwater levels. The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. Eric Hobsbawm held that it ' broke out ' in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of George III, The Regency, and George IV). The great changes of centuries before the 19th were more connected with ideas, religion or military conquest, and technological advance had only made small changes in the material wealth of ordinary people.
The first Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam - powered ships and railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electric power generation. The Second Industrial Revolution was a phase of the Industrial Revolution; labeled as the separate Technical Revolution. From a technological and a social point of view there is no clean break between the two. Major innovations during the period occurred in the chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel industries. Specific advancements included the introduction of oil fired steam turbine and internal combustion driven steel ships, the development of the airplane, the practical commercialization of the automobile, mass production of consumer goods, the perfection of canning, mechanical refrigeration and other food preservation techniques, and the invention of the telephone.
Industrialization is the process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a pre-industrial society into an industrial one. It is a subdivision of a more general modernization process, where social change and economic development are closely related with technological innovation, particularly with the development of large - scale energy and metallurgy production. It is the extensive organization of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing. Industrialization also introduces a form of philosophical change, where people obtain a different attitude towards their perception of nature.
An economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It began with the mechanization of the textile industries and the development of iron - making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and then railways.
The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all - metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.
The modern petroleum industry started in 1846 with the discovery of the process of refining kerosene from coal by Nova Scotian Abraham Pineo Gesner. Ignacy Łukasiewicz improved Gesner 's method to develop a means of refining kerosene from the more readily available "rock oil '' ("petr - oleum '') seeps in 1852 and the first rock oil mine was built in Bóbrka, near Krosno in Galicia in the following year. In 1854, Benjamin Silliman, a science professor at Yale University in New Haven, was the first to fractionate petroleum by distillation. These discoveries rapidly spread around the world.
Engineering achievements of the revolution ranged from electrification to developments in materials science. The advancements made a great contribution to the quality of life. In the first revolution, Lewis Paul was the original inventor of roller spinning, the basis of the water frame for spinning cotton in a cotton mill. Matthew Boulton and James Watt 's improvements to the steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both the Kingdom of Great Britain and the world.
In the latter part of the second revolution, Thomas Alva Edison developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world and is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory. In 1882, Edison switched on the world 's first large - scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts direct current to fifty - nine customers in lower Manhattan. Also toward the end of the second industrial revolution, Nikola Tesla made many contributions in the field of electricity and magnetism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The Industrial Revolutions were major technological, socioeconomic, and cultural changes in late 18th and early 19th centuries that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic revolution, when mankind developed agriculture and gave up its nomadic lifestyle.
It has been argued that GDP per capita was much more stable and progressed at a much slower rate until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries.
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European continent. Described as a revolutionary wave, the period of unrest began in France and then, further propelled by the French Revolution of 1848, soon spread to the rest of Europe. Although most of the revolutions were quickly put down, there was a significant amount of violence in many areas, with tens of thousands of people tortured and killed. While the immediate political effects of the revolutions were reversed, the long - term reverberations of the events were far - reaching.
Industrial age reform movements began the gradual change of society rather than with episodes of rapid fundamental changes. The reformists ' ideas were often grounded in liberalism, although they also possessed aspects of utopian, socialist or religious concepts. The Radical movement campaigned for electoral reform, a reform of the Poor Laws, free trade, educational reform, postal reform, prison reform, and public sanitation.
Following the Enlightenment 's ideas, the reformers looked to the Scientific Revolution and industrial progress to solve the social problems which arose with the Industrial Revolution. Newton 's natural philosophy combined a mathematics of axiomatic proof with the mechanics of physical observation, yielding a coherent system of verifiable predictions and replacing a previous reliance on revelation and inspired truth. Applied to public life, this approach yielded several successful campaigns for changes in social policy.
Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede West Karelia and Ingria (two regions lost by Russia in the Time of Troubles), as well as Estland and Livland, securing Russia 's access to the sea and sea trade. On the Baltic Sea Peter founded a new capital called Saint Petersburg, later known as Russia 's Window to Europe. Peter the Great 's reforms brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia. Catherine II (the Great), who ruled in 1762 -- 96, extended Russian political control over the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the Partitions of Poland, pushing the Russian frontier westward and southward. Russia would colonize the vast Asian lands of Siberia expanding by land to the Pacific Coast of Asia, and North America. As the large realm embraced Absolute Monarchy Russia remained more conservative than its western neighbors. In the 19th century, Russia was invaded by France in 1812 but emerged as a more powerful superpower afterwards. Nonetheless industrialization did not come to Russia until the 1870s. The Medieval practice of serfdom was abolished in 1861 freeing over thirty million Russian peasants. A market economy finally emerged in the Russian Empire. However class warfare rose, and the nation was vulnerable due to rivalries with the United Kingdom, the Ottoman Empire, and the Japanese Empire.
Historians define the 19th century historical era as stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of the First World War). Alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "Long Nineteenth Century '' as spanning the years 1789 to 1914.
In the 1800s and early 1900s, once great and powerful Empires such as Spain, Ottoman Turkey, the Mughal Empire, and the Kingdom of Portugal began to break apart. Spain, which was at one time unrivaled in Europe, had been declining for a long time when it was crippled by Napoleon Bonaparte 's invasion. Sensing the time was right, Spain 's vast colonies in South America began a series of rebellions that ended with almost all of the Spanish territories gaining their independence.
The once mighty Ottoman Empire was wracked with a series of revolutions, resulting with the Ottoman 's only holding a small region that surrounded the capital, Istanbul.
The Mughal empire, which was descended from the Mongol Khanate, was bested by the upcoming Maratha Confederacy. All was going well for the Marathas until the British took an interest in the riches of India and the British ended up ruling not just the boundaries of Modern India, but also Pakistan, Burma, Nepal, Bangladesh and some Southern Regions of Afghanistan.
The King of Portugal 's vast territory of Brazil reformed into the independent Empire of Brazil. With the defeat of Napoleonic France, Britain became undoubtedly the most powerful country in the world, and by the end of the First World War controlled a Quarter of the world 's population and a third of its surface. However, the power of the British Empire did not end on land, since it had the greatest navy on the planet. Electricity, steel, and petroleum enabled Germany to become a great international power that raced to create empires of its own.
The Meiji Restoration was a chain of events that led to enormous changes in Japan 's political and social structure that was taking a firm hold at the beginning of the Meiji Era which coincided the opening of Japan by the arrival of the Black Ships of Commodore Matthew Perry and made Imperial Japan a great power. Russia and Qing Dynasty China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires. The Qing Dynasty 's military power weakened during the 19th century, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the dynasty declined after the mid-19th century.
European powers controlled parts of Oceania, with French New Caledonia from 1853 and French Polynesia from 1889; the Germans established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and Samoa in 1900. The United States expanded into the Pacific with Hawaii becoming a U.S. territory from 1898. Disagreements between the US, Germany and UK over Samoa led to the Tripartite Convention of 1899.
The Victorian era of the United Kingdom was the period of Queen Victoria 's reign from June 1837 to January 1901. This was a long period of prosperity for the British people, as profits gained from the overseas British Empire, as well as from industrial improvements at home, allowed a large, educated middle class to develop. Some scholars would extend the beginning of the period -- as defined by a variety of sensibilities and political games that have come to be associated with the Victorians -- back five years to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.
In Britain 's "imperial century '', victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in central Asia. Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation ''. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain 's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many nominally independent countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been generally characterized as "informal empire ''. Of note during this time was the Anglo - Zulu War, which was fought in 1879 between the British Empire and the Zulu Empire.
British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the Empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, the so - called All Red Line. Growing until 1922, around 13,000,000 square miles (34,000,000 km) of territory and roughly 458 million people were added to the British Empire. The British established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and Fiji in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the British Empire.
The Bourbon Restoration followed the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814. The Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. The ensuing period is called the Restoration, following French usage, and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. The July Monarchy was a period of liberal constitutional monarchy in France under King Louis - Philippe starting with the July Revolution (or Three Glorious Days) of 1830 and ending with the Revolution of 1848. The Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
The Franco - Prussian War was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed up by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace - Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I.
The French Third Republic was the republican government of France between the end of the Second French Empire following the defeat of Louis - Napoléon in the Franco - Prussian war in 1870 and the Vichy Regime after the invasion of France by the German Third Reich in 1940. The Third Republic endured seventy years, making it the most long - lasting regime in France since the collapse of the Ancien Régime in the French Revolution of 1789.
Slavery was greatly reduced around the world in the 19th century. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain forced the Barbary pirates to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, banned slavery throughout its domain, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in Russia, America, and Brazil.
Following the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 and propelled by economic exploitation, the Scramble for Africa was initiated formally at the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884 -- 1885. The Berlin Conference attempted to avoid war among the European powers by allowing the European rival countries to carve up the continent of Africa into national colonies. Africans were not consulted.
The major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The European power that demonstrated its control over a territory accepted the mandate to rule that region as a national colony. The European nation that held the claim developed and benefited from their colony 's commercial interests without having to fear rival European competition. With the colonial claim came the underlying assumption that the European power that exerted control would use its mandate to offer protection and provide welfare for its colonial peoples, however, this principle remained more theory than practice. There were many documented instances of material and moral conditions deteriorating for native Africans in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries under European colonial rule, to the point where the colonial experience for them has been described as "hell on earth. ''
At the time of the Berlin Conference, Africa contained one - fifth of the world 's population living in one - quarter of the world 's land area. However, from Europe 's perspective, they were dividing an unknown continent. European countries established a few coastal colonies in Africa by the mid-nineteenth century, which included Cape Colony (Great Britain), Angola (Portugal), and Algeria (France), but until the late nineteenth century Europe largely traded with free African states without feeling the need for territorial possession. Until the 1880s most of Africa remained uncharted, with western maps from the period generally showing blank spaces for the continent 's interior.
From the 1880s to 1914, the European powers expanded their control across the African continent, competing with each other for Africa 's land and resources. Great Britain controlled various colonial holdings in East Africa that spanned the length of the African continent from Egypt in the north to South Africa. The French gained major ground in West Africa, and the Portuguese held colonies in southern Africa. Germany, Italy, and Spain established a small number of colonies at various points throughout the continent, which included German East Africa (Tanganyika) and German Southwest Africa for Germany, Eritrea and Libya for Italy, and the Canary Islands and Rio de Oro in northwestern Africa for Spain. Finally, for King Leopold (ruled from 1865 to 1909), there was the large "piece of that great African cake '' known as the Congo, which became his personal fiefdom. By 1914, almost the entire continent was under European control. Liberia, which was settled by freed American slaves in the 1820s, and Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in eastern Africa were the last remaining independent African states.
(Around the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the Meiji era was marked by the reign of the Meiji Emperor. During this time, Japan started its modernization and rose to world power status. This era name means "Enlightened Rule ''. In Japan, the Meiji Restoration started in the 1860s, marking the rapid modernization by the Japanese themselves along European lines. Much research has focused on the issues of discontinuity versus continuity with the previous Tokugawa Period.. It was not until the beginning of the Meiji Era that the Japanese government began taking modernization seriously. Japan expanded its military production base by opening arsenals in various locations. The hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years.
Laws were instituted that required every able - bodied male Japanese citizen, regardless of class, to serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves. This action, the deathblow for the samurai warriors and their daimyōs, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu - eki ("blood tax '') literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. The Japanese government began modelling their ground forces after the French military. The French government contributed greatly to the training of Japanese officers. Many were employed at the military academy in Kyoto, and many more still were feverishly translating French field manuals for use in the Japanese ranks. After the death of the Meiji Emperor, the Taishō Emperor took the throne, thus beginning the Taishō period. Foreigners would instrumental in aiding in Japan 's modernization. A key foreign observer of the remarkable and rapid changes in Japanese society in this period was Ernest Mason Satow.
The Antebellum Age was a period of increasing division in the country based on the growth of slavery in the American South and in the western territories of Kansas and Nebraska that eventually led to the Civil War in 1861. The Antebellum Period is often considered to have begun with the Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854, although it may have begun as early as 1812. This period is also significant because it marked the transition of American manufacturing to the industrial revolution.
"Manifest destiny '' was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. During this time, the United States expanded to the Pacific Ocean -- "from sea to shining sea '' -- largely defining the borders of the contiguous United States as they are today.
The American Civil War began when seven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America, the Confederacy (four more states joinged the Confederacy later). Led by Jefferson Davis, they fought against the U.S. federal government (the Union) under President Abraham Lincoln, which was supported by all the free states and the five border slave states in the north.
Northern leaders agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting. Secession and Confederate nationalism had to be totally repudiated and all forms of slavery or quasi-slavery had to be eliminated. Lincoln proved effective in mobilizing support for the war goals, raising large armies and supplying them, avoiding foreign interference, and making the end of slavery a war goal. The Confederacy had a larger area than it could defend, and it failed to keep its ports open and its rivers clear. The North kept up the pressure as the South could barely feed and clothe its soldiers. Its soldiers, especially those in the East under the command of General Robert E. Lee proved highly resourceful until they finally were overwhelmed by Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman in 1864 -- 65. The Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 77) began with the Emancipation proclamation in 1863, and included freedom, full citizenship and voting rights for Southern blacks. It was followed by a reaction that left the blacks in a second class status legally, politically, socially and economically until the 1960s.
During the Gilded Age, there was substantial growth in population in the United States and extravagant displays of wealth and excess of America 's upper - class during the post-Civil War and post-Reconstruction era, in the late 19th century. The wealth polarization derived primarily from industrial and population expansion. The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and contributed to the creation of an ethnically diverse industrial working class which produced the wealth owned by rising super-rich industrialists and financiers called the "robber barons ''. An example is the company of John D. Rockefeller, who was an important figure in shaping the new oil industry. Using highly effective tactics and aggressive practices, later widely criticized, Standard Oil absorbed or destroyed most of its competition.
The creation of a modern industrial economy took place. With the creation of a transportation and communication infrastructure, the corporation became the dominant form of business organization and a managerial revolution transformed business operations. In 1890, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act -- the source of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbade every contract, scheme, deal, or conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase "restraint of trade '' remained subjective. By the beginning of the 20th century, per capita income and industrial production in the United States exceeded that of any other country except Britain. Long hours and hazardous working conditions led many workers to attempt to form labor unions despite strong opposition from industrialists and the courts. But the courts did protect the marketplace, declaring the Standard Oil group to be an "unreasonable '' monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1911. It ordered Standard to break up into 34 independent companies with different boards of directors.
Replacing the classical physics in use since the end of the scientific revolution, modern physics arose in the early 20th century with the advent of quantum physics, substituting mathematical studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure. The old quantum theory was a collection of results which predate modern quantum mechanics, but were never complete or self - consistent. The collection of heuristic prescriptions for quantum mechanics were the first corrections to classical mechanics. Outside the realm of quantum physics, the various aether theories in classical physics, which supposed a "fifth element '' such as the Luminiferous aether, were nullified by the Michelson - Morley experiment -- an attempt to detect the motion of earth through the aether. In biology, Darwinism gained acceptance, promoting the concept of adaptation in the theory of natural selection. The fields of geology, astronomy and psychology also made strides and gained new insights. In medicine, there were advances in medical theory and treatments.
Starting one - hundred years before the 20th century, the enlightenment spiritual philosophy was challenged in various quarters around the 1900s. Developed from earlier secular traditions, modern Humanist ethical philosophies affirmed the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting to the supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts. For liberal humanists such as Rousseau and Kant, the universal law of reason guided the way toward total emancipation from any kind of tyranny. These ideas were challenged, for example by the young Karl Marx, who criticized the project of political emancipation (embodied in the form of human rights), asserting it to be symptomatic of the very dehumanization it was supposed to oppose. For Friedrich Nietzsche, humanism was nothing more than a secular version of theism. In his Genealogy of Morals, he argues that human rights exist as a means for the weak to collectively constrain the strong. On this view, such rights do not facilitate emancipation of life, but rather deny it. In the 20th century, the notion that human beings are rationally autonomous was challenged by the concept that humans were driven by unconscious irrational desires.
Sigmund Freud is renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well as his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association, his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires.
Albert Einstein is known for his theories of special relativity and general relativity. He also made important contributions to statistical mechanics, especially his mathematical treatment of Brownian motion, his resolution of the paradox of specific heats, and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation. Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon.
At the end of the 19th century, Social Darwinism was promoted and included the various ideologies based on a concept that competition among all individuals, groups, nations, or ideas was a "natural '' framework for social evolution in human societies. In this view, society 's advancement is dependent on the "survival of the fittest '', the term was in fact coined by Herbert Spencer and referred to in "The Gospel of Wealth '' written by Andrew Carnegie.
Karl Marx summarized his approach to history and politics in the opening line of the first chapter of The Communist Manifesto (1848). He wrote:
The Manifesto went through a number of editions from 1872 to 1890; notable new prefaces were written by Marx and Engels for the 1872 German edition, the 1882 Russian edition, the 1883 German edition, and the 1888 English edition. In general, Marxism identified five (and one transitional) successive stages of development in Western Europe.
Major political developments saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over commonwealth countries. The Trans - Siberian Railway, crossing Asia by train, was complete by 1916. Other events include the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict, two world wars, and the Cold War.
In 1901, the Federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British self - governing colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia formed one nation. They kept the systems of government that they had developed as separate colonies but also would have a federal government that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia.
The last days of the Qing Dynasty were marked by civil unrest and foreign invasions. Responding to these civil failures and discontent, the Qing Imperial Court did attempt to reform the government in various ways, such as the decision to draft a constitution in 1906, the establishment of provincial legislatures in 1909, and the preparation for a national parliament in 1910. However, many of these measures were opposed by the conservatives of the Qing Court, and many reformers were either imprisoned or executed outright. The failures of the Imperial Court to enact such reforming measures of political liberalization and modernization caused the reformists to steer toward the road of revolution.
The assertions of Chinese philosophy began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement, to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There were attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat - Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century
In 1912, the Republic of China was established and Sun Yat - sen was inaugurated in Nanjing as the first Provisional President. But power in Beijing already had passed to Yuan Shikai, who had effective control of the Beiyang Army, the most powerful military force in China at the time. To prevent civil war and possible foreign intervention from undermining the infant republic, leaders agreed to Army 's demand that China be united under a Beijing government. On March 10, in Beijing, Shikai was sworn in as the second Provisional President of the Republic of China.
After the early 20th century revolutions, shifting alliances of China 's regional warlords waged war for control of the Beijing government. Despite the fact that various warlords gained control of the government in Beijing during the warlord era, this did not constitute a new era of control or governance, because other warlords did not acknowledge the transitory governments in this period and were a law unto themselves. These military - dominated governments were collectively known as the Beiyang government. The warlord era ended around 1927.
In 1900 the World 's Population had approached approximately 1.6 billion. Four years into the 20th century saw the Russo - Japanese War with the Battle of Port Arthur establishing the Empire of Japan as a world power. The Russians were in constant pursuit of a warm water port on the Pacific Ocean, for their navy as well as for maritime trade. The Manchurian Campaign of the Russian Empire was fought against the Japanese over Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were Southern Manchuria, specifically the area around the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden, and the seas around Korea, Japan, and the Yellow Sea. The resulting campaigns, in which the fledgling Japanese military consistently attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. These victories, as time transpired, would dramatically transform the distribution of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan 's recent entry onto the world stage. The embarrassing string of defeats increased Russian popular dissatisfaction with the inefficient and corrupt Tsarist government.
The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political unrest through vast areas of the Russian Empire. Some of it was directed against the government, while some was undirected. It included terrorism, worker strikes, peasant unrests, and military mutinies. It led to the establishment of the limited constitutional monarchy, the establishment of State Duma of the Russian Empire, and the multi-party system.
In China, the Qing Dynasty was overthrown following the Xinhai Revolution. The Xinhai Revolution began with the Wuchang Uprising on October 10, 1911 and ended with the abdication of Emperor Puyi on February 12, 1912. The primary parties to the conflict were the Imperial forces of the Qing Dynasty (1644 -- 1911), and the revolutionary forces of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance (Tongmenghui).
The Edwardian era in the United Kingdom is the period spanning the reign of King Edward VII up to the end of the First World War, including the years surrounding the sinking of the RMS Titanic. In the early years of the period, the Second Boer War in South Africa split the country into anti - and pro-war factions. The imperial policies of the Conservatives eventually proved unpopular and in the general election of 1906 the Liberals won a huge landslide. The Liberal government was unable to proceed with all of its radical programme without the support of the House of Lords, which was largely Conservative. Conflict between the two Houses of Parliament over the People 's Budget led to a reduction in the power of the peers in 1910. The general election in January that year returned a hung parliament with the balance of power held by Labour and Irish Nationalist members.
The causes of World War I included many factors, including the conflicts and antagonisms of the four decades leading up to the war. The Triple Entente was the name given to the loose alignment between the United Kingdom, France, and Russia after the signing of the Anglo - Russian Entente in 1907. The alignment of the three powers, supplemented by various agreements with Japan, the United States, and Spain, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria - Hungary, and Italy, the third having concluded an additional secret agreement with France effectively nullifying her Alliance commitments. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism played major roles in the conflict. The immediate origins of the war lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914, the spark (or casus belli) for which was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria.
However, the crisis did not exist in a void; it came after a long series of diplomatic clashes between the Great Powers over European and colonial issues in the decade prior to 1914 which had left tensions high. The diplomatic clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1870. An example is the Baghdad Railway which was planned to connect the Ottoman Empire cities of Konya and Baghdad with a line through modern - day Turkey, Syria and Iraq. The railway became a source of international disputes during the years immediately preceding World War I. Although it has been argued that they were resolved in 1914 before the war began, it has also been argued that the railroad was a cause of the First World War. Fundamentally the war was sparked by tensions over territory in the Balkans. Austria - Hungary competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influence in the region and they pulled the rest of the great powers into the conflict through their various alliances and treaties. The Balkan Wars were two wars in South - eastern Europe in 1912 -- 1913 in the course of which the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia) first captured Ottoman - held remaining part of Thessaly, Macedonia, Epirus, Albania and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the spoils, with incorporation of Romania this time.
The First World War began in 1914 and lasted to the final Armistice in 1918. The Allied Powers, led by the British Empire, France, Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire, Austro - Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The war caused the disintegration of four empires -- the Austro - Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones -- as well as radical change in the European and West Asian maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are referred to as the Triple Entente, and the Central Powers are referred to as the Triple Alliance.
Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a "No man 's land '') running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and -- for the first time -- from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries ' home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a pandemic.
Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century 's nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of World War II approximately 20 years later. More immediate to the time, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was a political event that redrew the political boundaries of West Asia. The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples formerly ruled by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new nations. The partitioning brought the creation of the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. The League of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Lebanon and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Mesopotamia and Palestine (which was later divided into two regions: Palestine and Transjordan). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the Arabian Peninsula became parts of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen.
The Russian Revolution is the series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. Following the abdication of Nicholas II of Russia, the Russian Provisional Government was established. In October 1917, a red faction revolution occurred in which the Red Guard, armed groups of workers and deserting soldiers directed by the Bolshevik Party, seized control of Saint Petersburg (then known as Petrograd) and began an immediate armed takeover of cities and villages throughout the former Russian Empire.
Another action in 1917 that is of note was the armistice signed between Russia and the Central Powers at Brest - Litovsk. As a condition for peace, the treaty by the Central Powers conceded huge portions of the former Russian Empire to Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire, greatly upsetting nationalists and conservatives. The Bolsheviks made peace with the German Empire and the Central Powers, as they had promised the Russian people prior to the Revolution. Vladimir Lenin 's decision has been attributed to his sponsorship by the foreign office of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, offered by the latter in hopes that with a revolution, Russia would withdraw from World War I. This suspicion was bolstered by the German Foreign Ministry 's sponsorship of Lenin 's return to Petrograd. The Western Allies expressed their dismay at the Bolsheviks, upset at:
In addition, there was a concern, shared by many Central Powers as well, that the socialist revolutionary ideas would spread to the West. Hence, many of these countries expressed their support for the Whites, including the provision of troops and supplies. Winston Churchill declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle ''.
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed and the Soviets under the domination of the Bolshevik party assumed power, first in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and then in other places. In the wake of the October Revolution, the old Russian Imperial Army had been demobilized; the volunteer - based Red Guard was the Bolsheviks ' main military force, augmented by an armed military component of the Cheka, the Bolshevik state security apparatus. There was an instituted mandatory conscription of the rural peasantry into the Red Army. Opposition of rural Russians to Red Army conscription units was overcome by taking hostages and shooting them when necessary in order to force compliance. Former Tsarist officers were utilized as "military specialists '' (voenspetsy), taking their families hostage in order to ensure loyalty. At the start of the war, three - fourths of the Red Army officer corps was composed of former Tsarist officers. By its end, 83 % of all Red Army divisional and corps commanders were ex-Tsarist soldiers.
The principal fighting occurred between the Bolshevik Red Army and the forces of the White Army. Many foreign armies warred against the Red Army, notably the Allied Forces, yet many volunteer foreigners fought in both sides of the Russian Civil War. Other nationalist and regional political groups also participated in the war, including the Ukrainian nationalist Green Army, the Ukrainian anarchist Black Army and Black Guards, and warlords such as Ungern von Sternberg. The most intense fighting took place from 1918 to 1920. Major military operations ended on 25 October 1922 when the Red Army occupied Vladivostok, previously held by the Provisional Priamur Government. The last enclave of the White Forces was the Ayano - Maysky District on the Pacific coast. The majority of the fighting ended in 1920 with the defeat of General Pyotr Wrangel in the Crimea, but a notable resistance in certain areas continued until 1923 (e.g., Kronstadt Uprising, Tambov Rebellion, Basmachi Revolt, and the final resistance of the White movement in the Far East).
While the early 1920 's was a time of flux for revolutionary Russia and Central Asia, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was proclaimed in 1922 as the successor state to the fallen Russian Empire. Revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin died of natural causes and was succeeded by Joseph Stalin.
In 1917, China declared war on Germany in the hope of recovering its lost province, then under Japanese control. The New Culture Movement occupied the period from 1917 to 1923. Chinese representatives refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, due to intense pressure from the student protesters and public opinion alike.
The May Fourth Movement helped to rekindle the then - fading cause of republican revolution. In 1917 Sun Yat - sen had become commander - in - chief of a rival military government in Guangzhou in collaboration with southern warlords. Sun 's efforts to obtain aid from the Western democracies were ignored, however, and in 1920 he turned to the Soviet Union, which had recently achieved its own revolution. The Soviets sought to befriend the Chinese revolutionists by offering scathing attacks on Western imperialism. But for political expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both Sun and the newly established Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
The policy of working with the Kuomintang and Chiang Kai - shek had been recommended by the Dutch Communist Henk Sneevliet, chosen in 1923 to be the Comintern representative in China due to his revolutionary experience in the Dutch Indies, where he had a major role in founding the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) -- and who felt that the Chinese party was too small and weak to undertake a major effort on its own (see Henk Sneevliet 's work for the Comintern).
In early 1927, the Kuomintang - CCP rivalry led to a split in the revolutionary ranks. The CCP and the left wing of the Kuomintang had decided to move the seat of the Nationalist government from Guangzhou to Wuhan. But Chiang Kai - shek, whose Northern Expedition was proving successful, set his forces to destroying the Shanghai CCP apparatus and established an anti-Communist government at Nanjing in April 1927.
The "Nanjing Decade '' of 1928 -- 37 was one of consolidation and accomplishment under the leadership of the Nationalists, with a mixed but generally positive record in the economy, social progress, development of democracy, and cultural creativity. Some of the harsh aspects of foreign concessions and privileges in China were moderated through diplomacy.
The interwar period was the period between the end of the First World War and the beginning of the Second World War. This period was marked by turmoil in much of the world, as Europe struggled to recover from the devastation of the First World War.
In North America, especially the first half of this period, people experienced considerable prosperity in the Roaring Twenties. The social and societal upheaval known as the Roaring Twenties began in North America and spread to Europe in the aftermath of World War I. The Roaring Twenties, often called "The Jazz Age '', saw an exposition of social, artistic, and cultural dynamism. ' Normalcy ' returned to politics, jazz music blossomed, the flapper redefined modern womanhood, Art Deco peaked. The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling of discontinuity associated with modernity, a break with traditions. Everything seemed to be feasible through modern technology. New technologies, especially automobiles, movies and radio proliferated ' modernity ' to a large part of the population. The 1920s saw the general favor of practicality, in architecture as well as in daily life. The 1920s was further distinguished by several inventions and discoveries, extensive industrial growth and the rise in consumer demand and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle.
Europe spent these years rebuilding and coming to terms with the vast human cost of the conflict. The economy of the United States became increasingly intertwined with that of Europe. In Germany, the Weimar Republic gave way to episodes of political and economic turmoil, which culminated with the German hyperinflation of 1923 and the failed Beer Hall Putsch of that same year. When Germany could no longer afford war payments, Wall Street invested heavily in European debts to keep the European economy afloat as a large consumer market for American mass - produced goods. By the middle of the decade, economic development soared in Europe, and the Roaring Twenties broke out in Germany, Britain and France, the second half of the decade becoming known as the "Golden Twenties ''. In France and francophone Canada, they were also called the "années folles '' ("Crazy Years '')., 1935. German Nazis created large public performances to earn public support.))
Worldwide prosperity changed dramatically with the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 served to punctuate the end of the previous era, as The Great Depression set in. The Great Depression was a worldwide economic downturn starting in most places in 1929 and ending at different times in the 1930s or early 1940s for different countries. It was the largest and most important economic depression in the 20th century, and is used in the 21st century as an example of how far the world 's economy can fall.
The depression had devastating effects in virtually every country, rich or poor. International trade plunged by half to two - thirds, as did personal income, tax revenue, prices and profits. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by roughly 60 percent. Facing plummeting demand with few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries suffered the most. The Great Depression ended at different times in different countries with the effect lasting into the next era. America 's Great Depression ended in 1941 with America 's entry into World War II. The majority of countries set up relief programs, and most underwent some sort of political upheaval, pushing them to the left or right. In some world states, the desperate citizens turned toward nationalist demagogues -- the most infamous being Adolf Hitler -- setting the stage for the next era of war. The convulsion brought on by the worldwide depression resulted in the rise of Nazism. In Asia, Japan became an ever more assertive power, especially with regards to China.
The interwar period was also marked by a radical change in the international order, away from the balance of power that had dominated pre -- World War I Europe. One main institution that was meant to bring stability was the League of Nations, which was created after the First World War with the intention of maintaining world security and peace and encouraging economic growth between member countries. The League was undermined by the bellicosity of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, and Mussolini 's Italy, and by the non-participation of the United States, leading many to question its effectiveness and legitimacy.
A series of international crises strained the League to its limits, the earliest being the invasion of Manchuria by Japan and the Abyssinian crisis of 1935 / 36 in which Italy invaded Abyssinia, one of the only free African nations at that time.
The League tried to enforce economic sanctions upon Italy, but to no avail. The incident highlighted French and British weakness, exemplified by their reluctance to alienate Italy and lose her as their ally. The limited actions taken by the Western powers pushed Mussolini 's Italy towards alliance with Hitler 's Germany anyway. The Abyssinian war showed Hitler how weak the League was and encouraged the remilitarization of the Rhineland in flagrant disregard of the Treaty of Versailles. This was the first in a series of provocative acts culminating in the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the beginning of the Second World War.
Few Chinese had any illusions about Japanese designs on China. Hungry for raw materials and pressed by a growing population, Japan initiated the seizure of Manchuria in September 1931 and established ex-Qing emperor Puyi as head of the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. During the Sino - Japanese War (1937 -- 1945), the loss of Manchuria, and its vast potential for industrial development and war industries, was a blow to the Kuomintang economy. The League of Nations, established at the end of World War I, was unable to act in the face of the Japanese defiance. After 1940, conflicts between the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent in the areas not under Japanese control. The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms, and the land - and tax - reform measures favoring the peasants -- while the Kuomintang attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence.
The Second Sino - Japanese War had seen tensions rise between Imperial Japan and the United States; events such as the Panay incident and the Nanking Massacre turned American public opinion against Japan. With the occupation of French Indochina in the years of 1940 -- 41, and with the continuing war in China, the United States placed embargoes on Japan of strategic materials such as scrap metal and oil, which were vitally needed for the war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource - rich, European - controlled colonies of South East Asia -- specifically British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (modern - day Indonesia). In 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
The Second World War was a global military conflict that took place in 1939 -- 1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in the Holocaust and ending with the dropping of the atom bomb.
Even though Japan had been invading in China since 1937, the conventional view is that the war began on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the Drang nach Osten. Within two days the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then - secret provision of its non-aggression Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union joined with Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and to divide Eastern Europe. The Allies were initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as British Commonwealth countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the Indian Empire. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939.
Following the lull in fighting, known as the "Phoney War '', Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the mean time attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the Tripartite Pact, and were known as the Axis Powers. Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which promptly joined the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts. This proved to be a mistake by Germany -- Germany had not successfully carried out the invasion of Britain and the war turned against the Axis.
On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, bringing it too into the war on the Allied side. China also joined the Allies, as eventually did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time, and attacked Japanese armies through guerilla - type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the major combatants were aligned as follows: the British Commonwealth, the United States, and the Soviet Union were fighting Germany and Italy; and the British Commonwealth, China, and the United States were fighting Japan. The United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and China were referred as a "trusteeship of the powerful '' during the World War II and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four '' in Declaration by United Nations These four countries were considered as the "Four Policemen '' or "Four Sheriffs '' of the Allies power and primary victors of World War II. From then through August 1945, battles raged across all of Europe, in the North Atlantic Ocean, across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and was split into a northern Germany - occupied puppet state and an Allies - friendly state in the South; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered, marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945.
It is possible that around 62 million people died in the war; estimates vary greatly. About 60 % of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, the Holocaust), and aerial bombing. The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16 %, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died.
The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole '') was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted '' during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war 's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans.
After World War II, Europe was informally split into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Western Europe later aligned as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Eastern Europe as the Warsaw Pact. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the British Empire to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the Cold War. In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its democratization. China 's civil war continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the People 's Republic of China. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence.
The mid-20th century is distinguished from most of human history in that its most significant changes were directly or indirectly economic and technological in nature. Economic development was the force behind vast changes in everyday life, to a degree which was unprecedented in human history.
Over the course of the 20th century, the world 's per - capita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five, much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its Industrial Revolution). Many economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the 20th century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at its beginning. However, the gulf between the world 's rich and poor grew wider, and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide.
Still, advancing technology and medicine has had a great impact even in the Global South. Large - scale industry and more centralized media made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented. However, the increased communications contributed to democratization. Technological developments included the development of airplanes and space exploration, nuclear technology, advancement in genetics, and the dawning of the Information Age.
Pax Americana is an appellation applied to the historical concept of relative liberal peace in the Western world, resulting from the preponderance of power enjoyed by the United States of America starting around the start of the 20th century. Although the term finds its primary utility in the latter half of the 20th century, it has been used in various places and eras. Its modern connotations concern the peace established after the end of World War II in 1945.
The Cold War began in the mid-1940s and lasted into the early 1990s. Throughout this period, the conflict was expressed through military coalitions, espionage, weapons development, invasions, propaganda, and competitive technological development. The conflict included costly defense spending, a massive conventional and nuclear arms race, and numerous proxy wars; the two superpowers never fought one another directly.
The Soviet Union created the Eastern Bloc of countries that it occupied, annexing some as Soviet Socialist Republics and maintaining others as satellite states that would later form the Warsaw Pact. The United States and various western European countries began a policy of "containment '' of communism and forged myriad alliances to this end, including NATO. Several of these western countries also coordinated efforts regarding the rebuilding of western Europe, including western Germany, which the Soviets opposed. In other regions of the world, such as Latin America and Southeast Asia, the Soviet Union fostered communist revolutionary movements, which the United States and many of its allies opposed and, in some cases, attempted to "roll back ''. Many countries were prompted to align themselves with the nations that would later form either NATO or the Warsaw Pact, though other movements would also emerge.
In China Mao Zedong (Máo zé dōng) utilized Marxist - Leninist thought. When the Communist Party of China assumed power in 1959, previous schools of Chinese thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward. Many parts of China 's past were even purged during the Cultural Revolution. Though initially friendly with the Soviet Union the Chinese and Soviet communists diverged in the Sino - Soviet split of 1960. Through the end of the Cold - War, China would continue on its own path from other communist countries, building better relations with the United States after 1972. China 's economy would recover from the Cultural Revolution due to market - oriented reforms led by Deng Xiaoping.
The Cold War saw periods of both heightened tension and relative calm. International crises arose, such as the Berlin Blockade (1948 -- 1949), the Korean War (1950 -- 1953), the Berlin Crisis of 1961, the Vietnam War (1955 -- 1975), the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), the Soviet -- Afghan War (1979 -- 1989) and NATO exercises in November 1983. There were also periods of reduced tension as both sides sought détente. Direct military attacks on adversaries were deterred by the potential for mutual assured destruction using deliverable nuclear weapons.
The Cold War drew to a close in the late 1980s and the early 1990s. The United States under President Ronald Reagan increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressure on the Soviet Union, which was already suffering from severe economic stagnation. In the second half of the 1980s, newly appointed Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the perestroika and glasnost reforms. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, leaving the United States as the dominant military power, though Russia retained much of the massive Soviet nuclear arsenal.
In Latin America in the 1970s, leftists acquired a significant political influence which prompted the right - wing, ecclesiastical authorities and a large portion of the individual country 's upper class to support coups d'état to avoid what they perceived as a communist threat. This was further fueled by Cuban and United States intervention which led to a political polarization. Most South American countries were in some periods ruled by military dictatorships that were supported by the United States of America. In the 1970s, the regimes of the Southern Cone collaborated in Operation Condor killing many leftist dissidents, including some urban guerrillas. However, by the early 1990s all countries had restored their democracies.
The Space Age is a period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space exploration, space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events. The Space Age began with the development of several technologies that culminated with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union in October 1957. This was the world 's first artificial satellite, orbiting the Earth in 98.1 minutes and weighing in at 83 kg. The launch of Sputnik 1 ushered a new era of political, scientific and technological achievements that became known as the Space Age. The Space Age was characterized by rapid development of new technology in a close race mostly between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Space Age brought the first human spaceflight during the Vostok programme and reached its peak with the Apollo program which captured the imagination of much of the world 's population. The landing of Apollo 11 was an event watched by over 500 million people around the world and is widely recognized as one of the defining moments of the 20th century. Since then and with the end of the space race due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, public attention has largely moved to other areas.
The humanities are academic disciplines which study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytic, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural and social sciences. Although many of the subjects of modern history coincide with that of standard history, the subject is taught independently by various systems of education in the world.
Students can choose the subject at university. The material covered includes from the mid-18th century, to analysis of the present day. Virtually all colleges and sixth forms that do teach modern history do it alongside standard history; very few teach the subject exclusively.
At the University of Oxford ' Modern History ' has a somewhat different meaning. The contrast is not with the Middle Ages but with Antiquity. The earliest period that can be studied in the Final Honour School of Modern History begins in 285.
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all of the following are true of indian harijan except | Harijan - Wikipedia
Harijan (Hindustani: हरिजन (Devanagari), ہریجن (Nastaleeq); translation: "person of Hari / Vishnu '') was a term popularized by Indian political leader Mohandas Gandhi for referring communities traditionally considered so called Untouchable (formerly called "acchoot '' अछूत in Hindi). The term achoot is now considered derogatory, and the term Harijan is no longer used. They are now called Dalits. However the euphemism Harijan is now regarded as condescending by many, with some Dalit activists calling it insulting. As a result, the Government of India and several state governments forbid or discourage its use for official purposes.
Though Gandhi popularized the term harijan, which literally meant children of god, but according to dharma brahmin are said to be children of god Harijan it was suggested to him by a brahmin during his political period, who had come across the term in the works by the Gujarati Bhakti era poet - saint Narsi Mehta.It has been claimed that in Narsi 's work, the term refers to the children of Devadasi s., however the claim can not be verified. According to other source the medieval devotional poet Gangasati used the term to refer to herself during the Bhakti movement, a period in India that gave greater status and voice to women while challenging the legitimacy of caste. Gangasati lived around the 12th - 14th centuries and wrote in the Gujarati language.
Actually the word Harijan used by Narsihma mehatha for the first time
Gandhi started publishing a weekly journal of the same name on 11 February 1932 from Yerwada Jail during British rule. He created three publications: Harijan in English (from 1933 to 1948), Harijan Bandu in Gujarati, and Harijan Sevak in Hindi. These newspapers found Gandhi concentrating on social and economic problems, much as his earlier English newspaper, Young India, had done from 1919 to 1932.
http://www.du.ac.in/du/
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timeline of the count of monte cristo (book) | The Count of Monte Cristo - wikipedia
The Count of Monte Cristo (French: Le Comte de Monte - Cristo) is an adventure novel by French author Alexandre Dumas (père) completed in 1844. It is one of the author 's most popular works, along with The Three Musketeers. Like many of his novels, it was expanded from plot outlines suggested by his collaborating ghostwriter Auguste Maquet. Another important work by Dumas, written prior to his work with Maquet, was the short novel "Georges ''; this novel is of particular interest to scholars because Dumas reused many of the ideas and plot devices later in The Count of Monte Cristo.
The story takes place in France, Italy, and islands in the Mediterranean during the historical events of 1815 -- 1839: the era of the Bourbon Restoration through the reign of Louis - Philippe of France. It begins just before the Hundred Days period (when Napoleon returned to power after his exile). The historical setting is a fundamental element of the book, an adventure story primarily concerned with themes of hope, justice, vengeance, mercy, and forgiveness. It centres on a man who is wrongfully imprisoned, escapes from jail, acquires a fortune, and sets about exacting revenge on those responsible for his imprisonment. His plans have devastating consequences for both the innocent and the guilty.
The book is considered a literary classic today. According to Luc Sante, "The Count of Monte Cristo has become a fixture of Western civilization 's literature, as inescapable and immediately identifiable as Mickey Mouse, Noah 's flood, and the story of Little Red Riding Hood. ''
Dumas wrote that the idea of revenge in The Count of Monte Cristo came from a story in a book compiled by Jacques Peuchet, a French police archivist, published in 1838 after the death of the author. Dumas included this essay in one of the editions from 1846. Peuchet told of a shoemaker, Pierre Picaud, living in Nîmes in 1807, who was engaged to marry a rich woman when three jealous friends falsely accused him of being a spy for England. Picaud was placed under a form of house arrest in the Fenestrelle Fort, where he served as a servant to a rich Italian cleric. When the man died, he left his fortune to Picaud, whom he had begun to treat as a son. Picaud then spent years plotting his revenge on the three men who were responsible for his misfortune. He stabbed the first with a dagger on which were printed the words "Number One '', and then he poisoned the second. The third man 's son he lured into crime and his daughter into prostitution, finally stabbing the man himself. This third man, named Loupian, had married Picaud 's fiancée while Picaud was under arrest.
In another of the "True Stories '', Peuchet describes a poisoning in a family. This story, also quoted in the Pleiade edition, has obviously served as model for the chapter of the murders inside the Villefort family. The introduction to the Pleiade edition mentions other sources from real life: Abbé Faria existed and died in 1819 after a life with much resemblance to that of the Faria in the novel. As for Dantès, his fate is quite different from his model in Peuchet 's book, since the latter is murdered by the "Caderousse '' of the plot. But Dantès has "alter egos '' in two other Dumas works; in "Pauline '' from 1838, and more significantly in "Georges '' from 1843, where a young man with black ancestry is preparing a revenge against white people who had humiliated him.
On the day of his wedding to Mercédès, Edmond Dantès, first mate of the Pharaon, is falsely accused of treason, arrested, and imprisoned without trial in the Château d'If, a grim island fortress off Marseilles. A fellow prisoner, Abbé Faria, correctly deduces that his jealous rival Fernand Mondego, envious crewmate Danglars, and double - dealing Magistrate De Villefort framed him. Faria inspires his escape and guides him to a fortune in treasure. As the powerful and mysterious Count of Monte Cristo, he arrives from the Orient to enter the fashionable Parisian world of the 1830s and avenge himself on the men who conspired to destroy him.
In 1815, Edmond Dantès, a young merchant sailor who has recently been granted the succession of his captain Leclère, returns to Marseille to marry his Catalan fiancée Mercédès. Leclère, a supporter of the exiled Napoléon I, found himself dying at sea and charged Dantès to deliver two objects: a package to General Bertrand (exiled with Napoleon Bonaparte on Elba), and a letter from Elba to an unknown man in Paris. On the eve of Dantès ' wedding to Mercédès, Fernand Mondego (Mercédès ' cousin and a rival for her affections) is given advice by Dantès ' colleague Danglars (who is jealous of Dantès ' rapid rise to captain) to send an anonymous note accusing Dantès of being a Bonapartist traitor. Caderousse (Dantès ' cowardly and selfish neighbor) is drunk while the two conspirators set the trap for Dantès and stays quiet as Dantès is arrested, then sentenced. Villefort, the deputy crown prosecutor in Marseille, destroys the letter from Elba when he discovers that it is addressed to his own father, Noirtier (who is a Bonapartist), since if this letter came into official hands, it would destroy his ambitions and reputation as a staunch Royalist. To silence Dantès, he condemns him without trial to life imprisonment.
After six years of imprisonment in the Château d'If, Dantès is on the verge of suicide when he befriends the Abbé Faria ("The Mad Priest ''), an Italian fellow prisoner who had dug an escape tunnel that ended up in Dantès ' cell. Over the next eight years, Faria gives Dantès an extensive education in language, culture, and science. Knowing himself to be close to death, Faria tells Dantès the location of a treasure on the island of Monte Cristo. When Faria dies, Dantès takes his place in the burial sack. When the guards throw the sack into the sea, Dantès breaks through and swims to a nearby island. He is rescued by a smuggling ship that stops at Monte Cristo. After recovering the treasure, Dantès returns to Marseille. He later purchases the island of Monte Cristo and the title of Count from the Tuscan government.
Traveling as the Abbé Busoni, Dantès meets Caderousse, now living in poverty, who regrets not intervening and possibly saving Dantès from prison. He gives Caderousse a diamond that can be either a chance to redeem himself or a trap that will lead to his ruin. Learning that his old employer Morrel is on the verge of bankruptcy, Dantès buys Morrel 's debts and gives Morrel three months to fulfill his obligations. At the end of the three months and with no way to repay his debts, Morrel is about to commit suicide when he learns that his debts have been mysteriously paid and that one of his lost ships has returned with a full cargo, secretly rebuilt and laden by Dantès.
Reappearing as the rich Count of Monte Cristo, Dantès begins his revenge on the three men responsible for his unjust imprisonment: Fernand, now Count de Morcerf and Mercédès ' husband; Danglars, now a baron and a wealthy banker; and Villefort, now procureur du roi. The Count appears first in Rome, where he becomes acquainted with the Baron Franz d'Épinay, and Viscount Albert de Morcerf, the son of Mercédès and Fernand. Dantès arranges for the young Morcerf to be captured by the bandit Luigi Vampa and then seemingly rescues him from Vampa 's gang. The Count then moves to Paris and dazzles Danglars with his wealth, persuading him to extend him a credit of six million francs. The Count manipulates the bond market and quickly destroys a large portion of Danglars ' fortune. The rest of it begins to rapidly disappear through mysterious bankruptcies, suspensions of payment, and more bad luck in the Stock Exchange.
Villefort had once conducted an affair with Madame Danglars. She became pregnant and delivered the child in the house that the Count has now purchased. To cover up the affair, Villefort told Madame Danglars that the infant was stillborn, smothered the child, and thinking him to be dead, buried him in the garden. While Villefort was burying the child, he was stabbed by the smuggler Bertuccio, who unearthed the child and resuscitated him. Bertuccio 's sister - in - law brought the child up, giving him the name "Benedetto. '' Benedetto takes up a life of crime as he grows into adolescence. He robs his adoptive mother (Bertuccio 's sister - in - law) and ends up killing her, then runs away. Bertuccio later becomes the Count 's servant and informs him of this history.
Benedetto is sentenced to the galleys with Caderousse, who had sold the diamond but killed both his wife and the buyer out of greed. After Benedetto and Caderousse are freed by Dantès, using the alias "Lord Wilmore, '' the Count induces Benedetto to take the identity of "Viscount Andrea Cavalcanti '' and introduces him into Parisian society. Andrea ingratiates himself to Danglars, who betroths his daughter Eugénie to Andrea (not knowing they are half - siblings) after cancelling her engagement to Albert. Meanwhile, Caderousse blackmails Andrea, threatening to reveal his past if he does n't share his new - found wealth. Cornered by "Abbé Busoni '' while attempting to rob the Count 's house, Caderousse begs to be given another chance. Dantès forces him to write a letter to Danglars exposing Cavalcanti as an impostor and allows Caderousse to leave the house. The moment Caderousse leaves the estate, he is stabbed by Andrea. Caderousse dictates a deathbed statement identifying his killer, and the Count reveals his true identity to Caderousse moments before he dies.
Years before, Ali Pasha of Janina had been betrayed to the Turks by Fernand. After Ali 's death, Fernand sold Ali 's wife Vasiliki and his daughter Haydée into slavery. While Vasiliki died shortly thereafter, Dantès purchased Haydée. The Count manipulates Danglars into researching the event, which is published in a newspaper. As a result, Fernand is investigated by his peers and disgraced. When Albert blames the Count for his father 's downfall and challenges him to a duel, Mercédès, having already recognized Monte Cristo as Dantès, goes to the Count and begs him to spare her son. During this interview, she learns the truth of his arrest and imprisonment but still convinces the Count not to kill her son. Realizing that Edmond now intends to let Albert kill him, she reveals the truth to Albert, which causes Albert to make a public apology to the Count. Albert and Mercédès disown Fernand, who is confronted with Dantès ' true identity and commits suicide. Albert and Mercédès renounce their titles and wealth and depart to begin new lives.
Valentine, Villefort 's daughter by his late first wife, stands to inherit the fortune of her grandfather (Noirtier) and of her mother 's parents (the Saint - Mérans), while Villefort 's second wife Héloïse seeks the fortune for her son Édouard. The Count is aware of Héloïse 's intentions and introduces her to the technique of poison. Héloïse fatally poisons the Saint - Mérans, so that Valentine inherits their fortune. Valentine is disinherited by Noirtier in an attempt to prevent Valentine 's impending marriage with Franz d'Épinay, whom she does not love. The marriage is cancelled when d'Épinay learns that his father (believed assassinated by Bonapartists) was actually killed by Noirtier in a fair duel. Afterwards, Valentine is reinstated in Noirtier 's will. After a failed attempt on Noirtier 's life, Héloïse targets Valentine so that Édouard will get the fortune. However, Valentine is the prime suspect in her father 's eyes in the deaths of the Saint - Mérans and Noirtier 's servant, Barrois. On learning that Morrel 's son Maximilien is in love with Valentine, the Count saves her by making it appear as though Héloïse 's plan to poison Valentine has succeeded and that Valentine is dead. Villefort learns from Noirtier that Héloïse is the real murderer and confronts her, giving her the choice of a public execution or committing suicide.
Fleeing after Caderousse 's letter exposes him, Andrea is arrested and returned to Paris, where Villefort prosecutes him. While in prison awaiting trial, Andrea is visited by Bertuccio, who tells him the truth about his father. At his trial, Andrea reveals that he is Villefort 's son and was rescued after Villefort buried him alive. Villefort admits his guilt and flees the court. He rushes home to stop his wife 's suicide but is too late; she has poisoned her son as well. Dantès confronts Villefort, revealing his true identity, but this drives Villefort insane. Dantès tries but fails to resuscitate Édouard, causing him to question if he has gone too far.
After the Count 's manipulation of the bond market, Danglars is left with a destroyed reputation and 5,000,000 francs he has been holding in deposit for hospitals. The Count demands this sum to fulfil their credit agreement, and Danglars embezzles the hospital fund. Abandoning his wife, Danglars flees to Italy with the Count 's receipt and 50,000 francs. While leaving Rome, he is kidnapped by the Count 's agent Luigi Vampa and is imprisoned. Forced to pay exorbitant prices for food and nearly starved to death, Danglars signs away his ill - gotten gains. Dantès anonymously returns the stolen money to the hospitals. Danglars finally repents his crimes, and a softened Dantès forgives him and allows him to leave with his freedom and 50,000 francs.
Maximilien Morrel, believing Valentine to be dead, contemplates suicide after her funeral. Dantès reveals his true identity and explains that he rescued Morrel 's father from bankruptcy years earlier; he then tells Maximilien to reconsider his suicide. On the island of Monte Cristo, Dantès presents Valentine to Maximilien and reveals the true sequence of events. Having found peace, Dantès leaves the newly reunited couple part of his fortune and departs for an unknown destination to find comfort and a new life with Haydée, who has declared her love for him. The reader is left with a final thought: "all human wisdom is contained in these two words, ' Wait and Hope ' ''.
The Count of Monte Cristo was originally published in the Journal des Débats in eighteen parts. Serialization ran from August 28, 1844 to January 15, 1846. The first edition in book form was published in Paris by Pétion in 18 volumes with the first two issued in 1844 and the remaining sixteen in 1845. Most of the Belgian pirated editions, the first Paris edition and many others up to the Lécrivain et Toubon illustrated edition of 1860 feature a misspelling of the title with "Christo '' used instead of "Cristo ''. The first edition to feature the correct spelling was the L'Écho des Feuilletons illustrated edition, Paris 1846. This edition featured plates by Paul Gavarni and Tony Johannot and was said to be "revised '' and "corrected '', although only the chapter structure appears to have been altered with an additional chapter entitled La Maison des Allées de Meilhan having been created by splitting Le Départ into two.
The first appearance of The Count of Monte Cristo in English was the first part of a serialization by W. Francis Ainsworth in volume VII of Ainsworth 's Magazine published in 1845, although this was an abridged summary of the first part of the novel only and was entitled The Prisoner of If. Ainsworth translated the remaining chapters of the novel, again in abridged form, and issued these in volumes VIII and IX of the magazine in 1845 and 1846 respectively. Another abridged serialisation appeared in The London Journal between 1846 and 1847.
The first single volume translation in English was an abridged edition with woodcuts published by Geo Pierce in January 1846 entitled The Prisoner of If or The Revenge of Monte Christo.
In April 1846, volume three of the Parlour Novelist, Belfast, Ireland: Simms and M'Intyre, London: WS Orr and Company, featured the first part of an unabridged translation of the novel by Emma Hardy. The remaining two parts would be issued as the Count of Monte Christo volumes I and II in volumes 8 and 9 of the Parlour Novelist respectively.
The most common English translation is an anonymous one originally published in 1846 by Chapman and Hall. This was originally released in ten weekly installments from March 1846 with six pages of letterpress and two illustrations by M Valentin. The translation was released in book form with all twenty illustrations in two volumes in May 1846, a month after the release of the first part of the above - mentioned translation by Emma Hardy. The translation follows the revised French edition of 1846, with the correct spelling of "Cristo '' and the extra chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan.
Most English editions of the novel follow the anonymous translation. In 1889 two of the major American publishers Little Brown and T.Y Crowell updated the translation, correcting mistakes and revising the text to reflect the original serialised version. This resulted in the removal of the chapter The House on the Allées de Meilhan, with the text restored to the end of the chapter called The Departure.
In 1955 Collins published an updated version of the anonymous translation which cut several passages including a whole chapter entitled The Past and renamed others. This abridgement was republished by many Collins imprints and other publishers including the Modern Library, Vintage, the 1998 Oxford World 's Classics edition (later editions restored the text) and the 2009 Everyman 's Library edition.
In 1996 Penguin Classics published a new translation by Robin Buss. Buss 's translation updated the language, making the text more accessible to modern readers, and restored content that was modified in the 1846 translation because of Victorian English social restrictions (for example, references to Eugénie 's lesbian traits and behaviour) to reflect Dumas ' original version.
In addition to the above there have also been many abridged translations such as an 1892 edition published by F.M Lupton, translated by Henry L. Williams (this translation was also released by M.J Ivers in 1892 with Williams using the pseudonym of Professor William Thiese). A more recent abridgement is the translation by Lowell Blair for Bantam Classics in 1956.
The first Japanese translation by Kuroiwa Shūroku was entitled "Shigai Shiden Gankutsu - ou '' (史 外 史伝 巌 窟王, "a historical story from outside history, the King of the Cavern ''), and serialized from 1901 -- 1902 in the Yorozu Chouhou newspaper, and released in book form in four volumes by publisher Aoki Suusandou in 1905. Though later translations use the title "Monte Cristo - haku '' (モンテ ・ クリスト 伯, the Count of Monte Cristo), the "Gankutsu - ou '' title remains highly associated with the novel and is often used as an alternative. As of March 2016, all movie adaptations of the novel brought to Japan used the title "Gankutsu - ou '', with the exception of the 2002 film, which has it as a subtitle (with the title itself simply being "Monte Cristo '').
The novel is popular in Japan, and has spawned numerous adaptations, the most notable of which are the novels Meiji Gankutsu - ou by Taijirou Murasame and Shin Gankutsu - ou by Kaitarō Hasegawa. Its influence can also be seen in how one of the first prominent cases of miscarriage of justice in Japan, in which an innocent man was charged with murder and imprisoned for half a century, is known in Japanese as the "Yoshida Gankutsu - ou incident '' (吉田 岩窟 王 事件).
The original work was published in serial form in the Journal des Débats in 1844. Carlos Javier Villafane Mercado described the effect in Europe:
George Saintsbury stated: "Monte Cristo is said to have been at its first appearance, and for some time subsequently, the most popular book in Europe. Perhaps no novel within a given number of years had so many readers and penetrated into so many different countries. '' This popularity has extended into modern times as well. The book was "translated into virtually all modern languages and has never been out of print in most of them. There have been at least twenty - nine motion pictures based on it... as well as several television series, and many movies (have) worked the name ' Monte Cristo ' into their titles. '' The title Monte Cristo lives on in a "famous gold mine, a line of luxury Cuban cigars, a sandwich, and any number of bars and casinos -- it even lurks in the name of the street - corner hustle three - card monte. ''
Modern Russian writer and philologist Vadim Nikolayev determined The Count of Monte - Cristo as a megapolyphonic novel.
The novel has been the inspiration for many other works, from Lew Wallace 's Ben - Hur (1880), a science fiction retelling in Alfred Bester 's The Stars My Destination, to Stephen Fry 's contemporary The Stars ' Tennis Balls.
The success of Monte Cristo coincides with France 's Second Empire. In the book, Dumas tells of the 1815 return of Napoleon I, and alludes to contemporary events when the governor at the Château d'If is promoted to a position at the castle of Ham. The attitude of Dumas towards "bonapartisme '' was conflicted. His father, Thomas - Alexandre Dumas, a Haitian of mixed descent, became a successful general during the French Revolution. New racial - discrimination laws were applied in 1802, and the general was dismissed from the army and became profoundly bitter toward Napoleon. In 1840, the ashes of Napoleon I were brought to France and became an object of veneration in the church of Les Invalides, renewing popular patriotic support for the Bonaparte family.
In "Causeries '' (1860), Dumas published a short paper, "État civil du Comte de Monte - Cristo '', on the genesis of the Count of Monte - Cristo. It appears that Dumas had close contacts with members of the Bonaparte family while living in Florence in 1841. In a small boat he sailed around the island of Monte - Cristo accompanied by a young prince, a cousin to Louis Bonaparte, who was to become Emperor of the French ten years later. During this trip he promised the prince that he would write a novel with the island 's name in the title. At that time the future emperor was imprisoned at the citadel of Ham -- a name that is mentioned in the novel. Dumas did visit him there, although he does not mention it in "Etat civil ''.
During the life of Thomas - Alexandre Dumas:
During the life of Alexandre Dumas:
Alexandre Dumas and Auguste Maquet wrote a set of four plays that collectively told the story of The Count of Monte Cristo: Monte Cristo Part I (1848); Monte Cristo Part II (1848); Le Comte de Morcerf (1851) and Villefort (1851). The first two plays were first performed at Dumas ' own Théâtre Historique in February 1848, with the performance spread over two nights, each with a long duration (the first evening ran from 18: 00 until 00: 00). The play was also unsuccessfully performed at Drury Lane in London later that year where rioting erupted in protest at French companies performing in England.
The adaptation differs from the novel in many respects: several characters, such as Luigi Vampa, are excluded; Whereas the novel includes many different plot threads that are brought together at the conclusion, the third and fourth plays deal only with the fate of Mondego and Villefort respectively (Danglars fate is not featured at all); the play is the first to feature Dantès shouting "the world is mine! '', an iconic line that would be used in many future adaptations.
Two English adaptations of the novel were published in 1868. The first, by Hailes Lacy, differs only slightly from Dumas ' version with the main change being that Fernand Mondego is killed in a duel with the Count rather than committing suicide. Much more radical was the version by Charles Fechter, a notable French - Anglo actor. The play faithfully follows the first part of the novel, omits the Rome section and makes several sweeping changes to the third part, among the most significant being that Albert is actually the son of Dantès. The fates of the three main antagonists are also altered: Villefort, whose fate is dealt with quite early on in the play, kills himself after being foiled by The Count trying to kill Noirtier (Villefort 's half brother in this version); Mondego kills himself after being confronted by Mercedes; Danglars is killed by The Count in a duel. The ending sees Dantès and Mercedes reunited and the character of Haydee is not featured at all. The play was first performed at the Adelphi in London in October 1868. The original duration was five hours, resulting in Fechter abridging the play, which, despite negative reviews, had a respectable sixteen - week run. Fechter moved to the United States in 1869 and Monte Cristo was chosen for the inaugural play at the opening of the Globe Theatre, Boston in 1870. Fechter last performed the role in 1878. In 1883 John Stetson, manager of the Booth Theatre and The Globe Theatre, wanted to revive the play and asked James O'Neill to perform the lead role. O'Neill, who had never seen Fechter perform, made the role his own and the play became a commercial, if not an artistic success. O'Neill made several abridgements to the play and eventually bought it from Stetson. A motion picture based on Fechter 's play, with O'Neill in the title role, was released in 1913 but was not a huge success. O'Neill died in 1920, two years before a more successful motion picture, produced by Fox and partially based on Fechter 's version, was released.
The Count of Monte Cristo is a musical based on the novel, with influences from the 2002 film adaptation of the book. The music is written by Frank Wildhorn and the lyrics and book are by Jack Murphy. It debuted in Switzerland in 2009.
Reis, Tom, The Black Count: Glory, Revolution, Betrayal, and the Real Count of Monte Cristo
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who wrote the work ' the post office' | Post Office (novel) - wikipedia
Post Office is the first novel written by Charles Bukowski, published in 1971 when he was 50 years old.
In Los Angeles, California, down - and - out barfly Henry Chinaski becomes a substitute mail carrier; he quits for a while and lives on his winnings at the track, then becomes a mail clerk. Chinaski drifts from place to place, surviving through booze and women, with his biting sense of humor and a cynical view of the world.
An autobiographical account of Bukowski 's years working as a carrier and sorter for the United States Postal Service, the novel is "dedicated to nobody ''. Post Office introduces Bukowski 's autobiographical anti-hero, Henry Chinaski. It covers the period of Bukowski 's life from about 1952 to his resignation from the United States Postal Service three years later, to his return in 1958 and then to his final resignation in 1969. During this time, Chinaski / Bukowski worked as a mail carrier for a number of years. After a brief hiatus, in which he supported himself by gambling at horse races, he returned to the post office to work as a sorter.
The great love of Bukowski 's life, Jane Cooney Baker ("Betty '' in Post Office), was a widowed alcoholic 11 years his senior with an immense beer belly. She died in January 1962. She also served as the model for "Wanda '' in the 1987 Bukowski - scripted film Barfly. Bukowski 's first wife, Barbara Frye ("Joyce ''), suffered a physical deformity -- two vertebrae were missing from her neck, giving the impression that "she was permanently hunching her shoulders ''. After two years of marriage in the late 1950s, she filed for divorce, accusing him of "mental cruelty ''. In the novel, Joyce is portrayed as a wealthy nymphomaniac.
In December 1969, John Martin founded Black Sparrow Press in order to publish Bukowski 's writing, offering him $100 per month for life on condition that Bukowski would quit working for the post office and write full - time for Black Sparrow. Bukowski agreed; three weeks later, he had written Post Office.
The film rights to Post Office were sold to Taylor Hackford in the early 1970s, but a film version of the novel has yet to be made. Hackford did direct a 1973 documentary about Bukowski, simply titled Bukowski.
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black pink as if its your last album cover | As If It 's Your Last - wikipedia
"As If It 's Your Last '' (Hangul: 마지막 처럼; RR: Majimakcheoreom) is a 2017 single by South Korean girl group Black Pink, released on June 22, 2017 by YG Entertainment and distributed by Genie Music. The song was a commercial success, topping Billboard 's World Digital Songs and peaking at number 3 on the Gaon Digital Chart.
As early as mid-May 2017, YG Entertainment officials had confirmed that Black Pink were working toward a June comeback, and on June 5 it was revealed that Black Pink would be filming the music video for the new single during that week. On the same day, YG Entertainment 's CEO Yang Hyun - suk released a photo of Black Pink on the filming location of the new music video, confirming that Black Pink would make a June comeback, which is 7 months after the group 's last release Square Two with the songs "Playing with Fire '' and "Stay '' in November 2016. The next day on June 6 it was announced that Black Pink would likely release the new song between June 15 and June 20.
On June 13, 2017, YG Entertainment revealed a teaser of the new single and confirmed the release date to be June 22. Subsequently, from June 16 to June 18 each of Black Pink 's members ' individual teaser was released. On June 19, the title of the single was revealed to be "As If It 's Your Last '' (Korean: 마지막 처럼), and the time of the new release was confirmed to be 6 pm KST on June 22. It was further explained that this song would be a surprise for fans while Black Pink prepares for Square Three, the next release in the Square series after Square Two and Square One.
On June 20, a teaser of the music video was released on both Black Pink 's official YouTube channel and the group 's official V Live channel. On the next day, a behind - the - scenes video was released, and YG Entertainment announced that the group would hold a comeback special live on Naver 's V App at 8 pm KST on June 22.
On June 22 at 6 pm KST, "As If It 's Your Last '' was released on major music portals in South Korea, and its music video was released on Black Pink 's YouTube and V Live channels. Within 17 hours after release, the music video for "As If It 's Your Last '' gained more than 11 million views on YouTube, becoming the fastest music video to exceed 10 million views by a K - pop group and breaking the record previously held by "Not Today '' by BTS, which gained 10 million views within 21 hours. Furthermore, the music video became the second most viewed online video in the first 24 hours by a Korean act, with more than 13.3 million views within 24 hours after release, second only to Psy 's "Gentleman ''. As of May 20, 2018, their music video has 303.9 million views.
On June 24, the dance practice video for "As If It 's Your Last '' was released on Black Pink 's V Live channel.
"As If It 's Your Last '' is described as Black Pink 's most exciting and upbeat song that they have released so far. Black Pink 's member Jisoo said that the group had thus far in their history only had "Black '' concepts up until then, and that this new single would be a "Pink '' concept. The song was described as a "mixed genre of house, reggae and moombahton music '', a change of sound from their previous releases.
"As If It 's Your Last '' is written in the key of A-flat major at 125 beats per minute, this song uses common time and it follows the chord progression of F (no3no5) for the verses and Fm - A ♭ - E ♭ - D ♭ - E ♭ for the pre-chorus. It switches to D ♭ - A ♭ - E ♭ - Fm - E ♭ for the chorus. The melody for the verse uses the F Mixolydian Scale while it uses F Minor for the pre-chorus and A-flat major scale for the chorus.
Black Pink will promote "As If It 's Your Last '' on various music shows in South Korea in the month leading up to their Japan debut in July. Specifically, the group held their comeback stage on MBC 's Show! Music Core on June 24, which was the first time that they ever appeared on the show.
In South Korea, the song debuted at number 4 on the Gaon Digital Chart on the chart issue dated June 18 -- 24, 2017, with 181,883 downloads sold and 2,996,521 streams. In its second week, the song peaked at number 3, with 157,224 downloads sold and 6,632,012 streams. The song entered at number 12 on the chart for the month of June 2017, with 323,104 downloads sold.
In Canada, the song debuted at number 45 on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 on the week ending June 29, 2017 - their highest peak in the country since "Playing with Fire '' debuted at 92 in 2016. In Japan, the song debuted at number 19 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100, becoming Black Pink 's highest charting effort in the country. The song stayed in position 19 for the second week on chart. Being released on a Thursday, the song had one day within the tracking week ending June 22, 2017 in the United States. Despite the limited window, "As If It 's Your Last '' debuted at number one on Billboard World Digital Songs after selling 4,000 copies that week.
The song and its music video were featured in the film Justice League.
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saint kitts and nevis passport visa free countries | Visa requirements for Saint Kitts and Nevis citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Saint Kitts and Nevis citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Saint Kitts and Nevis. As of February 2018, Saint Kitts and Nevis citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 141 countries and territories, ranking the Saint Kitts and Nevis passport 26th in terms of travel freedom according to the Henley Passport Index.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Several countries including Argentina, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the United States demand all passengers to be fingerprinted on arrival.
Many countries require passport validity of no less than 6 months and one or two blank pages. Countries requiring passport validity of at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Bhutan, Botswana, Brunei, Cambodia, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Fiji, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra - 3 months and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah - on arrival), Israel, Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Timor - Leste, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, countries requiring passport validity of at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia, Zambia, countries requiring passport validity of at least 3 months on arrival include Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Moldova, Nauru, Panama, United Arab Emirates and countries requiring passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand, South Africa. Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or passport valid throughout the period of intended stay.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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who did ireland lose to in world cup 2018 | Republic of Ireland national Football team - Wikipedia
The Republic of Ireland national football team (Irish: Foireann peile náisiúnta Phoblacht na hÉireann) represents Ireland in association football. It is governed by the Football Association of Ireland (FAI) and plays its home fixtures at the Aviva Stadium in Dublin.
The team made their debut at the 1924 Summer Olympics, reaching the quarter - finals. Between 1924 and 1936, the team competed as the Irish Free State and from then until 1950, it was referred to by the FAI as Éire or Ireland. In 1953, FIFA decreed that for competitive matches in tournaments that both Irish teams may enter, the FAI team would be officially called the Republic of Ireland while the IFA team was to be named Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland was allowed to use the title Ireland by FIFA in the Home International Competition until it was discontinued in 1984. The Republic of Ireland was the first nation from outside the United Kingdom to defeat England at home at a fixture played at Goodison Park, Liverpool, in 1949. The team also reached the quarter - final stage of the 1964 European Nations ' Cup, where they lost to the eventual winners Spain.
Under the guidance of Jack Charlton, the team enjoyed its most successful era, reaching their highest FIFA world ranking ever at sixth in August 1993, and qualifying for UEFA Euro 1988 in their first appearance at the UEFA European Championship, reaching the quarter - finals of the 1990 FIFA World Cup in their first ever appearance at the finals, as well as making the last 16 at the 1994 edition. Charlton 's successor Mick McCarthy lost out on the next two major tournaments but ultimately qualified for the 2002 World Cup, making it to the last 16. Under Giovanni Trapattoni, the team narrowly lost out on qualification for the 2010 World Cup during a controversial play - off, but went on to qualify for Euro 2012.
The team failed to qualify for the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, marking the end of Trapattoni 's tenure as manager. The Republic of Ireland also fell to a record low FIFA ranking of 59th, then a record low of 70th in June 2014. For the next Euro qualifying campaign under manager Martin O'Neill, the Republic of Ireland finished third behind Germany and Poland, but went on to qualify for Euro 2016 after a 3 -- 1 aggregate win over Bosnia and Herzegovina in the play - offs. The Boys in Green reached the Round of 16 stage at that tournament and were knocked out by the hosts and eventual runners - up France after losing 2 -- 1.
Between 1882 and 1924, Ireland was represented by a single national football team organised by the Belfast - based Irish Football Association (IFA). In 1920, Ireland was partitioned into Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State (the latter in turn becoming Éire or Ireland after adopting a new Constitution in 1937, followed by declaring itself a republic in 1948.) Following the initial political upheavals surrounding Partition, a Dublin - based organisation calling itself the Football Association of the Irish Free State (FAIFS) split from the IFA in 1921 and began organising its own league and national football team.
In 1923, the FAIFS was recognised by FIFA as the governing body of the Irish Free State and at the 1924 Summer Olympics, the Irish Free State made their international debut. On 28 May, at the Stade Olympique, they beat Bulgaria 1 -- 0, with Paddy Duncan scoring the team 's first ever goal. As a result, they qualified for the quarter - finals. On 14 June 1924, the Irish Free State made their home debut against the United States, who had embarked on a brief European tour after competing in the same Summer Olympics. Ed Brookes scored a hat - trick in a 3 -- 1 home win at Dalymount Park.
The Irish Free State did not play their next game until 21 March 1926, an away game against Italy lost 3 -- 0. In subsequent years, the status of the Olympic Games football competition was downgraded and as a result, this game is widely regarded as the Irish Free State 's first official game. On 25 February 1934, the Irish Free State made their FIFA World Cup debut, drawing 4 -- 4 with Belgium at Dalymount Park in a 1934 FIFA World Cup qualifier. Paddy Moore scored all four of the Free State 's goals and became the first player ever to score four goals in a World Cup game.
After 1936, they reverted to the designation "Football Association of Ireland '' and began to refer to their team as Éire or "Ireland ''. During this entire period, there were two Irish international football teams, chosen by two rival Associations. Both Associations, the Northern Ireland - based IFA and the Irish Free State - based FAI claimed jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland and considered themselves entitled to select players from the entire island. At least 38 dual internationals were selected to represent both teams, however the overwhelming majority of these were Southerners who also agreed to play for the IFA team, with only a bare handful "crossing the border '' in the other direction.
A 2 -- 0 win over England at Goodison Park on 21 September 1949 was the first time England suffered a home defeat by a team outside the Home Countries of Scotland, Wales and the Ireland team run by the Belfast - based Irish FA. FIFA eventually intervened when both teams entered 1950 World Cup qualification, the first time they had entered the same competition. Four players -- Tom Aherne, Reg Ryan, Davy Walsh, Con Martin -- actually played for the two different teams in the same FIFA World Cup tournament. All four players concerned had been born in the Irish Free State and made their full international debut in FAI colours before agreeing to represent the IFA team. This may have alarmed the FAI, since they subsequently lobbied FIFA to prevent the IFA from picking Southern - born players (as well as attempting to exert pressure on the players themselves, sometimes through their clubs). FIFA 's response was to restrict the eligibility of players on the basis of the (political) border, further ruling in 1953 that neither team could be referred to as Ireland in competitions which both teams were eligible to enter; i.e., initially the FIFA World Cup and subsequently the European Nations Cup (now the UEFA European Football Championship). FIFA decreed that the FAI team officially be called the Republic of Ireland while the IFA team was to be named Northern Ireland.
In 1953, FIFA renamed the team from "Ireland '' to "Republic of Ireland ''. The 1958 World Cup qualifiers saw the Republic of Ireland drawn with England. In their home game against England, Alf Ringstead put the hosts 1 -- 0 up before John Atyeo equalised in the last minute to salvage a 1 -- 1 draw for England. Under the rules of the day, a win for the Republic of Ireland would have meant a play - off with England for a place in the World Cup.
After reaching the quarter - finals of the 1964 European Nations ' Cup, the Republic of Ireland were drawn to face Spain and Syria in 1966 World Cup qualifying. Despite Syria 's withdrawal, this was still considered a qualifying group with the Irish winning 1 -- 0 at home and losing 4 -- 1 away. This meant a play - off at the Parc des Princes in Paris, which Spain won 1 -- 0 Eamon Dunphy made his Ireland debut in this game. The play - off was originally scheduled to take place at Wembley Stadium in London, home to a large Irish diaspora, but the FAI agreed with the Royal Spanish Football Federation to have the match moved to Paris, where a large Spanish diaspora lived. The FAI was criticised for this move to boost revenue from gate receipts.
In 1965, the Republic of Ireland team made history when selecting Manchester United full - back Shay Brennan for the senior national team. This was the first instance of a player born outside the Republic being selected to play for the national team due to having an Irish parent. Since then, many of the Republic 's most prominent players have been born in England, including Mark Lawrenson, David O'Leary, John Aldridge, Tony Cascarino and David Kelly. A number of Scottish - born players, including Ray Houghton, have since represented the Republic due to having Irish parentage. The selection rules were later relaxed to allow for the selection of players with an Irish grandparent.
In 1969, the FAI appointed Mick Meagan as the first permanent manager of the national side. His two years in charge were marked by exceptionally poor results, however with the team losing five out of six matches and gaining just one point in their 1970 World Cup qualification, and doing no better in the UEFA Euro 1972 qualifiers, leading to his dismissal. His replacement, Liam Tuohy, did a somewhat better in the 1974 qualification, and more importantly oversaw major improvements to the national team 's training facilities and persuaded many English club sides to end their policies of not releasing Irish players for international games during the domestic season. Ultimately, however, the team still failed to qualify for the World Cup, and Tuohy resigned following a dispute over his wages. Johnny Giles became the side 's first player - manager in the 1970s. This was followed by the debut of a young Liam Brady and results improved markedly. The side missed out on the 1978 World Cup by two points, having defeated France at home during qualification. After a less than impressive performance at Euro 1980 qualifying, in which the team finished well behind group winners England and Northern Ireland, Giles resigned, saying that he had taken the national side as far as he could.
Eoin Hand took over as manager for the 1982 World Cup qualifiers, and once more the Republic of Ireland narrowly missed out on qualification, this time on goal difference behind France, whom they had defeated at home once more. Disappointing qualifying campaigns for both Euro 1984 and the 1986 World Cup followed, ending Hand 's time in charge.
In 1986, the Republic of Ireland appointed Jack Charlton, a top rated English manager who had been part of England 's World Cup - winning side of 1966. During the 1970s, he had developed Middlesbrough into a side which provided many players to the dominant Liverpool team of the time.
After taking charge of the Republic of Ireland, Charlton influenced changes in the national side which resulted in arguably the most successful period of its history, qualifying for two World Cups and a European Championship.
Ireland 's first appearance at a major finals tournament came in Euro 1988. With Ireland 's fixtures already complete, Qualification was secured through Gary Mackay 's 87th - minute goal in Sofia when Scotland beat Bulgaria 1 -- 0. The Scottish win left Ireland top of the group. In the finals in West Germany, Ireland beat England 1 -- 0 in Stuttgart with a header from Ray Houghton; drew 1 -- 1 with the Soviet Union in Hannover, with Ronnie Whelan the scorer; and lost to eventual champions the Netherlands 1 -- 0 in Gelsenkirchen, coming within seven minutes of a draw that would have meant a semi-final place.
The Republic of Ireland 's longest competitive winning streak was achieved in 1989 during the 1990 World Cup qualifying campaign. Five games against Spain, Northern Ireland, Hungary and Malta twice, were all wins for the Irish. Subsequently, the side made it to the 1990 World Cup in Italy. Three draws in the group stage against England, Egypt and the Netherlands was enough to make the knockout stage. Virtually the entire country watched as they beat Romania on penalties, with Packie Bonner making a vital save and David O'Leary scoring the decisive spot - kick. Ireland were then beaten 1 -- 0 by hosts Italy in the quarter - final at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome. During the tournament, the team had an audience with Pope John Paul II, the only team to do so.
After missing out on Euro 1992 (despite being unbeaten in qualifying), the Republic of Ireland qualified for the 1994 World Cup, held in the United States. In their first match, they beat the previous World Cup hosts and third - place finishers, Italy, 1 -- 0 in their opening game at Giants Stadium just outside New York City, but lost to Mexico 2 -- 1 at the Citrus Bowl in the heat and humidity of Orlando, Florida. They ended the group stage with a 0 -- 0 draw with Norway at Giants Stadium, in East Rutherford, New Jersey. With these results, they made it to the second round, eventually losing 2 -- 0 to the Netherlands in Orlando. In 1996, Ireland finished second behind Portugal in Euro 1996 qualifying 's Group 6, but narrowly missed out on Euro 1996 after losing 2 -- 0 in a play - off, played at Anfield between the two worst group runners - up, to the Netherlands (the other worst runner - up), with Patrick Kluivert scoring both goals to send his team through. It was Jack Charlton 's final game as manager.
Charlton was replaced by Mick McCarthy but Ireland still missed out on the next two major tournaments. Ireland just managed to finish second to Romania in their 1998 World Cup qualification campaign after Tony Cascarino scored a late goal to win the away match with Lithuania. A play - off with Belgium followed, with the match at Lansdowne Road finishing in a 1 -- 1 draw, the match in Belgium finishing 2 -- 1 to the home team and substitute David Connolly being sent off in the latter, preventing Ireland from progressing to the 1998 World Cup. FIFA awarded the FIFA Fair Play Award for 1997 to the Irish supporters "for their exemplary behaviour at Ireland team matches, especially the FIFA World Cup qualifying play - offs against Belgium ''. Ireland 's opponents in UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying Group 8 were Yugoslavia, Croatia, Malta and Macedonia. Macedonia scored a last - minute equaliser that denied Ireland top spot in the group; instead, they faced Turkey in a play - off to decide which team would participate in Euro 2000. The match in Dublin finished in a 1 -- 1 draw, although Turkey qualified through the away goals rule after a 0 -- 0 draw, at the end of which Tony Cascarino became involved in a fight and retired from international football.
Ireland took on both Portugal and the Netherlands in 2002 World Cup qualifiers in UEFA 's Group 2, ending the group in second place with 24 points from 10 matches (seven victories and three draws). Despite this unbeaten run, Ireland were drawn in a play - off with Iran. The match in Dublin finished in a 2 -- 0 victory to Ireland with goals from Ian Harte (penalty) and Robbie Keane, while the match in Tehran, played in front of 100,000 spectators, finished in a 1 -- 0 win for Iran. McCarthy thus managed to lead Ireland to the 2002 World Cup final stages, though only for the team to lose inspirational captain Roy Keane due to the pair 's infamous public spat in Saipan. 1 -- 1 draws with Cameroon and Germany were followed by a 3 -- 0 victory over Saudi Arabia in Group E. The Irish once again progressed to the knockout stage, only losing narrowly 3 -- 2 on penalties to Spain in Suwon after Robbie Keane 's last minute equalising penalty kick forced the game into extra-time.
After a poor start to qualifying for Euro 2004, McCarthy was replaced by Brian Kerr, but he too struggled to guide the side to the tournament or the subsequent 2006 World Cup in Germany, and was ultimately sacked in October 2005. Kerr was replaced by Steve Staunton (assisted by Bobby Robson in the position of "international football consultant '') in January 2006. Under Staunton, results varied widely but the team still failed to qualify for Euro 2008 and Staunton lost the position in October 2007. His reign included a humiliating 5 -- 2 defeat to Cyprus during the qualifiers ' Group D, one of the worst defeats in the team 's history.
Giovanni Trapattoni was appointed manager in February 2008 following a spell with assistant coach Don Givens in charge. Trapattoni went through all ten first round 2010 World Cup qualifying games unbeaten, winning four of the ten games. Ireland lost out on a place in the finals, however, after a controversial, narrow loss to France in the play - offs. Ireland went down 0 -- 1 in the first leg, and lost 2 -- 1 on aggregate, with William Gallas scoring a controversial goal in extra time in the second leg after Thierry Henry had handled the ball before crossing for Gallas to score. This followed another controversy over FIFA 's last - minute decision to seed the play - off draw.
In 2011, Ireland hosted and won the inaugural Nations Cup with wins against Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland without conceding a goal.
In their Euro 2012 qualifying group, Ireland finished second, losing only the home fixture against Russia. They thus reached the play - offs and were drawn against Estonia, whom they beat 5 -- 1 on aggregate. Euro 2012 was Ireland 's first major tournament since 2002, but in Group C they lost all three matches, against Croatia, Spain and Italy. UEFA, however, announced a special award for the fans of the Irish team, who notably sang in the last few minutes against Spain, despite trailing 4 -- 0.
Ireland were drawn in Group C of UEFA 's 2014 World Cup qualification alongside Germany, Sweden, Austria, the Faroe Islands and Kazakhstan. On 12 October, Ireland suffered their largest ever competitive home defeat, 6 -- 1 against Germany, at the Aviva Stadium. Ireland then lost against Sweden and Austria in early September 2013, effectively ending the qualification campaign, and Giovanni Trapattoni resigned as team manager the following day. Noel King was appointed interim senior manager on 23 September 2013 following his resignation.
On 5 November 2013, the FAI announced that Martin O'Neill would be Trapattoni 's replacement as manager, with former team captain Roy Keane as his assistant. They assumed their roles when the team met on 11 November where they won against Latvia 3 -- 0 and drew against Poland 0 -- 0.
For the Euro 2016 qualification phase, the Republic of Ireland were drawn in Group D against Georgia, Germany, Gibraltar, Poland and Scotland. The team played against Gibraltar for the first time, beating them 7 -- 0, and scored an away draw against World Cup champions, Germany, a few days later in October 2014.
On 8 October 2015, the Republic of Ireland beat world champions Germany 1 - 0 in a Euro 2016 qualifier at the Aviva Stadium. Shane Long scored the game 's only goal with an excellent finish in the 70th minute, rewarding the Republic of Ireland 's impressive defensive display. The result, hailed as one of the Republic of Ireland 's greatest, guaranteed the Republic of Ireland a play - off place at least, with hopes of automatic qualification still a reality going into the final group game against Poland in Warsaw. A win, or a draw of 2 -- 2 or more, would guarantee at least second place in the group and ensure automatic qualification for the finals in France. The Republic of Ireland, however, lost 2 -- 1, thus entering them into the play - offs.
The draw for the Euro 2016 Play - off was held in Nyon, Switzerland, on 18 October 2015. Ireland were unseeded in the draw, meaning they could face one of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Ukraine, Sweden or Hungary. Ireland were drawn against Bosnia and Herzegovina, the top seeded team in the play - off. The only previous meeting between the teams resulted in a 1 -- 0 win for the Republic of Ireland in a friendly in 2012, Shane Long scoring the game 's only goal. Owing to injuries and suspensions, Ireland had only the "B '' squad available for the first leg of the play - off, played in Bilino Polje Stadium. A goal from Robbie Brady almost secured a victory for the Irish until Edin Džeko equalized 1 -- 1 to end off the match. In the second leg played at the Aviva Stadium, Jonathan Walters scored two goals leading to a 2 -- 0 victory for the Irish. In the end, Ireland won the play - off 3 -- 1 on aggregate, qualifying them for Euro 2016.
At the tournament 's final stages in France, Ireland were drawn into Group E against Italy, Belgium and Sweden. In their opener at the Stade de France in Saint - Denis, Paris, Wes Hoolahan scored the opener with a spectacular half - volley off a Séamus Coleman cross, but Sweden equalised after Ciaran Clark headed into his own net attempting to clear a cross from Zlatan Ibrahimović, leading to a 1 -- 1 draw. At the Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux against Belgium, the Belgians cruised to a 3 -- 0 victory after two goals from Romelu Lukaku and one from Axel Witsel, leaving Ireland needing to win their final match against Italy to qualify for the knockout stage. Against Italy at the Stade Pierre - Mauroy in Villeneuve - d'Ascq, Lille, Ireland played strongly but were five minutes plus stoppage time away from elimination when Robbie Brady headed in Hoolahan 's cross. The Republic held on to win 1 -- 0, sending Ireland through as one of the four best third - place teams. On 26 June, Ireland played France in the round of 16 in Lyon. Ireland took the lead in the match with an early penalty from Robbie Brady, but France went on to win 2 -- 1 to advance to the quarter - finals.
The 2018 World Cup qualification draw took place on 25 July 2015 when the team were drawn in Group D against Austria, Georgia, Moldova, Serbia and Wales.
Ireland started qualifying well with a well - fought 2 - 2 draw away to Serbia preceding two impressive victories over Georgia and Moldova.
On 12 November 2016, Ireland beat Austria in Vienna to go top of the 2018 World Cup qualifying group. However, a run of three draws against Wales, Austria and Georgia followed by a devastating 1 - 0 loss at home to Serbia looked to have diminished any chances of the Republic of Ireland qualifying for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. The Republic of Ireland were soon back on form however after securing a 2 - 0 victory at home to Moldova thanks to a brace from Daryl Murphy.
On 9 October 2017, Ireland defeated Wales 1 -- 0 in Cardiff to qualify for the qualification play - offs after a James McClean goal fired Ireland to second place in the group. They went on to play Denmark in the play - offs.
In the first leg of the play - offs on 11 November, Ireland drew 0 -- 0 against Denmark in Copenhagen. In the second leg on 14 November in Dublin, Ireland lost 5 -- 1 to Denmark after taking the lead in the game. Shane Duffy 's early header looked to have given the Republic of Ireland hope in qualifying for their first World Cup since 2002, however, a Cyrus Christie own goal, a Christian Eriksen hat - trick and a late Nicklas Bendtner penalty shattered Irish dreams.
Traditionally, the team has played in a home strip of green shirt, white shorts and green socks. The second strip is usually the reverse of these colours, although there have been exceptions, such as an orange shirt in the late 1990s. Squad numbers are either white with an orange trim, on the home shirts, or green with an orange trim. The FAI logo appears at the bottom of the numbering.
A limited edition grey shirt was used just once, in a match against Wales on 17 November 2007. A black jersey with a green stripe across the chest was worn in the final game of the 2011 Nations Cup against Scotland and in a friendly against Italy in Liège, Belgium.
The previous kit was supplied by Umbro since 1994. In March 2009, Umbro signed a deal with the FAI to keep them as kit suppliers to the team until 2020. However New Balance have been kit suppliers since August 2017.
Home
Away
Since the 1980s, most home matches have been played at Lansdowne Road, Dublin, the national rugby stadium owned by the Irish Rugby Football Union (IRFU). The ground was closed for redevelopment in 2007, with the replacement ground, the Aviva Stadium, opening on 14 May 2010. The first football match in the Aviva was Manchester United against a League of Ireland XI side, managed by Damien Richardson, on 4 August 2010. (43) Manchester United won the game 7 -- 1, with Park Ji - Sung scoring the first ever goal in the Aviva Stadium. Aviva Stadium is jointly owned by the IRFU and FAI, although it will return to solely IRFU ownership on expiry of the current 60 - year lease. The first football international played at Lansdowne Road by a FAI team was a friendly against Italy in 1971 (an IFA team first played in 1878 against England); a 5 -- 0 victory over San Marino in a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group D match on 15 November 2006 was the last game there before the reconstruction. The all - seater capacity of Lansdowne Road prior to the renovation was 36,000, although higher attendances, using the standing only areas, were permitted for friendly matches. The Aviva Stadium 's status as an all - seater increased capacity for competitive games to 51,700. The opening game at the Aviva Stadium, a controversial 1 -- 0 friendly defeat to Argentina, was noted for Robbie Keane securing his membership in the FIFA Century Club and manager Giovanni Trapattoni 's absence due to surgery, with assistant manager Marco Tardelli taking charge.
With the announcement of the rebuilding of Lansdowne Road, a new venue was required to stage the Republic of Ireland 's home internationals. The only stadium in Ireland deemed suitable to stage international football was the 84,500 capacity Croke Park, home of the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). To accommodate this, the GAA temporarily relaxed its rule governing the playing of "foreign '' games on its property. Initially, four UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group D matches were played at Croke Park in 2007, resulting in two wins and two draws. The GAA initially agreed to allow the FAI use until the end of 2008, and later extended the permission until the completion of Aviva Stadium. The Hill 16 end of Croke Park is a terrace, which means like Lansdowne Road before it, the capacity of the stadium was reduced to around 74,500 for competitive matches as temporary seating must be used.
Prior to the 1980s, the Republic of Ireland played most home games at Dalymount Park, home of Bohemians, but progressively more games were played at Lansdowne Road following a safety review which reduced Dalymount 's capacity. The last international match played there was against Morocco in 1990. The Republic of Ireland have also played home matches in Tolka Park (twice) and the RDS Arena in Dublin as well at the Mardyke and Flower Lodge grounds in Cork. These games in Cork were, until 2009, the only two home Irish internationals played outside of Dublin. During the construction of the Aviva Stadium, two friendly games were played in Thomond Park, Limerick, in 2009. Two further friendlies were played in the RDS Arena in May 2010. Ireland played a friendly against Belarus in Cork 's 7,000 capacity Turners Cross stadium in May 2016.
Ireland matches are broadcast by Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ), Sky Sports, and Setanta Ireland. Sky Sports shows most of Irelands friendly matches, while RTÉ shows competitive games such as World Cup and European Championship qualifiers. RTÉ briefly lost its broadcast rights in 2002 when the FAI controversially sold them in a multi-million deal to Sky Sports, a subscription based satellite channel. The decision was criticised by fans and politicians, and the Consumers ' Association of Ireland (CAI) described the FAI as "greedy ''. The FAI was eventually forced to reverse its decision and to allow RTÉ to continue its broadcasts after the government intervened to stop the sale of important Irish sporting events to non-terrestrial television broadcasters. RTÉ will hold the rights until 2018.
The selection of young Northern Irish born players, especially those who have already represented Northern Ireland at youth level, into Republic of Ireland national teams has been controversial, as these players are able to claim Irish nationality even though born and brought up outside the Republic 's territory. This has led to accusations of unfairness and predatory behaviour. In Northern Ireland it is seen by Northern Ireland supporters as having the effect of dividing international football in their country along sectarian lines, whereby Nationalists will declare for the Republic of Ireland while Unionists continue to play for Northern Ireland. It has also been argued that it is actually the sectarian divisions, which already existed in Northern Irish football, that are a factor in a number of players switching to the Republic. Traditionally, those in the North who identify as Irish, predominantly Catholics and nationalists, support the Republic of Ireland team.
The senior men 's management team includes:
The following 26 players were called up for the friendlies against France and United States on 28 May and 2 June 2018. Caps and goals updated as of 2 June 2018 after the match against United States.
The following players have been selected by the Republic of Ireland in the past 12 months, but were not selected in the final squad for the play - off games against Denmark in November 2017, or withdrew from that squad due to injury or suspension.
Ireland Competed as "Irish Free State ''. Paddy Moore (v. Belgium) became the first player anywhere to score 4 goals in a World Cup match. For the 1950 World Cup, after three qualified teams withdrew, FIFA invited the FAI to compete as a replacement, however they declined. During qualification for the 1962 World Cup, it was the only qualifying tournament in which the team had a 0 % record. During qualification for the 1966 World Cup, Ireland reached their first playoff against Spain. Goal difference did not count, so a playoff was played at the Stade Colombes, Paris, and Ireland failed to progress. Ireland almost qualified but lost on goal difference to France in a tough and tight group. Fans lamented some controversial refereeing decisions
For the 1990 World Cup, Ireland reached the quarter finals of the tournament for the first time in their history. It was Ireland 's first ever participation in a FIFA World Cup. Ireland played England in the first drawing 1 -- 1. Ireland drew the next two matches but ultimately qualified for the knockout stages where they played Romania. The match ended 0 -- 0 and Ireland won on penalties 5 -- 4 which sent Ireland into the quarter - final showdown against the tournament host Italy. There Ireland lost 1 -- 0 via a Salvatore Schillaci goal in the 38th minute that sent the Irish out of the competition.
In 1994, Ireland participated in their second consecutive World Cup. This time they were drawn with Mexico, Norway and Italy. Ireland won their first game against Italy which was the first time Ireland had won a World Cup match and their first ever victory over Italy with a spectacular goal from Ray Houghton. Ireland lost against Mexico in the second group match and drew with Norway but still made to the knockout phase where they faced the Netherlands. Ireland lost 2 -- 0.
For the 1998 qualification campaign, Ireland scraped into the playoffs largely due to Tony Cascarino 's seven goals in ten games. They lost in the playoff against Belgium, drawing 1 -- 1 in the first leg then losing 2 -- 1 in the second leg. Although for next campaign Ireland were drawn with two big European nations, the Netherlands, Portugal. Ireland went the whole campaign unbeaten, beating the Netherlands 1 -- 0 in the process courtesy of a Jason McAteer goal that helped Ireland qualify.
At the start of the tournament, captain Roy Keane and manager Mick McCarthy where involved in a "bust up '' and Keane was sent home. Despite this, McCarthy did not call up a replacement and continued with 22 players. Ireland drew in their first match against Cameroon and in their second match they drew again against the tournaments runner up Germany. In Ireland 's final group match, they defeated Saudi Arabia, their second ever victory in a World Cup and progressed them to the round of 16. Ireland met Spain and lost in penalty shootout.
With failure to qualify for the 2006 World Cup, Ireland reached a playoff against France for a place at the 2010 World Cup.
France 's Thierry Henry 's handball stirred international controversy after the move set up William Gallas to score in extra-time of the second leg of the playoff; the referee did not notice and allowed the goal to stand, leading to widespread media controversy, protests at the French embassy in Dublin and comments from senior government officials from both countries.
Ireland reached the quarter finals of the 1964 European Nations Cup.
Ireland did not qualify for a European Championship until Euro 1988. On 12 June 1988 in Stuttgart, the Irish team took to the pitch in its first match at a major championship finals against England. Ray Houghton of Liverpool scored the only goal of the match as Ireland recorded a memorable and historic victory. The game is fondly remembered in Irish folklore through the song "Joxer goes to Stuttgart '' by Irish folk legend Christy Moore. Ireland took on the former Soviet Union next and took the lead late in the first half via a spectacular volley from Liverpool 's Ronnie Whelan. Unfortunately for both Whelan and Ireland the lead was cancelled out midway through the second half by Oleh Protasov as the match ended in a 1 -- 1 draw. In their final match, Ireland lost out to the Netherlands 1 -- 0.
It was not until 2011 that Ireland clinched a place at another European Championship, qualifying for Euro 2012 with a 5 -- 1 aggregate victory over Estonia. At the tournament itself, however, Ireland lost all three of its matches and conceded nine goals, the nation 's worst performance in a major tournament to date.
Ireland qualified to Euro 2016 following a play - off victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the group stages they drew 1 -- 1 with Sweden, having initially taken the lead through a Wes Hoolahan strike, before being beaten 3 -- 0 by Belgium in the following game. However, a 1 -- 0 victory over Italy in their final game, courtesy of a late header from Robbie Brady, earned the side a spot in the round of 16, the first time the team had ever advanced from the group stage at a European Championship. In the round of 16, Ireland faced the hosts France and, after taking an early lead through a Brady penalty, were beaten 2 -- 1.
The team 's head - to - head records against all 78 nations whom they have played to date, including friendly internationals: Three of these teams no longer exist (Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia), so Ireland have played against 76 of the 211 FIFA members: 50 UEFA, 8 CONMEBOL, 7 CAF, 6 CONCACAF and 5 AFC members as of 1 September 2016. The only UEFA members against whom Ireland have not played are: Azerbaijan, Kosovo, Slovenia and Ukraine.
As of 23 March 2018.
Ireland began their qualification campaign for the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament with a 2 -- 1 away victory against Georgia. This was followed by a 7 -- 0 home victory against Gibraltar, and on 14 October 2014, the team played a 1 -- 1 away draw against world champions, Germany, when a goal by John O'Shea won Ireland a late point in the 94th minute. They then suffered their first defeat of the campaign to Scotland; losing 1 -- 0, before scoring another late goal through Shane Long to make it 1 -- 1 and earn a well - deserved point against Poland at home. They then drew 1 -- 1 at home to Scotland, before winning 3 games in a row against Gibraltar, Georgia and Germany; 4 -- 0, 1 -- 0 and 1 -- 0 respectively. Shane Long scored the memorable winner against the World Champions Germany. However, in their last group game, they lost 2 -- 1 away to Poland and missed out on an qualifying spot, finishing third in the group and advancing to the play - offs. They were drawn against Bosnia and Herzegovina in the play - offs. They drew the first leg away 1 -- 1, and won the second leg 2 -- 0, winning 3 -- 1 on aggregate and qualifying for UEFA Euro 2016 in France.
Republic of Ireland goal tally first.
Between 1921 and 1969, a committee of selectors chose the team, on occasions a coach or team manager was appointed; Mick Meagan was the first manager to actually select the team. Managers from the periods in which the national side was known as the Irish Free State or simply Ireland are obscure and many are not currently known, however it is known that Val Harris, Bill Lacey and Alex Stevenson managed the side.
Roy Keane was team captain from 1997 to 2002. He is now the assistant manager.
Shay Given is Ireland 's second most capped player and played in two major tournaments.
Ronnie Whelan played in two World Cups and one European Championship.
John Aldridge scored 19 goals for Ireland played in two World Cups and one European Championship.
Mick McCarthy captained Ireland in the 1990 World Cup and managed Ireland in the 2002 World Cup.
Richard Dunne played in 2 major championships and won 80 caps.
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who had the fastest goal in world cup history | List of FIFA World Cup records - wikipedia
This is a list of records of the FIFA World Cup and its qualification matches.
Teams having equal quantities in the tables below are ordered by the tournament the quantity was attained in (the teams that attained the quantity first are listed first). If the quantity was attained by more than one team in the same tournament, these teams are ordered alphabetically.
Note: There are no official records for cautions issued in tournaments before the introduction of yellow cards in 1970.
* one of the wins was after extra time
* one of the wins was after extra time
* one of the wins was after extra time
Teams eliminated by penalty shoot - outs are not considered as defeated.
Continental Records
Teams listed in bold won the tournament. Fewer than half of all World Cup tournaments have been won by the highest scoring team.
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last time arsenal won their first game of the season | History of Arsenal FC (1966 -- present) - wikipedia
The history of Arsenal Football Club from 1966 to the present day covers the third, fourth, and fifth periods of success in Arsenal 's history, including three Doubles, a Cup Double, and success in European football.
Following Bertie Mee 's appointment in 1966, Arsenal won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, their first European trophy, in 1969 -- 70, and their first League and FA Cup double in 1970 -- 71. The Double - winning side, however, was soon broken up and the following decade was characterised by a series of near misses: Arsenal lost three FA Cup finals (1971 -- 72, 1977 -- 78, and 1979 -- 80) and the 1979 -- 80 Cup Winners ' Cup final on penalties. The club 's only success during this time was an FA Cup win in 1978 -- 79 against Manchester United.
After stagnation in the 1980s, the return of former player George Graham as manager in 1986 brought a third period of glory. Arsenal won the League Cup in 1986 -- 87, the Football League Centenary Trophy in 1988, two League title wins in 1988 -- 89 and 1990 -- 91, the FA Cup and League Cup double in 1992 -- 93 and a second European trophy, the Cup Winners ' Cup, in 1993 -- 94. However, Graham 's reputation was tarnished when it was revealed that he had taken kickbacks for signing certain players and he was sacked in 1995.
Arsenal fifth period of success came with the appointment of Arsène Wenger in 1996. Under him, Arsenal won a second league and cup double in 1997 -- 98 and then a third in 2001 -- 02. In addition, the club were victorious in the 2002 -- 03 and 2004 -- 05 FA Cups, and won the Premier League in 2003 -- 04 without losing a single match. In 2005 -- 06 became the first London club to reach the UEFA Champions League Final, and lost 2 -- 1 against FC Barcelona. During the following close season, they left their longstanding home of Highbury to the new Emirates Stadium nearby. Their new home would unfortunately see a trophy drought for the next seven years. The Emirates Stadium would have something to celebrate as Arsenal would win 3 FA Cups for the next four seasons.
Following the dismissal of Billy Wright in the summer of 1966, Arsenal appointed physiotherapist Bertie Mee as his successor. The move that brought surprise to some, not least Mee himself, who requested that he be able to return to his old role as physio if being manager had not worked out after 12 months. With assistant Dave Sexton, Mee brought a more professional approach to the club and promoted talent from within; Arsenal 's youth team had won the FA Youth Cup in 1966, and talented attacking players such as Charlie George, John Radford, Peter Simpson and Ray Kennedy graduated to the first team.
Mee complemented this attacking ability with some more experienced heads; captain Frank McLintock at centre half marshalled a strong defence, while the hard - tackling Peter Storey filled the defensive midfield position. The team showed early signs of promise, reaching two successive League Cup finals, in 1968 and 1969. Both times the Gunners went home empty - handed. The first time Arsenal lost to Don Revie 's Leeds United 1 -- 0 in a dour match of few chances, Terry Cooper grabbing the only goal.
The second League Cup loss was an infamous upset -- Arsenal lost 3 -- 1 to Third Division side Swindon Town. Eight of the team had been struck by flu that had led to the postponement of Arsenal 's previous League fixture, and Arsenal had only reached extra time thanks to a late goalkeeping error that had allowed Bobby Gould to score. In extra time, Don Rogers scored twice as Arsenal searched for a winner. However, that season was not a total disaster for Arsenal; they had also finished fourth, which won them a place in Europe for the 1969 -- 70 season.
In turn, this led to the club collecting their first silverware in seventeen years and also their first European trophy, the 1969 -- 70 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. Arsenal beat Ajax 3 - 1 on aggregate in the semi-finals, and then staged a famous comeback against Anderlecht in the final. Arsenal were 3 - 0 down after 74 minutes of the first leg at Stade Émile Versé, but Ray Kennedy got a late away goal to give the Gunners a glimmer of hope; in the second leg in front of a packed Highbury, inspired by captain Frank McLintock, Arsenal won 3 - 0 with goals from John Radford, Eddie Kelly and Jon Sammels, to win the tie 4 - 3 on aggregate.
The same season, Arsenal had only finished 12th in the league, perhaps distracted by their European campaign, and did not look like league contenders. Yet the following season, 1970 -- 71, Arsenal went on to become only the second club of the 20th century to win the FA Cup and League Double, the club 's first. After a bright start Arsenal looked to be out of the title chase with a 5 -- 0 loss to Stoke City in September. However, Arsenal recovered and put in a strong run (they did not lose again in the league until January), and as the season closed they became involved in a tight race with Leeds United.
Arsenal were pushed all the way -- after being defeated 1 -- 0 by Leeds in April, they needed to beat or draw 0 -- 0 with North London rivals Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane on the last day of the season to take the title on goal average. An 87th - minute goal by Ray Kennedy gave Arsenal a 1 -- 0 lead and despite Spurs ' desperate attempts for an equaliser Arsenal hung on to win and take the title. In the meantime, Arsenal had also reached the FA Cup Final, following a titanic semi-final battle with Stoke which saw them come from 2 -- 0 down to force a replay and eventual victory. In the Final, five days after the win at Tottenham, Arsenal beat Liverpool 2 -- 1 at Wembley; Arsenal went 1 -- 0 down early in extra time, before Eddie Kelly 's 101st - minute equaliser from close range. Ten minutes later, Charlie George scored the winner from the edge of the penalty area to win the game, and the Double, for Arsenal.
The Double proved to be a premature high point of a decade characterised by a string of near - misses. Despite signing World Cup winner Alan Ball for a club record £ 220,000 in the close season, Arsenal began 1971 -- 72 badly, losing three matches in August, and were forced to play catch - up for the rest of the season, ultimately finishing fifth. Their debut in the European Cup started encouragingly, but they were knocked out in the quarter - finals by a Johann Cruyff - inspired Ajax, who went on to win the trophy as part of a hat - trick of European titles. Arsenal also reached the FA Cup Final for the second year in a row; in a repeat of the 1968 League Cup Final they lost 1 -- 0 to Leeds United, in an ugly match of few real chances.
Arsenal finished as First Division runners - up in 1972 -- 73, but within a year the Double - winning side had been broken up, and Mee was unable to build a new team in its place. The club 's form declined sharply, finishing 16th in 1974 -- 75 and 17th in 1975 -- 76, their lowest in more than forty years, which prompted Mee 's resignation. Tottenham manager Terry Neill, a former Arsenal player, was appointed in his place, even though he had never got Spurs anywhere beyond mid-table, to become Arsenal 's youngest - ever manager.
Worst team Arsenal moved back into the top half of the table, inspired in part by the emergence of Irish superstar Liam Brady. Brady formed part of a large Irish contingent at Highbury, which included Pat Rice, Frank Stapleton, Pat Jennings Sammy Nelson, John Devine and the young David O'Leary. Further to this were experienced signings such as Malcolm Macdonald and Alan Hudson, as well as the return of Don Howe, who had been part of the backroom staff when the Double was won, to the Arsenal coaching setup.
Although they could not challenge the League dominance of Liverpool at the time, towards the end of the decade they proved their mettle in the FA Cup. Arsenal reached three finals in a row (1978, 1979, and 1980), but won only one, the 1979 final against Manchester United. Largely inspired by Brady, Arsenal went 2 -- 0 up through Brian Talbot and Frank Stapleton and looked to be coasting to victory; with five minutes to go, United scored twice in quick succession to level the match. Extra time loomed, but Alan Sunderland converted Graham Rix 's cross in injury time to secure a famous 3 -- 2 win.
The next season, 1979 -- 80, proved to be cruel as Arsenal played a record - breaking 70 matches and reached two cup finals, only to end the season empty - handed. Arsenal were favourites to beat Second Division West Ham United in the FA Cup final, but lost 1 -- 0 to a Trevor Brooking header. Meanwhile, they had also reached the Cup Winners ' Cup final against Valencia, after Paul Vaessen 's goal had given them a famous victory over Juventus in the semi-finals; the final finished goalless and Arsenal lost on penalties, with Brady and Rix having their efforts saved.
Liam Brady left Arsenal for Juventus in the summer of 1980, and the team entered another barren spell. They continued to finish in the top four at the start of the 1980s, but never really looked like winning the title, and they could not rediscover their FA Cup form either -- aside from 1982 -- 83 when Arsenal reached both cup semi-finals in only to be knocked out in both by Manchester United. Neill struggled to control his team at times; throughout his tenure, he had fallings - out with many of his players (including Hudson and Macdonald) and he was unable to contain the drinking culture within the squad. His signings to replace the departed Brady and Stapleton failed to make the same impact, and towards the end of Neill 's reign the club suffered several embarrassing cup defeats; this included losing to part - timers K.F.C. Winterslag in the 1981 -- 82 UEFA Cup and Third Division Walsall in the 1983 -- 84 League Cup. Neill was sacked in December 1983, soon after the latter result.
Don Howe, Neill 's assistant, succeeded him but he could not get the side anywhere near a trophy either. Although Arsenal managed to finish sixth and seventh under him, they never seriously challenged for the title (although they did briefly top the league in October 1984) and were dumped out of the 1984 -- 85 FA Cup by Third Division York City. The fans were getting increasingly disillusioned with the club 's muddling performances and attendances started to dip beneath 20,000. In March 1986, after hearing the board had approached FC Barcelona coach Terry Venables as his replacement, Howe resigned. Steve Burtenshaw was briefly caretaker manager but the club decided to look to outside for Howe 's long - term successor.
The Arsenal board of directors did contact Scottish club Aberdeen with a view to offering the job to their manager Alex Ferguson (while also drawing up an offer to Millwall manager George Graham to become assistant manager of Arsenal), but Ferguson rejected the offer. However, Ferguson did cross the border six months later to succeed Ron Atkinson at Manchester United.
In May 1986, Millwall manager George Graham, a former Arsenal player, was appointed as Howe 's long - term replacement, and it was the beginning of a new era of success at Highbury. Graham gradually sold off most of the older players and replaced them with new signings and players promoted from the youth team, while imposing much stricter discipline than his predecessors, both in the dressing room and on the pitch. Arsenal 's form immediately improved, so much so that the club were top of the League at Christmas 1986.
Players like Kenny Sansom, Steve Williams, Tommy Caton, Charlie Nicholas and Gus Caesar were gradually discarded and a new - look Arsenal side featured players including Lee Dixon, Nigel Winterburn, Steve Bould, David Rocastle, Alan Smith and Paul Merson.
Though Arsenal finished fourth in Graham 's first season in charge (having led the First Division for most of the winter), Arsenal did win the League Cup, in a campaign marked by comebacks. Arsenal faced Tottenham Hotspur in the semi-finals; after losing 1 -- 0 at Highbury in the first leg and conceding a second goal in the first half of the second leg at White Hart Lane, Arsenal scored twice through Viv Anderson and Niall Quinn to draw 2 -- 2 on aggregate and force a replay; in the replay Spurs went 1 -- 0 up, only for Arsenal to come back again with late goals from Ian Allinson and David Rocastle to win. The final against Liverpool was a repeat performance; after Arsenal had gone 1 -- 0 down to an Ian Rush goal, two Charlie Nicholas goals brought Arsenal their first League Cup triumph and their first major trophy for eight years. However, UEFA voted to continue the ban on English clubs in European competitions that was imposed in the wake of the Heysel disaster in 1985 for a third season, and this meant that Arsenal were unable to compete in the 1987 -- 88 UEFA Cup.
While Arsenal lost the League Cup final the following year in a shock 3 -- 2 defeat to Luton Town and dipped to sixth place in the league, their League form steadily improved afterwards, thanks largely to a revamped defence which consisted of Lee Dixon, Nigel Winterburn, Steve Bould and Tony Adams, which formed the basis of Arsenal 's successes for a decade or more. Until he left in 1993, long - serving defender David O'Leary remained an important member of the squad who frequently appeared as a substitute and filled in whenever the younger members of the back four were unavailable. However, during this time Graham 's Arsenal were not a purely defensive side; Graham also employed capable midfielders such as David Rocastle, Michael Thomas and Paul Merson, and striker Alan Smith, whose prolific goalscoring regularly brought him more than 20 goals in most of the eight seasons he spent at the club.
In Graham 's third season (1988 -- 89), the club won the Football League Centenary Trophy before winning their first League title since 1971, in highly dramatic fashion. Having led the League since Christmas, Arsenal were overtaken by Liverpool after losing to Derby County and drawing at home to Wimbledon in May. Arsenal had seemingly thrown away the title, but the final game of the season, on 26 May, was against Liverpool at Anfield; Arsenal needed to win by two goals to take the title; Liverpool had already won the FA Cup and were favourites to complete the Double. Alan Smith scored for Arsenal early in the second half to make it 1 -- 0, but as time ticked by Arsenal struggled to get a second, and with 90 minutes gone on the clock, Arsenal still needed another goal and it looked as though the league title would be staying at Anfield. But, with only seconds to go, a Smith flick - on found Michael Thomas surging through the Liverpool defence; the young midfielder lifted the ball over Bruce Grobbelaar and into the net, giving Arsenal the title.
Arsenal did not retain the title the following season; they finished fourth in 1989 -- 90 and fell behind champions Liverpool, runners - up Aston Villa and third - placed Tottenham Hotspur in the title challenge. They also failed to make their mark in the cups, and the post-Heysel ban on English clubs in European competition was still in force at that time, so Arsenal were unable to represent England in the European Cup. The ban was lifted at the end of the season, though Liverpool (the team present at the Heysel disaster) had to serve an extra year.
Graham prepared for another title challenge by signing goalkeeper David Seaman and Swedish winger Anders Limpar in the summer of 1990; both players proved vital as Arsenal retook the title in 1990 -- 91, despite two major setbacks. Arsenal had two points deducted in November 1990 after ten of their players were involved in a brawl with Manchester United players in a match at Old Trafford, and captain Tony Adams was sentenced to four months ' imprisonment for drink driving just before Christmas. Despite these setbacks, Arsenal lost only one league match all season and finished seven points clear of Liverpool at the end of what had for most of the season been a two - horse race for the title. They also reached the FA Cup semi-finals, where they faced Tottenham Hotspur; Paul Gascoigne scored with a free kick from 30 yards after just five minutes and Tottenham ran home 3 -- 1 winners, dashing hopes of a unique second Double.
In September 1991, Arsenal paid a club record of £ 2.5 million for Crystal Palace striker Ian Wright, who would go on to spend seven years at the club and become their all - time leading goalscorer in the process. The 1991 -- 92 season saw the club 's first entry in the European Cup for 20 years. The European venture went badly; Arsenal were knocked out by Benfica in the second round and failed to make the lucrative group stage. The season went from bad to worse when the Gunners were knocked out of the FA Cup by lowly Wrexham, though Arsenal recovered to finish fourth in the League. The ban on English clubs in European competitions had been lifted two years earlier, but Arsenal missed out on a UEFA Cup place as English clubs were gradually being phased back into European competitions and at this stage only the second and third placed teams were qualifying for the UEFA Cup.
During the 1992 close season the club acquired Danish midfielder John Jensen, who had just won Euro 92 with Denmark, scoring a goal in their victory over Germany in the final. Jensen 's arrival coincided with the departure of fellow midfielder David Rocastle to Leeds United, the defending league champions. Around this point, Graham altered his tactics; he became more defensive and turned out far less attack - minded sides, which depended mainly on goals from Wright rather than the whole team. Between 1986 -- 87 and 1991 -- 92 Arsenal averaged 66 League goals a season (scoring 81 in 1991 -- 92), but between 1992 -- 93 and 1994 -- 95 they only averaged 48; this included just 40 in 1992 -- 93, when the club finished 10th in the inaugural season of the FA Premier League, scoring fewer than any other team in the division, though they had briefly topped the table in November.
They were founder members of the FA Premier League on its launch for the 1992 -- 93 season. They lost their first ever Premiership game 4 - 2 after taking a 2 -- 0 lead over underdogs Norwich City at Highbury; Norwich, among the pre-season relegation favourites, were actively involved in the title race and finished third, whereas Arsenal (among the pre-season title favourites) finished 10th.
Arsenal 's form in the cups was much better than in the league, and in 1992 -- 93 they became the first side to win the FA Cup and League Cup double. In the League Cup final, Arsenal faced Sheffield Wednesday; a Merson - inspired Arsenal side came from 1 -- 0 down to win 2 -- 1 thanks to a Steve Morrow goal. In the FA Cup, Arsenal beat Spurs 1 -- 0 in the semi-finals (avenging their defeat of 1991), and played Sheffield Wednesday in the final, just as they had done in the League Cup final a few weeks earlier. The game ended 1 -- 1 and went to a replay; Wright opened the scoring for Arsenal but Chris Waddle equalised. Extra time came, and still no goal broke the deadlock until the 120th minute, when Andy Linighan powered home a header from a corner to win the match and the cup double for Arsenal.
In 1993 -- 94, Arsenal won their second European trophy; a side missing key players (John Jensen and Martin Keown were injured, while Ian Wright was suspended), beat favourites and holders Parma 1 -- 0 in the Cup Winners ' Cup final in Copenhagen, with a tight defensive performance and Alan Smith 's 21st - minute goal from a left foot volley. The 1994 Cup Winners ' Cup proved to be George Graham 's last trophy at the club; the following February the Scot was sacked after nearly nine years in charge, after it was discovered he had accepted an illegal £ 425,000 payment from Norwegian agent Rune Hauge following Arsenal 's 1992 acquisition of John Jensen, one of Hauge 's clients.
In the weeks before Graham was sacked, he made three major signings for Arsenal. Glenn Helder, a Dutch winger signed from Vitesse, was a regular first - team player for more than a year after joining the club but was then loaned to Benfica before permanently departing in October 1997 to join NAC Breda back in the Netherlands. Chris Kiwomya, an attacking midfielder signed from Ipswich Town, scored 3 goals in 17 matches before the end of the season but never played for the club again, finally departing in 1998 to sign for Queens Park Rangers. Nineteen - year - old Welsh striker John Hartson was signed from Luton Town and occupied the first - team place vacated by the injury - hit Alan Smith, who retired from playing months later. However, Hartson was not a regular player the following season and was sold to West Ham United in 1997.
George Graham 's final season at Arsenal was also the final season at the club for several of the club 's key players. Alan Smith, one of his first signings, was forced into retirement by injury several months later. Paul Davis, the club 's longest - serving player, was given a free transfer at the season 's end, having found his first team opportunities increasingly limited towards the end of his time at Arsenal. Swedish midfielder Stefan Schwarz was sold to Fiorentina that summer after just one season at Highbury. Striker Kevin Campbell, who had struggled to establish himself as a regular player in spite of some impressive performances over five seasons, was sold to Nottingham Forest. Winger Jimmy Carter, who had failed to establish himself as a regular player in four seasons at Arsenal, was sold to Portsmouth.
Assistant manager Stewart Houston took charge until the end of the 1994 -- 95 season. Arsenal finished 12th in the Premier League. However, they did reach the Cup Winners ' Cup final again, after a titanic semi-final against Sampdoria, which they won on penalties after drawing 5 -- 5 on aggregate. Arsenal faced Real Zaragoza in the final; Esnáider scored for the Spaniards and John Hartson equalised for Arsenal. The game was heading to a 1 -- 1 draw and penalties, before midfielder Nayim struck from 40 yards in the 120th minute, in virtually the last kick of the game. David Seaman, who had been Arsenal 's hero in the semi-final shootout, could not backpedal fast enough and only got a hand to the ball as it went in.
In June 1995, Arsenal appointed Bruce Rioch, who had just guided Bolton Wanderers to the League Cup final and promotion to the top flight, as manager. He (briefly) broke the English transfer record by paying Internazionale £ 7.5 million for Dutch striker Dennis Bergkamp, and the new signing formed an impressive partnership with Ian Wright. Arsenal reached the League Cup semi-finals and finished fifth in the Premiership at the end of 1995 -- 96, securing a place in the following season 's UEFA Cup and giving hope for an eventual title challenge. However, the Rioch era ended abruptly: in August 1996, just before the start of the new season, Rioch was sacked after a dispute over transfer funds with the board of directors, triggering a couple of months ' turmoil at the club. Stewart Houston was once again put in temporary charge; he remained at the helm for a month, before resigning to take over at QPR. Youth team coach Pat Rice held the fort for several games, before making way for the Frenchman Arsène Wenger at the end of September.
The team immediately improved under Wenger 's management, coming third and winning a UEFA Cup place in 1996 -- 97, missing out on second (and a Champions League spot) on goal difference. Wenger rebuilt the Arsenal squad with a crop of French players who were largely unknown in the UK. Patrick Vieira had been signed on Wenger 's recommendation before he had officially taken up the reins, and Wenger added Nicolas Anelka and Emmanuel Petit, as well as Dutch winger Marc Overmars in the summer of 1997. Wenger melded the new arrivals with some of the "old guard '', retaining Adams, Dixon, Winterburn, Keown and Bould, and he kept Pat Rice on as assistant manager.
Wenger got his first silverware, and became the first foreign manager to win the English league, the following season, when he steered the side to their second double. It had looked like Arsenal were out of the title race by December after losing 3 -- 1 at home to Blackburn, but they overcame a twelve - point deficit to overtake Manchester United; a 4 -- 0 home win over Everton on 3 May won the title with two matches to spare. On 16 May, Arsenal beat Newcastle United 2 -- 0 in the FA Cup final to complete the double. To top it off, the same season Ian Wright broke Cliff Bastin 's goalscoring record, bringing his tally to 185 goals before leaving the club in the summer of 1998.
Despite the signing of Freddie Ljungberg in 1998 and Thierry Henry a year later, a more barren period followed for Arsenal over the next few years, though they came close several times. Arsenal led the League for much of 1998 -- 99, until a 1 -- 0 loss to Leeds United allowed Manchester United to overtake them; Arsenal beat Aston Villa on the last day of the season but United 's victory over Spurs meant they took the title. To rub it in further, Arsenal also lost the last ever FA Cup semi-final replay to Manchester United; Dennis Bergkamp had missed a penalty in normal time, and Ryan Giggs scored the winner in extra time after a mazy solo run through the Arsenal defence. Arsenal 's return to the Champions League for the first time in seven years was also unsuccessful, as they failed to get past the group stage.
Arsenal came second again in 1999 -- 2000; this time, there was never any real title race and Arsenal finished the season 18 points behind winners Manchester United. Arsenal had another poor season in the Champions League, finishing third in their group; this won them a consolation place in the UEFA Cup, and Arsenal got all the way to the final, where they faced Galatasaray in Copenhagen, the scene of their 1994 Cup Winners ' Cup triumph. The match was a tepid affair, a 0 -- 0 draw with few chances; it went to penalties and Arsenal lost after Davor Šuker and Patrick Vieira missed their spot - kicks.
Arsenal again finished second in 2000 -- 01, this time ten points behind Manchester United; the title race had been as good as over since February, when Arsenal lost 6 -- 1 at Old Trafford. Arsenal 's season gave priority to the Cups and Europe. They beat Spurs in the semi-finals and met Liverpool in the final at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff; Arsenal dominated most of the match, and were denied a goal by the arm of defender Stéphane Henchoz, which went unpunished. Arsenal finally did go 1 -- 0 up through Ljungberg but succumbed to two late Michael Owen goals and lost 2 -- 1. In Europe, Arsenal made it to the Champions League quarter - finals for the first time since 1972, only to be eliminated on the away goals rule by eventual finalists Valencia.
By now, Wenger had been forced to rebuild much of the Double - winning side of 1998; Anelka, Overmars and Petit had all left for Spanish clubs in return for hefty fees, while age was finally catching up with the famous back line; Bould and Winterburn had already left, and Adams and Dixon would only last another season before retiring. In their place, Wenger signed the likes of Sol Campbell and Lauren in defence, as well as promoting Ashley Cole from the youth ranks. In midfield, Wenger added the talismanic Robert Pirès and signed his compatriot Sylvain Wiltord in attack, while in the meantime Thierry Henry had adapted to the English game to become one of the Premiership 's best strikers.
Attack was definitely Arsenal 's forté as they won a record - equalling third Double in 2001 -- 02 season; the Gunners were the only team to score in every game of the Premiership season, and went unbeaten in domestic away games. After an initially tight title race (just three points separated the top four in February), Arsenal pulled away from the pack with a 13 - game winning streak, finishing seven points ahead of runners - up Liverpool. Arsenal secured the title in the penultimate match of the season with a 1 -- 0 win over Manchester United at Old Trafford, the goal coming from Wiltord. The previous weekend, Arsenal had wrapped up their eighth FA Cup, beating Chelsea 2 -- 0 with goals from Ray Parlour and Freddie Ljungberg.
In 2002 -- 03, Arsenal became the first club in more than 20 years to retain the FA Cup, with a 1 -- 0 victory against Southampton thanks to a Pirès goal. Their joy was soured by the fact that they narrowly missed out on retaining the Premiership title. Arsenal had led eventual winners Manchester United by eight points at one stage, but their form collapsed late on in the season; they drew 2 -- 2 away to Bolton Wanderers after leading 2 -- 0, and then lost 3 -- 2 at home to Leeds United a week later, which gave United the title.
Little did they know it at the time, but the defeat to Leeds would be Arsenal 's last in the League for over a year. 2003 -- 04 was a record - breaking season for Arsenal, as they won the Premiership unbeaten (26 wins, 12 draws, 0 defeats), finishing a clear 11 points ahead of second - place Chelsea. They became only the second team to do so, the first having been Preston North End in 1888 -- 89. Their rivals for the title gained revenge in other competitions -- Arsenal were defeated in the Champions League quarter - finals and FA Cup semi-finals by Chelsea and Manchester United, respectively, in successive matches. Faced with the potential collapse of their season, Arsenal recovered from being 1 -- 0 and 2 -- 1 behind to Liverpool in their next league match to win 4 -- 2, thanks to a Thierry Henry hat - trick, and went on to win the league with a 2 -- 2 draw away to Tottenham Hotspur, mimicking their success in 1971.
Arsenal were unable to retain the title in 2004 -- 05, finishing second, 12 points behind a record - breaking Chelsea side. However, the Gunners did stretch their unbeaten run to 49 consecutive matches, an English league football record; the record was equalled with a dramatic 5 -- 3 win over Middlesbrough (Arsenal having trailed 3 -- 1 shortly after half - time) and then surpassed with a 3 -- 0 win over Blackburn Rovers in August 2004, before their unbeaten season was ended with a 2 -- 0 away defeat by Manchester United. This defeat arguably upset the team 's form and they fell away from title contention before recovering with a late flourish to finish second, sealed with a 7 -- 0 drubbing of Everton. Champions League glory eluded them again, with the club getting knocked out 3 -- 2 on aggregate by Bayern Munich in the second round. Arsenal did not end the season empty - handed; they came away with their third FA Cup in four years, winning 5 -- 4 on penalties after a 0 -- 0 draw where they played ten versus eleven against Manchester United.
Weakened by the sale of captain Patrick Vieira to Juventus in the summer of 2005, Arsenal 's 2005 -- 06 season was comparatively disappointing domestically and the club failed to challenge for any trophies at home. In the league, their poor away form dogged them and despite recording some impressive wins at home (5 -- 0 over Aston Villa, and 7 -- 0 over Middlesbrough), Arsenal spent much of the latter stages of the season in fifth place or lower, and looked set to miss out on the Champions League for the first time since 1997. However, they won their last three matches of the season, culminating in a 4 -- 2 victory over Wigan Athletic in the last ever match at Highbury; coupled with Tottenham Hotspur 's loss at West Ham the same day, this meant Arsenal pipped Spurs to fourth place and a Champions League spot.
In contrast to their domestic form, Arsenal 's form in Europe in 2005 -- 06 was much stronger; they reached the UEFA Champions League final for the first time in their history, becoming the first London club ever to do so. Arsenal finished top of their group unbeaten, above Ajax, Thun and Sparta Prague against whom Thierry Henry scored two goals on away to become the all - time record goalscorer for Arsenal; in the knockout stages they beat Real Madrid (becoming the first British team to beat Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium), Juventus and then Villarreal to reach the final, setting a competition record of ten matches without conceding a goal in the process. In the final, against Barcelona, Arsenal were reduced to ten men early on when goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was sent off for a professional foul; nevertheless they were the ones who scored first, Sol Campbell scoring with a header from a free kick in the 37th minute. Arsenal desperately defended their lead, but two late goals from Samuel Eto'o and Juliano Belletti meant Barcelona ran out 2 -- 1 winners.
Arsenal have been highly successful in the 1990s and 2000s, but Highbury 's capacity was limited to only 38,500 in the post-Taylor report era; virtually every match was sold out and the club were unable to maximise matchday revenue. With expansion of Highbury ruled impossible, in 1999, Arsenal announced plans to move to nearby Ashburton Grove; construction started in December 2002 with the demolition of buildings on the site, and in July 2006, the new Emirates Stadium opened, ready for the start of the 2006 -- 07 season.
Arsenal took a little time to get used to their new surroundings and as early as November, manager Arsène Wenger conceded that his side was unlikely to make a serious challenge for the title. Dogged by poor away form throughout the season, Arsenal eventually finished fourth, level on points with third - placed Liverpool. With a team largely filled with reserve and younger players, they reached the League Cup Final, which they lost 2 -- 1 to Chelsea. They were less successful in other competitions, however, being knocked out early on in both the Champions League and FA Cup.
2006 -- 07 marked a transitional period -- Arsenal had sold a string of key players, including Ashley Cole, Sol Campbell, Lauren, Freddie Ljungberg, and most significantly, all - time top scorer and club captain Thierry Henry to Barcelona. Arsenal went into 2007 -- 08 season with only four players from the title - winning season in 2003 -- 04, with the likes of Cesc Fàbregas and Gaël Clichy establishing their places in the side.
Arsenal started the season strongly, going undefeated until early December, and in the process, setting a club record of 28 matches unbeaten in all competitions. The young squad continued to impress into the new year, with Emmanuel Adebayor in excellent scoring form. But Eduardo, a player of growing importance to the club, suffered a horrific injury at St Andrew 's in Birmingham City and the game subsequently ended 2 -- 2. The team were rocked and, inevitably, Arsenal slumped in the spring, eventually finishing third. They had little success in the cups, knocked out of the Champions League by Liverpool in the quarter - finals and the FA Cup by Manchester United. The League Cup was more fruitful, where Arsenal reached the semi-finals for a third season in a row, before being knocked out 6 -- 2 on aggregate by Tottenham Hotspur, their first defeat in a North London derby in almost nine years.
Arsenal 's 2008 -- 09 season started well, reaching top of the table by late September. After that, the team lost momentum, with three defeats in November, and had dropped out of the top four by Christmas, despite victories over Manchester United and Chelsea. Arsenal continued to drop points in the league in the New Year, but eventually overtook Aston Villa to regain fourth place by mid-March, eventually finishing nine points clear. Arsenal also reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, losing to Chelsea 2 -- 1 in their first game at the new Wembley Stadium. In Europe, they finished second in their group and beat Roma and Villarreal before losing 4 -- 1 on aggregate to Manchester United in the semi-finals.
Despite being written off by much of the media going into the 2009 -- 10 season, Arsenal made a bright start in the Premier League, aided by a new attacking formation and added defensive steel, in the form of holding midfielder Alex Song of Cameroon and new signing Thomas Vermaelen of Belgium. Arsenal 's title challenge looked set to end in late November, following losses to Chelsea, Manchester United, and Manchester City, but an impressive run of games in December, aided by Chelsea and Manchester United both dropping points, restored momentum to Arsenal 's title challenge going into 2010. In December, Arsenal were eliminated from the League Cup at the quarter - final stage by Manchester City.
After being written out of the title race once in the 2009 -- 10 Premier League season by pundits, Arsenal headed into a tough period of matches from 27 January through 10 February, in which they faced Aston Villa, Manchester United, Chelsea, and Liverpool all in a row. After losing to Stoke City in the FA Cup 3 -- 1, Arsenal drew Aston Villa 0 -- 0, got thrashed 3 -- 1 at home by Manchester United, and lost at Chelsea 2 -- 0. At the time, it left Arsenal nine points behind league leaders Chelsea. Again, Arsenal were written off in their title hopes, only for it to be resurrected once again, after Chelsea lost to Everton 2 -- 1, Manchester City 4 -- 2, and drew with Blackburn Rovers 1 -- 1. Meanwhile, Manchester United also dropped points, drawing with Aston Villa 1 -- 1 and also losing to Everton 3 -- 1. Following Arsenal 's 2 -- 0 loss to Chelsea on 7 February, Arsenal went on a good run, winning all of their league games up to 20 March. However, on 27 February, a major injury to Welsh midfielder Aaron Ramsey occurred; it was eerily reminiscent of Eduardo 's injury against Birmingham City on 23 February. However, whereas Arsenal drew against Birmingham that year 2 -- 2 following a penalty call against Gaël Clichy in injury time (in which James McFadden converted the penalty and left then - captain William Gallas kicking at an advertisement board and in tears) and questioned Arsenal 's fragile team mentality, Arsenal managed to rally against Stoke 3 -- 1, having scored a penalty from captain Cesc Fàbregas in the 90th minute, and defender Thomas Vermaelen scoring a third in injury time. As of 25 March, Arsenal are in third place with 67 points, two points behind league leaders Manchester United with 31 games played.
Arsenal 's Champions League match against Porto in the first leg went poorly. Played at the Estádio do Dragão in Porto on 17 February 2010, the first goal was scored by Porto: in the 11th minute of the match, stand - in goalkeeper Łukasz Fabiański (for the injured Manuel Almunia) pushed a cross from Silvestre Varela into his own net, resulting in a quick 1 -- 0 lead for Porto. However, in the 18th minute, Sol Campbell, making his first Champions League appearance for Arsenal since the 2006 Champions League final, scored a header from Vermaelen 's headed flick and Tomáš Rosický 's headed setup from a corner delivered by Fàbregas. This gave Arsenal a possibly vital away goal. However, the match got worse for Arsenal as miscommunication by Campbell and Fabiański led to the goalkeeper picking up what was judged a deliberate back pass to the goal keeper inside the 18 - yard box. As a result, the referee gave a free - kick to Porto inside Arsenal 's penalty area. Rúben Micael took the resulting quick free - kick directly, catching the Arsenal defence and goalkeeper off - guard and squared a pass to Radamel Falcao, who easily scored. The game match 2 -- 1 for Porto.
Arsenal 's second leg against Porto fared much better. Played at the Emirates Stadium on 9 March, Arsenal needed at least one goal and a clean sheet to advance, with the aggregate score 2 -- 1 for Porto and away aggregate 1 -- 0 for Arsenal. The match began brightly for Arsenal, as Nicklas Bendtner scored in the 10th and 25th minute, before Samir Nasri scored a fantastic goal in the 66th minute, dribbling past three defenders on the far right side touchline before scoring from an acute angle, hitting the goalkeeper 's right post and into the net. Three minutes later, Emmanuel Eboué scored on a counter-attack, dribbling past goalkeeper Helton before tucking the ball into an empty net. The night ended with Bendtner scoring a penalty in the 90th minute, thus giving him his first senior professional hat - trick, and Arsenal advancing to the quarter - finals of the Champions League, 6 -- 2 on aggregate. Ironically, Bendtner had missed a number of easy chances the match before Porto against Burnley. However, Arsenal managed to win 3 -- 1 in that match.
On 19 March 2010, Arsenal drew Barcelona in the Champions League quarter - finals. The first of the two - legged match was played on 31 March at Arsenal 's Emirates Stadium; it marked Thierry Henry 's return to the Emirates for the first time as an opponent of Arsenal. The second leg was played on 6 April at the Camp Nou and marked Cesc Fàbregas ' return to the Catalan giants, where he played in their youth squad. If Arsenal prevailed past Barcelona, they would face the winner of the CSKA Moscow -- Internazionale match. In their first leg match at Emirates, Arsenal drew 2 -- 2 with Barça, with goals from Theo Walcott and captain Fàbregas. The second leg at the Camp Nou did not go as well, despite Bendtner scoring early on. Lionel Messi scored an four goals to end the match at an aggregate score of 6 -- 3 for Barcelona, eliminating Arsenal from the Champions League.
Arsenal finished the Premier League season in third place, their 15th successive top - five finish and the 13th successive season they had achieved qualification for the Champions League. It was also their fifth successive trophyless season, however, something of a disappointment considering this trophyless spell was preceded by five trophy winning seasons from a possible eight (including two seasons where they won the double).
2010 -- 11 saw Arsenal perform well in the Premier League and compete strongly in a title challenge, alongside Manchester United. To prove such a challenge, they faced struggling champions Chelsea on 27 December and mauled them 3 -- 1 at Emirates. Good form continued in the following months and in February, manager Arsène Wenger was awarded Manager of the Month Award. Notable events in this month was the 2 -- 1 win over Barcelona, in which the team came from behind to seal a win, and the 4 -- 4 draw against Newcastle United that is widely regarded to be one of the most bizarre and great games of the Premier League era. They progressed to the final of the League Cup but were beaten 2 -- 1 by Birmingham City, squandering their chances of winning a trophy. After this embarrassment, the Gunners travelled to the Camp Nou to play the second leg of the Barça tie, where they were beaten by the three - time winners and eventual victors. Arsenal 's FA Cup run ended with defeat in the quarter - finals to Manchester United. Also, completing a miserable couple of weeks for the Gunners, their title hopes were ended when they lost 2 -- 1 to Bolton Wanderers away in April 2011. After challenging for the title for the majority of the season, Arsenal ended up finishing fourth after losses at Stoke and Aston Villa. Arsenal had failed to win a single trophy for the seventh consecutive year.
The 2011 -- 12 campaign commenced for Arsenal on 13 August 2011 against Newcastle in the midst of two major transfer sagas concerning the club 's biggest assets: Cesc Fàbregas and Samir Nasri both departed Arsenal. The game finished 0 -- 0 and neither of the said players were in the named squad, but new signing Gervinho was sent off for violent conduct. However, the team did muster a 1 -- 0 win over Italian outit Udinese in the first leg of a Champions League playoff.
On 15 August 2011, Fàbregas left for Barcelona for an estimated € 35 million. In addition to his loss, Nasri left for Manchester City on 24 August 2011, ending a protracted transfer saga after playing for Arsenal in their match against Liverpool on 21 August, in which Arsenal lost 2 -- 0, placing them 14th with one draw and one loss. However, they managed to gain qualification for the Champions League for the upcoming year for the 14th time; the only other English Club to boast such a record in recent years is Manchester United. With mounting injury problems and suspensions, the season was already looking bleak for Arsenal, and this was epitomized by an 8 -- 2 mauling in the hands of Manchester United. Following their collapse early in the season, Arsenal were already written off as title challengers, with some fans suggesting Arsenal 's long - standing manager Arsène Wenger be sacked.
After the disappointing result against Manchester United, Arsenal went on a spending spree on the last day of the transfer window, purchasing Per Mertesacker, Mikel Arteta, André Santos and Yossi Benayoun. Results began to improve, with a win over newly promoted Swansea City, before a Champions League away draw against Borussia Dortmund. Winning in the League Cup against Shrewsbury Town, in the Premier League against Bolton and in the Champions League against Olympiacos boosted morale around the club, and Arsenal began climbing the league table, after spending a time in the bottom quarter of the table.
Despite losing the first North London Derby of the season against Tottenham, Arsenal continued to gain points, and as of 23 October 2011 were in seventh place in the Premier League. In week that followed, Arsenal managed to extend their good form by beating Chelsea at Stamford Bridge 3 -- 5, with a hat - trick from captain Robin van Persie.
December 2011 saw the announcement of the possible comeback of Thierry Henry, Arsenal 's all - time best player and goalscorer, to whom a statue was built, to the club, and the following month, it was confirmed that he had rejoined the Gunners from the New York Red Bulls on a two - month loan deal coinciding with the Major League Soccer (MLS) off - season. On 9 January 2012, Henry marked his return to Arsenal with his second debut at the Emirates against Leeds United in the third round of the FA Cup. Furthermore, he scored the winning goal -- his 227th overall for Arsenal -- after coming on as a substitute and collecting a long through from Alex Song. It was a moment that sent Arsenal fans into raptures, and Henry gave them even more to cheer about when he produced another winner to give Arsenal a 2 -- 1 victory in a Premier League match against Sunderland. However, the Gunners suffered a shocking 4 -- 0 loss to Milan in the Champions League in what would eventually be Henry 's final match with the club, creating what proved to be an insurmountable obstacle for the club to overturn. Arsenal were also eliminated from the FA Cup in the fifth round, again against Sunderland, losing 2 -- 0.
In spite of these failures, Arsenal tried to turn the 2011 -- 12 season into a positive one, almost eliminating Milan by winning 3 -- 0 at the Emirates Stadium and winning 5 -- 2 in the second North London Derby of the season against Spurs. Arsenal remained third in the Premier League table; while not mathematically assured of a place in the 2012 -- 13 UEFA Champions League due to Chelsea 's continued participation in the Champion 's League, with three weeks to go before the end of the 2011 -- 12 Premier League season. Manchester City eventually won the league again after three decades, their first Premiership title.
The beginning of 2012 -- 13 season saw rumours about the possible departure of star player Robin van Persie, since on 4 July 2012 he announced he would not renew his contract with the club. To this situation, Arsène Wenger signed strikers Olivier Giroud from Montpellier and Lukas Podolski from 1. FC Köln. When Van Persie 's transfer to rivals Manchester United was effective, Wenger also purchased Spanish winger Santi Cazorla from Málaga. Arsenal were eliminated in the round of 16 of the 2013 UEFA Champions League 3 -- 3 on away goals against eventual champions Bayern Munich.
Despite being knocked out of the Champions League, Arsenal had a very strong finish to their domestic campaign. After losing the North London Derby 2 -- 1 to Tottenham on 3 March, Arsenal collected 26 points over their remaining ten games, including a 1 -- 1 draw with Manchester United on 28 April, and relegating the newly crowned FA Cup winners Wigan Athletic with a 4 -- 1 victory on 14 May. Arsenal secured fourth place in the Premier League and a Champions League qualifying spot with a 1 -- 0 win over Newcastle. However, with the win came some controversy at half - time in the Tottenham -- Sunderland game. It was wrongly reported that Newcastle had tied the game. Much to the dismay of Tottenham supporters, despite their win against Sunderland, Arsenal still finished above them.
The 2013 off - season was quite tumultuous for Arsenal supporters. Before the start of the transfer window, many of the club 's youth players were sold or left the club. Previous Arsenal record transfer fee holder Andrey Arshavin went back to Russian club Zenit Saint Petersburg, and Denílson to São Paulo and Sébastien Squillaci were some of the bigger name players to leave on free transfers. Despite the club 's promised ambitions to make big signings, Arsenal had only captured the signature of 20 - year - old Frenchman Yaya Sanogo from Auxerre.
Halfway through the summer transfer season, the club had a protracted saga with possible signing of Liverpool striker Luis Suárez. The club believed that a bid above £ 40 million would trigger a release clause, but this information proved incorrect and Suárez remained under contract with Liverpool. In the chase for Suárez, the club was also thought to be close to signing Gonzalo Higuaín from Real Madrid, but the striker instead signed for Napoli.
With the 2013 -- 14 Premier League season on the horizon, Arsenal sold Ivorian striker Gervinho to Roma for an estimated £ 8.5 million and goalkeeper Vito Mannone to Sunderland for an estimated £ 2.5 million. On transfer deadline day, German international midfielder Mesut Özil was transferred to Arsenal from Real Madrid for a club - record fee. In a twist of fate, Real elected to sell Özil to create the opportunity they needed to sign star forward Gareth Bale from Tottenham, the Gunners ' long - time rivals. During the January transfer, Arsenal also acquired the services of Kim Källström from Spartak Moscow until the end of the season.
At the end of the 2013 -- 14 season, the team finished the Premier League in fourth place. Having beaten defending champions Wigan Athletic in the semi-finals, Arsenal made it to the 2014 FA Cup Final and took on Hull City on 17 May 2014. Coming back from 2 -- 0 down after just eight minutes, the Gunners levelled the score at 2 -- 2 by the end of 90 minutes, with goals from Santi Cazorla and Laurent Koscielny in either half. In the second period of extra time, Aaron Ramsey scored the deciding goal in the 109th minute to seal the win and Arsenal 's first major trophy in nine years.
During the transfer window that coincided with the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, Wenger brought in David Ospina (Colombia) and Mathieu Debuchy (France) after seeing their performances while a pundit for French TV during the tournament, and also added young English defender Calum Chambers from Southampton. His most important signing, however, proved to be Alexis Sánchez, who also impressed during the tournament with Chile and who Barcelona was letting let leave in order to save money for the transfer of Luis Suárez from Liverpool.
In the Community Shield match against the 2014 Premier League champions Manchester City, Arsenal convincingly won 3 -- 0 for their second trophy within three months. Santi Cazorla, Aaron Ramsey and substitute Olivier Giroud scored the goals in the traditional opening game of the English football season.
In the 2014 -- 15 Premier League, after a hard - fought 2 -- 1 comeback win where Aaron Ramsey scored in the final minute of the first game against Crystal Palace, two away draws at Everton and Leicester City in August, plus right back Bacary Sagna 's earlier move to Manchester City, fans wanted another signing. Arsenal managed to sign Danny Welbeck from Manchester United on deadline day while Wenger officiated at a Peace Game hosted by Pope Francis. Arsenal remained undefeated for the first six games until they lost 2 -- 0 at Chelsea on 5 October. They went on to finish third in the league and won the FA Cup for the second year in a row after a 4 -- 0 trouncing of Aston Villa in the final at Wembley, thanks to goals by Theo Walcott, Alexis Sánchez from distance, Per Mertesacker and Olivier Giroud, respectively. This qualified them for their second successive Community Shield, this time against Chelsea, and the Gunners retained the Shield thanks to Alex Oxlade - Chamberlain 's first - half strike. This match was the debut of new goalkeeper Petr Čech, who had coincidentally arrived from Chelsea after having won the Premier League, FA Cup and Champions League with the Blues, and the Czech managed to keep a clean sheet against his former club. It was also the first time that Arsène Wenger had beaten a team managed by José Mourinho, his 14th attempt.
The 2016 / 17 season was one of Arsenal 's most testing for European spots, having taken a race with Liverpool and Manchester City to the final day of the season. Sadly though, despite winning 3 - 1 against Everton, results elsewhere meant they only finished fifth, missing out on a UCL spot for the first time in two decades. They did n't finish the season empty - handed though, as they won the FA Cup Final 2 - 1 against Chelsea, to get their third in four years.
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three contributions of the vaqueros to the american cowboy | Cowboy - wikipedia
A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch - related tasks. The historic American cowboy of the late 19th century arose from the vaquero traditions of northern Mexico and became a figure of special significance and legend. A subtype, called a wrangler, specifically tends the horses used to work cattle. In addition to ranch work, some cowboys work for or participate in rodeos. Cowgirls, first defined as such in the late 19th century, had a less - well documented historical role, but in the modern world have established the ability to work at virtually identical tasks and obtained considerable respect for their achievements. There are also cattle handlers in many other parts of the world, particularly South America and Australia, who perform work similar to the cowboy in their respective nations.
The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas. Over the centuries, differences in terrain, climate and the influence of cattle - handling traditions from multiple cultures created several distinct styles of equipment, clothing and animal handling. As the ever - practical cowboy adapted to the modern world, the cowboy 's equipment and techniques also adapted to some degree, though many classic traditions are still preserved today.
The English word cowboy has an origin from several earlier terms that referred to both age and to cattle or cattle - tending work.
The word "cowboy '' appeared in the English language by 1725. It appears to be a direct English translation of vaquero, a Spanish word for an individual who managed cattle while mounted on horseback. It was derived from vaca, meaning "cow, '' which came from the Latin word vacca. Another English word for a cowboy, buckaroo, is an anglicization of vaquero.
Originally, the term may have been intended literally -- "a boy who tends cows. '' By 1849 it had developed its modern sense as an adult cattle handler of the American West. Variations on the word "cowboy '' appeared later. "Cowhand '' appeared in 1852, and "cowpoke '' in 1881, originally restricted to the individuals who prodded cattle with long poles to load them onto railroad cars for shipping. Names for a cowboy in American English include buckaroo, cowpoke, cowhand, and cowpuncher. "Cowboy '' is a term common throughout the west and particularly in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains, "Buckaroo '' is used primarily in the Great Basin and California, and "cowpuncher '' mostly in Texas and surrounding states.
The word cowboy also had English language roots beyond simply being a translation from Spanish. Originally, the English word "cowherd '' was used to describe a cattle herder, (similar to "shepherd, '' a sheep herder) and often referred to a preadolescent or early adolescent boy, who usually worked on foot. (Equestrianism required skills and an investment in horses and equipment rarely available to or entrusted to a child, though in some cultures boys rode a donkey while going to and from pasture) This word is very old in the English language, originating prior to the year 1000. In antiquity, herding of sheep, cattle and goats was often the job of minors, and still is a task for young people in various third world cultures.
Because of the time and physical ability needed to develop necessary skills, the cowboy often began his career as an adolescent, earning wages as soon as he had enough skill to be hired, (often as young as 12 or 13) and who, if not crippled by injury, might handle cattle or horses for the rest of his working life. In the United States, a few women also took on the tasks of ranching and learned the necessary skills, though the "cowgirl '' (discussed below) did not become widely recognized or acknowledged until the close of the 19th century. On western ranches today, the working cowboy is usually an adult. Responsibility for herding cattle or other livestock is no longer considered a job suitable for children or early adolescents. However, both boys and girls growing up in a ranch environment often learn to ride horses and perform basic ranch skills as soon as they are physically able, usually under adult supervision. Such youths, by their late teens, are often given responsibilities for "cowboy '' work on the ranch.
The term "cowboy '' was used during the American Revolution to describe American fighters who opposed the movement for independence. Claudius Smith, an outlaw identified with the Loyalist cause, was referred to as the "Cow - boy of the Ramapos '' due to his penchant for stealing oxen, cattle and horses from colonists and giving them to the British. In the same period, a number of guerilla bands operated in Westchester County, which marked the dividing line between the British and American forces. These groups were made up of local farmhands who would ambush convoys and carry out raids on both sides. There were two separate groups: the "skinners '' fought for the pro-independence side; the "cowboys '' supported the British.
In the Tombstone area in the 1880s, the term "Cowboy '' or "cow - boy '' was used pejoratively to describe men who had been implicated in various crimes. One loosely organized band was dubbed "The Cowboys, '' and profited from smuggling cattle, alcohol, and tobacco across the U.S. / Mexico border. The San Francisco Examiner wrote in an editorial, "Cowboys (are) the most reckless class of outlaws in that wild country... infinitely worse than the ordinary robber. '' It became an insult in the area to call someone a "cowboy, '' as it suggested he was a horse thief, robber, or outlaw. Cattlemen were generally called herders or ranchers. The Cowboys ' activities ultimately ended with the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral and the resulting Earp Vendetta Ride.
The origins of the cowboy tradition come from Spain, beginning with the hacienda system of medieval Spain. This style of cattle ranching spread throughout much of the Iberian peninsula and later, was imported to the Americas. Both regions possessed a dry climate with sparse grass, and thus large herds of cattle required vast amounts of land in order to obtain sufficient forage. The need to cover distances greater than a person on foot could manage gave rise to the development of the horseback - mounted vaquero.
Various aspects of the Spanish equestrian tradition can be traced back to Islamic rule in Spain, including Moorish elements such as the use of Oriental - type horses, the la jineta riding style characterized by a shorter stirrup, solid - treed saddle and use of spurs, the heavy noseband or hackamore, (Arabic šakīma, Spanish jaquima) and other horse - related equipment and techniques. Certain aspects of the Arabic tradition, such as the hackamore, can in turn be traced to roots in ancient Persia.
During the 16th century, the Conquistadors and other Spanish settlers brought their cattle - raising traditions as well as both horses and domesticated cattle to the Americas, starting with their arrival in what today is Mexico and Florida. The traditions of Spain were transformed by the geographic, environmental and cultural circumstances of New Spain, which later became Mexico and the Southwestern United States. In turn, the land and people of the Americas also saw dramatic changes due to Spanish influence.
The arrival of horses was particularly significant, as equines had been extinct in the Americas since the end of the prehistoric ice age. However, horses quickly multiplied in America and became crucial to the success of the Spanish and later settlers from other nations. The earliest horses were originally of Andalusian, Barb and Arabian ancestry, but a number of uniquely American horse breeds developed in North and South America through selective breeding and by natural selection of animals that escaped to the wild. The Mustang and other colonial horse breeds are now called "wild, '' but in reality are feral horses -- descendants of domesticated animals.
Though popularly considered American, the traditional cowboy began with the Spanish tradition, which evolved further in what today is Mexico and the Southwestern United States into the vaquero of northern Mexico and the charro of the Jalisco and Michoacán regions. While most hacendados (ranch owners) were ethnically Spanish criollos, many early vaqueros were Native Americans trained to work for the Spanish missions in caring for the mission herds. Vaqueros went north with livestock. In 1598, Don Juan de Oñate sent an expedition across the Rio Grande into New Mexico, bringing along 7000 head of cattle. From this beginning, vaqueros of mestizo heritage drove cattle from New Mexico and later Texas to Mexico City. Mexican traditions spread both South and North, influencing equestrian traditions from Argentina to Canada.
As English - speaking traders and settlers expanded westward, English and Spanish traditions, language and culture merged to some degree. Before the Mexican - American War in 1848, New England merchants who traveled by ship to California encountered both hacendados and vaqueros, trading manufactured goods for the hides and tallow produced from vast cattle ranches. American traders along what later became known as the Santa Fe Trail had similar contacts with vaquero life. Starting with these early encounters, the lifestyle and language of the vaquero began a transformation which merged with English cultural traditions and produced what became known in American culture as the "cowboy ''.
The arrival of English - speaking settlers in Texas began in 1821. Rip Ford described the country between Laredo and Corpus Christi as inhabited by "... countless droves of mustangs and... wild cattle... abandoned by Mexicans when they were ordered to evacuate the country between the Nueces and the Rio Grande by General Valentin Canalizo... the horses and cattle abandoned invited the raids the Texians made upon this territory. California, on the other hand, did not see a large influx of settlers from the United States until after the Mexican - American War. However, in slightly different ways, both areas contributed to the evolution of the iconic American cowboy. Particularly with the arrival of railroads and an increased demand for beef in the wake of the American Civil War, older traditions combined with the need to drive cattle from the ranches where they were raised to the nearest railheads, often hundreds of miles away.
By the 1880s, the expansion of the cattle industry resulted in a need for additional open range. Thus many ranchers expanded into the northwest, where there were still large tracts of unsettled grassland. Texas cattle were herded north, into the Rocky Mountain west and the Dakotas. The cowboy adapted much of his gear to the colder conditions, and westward movement of the industry also led to intermingling of regional traditions from California to Texas, often with the cowboy taking the most useful elements of each.
Mustang - runners or Mesteñeros were cowboys and vaqueros who caught, broke and drove Mustangs to market in Mexico, and later American territories of what is now Northern Mexico, Texas, New Mexico and California. They caught the Mustangs that roamed the Great Plains and the San Joaquin Valley of California, and later in the Great Basin, from the 18th century to the early 20th century.
Large numbers of cattle lived in a semi-feral, or semi-wild state on the open range and were left to graze, mostly untended, for much of the year. In many cases, different ranchers formed "associations '' and grazed their cattle together on the same range. In order to determine the ownership of individual animals, they were marked with a distinctive brand, applied with a hot iron, usually while the cattle were still young calves. The primary cattle breed seen on the open range was the Longhorn, descended from the original Spanish Longhorns imported in the 16th century, though by the late 19th century, other breeds of cattle were also brought west, including the meatier Hereford, and often were crossbred with Longhorns.
In order to find young calves for branding, and to sort out mature animals intended for sale, ranchers would hold a roundup, usually in the spring. A roundup required a number of specialized skills on the part of both cowboys and horses. Individuals who separated cattle from the herd required the highest level of skill and rode specially trained "cutting '' horses, trained to follow the movements of cattle, capable of stopping and turning faster than other horses. Once cattle were sorted, most cowboys were required to rope young calves and restrain them to be branded and (in the case of most bull calves) castrated. Occasionally it was also necessary to restrain older cattle for branding or other treatment.
A large number of horses were needed for a roundup. Each cowboy would require three to four fresh horses in the course of a day 's work. Horses themselves were also rounded up. It was common practice in the west for young foals to be born of tame mares, but allowed to grow up "wild '' in a semi-feral state on the open range. There were also "wild '' herds, often known as Mustangs. Both types were rounded up, and the mature animals tamed, a process called horse breaking, or "bronco - busting, '' (var. "bronc busting '') usually performed by cowboys who specialized in training horses. In some cases, extremely brutal methods were used to tame horses, and such animals tended to never be completely reliable. However, other cowboys became aware of the need to treat animals in a more humane fashion and modified their horse training methods, often re-learning techniques used by the vaqueros, particularly those of the Californio tradition. Horses trained in a gentler fashion were more reliable and useful for a wider variety of tasks.
Informal competition arose between cowboys seeking to test their cattle and horse - handling skills against one another, and thus, from the necessary tasks of the working cowboy, the sport of rodeo developed.
Prior to the mid-19th century, most ranchers primarily raised cattle for their own needs and to sell surplus meat and hides locally. There was also a limited market for hides, horns, hooves, and tallow in assorted manufacturing processes. While Texas contained vast herds of stray, free - ranging cattle available for free to anyone who could round them up, prior to 1865, there was little demand for beef. However, at the end of the American Civil War, Philip Danforth Armour opened a meat packing plant in Chicago, which became known as Armour and Company. With the expansion of the meat packing industry, the demand for beef increased significantly. By 1866, cattle could be sold to northern markets for as much as $40 per head, making it potentially profitable for cattle, particularly from Texas, to be herded long distances to market.
The first large - scale effort to drive cattle from Texas to the nearest railhead for shipment to Chicago occurred in 1866, when many Texas ranchers banded together to drive their cattle to the closest point that railroad tracks reached, which at that time was in Sedalia, Missouri. However, farmers in eastern Kansas, afraid that Longhorns would transmit cattle fever to local animals as well as trample crops, formed groups that threatened to beat or shoot cattlemen found on their lands. Therefore, the 1866 drive failed to reach the railroad, and the cattle herds were sold for low prices. However, in 1867, a cattle shipping facility was built west of farm country around the railhead at Abilene, Kansas, and became a center of cattle shipping, loading over 36,000 head of cattle that year. The route from Texas to Abilene became known as the Chisholm Trail, after Jesse Chisholm, who marked out the route. It ran through present - day Oklahoma, which then was Indian Territory. Later, other trails forked off to different railheads, including those at Dodge City and Wichita, Kansas. By 1877, the largest of the cattle - shipping boom towns, Dodge City, Kansas, shipped out 500,000 head of cattle.
Cattle drives had to strike a balance between speed and the weight of the cattle. While cattle could be driven as far as 25 miles in a single day, they would lose so much weight that they would be hard to sell when they reached the end of the trail. Usually they were taken shorter distances each day, allowed periods to rest and graze both at midday and at night. On average, a herd could maintain a healthy weight moving about 15 miles per day. Such a pace meant that it would take as long as two months to travel from a home ranch to a railhead. The Chisholm trail, for example, was 1,000 miles long.
On average, a single herd of cattle on a drive numbered about 3,000 head. To herd the cattle, a crew of at least 10 cowboys was needed, with three horses per cowboy. Cowboys worked in shifts to watch the cattle 24 hours a day, herding them in the proper direction in the daytime and watching them at night to prevent stampedes and deter theft. The crew also included a cook, who drove a chuck wagon, usually pulled by oxen, and a horse wrangler to take charge of the remuda, or herd of spare horses. The wrangler on a cattle drive was often a very young cowboy or one of lower social status, but the cook was a particularly well - respected member of the crew, as not only was he in charge of the food, he also was in charge of medical supplies and had a working knowledge of practical medicine.
Barbed wire, an innovation of the 1880s, allowed cattle to be confined to designated areas to prevent overgrazing of the range. In Texas and surrounding areas, increased population required ranchers to fence off their individual lands. In the north, overgrazing stressed the open range, leading to insufficient winter forage for the cattle and starvation, particularly during the harsh winter of 1886 -- 1887, when hundreds of thousands of cattle died across the Northwest, leading to collapse of the cattle industry. By the 1890s, barbed wire fencing was also standard in the northern plains, railroads had expanded to cover most of the nation, and meat packing plants were built closer to major ranching areas, making long cattle drives from Texas to the railheads in Kansas unnecessary. Hence, the age of the open range was gone and large cattle drives were over. Smaller cattle drives continued at least into the 1940s, as ranchers, prior to the development of the modern cattle truck, still needed to herd cattle to local railheads for transport to stockyards and packing plants. Meanwhile, ranches multiplied all over the developing West, keeping cowboy employment high, if still low - paid, but also somewhat more settled.
American cowboys were drawn from multiple sources. By the late 1860s, following the American Civil War and the expansion of the cattle industry, former soldiers from both the Union and Confederacy came west, seeking work, as did large numbers of restless white men in general. A significant number of African - American freedmen also were drawn to cowboy life, in part because there was not quite as much discrimination in the west as in other areas of American society at the time. A significant number of Mexicans and American Indians already living in the region also worked as cowboys. Later, particularly after 1890, when American policy promoted "assimilation '' of Indian people, some Indian boarding schools also taught ranching skills. Today, some Native Americans in the western United States own cattle and small ranches, and many are still employed as cowboys, especially on ranches located near Indian Reservations. The "Indian Cowboy '' also became a commonplace sight on the rodeo circuit.
Because cowboys ranked low in the social structure of the period, there are no firm figures on the actual proportion of various races. One writer states that cowboys were "... of two classes -- those recruited from Texas and other States on the eastern slope; and Mexicans, from the south - western region... '' Census records suggest that about 15 % of all cowboys were of African - American ancestry -- ranging from about 25 % on the trail drives out of Texas, to very few in the northwest. Similarly, cowboys of Mexican descent also averaged about 15 % of the total, but were more common in Texas and the southwest. Other estimates suggest that in the late 19th century, one out of every three cowboys was a Mexican vaquero, and 20 % may have been African - American.
Regardless of ethnicity, most cowboys came from lower social classes and the pay was poor. The average cowboy earned approximately a dollar a day, plus food, and, when near the home ranch, a bed in the bunkhouse, usually a barracks - like building with a single open room.
Over time, the cowboys of the American West developed a personal culture of their own, a blend of frontier and Victorian values that even retained vestiges of chivalry. Such hazardous work in isolated conditions also bred a tradition of self - dependence and individualism, with great value put on personal honesty, exemplified in songs and poetry. The cowboy often worked in an all - male environment, particularly on cattle drives, and in the frontier west, men often significantly outnumbered women.
However, some men were also drawn to the frontier because they were attracted to men. Other times, in a region where men outnumbered women, even social events normally attended by both sexes were at times all male, and men could be found partnering up with one another for dances. Homosexual acts between young, unmarried men occurred, but cowboys culture itself was and remains deeply homophobic. Though anti-sodomy laws were common in the Old West, they often were only selectively enforced.
The traditions of the working cowboy were further etched into the minds of the general public with the development of Wild West Shows in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which showcased and romanticized the life of both cowboys and Native Americans. Beginning in the 1920s and continuing to the present day, Western movies popularized the cowboy lifestyle but also formed persistent stereotypes, both positive and negative. In some cases, the cowboy and the violent gunslinger are often associated with one another. On the other hand, some actors who portrayed cowboys promoted positive values, such as the "cowboy code '' of Gene Autry, that encouraged honorable behavior, respect and patriotism. Historian Robert K. DeArment draws a connection between the popularized Western code and the stereotypical rowdy cowboy image to that of the "subculture of violence '' of drovers in Old West Texas, that was influenced itself by the Southern code duello.
Likewise, cowboys in movies were often shown fighting with American Indians. However most armed conflicts occurred between Native people and cavalry units of the U.S. Army. Relations between cowboys and Native Americans were varied but generally not particularly friendly. Native people usually allowed cattle herds to pass through for a toll of ten cents a head, but raided cattle drives and ranches in times of active white - Native conflict or food shortages. In the 1860s, for example, the Comanche created problems in Western Texas. Similar attacks also occurred with the Apache, Cheyenne and Ute Indians. Cowboys were armed against both predators and human thieves, and often used their guns to run off people of any race who attempted to steal, or rustle cattle.
In reality, working ranch hands past and present had very little time for anything other than the constant, hard work involved in maintaining a ranch.
The history of women in the west, and women who worked on cattle ranches in particular, is not as well documented as that of men. However, institutions such as the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame have made significant efforts in recent years to gather and document the contributions of women.
There are few records mentioning girls or women working to drive cattle up the cattle trails of the Old West. However women did considerable ranch work, and in some cases (especially when the men went to war or on long cattle drives) ran them. There is little doubt that women, particularly the wives and daughters of men who owned small ranches and could not afford to hire large numbers of outside laborers, worked side by side with men and thus needed to ride horses and be able to perform related tasks. The largely undocumented contributions of women to the west were acknowledged in law; the western states led the United States in granting women the right to vote, beginning with Wyoming in 1869. Early photographers such as Evelyn Cameron documented the life of working ranch women and cowgirls during the late 19th and early 20th century.
While impractical for everyday work, the sidesaddle was a tool that gave women the ability to ride horses in "respectable '' public settings instead of being left on foot or confined to horse - drawn vehicles. Following the Civil War, Charles Goodnight modified the traditional English sidesaddle, creating a western - styled design. The traditional charras of Mexico preserve a similar tradition and ride sidesaddles today in charreada exhibitions on both sides of the border.
It was n't until the advent of Wild West Shows that "cowgirls '' came into their own. These adult women were skilled performers, demonstrating riding, expert marksmanship, and trick roping that entertained audiences around the world. Women such as Annie Oakley became household names. By 1900, skirts split for riding astride became popular, and allowed women to compete with the men without scandalizing Victorian Era audiences by wearing men 's clothing or, worse yet, bloomers. In the movies that followed from the early 20th century on, cowgirls expanded their roles in the popular culture and movie designers developed attractive clothing suitable for riding Western saddles.
Independently of the entertainment industry, the growth of rodeo brought about the rodeo cowgirl. In the early Wild West shows and rodeos, women competed in all events, sometimes against other women, sometimes with the men. Cowgirls such as Fannie Sperry Steele rode the same "rough stock '' and took the same risks as the men (and all while wearing a heavy split skirt that was more encumbering than men 's trousers) and competed at major rodeos such as the Calgary Stampede and Cheyenne Frontier Days.
Rodeo competition for women changed in the 1920s due to several factors. After 1925, when Eastern promoters started staging indoor rodeos in places like Madison Square Garden, women were generally excluded from the men 's events and many of the women 's events were dropped. Also, the public had difficulties with seeing women seriously injured or killed, and in particular, the death of Bonnie McCarroll at the 1929 Pendleton Round - Up led to the elimination of women 's bronc riding from rodeo competition.
In today 's rodeos, men and women compete equally together only in the event of team roping, though technically women now could enter other open events. There also are all - women rodeos where women compete in bronc riding, bull riding and all other traditional rodeo events. However, in open rodeos, cowgirls primarily compete in the timed riding events such as barrel racing, and most professional rodeos do not offer as many women 's events as men 's events.
Boys and girls are more apt to compete against one another in all events in high - school rodeos as well as O - Mok - See competition, where even boys can be seen in traditionally "women 's '' events such as barrel racing. Outside of the rodeo world, women compete equally with men in nearly all other equestrian events, including the Olympics, and western riding events such as cutting, reining, and endurance riding.
Today 's working cowgirls generally use clothing, tools and equipment indistinguishable from that of men, other than in color and design, usually preferring a flashier look in competition. Sidesaddles are only seen in exhibitions and a limited number of specialty horse show classes. A modern working cowgirl wears jeans, close - fitting shirts, boots, hat, and when needed, chaps and gloves. If working on the ranch, they perform the same chores as cowboys and dress to suit the situation.
Geography, climate and cultural traditions caused differences to develop in cattle - handling methods and equipment from one part of the United States to another. The period between 1840 and 1870 marked a mingling of cultures when English and French - descended people began to settle west of the Mississippi River and encountered the Spanish - descended people who had settled in the parts of Mexico that later became Texas and California. In the modern world, remnants of two major and distinct cowboy traditions remain, known today as the "Texas '' tradition and the "Spanish '', "Vaquero '', or "California '' tradition. Less well - known but equally distinct traditions also developed in Hawaii and Florida. Today, the various regional cowboy traditions have merged to some extent, though a few regional differences in equipment and riding style still remain, and some individuals choose to deliberately preserve the more time - consuming but highly skilled techniques of the pure vaquero or "buckaroo '' tradition. The popular "horse whisperer '' style of natural horsemanship was originally developed by practitioners who were predominantly from California and the Northwestern states, clearly combining the attitudes and philosophy of the California vaquero with the equipment and outward look of the Texas cowboy.
The vaquero, the Spanish or Mexican cowboy who worked with young, untrained horses, arrived in the 18th century and flourished in California and bordering territories during the Spanish Colonial period. Settlers from the United States did not enter California until after the Mexican - American War, and most early settlers were miners rather than livestock ranchers, leaving livestock - raising largely to the Spanish and Mexican people who chose to remain in California. The California vaquero or buckaroo, unlike the Texas cowboy, was considered a highly skilled worker, who usually stayed on the same ranch where he was born or had grown up and raised his own family there. In addition, the geography and climate of much of California was dramatically different from that of Texas, allowing more intensive grazing with less open range, plus cattle in California were marketed primarily at a regional level, without the need (nor, until much later, even the logistical possibility) to be driven hundreds of miles to railroad lines. Thus, a horse - and livestock - handling culture remained in California and the Pacific Northwest that retained a stronger direct Spanish influence than that of Texas. The modern distinction between vaquero and buckaroo within American English may also reflect the parallel differences between the California and Texas traditions of western horsemanship.
Some cowboys of the California tradition were dubbed buckaroos by English - speaking settlers. The words "buckaroo '' and vaquero are still used on occasion in the Great Basin, parts of California and, less often, in the Pacific Northwest. Elsewhere, the term "cowboy '' is more common.
The word buckaroo is generally believed to be an anglicized version of vaquero and shows phonological characteristics compatible with that origin. Buckaroo first appeared in American English in 1827. The word may also have developed with influences from the English word "buck '' or bucking, the behavior of young, untrained horses. In 1960, one etymologist suggested that buckaroo derives, through Gullah: buckra, from the Ibibio and Efik: mbakara, meaning "white man, master, boss ''. Although that derivation was later rejected, another possibility advanced was that "buckaroo '' was a pun on vaquero, blending both Spanish and African sources.
In the 18th century, the residents of Spanish Texas began to herd cattle on horseback to sell in Louisiana, both legally and illegally. Their horses were of jennet type which became the Spanish Mustang. By the early 19th century, the Spanish Crown, and later, independent Mexico, offered empresario grants in what would later be Texas to non-citizens, such as settlers from the United States. In 1821, Stephen F. Austin led a group which became the first English - speaking Mexican citizens. Following Texas independence in 1836, even more Americans immigrated into the empresario ranching areas of Texas. Here the settlers were strongly influenced by the Mexican vaquero culture, borrowing vocabulary and attire from their counterparts, but also retaining some of the livestock - handling traditions and culture of the Eastern United States and Great Britain. The Texas cowboy was typically a bachelor who hired on with different outfits from season to season.
Following the American Civil War, vaquero culture combined with the cattle herding and drover traditions of the southeastern United States that evolved as settlers moved west. Additional influences developed out of Texas as cattle trails were created to meet up with the railroad lines of Kansas and Nebraska, in addition to expanding ranching opportunities in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Front, east of the Continental Divide. The new settlers required more horses, to be trained faster, and brought a bigger and heavier horse with them. This led to modifications in the bridling and bitting traditions used by the vaquero. Thus, the Texas cowboy tradition arose from a combination of cultural influences, in addition to the need for adaptation to the geography and climate of west Texas and the need to conduct long cattle drives to get animals to market.
Historian Terry Jordan proposed in 1982 that some Texan traditions that developed -- particularly after the Civil War -- may trace to colonial South Carolina, as most settlers to Texas were from the southeastern United States. However, these theories have been called into question by some reviewers. In a subsequent work, Jordan also noted that the influence of post-War Texas upon the whole of the frontier Western cowboy tradition was likely much less than previously thought.
The Florida "cowhunter '' or "cracker cowboy '' of the 19th and early 20th centuries was distinct from the Texas and California traditions. Florida cowboys did not use lassos to herd or capture cattle. Their primary tools were bullwhips and dogs. Since the Florida cowhunter did not need a saddle horn for anchoring a lariat, many did not use Western saddles, instead using a McClellan saddle. While some individuals wore boots that reached above the knees for protection from snakes, others wore brogans. They usually wore inexpensive wool or straw hats, and used ponchos for protection from rain.
Cattle and horses were introduced into Florida in the 16th century. The cattle introduced by the Spanish persist today in two rare breeds: Florida Cracker cattle and Pineywoods cattle. The Florida Cracker Horse, which is still used by some Florida cowboys, is descended from horses introduced by the Spanish. From shortly after 1565 until the end of the 17th century, cattle ranches owned by Spanish officials and missions operated in northern Florida to supply the Spanish garrison in St. Augustine and markets in Cuba. Raids into Spanish Florida by the Province of Carolina and its Native American allies, which wiped out the native population of Florida, led to the collapse of the Spanish mission and ranching systems.
In the 18th century, Creek, Seminole, and other Indian people moved into the depopulated areas of Florida and started herding the cattle left from the Spanish ranches. In the 19th century, most tribes in the area were dispossessed of their land and cattle and pushed south or west by white settlers and the United States government. By the middle of the 19th century white ranchers were running large herds of cattle on the extensive open range of central and southern Florida. The hides and meat from Florida cattle became such a critical supply item for the Confederacy during the American Civil War that a "Cow Cavalry '' was organized to round up and protect the herds from Union raiders. After the Civil War, and into the 20th Century, Florida cattle were periodically driven to ports on the Gulf of Mexico, such as Punta Rassa near Fort Myers, Florida, and shipped to market in Cuba.
The Florida cowhunter or cracker cowboy tradition gradually assimilated to western cowboy tradition during the 20th century (although the vaquero tradition has had little influence in Florida). Texas tick fever and the screw - worm were introduced to Florida in the early 20th century by cattle entering from other states. These pests forced Florida cattlemen to separate individual animals from their herds at frequent intervals for treatment, which eventually led to the widespread use of lassos. Florida cowboys continue to use dogs and bullwhips for controlling cattle.
The Hawaiian cowboy, the paniolo, is also a direct descendant of the vaquero of California and Mexico. Experts in Hawaiian etymology believe "Paniolo '' is a Hawaiianized pronunciation of español. (The Hawaiian language has no / s / sound, and all syllables and words must end in a vowel.) Paniolo, like cowboys on the mainland of North America, learned their skills from Mexican vaqueros. Other theories of word origin suggest Paniolo was derived from panuelo (Spanish for handkerchief) or possibly from a Hawai'ian language word meaning "hold firmly and sway gracefully. ''
Captain George Vancouver brought cattle and sheep in 1793 as a gift to Kamehameha I, monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom. For 10 years, Kamehameha forbade killing of cattle, and imposed the death penalty on anyone who violated his edict. As a result, numbers multiplied astonishingly, and were wreaking havoc throughout the countryside. By the reign of Kamehameha III the number of wild cattle were becoming a problem, so in 1832 he sent an emissary to California, then still a part of Mexico. He was impressed with the skill of the vaqueros, and invited three to Hawai'i to teach the Hawaiian people how to work cattle.
The first horses arrived in Hawai'i in 1803. By 1837 John Parker, a sailor from New England who settled in the islands, received permission from Kamehameha III to lease royal land near Mauna Kea, where he built a ranch.
The Hawaiian style of ranching originally included capturing wild cattle by driving them into pits dug in the forest floor. Once tamed somewhat by hunger and thirst, they were hauled out up a steep ramp, and tied by their horns to the horns of a tame, older steer (or ox) that knew where the paddock with food and water was located. The industry grew slowly under the reign of Kamehameha 's son Liholiho (Kamehameha II).
Even today, traditional paniolo dress, as well as certain styles of Hawaiian formal attire, reflect the Spanish heritage of the vaquero. The traditional Hawaiian saddle, the noho lio, and many other tools of the cowboy 's trade have a distinctly Mexican / Spanish look and many Hawaiian ranching families still carry the names of the vaqueros who married Hawaiian women and made Hawai'i their home.
Montauk, New York, on Long Island makes a somewhat debatable claim of having the oldest cattle operation in what today is the United States, having run cattle in the area since European settlers purchased land from the Indian people of the area in 1643. Although there were substantial numbers of cattle on Long Island, as well as the need to herd them to and from common grazing lands on a seasonal basis, no consistent "cowboy '' tradition developed amongst the cattle handlers of Long Island, who actually lived with their families in houses built on the pasture grounds. The only actual "cattle drives '' held on Long Island consisted of one drive in 1776, when the Island 's cattle were moved in a failed attempt to prevent them from being captured by the British during the American Revolution, and three or four drives in the late 1930s, when area cattle were herded down Montauk Highway to pasture ground near Deep Hollow Ranch.
On the Eastern Shore of Virginia, the "Salt Water Cowboys '' are known for rounding up the feral Chincoteague Ponies from Assateague Island and driving them across Assateague Channel into pens on Chincoteague Island during the annual Pony Penning.
Ranching in Canada has traditionally been dominated by one province, Alberta. The most successful early settlers of the province were the ranchers, who found Alberta 's foothills to be ideal for raising cattle. Most of Alberta 's ranchers were English settlers, but cowboys such as John Ware -- who brought the first cattle into the province in 1876 -- were American. American style open range dryland ranching began to dominate southern Alberta (and, to a lesser extent, southwestern Saskatchewan) by the 1880s. The nearby city of Calgary became the centre of the Canadian cattle industry, earning it the nickname "Cowtown ''. The cattle industry is still extremely important to Alberta, and cattle outnumber people in the province. While cattle ranches defined by barbed wire fences replaced the open range just as they did in the US, the cowboy influence lives on. Canada 's first rodeo, the Raymond Stampede, was established in 1902. In 1912, the Calgary Stampede began, and today it is the world 's richest cash rodeo. Each year, Calgary 's northern rival Edmonton, Alberta stages the Canadian Finals Rodeo, and dozens of regional rodeos are held through the province.
In addition to the original Mexican vaquero, the Mexican charro, the cowboy, and the Hawaiian paniolo, the Spanish also exported their horsemanship and knowledge of cattle ranching to the gaucho of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and (with the spelling gaúcho) southern Brazil, the chalán and Morochuco in Peru, the llanero of Venezuela, and the huaso of Chile.
In Australia, where ranches are known as stations, cowboys are known as stockmen and ringers, (jackaroos and jillaroos who also do stockwork are trainee overseers and property managers). The Australian droving tradition was influenced by Americans in the 19th century, and as well as practices imported directly from Spain. The adaptation of both of these traditions to local needs created a unique Australian tradition, which also was strongly influenced by Australian indigenous people, whose knowledge played a key role in the success of cattle ranching in Australia 's climate.
The idea of horse riders who guard herds of cattle, sheep or horses is common wherever wide, open land for grazing exists. In the French Camargue, riders called "gardians '' herd cattle and horses. In Hungary, csikós guard horses and gulyás tend to cattle. The herders in the region of Maremma, in Tuscany (Italy) are called butteri (singular: buttero). The Asturian pastoral population is referred to as Vaqueiros de alzada.
On the ranch, the cowboy is responsible for feeding the livestock, branding and earmarking cattle (horses also are branded on many ranches), plus tending to animal injuries and other needs. The working cowboy usually is in charge of a small group or "string '' of horses and is required to routinely patrol the rangeland in all weather conditions checking for damaged fences, evidence of predation, water problems, and any other issue of concern.
They also move the livestock to different pasture locations, or herd them into corrals and onto trucks for transport. In addition, cowboys may do many other jobs, depending on the size of the "outfit '' or ranch, the terrain, and the number of livestock. On a smaller ranch with fewer cowboys -- often just family members, cowboys are generalists who perform many all - around tasks; they repair fences, maintain ranch equipment, and perform other odd jobs. On a very large ranch (a "big outfit ''), with many employees, cowboys are able to specialize on tasks solely related to cattle and horses. Cowboys who train horses often specialize in this task only, and some may "Break '' or train young horses for more than one ranch.
The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics collects no figures for cowboys, so the exact number of working cowboys is unknown. Cowboys are included in the 2003 category, Support activities for animal production, which totals 9,730 workers averaging $19,340 per annum. In addition to cowboys working on ranches, in stockyards, and as staff or competitors at rodeos, the category includes farmhands working with other types of livestock (sheep, goats, hogs, chickens, etc.). Of those 9,730 workers, 3,290 are listed in the subcategory of Spectator sports which includes rodeos, circuses, and theaters needing livestock handlers.
Most cowboy attire, sometimes termed Western wear, grew out of practical need and the environment in which the cowboy worked. Most items were adapted from the Mexican vaqueros, though sources from other cultures, including Native Americans and Mountain Men contributed.
Many of these items show marked regional variations. Parameters such as hat brim width, or chap length and material were adjusted to accommodate the various environmental conditions encountered by working cowboys.
The traditional means of transport for the cowboy, even in the modern era, is by horseback. Horses can travel over terrain that vehicles can not access. Horses, along with mules and burros, also serve as pack animals. The most important horse on the ranch is the everyday working ranch horse that can perform a wide variety of tasks; horses trained to specialize exclusively in one set of skills such as roping or cutting are very rarely used on ranches. Because the rider often needs to keep one hand free while working cattle, the horse must neck rein and have good cow sense -- it must instinctively know how to anticipate and react to cattle.
A good stock horse is on the small side, generally under 15.2 hands (62 inches) tall at the withers and often under 1000 pounds, with a short back, sturdy legs and strong muscling, particularly in the hindquarters. While a steer roping horse may need to be larger and weigh more in order to hold a heavy adult cow, bull or steer on a rope, a smaller, quick horse is needed for herding activities such as cutting or calf roping. The horse has to be intelligent, calm under pressure and have a certain degree of ' cow sense '' -- the ability to anticipate the movement and behavior of cattle.
Many breeds of horse make good stock horses, but the most common today in North America is the American Quarter Horse, which is a horse breed developed primarily in Texas from a combination of Thoroughbred bloodstock crossed on horses of Mustang and other Iberian horse ancestry, with influences from the Arabian horse and horses developed on the east coast, such as the Morgan horse and now - extinct breeds such as the Chickasaw and Virginia Quarter - Miler.
Equipment used to ride a horse is referred to as tack and includes:
The most common motorized vehicle driven in modern ranch work is the pickup truck. Sturdy and roomy, with a high ground clearance, and often four - wheel drive capability, it has an open box, called a "bed, '' and can haul supplies from town or over rough trails on the ranch. It is used to pull stock trailers transporting cattle and livestock from one area to another and to market. With a horse trailer attached, it carries horses to distant areas where they may be needed. Motorcycles are sometimes used instead of horses for some tasks, but the most common smaller vehicle is the four - wheeler. It will carry a single cowboy quickly around the ranch for small chores. In areas with heavy snowfall, snowmobiles are also common. However, in spite of modern mechanization, there remain jobs, particularly those involving working cattle in rough terrain or in close quarters that are best performed by cowboys on horseback.
The word rodeo is from the Spanish rodear (to turn), which means roundup. In the beginning there was no difference between the working cowboy and the rodeo cowboy, and in fact, the term working cowboy did not come into use until the 1950s. Prior to that it was assumed that all cowboys were working cowboys. Early cowboys both worked on ranches and displayed their skills at the roundups.
The advent of professional rodeos allowed cowboys, like many athletes, to earn a living by performing their skills before an audience. Rodeos also provided employment for many working cowboys who were needed to handle livestock. Many rodeo cowboys are also working cowboys and most have working cowboy experience.
The dress of the rodeo cowboy is not very different from that of the working cowboy on his way to town. Snaps, used in lieu of buttons on the cowboy 's shirt, allowed the cowboy to escape from a shirt snagged by the horns of steer or bull. Styles were often adapted from the early movie industry for the rodeo. Some rodeo competitors, particularly women, add sequins, colors, silver and long fringes to their clothing in both a nod to tradition and showmanship. Modern riders in "rough stock '' events such as saddle bronc or bull riding may add safety equipment such as kevlar vests or a neck brace, but use of safety helmets in lieu of the cowboy hat is yet to be accepted, in spite of constant risk of injury.
As the frontier ended, the cowboy life came to be highly romanticized. Exhibitions such as those of Buffalo Bill Cody 's Wild West Show helped to popularize the image of the cowboy as an idealized representative of the tradition of chivalry.
In today 's society, there is little understanding of the daily realities of actual agricultural life. Cowboys are more often associated with (mostly fictitious) Indian - fighting than with their actual life of ranch work and cattle - tending. The cowboy is also portrayed as a masculine ideal via images ranging from the Marlboro Man to the Village People. Actors such as John Wayne are thought of as exemplifying a cowboy ideal, even though western movies seldom bear much resemblance to real cowboy life. Arguably, the modern rodeo competitor is much closer to being an actual cowboy, as many were actually raised on ranches and around livestock, and the rest have needed to learn livestock - handling skills on the job.
However, in the United States and the Canadian West, as well as Australia, guest ranches offer people the opportunity to ride horses and get a taste of the western life -- albeit in far greater comfort. Some ranches also offer vacationers the opportunity to actually perform cowboy tasks by participating in cattle drives or accompanying wagon trains. This type of vacation was popularized by the 1991 movie City Slickers, starring Billy Crystal.
In 2005, the United States Senate declared the fourth Saturday of July as "National Day of the American Cowboy '' via a Senate resolution and has subsequently renewed this resolution each year, with the United States House of Representatives periodically issuing statements of support. The long history of the West in popular culture tends to define those clothed in Western clothing as cowboys or cowgirls whether they have ever been on a horse or not. This is especially true when applied to entertainers and those in the public arena who wear western wear as part of their persona. However, the reality is that many people, particularly in the West, including lawyers, bankers, and other white collar professionals wear elements of Western clothing, particularly cowboy boots or hats, as a matter of form even though they have other jobs. Conversely, some people raised on ranches do not necessarily define themselves cowboys or cowgirls unless they feel their primary job is to work with livestock or if they compete in rodeos.
Actual cowboys have derisive expressions for individuals who adopt cowboy mannerisms as a fashion pose without any actual understanding of the culture. For example, a "drugstore cowboy '' means someone who wears the clothing but does not actually sit upon anything but the stool of the drugstore soda fountain -- or, in modern times, a bar stool. Similarly, the phrase "all hat and no cattle '' is used to describe someone (usually male) who boasts about himself, far in excess of any actual accomplishments. The word "dude '' (or the now - archaic term "greenhorn '') indicates an individual unfamiliar with cowboy culture, especially one who is trying to pretend otherwise.
Outside of the United States, the cowboy has become an archetypal image of Americans abroad. In the late 1950s, a Congolese youth subculture calling themselves the Bills based their style and outlook on Hollywood 's depiction of cowboys in movies. Something similar occurred with the term "Apache '', which in early 20th century Parisian society was a slang term for an outlaw.
The word "cowboy '' is also used in a negative sense. Originally this derived from the behavior of some cowboys in the boomtowns of Kansas, at the end of the trail for long cattle drives, where cowboys developed a reputation for violence and wild behavior due to the inevitable impact of large numbers of cowboys, mostly young single men, receiving their pay in large lump sums upon arriving in communities with many drinking and gambling establishments.
"Cowboy '' as an adjective for "reckless '' developed in the 1920s. "Cowboy '' is sometimes used today in a derogatory sense to describe someone who is reckless or ignores potential risks, irresponsible or who heedlessly handles a sensitive or dangerous task. TIME Magazine referred to President George W. Bush 's foreign policy as "Cowboy diplomacy '', and Bush has been described in the press, particularly in Europe, as a "cowboy ''.
In English - speaking regions outside North America, such as the British Isles and Australasia, "cowboy '' can refer to a tradesmen whose work is of shoddy and questionable value, e.g., "a cowboy plumber ''. The term also lent itself to the British 1980s TV sitcom, Cowboys. Similar usage is seen in the United States to describe someone in the skilled trades who operates without proper training or licenses. In the eastern United States, "cowboy '' as a noun is sometimes used to describe a fast or careless driver on the highway.
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which of the following is not a stage in the change process | Transtheoretical model - wikipedia
The transtheoretical model of behavior change is an integrative theory of therapy that assesses an individual 's readiness to act on a new healthier behavior, and provides strategies, or processes of change to guide the individual. The model is composed of constructs such as: stages of change, processes of change, levels of change, self - efficacy, and decisional balance.
The transtheoretical model is also known by the abbreviation "TTM '' and sometimes by the term "stages of change '', although this latter term is a synecdoche since the stages of change are only one part of the model along with processes of change, levels of change, etc. Several self - help books -- Changing for Good (1994), Changeology (2012), and Changing to Thrive (2016) -- and articles in the news media have discussed the model. It has been called "arguably the dominant model of health behaviour change, having received unprecedented research attention, yet it has simultaneously attracted criticism ''.
James O. Prochaska of the University of Rhode Island, and Carlo Di Clemente and colleagues developed the transtheoretical model beginning in 1977. It is based on analysis and use of different theories of psychotherapy, hence the name "transtheoretical ''.
Prochaska and colleagues refined the model on the basis of research that they published in peer - reviewed journals and books.
This construct refers to the temporal dimension of behavioural change. In the transtheoretical model, change is a "process involving progress through a series of stages '':
In addition, the researchers conceptualized "Relapse '' (recycling) which is not a stage in itself but rather the "return from Action or Maintenance to an earlier stage ''.
The quantitative definition of the stages of change (see below) is perhaps the most notorious feature of the model. However it is also one of the most critiqued, even in the field of smoking cessation, where it was originally formulated. It has been said that such quantitative definition (i.e. a person is in preparation if it intends to change within a month) does not reflect the nature of behaviour change, that it does not have better predictive power than simpler questions (i.e. "do you have plans to change... ''), and that it has problems regarding its classification reliability.
Communication theorist and sociologist Everett Rogers suggested that the stages of change are analogues of the stages of the innovation adoption process in Rogers ' theory of diffusion of innovations.
Stage 1: Precontemplation (not ready)
People at this stage do not intend to start the healthy behavior in the near future (within 6 months), and may be unaware of the need to change. People here learn more about healthy behavior: they are encouraged to think about the pros of changing their behavior and to feel emotions about the effects of their negative behavior on others.
Precontemplators typically underestimate the pros of changing, overestimate the cons, and often are not aware of making such mistakes.
One of the most effective steps that others can help with at this stage is to encourage them to become more mindful of their decision making and more conscious of the multiple benefits of changing an unhealthy behavior.
Stage 2: Contemplation (getting ready)
At this stage, participants are intending to start the healthy behavior within the next 6 months. While they are usually now more aware of the pros of changing, their cons are about equal to their Pros. This ambivalence about changing can cause them to keep putting off taking action.
People here learn about the kind of person they could be if they changed their behavior and learn more from people who behave in healthy ways.
Others can influence and help effectively at this stage by encouraging them to work at reducing the cons of changing their behavior.
Stage 3: Preparation (ready)
People at this stage are ready to start taking action within the next 30 days. They take small steps that they believe can help them make the healthy behavior a part of their lives. For example, they tell their friends and family that they want to change their behavior.
People in this stage should be encouraged to seek support from friends they trust, tell people about their plan to change the way they act, and think about how they would feel if they behaved in a healthier way. Their number one concern is: when they act, will they fail? They learn that the better prepared they are, the more likely they are to keep progressing.
Stage 4: Action (current action)
People at this stage have changed their behavior within the last 6 months and need to work hard to keep moving ahead. These participants need to learn how to strengthen their commitments to change and to fight urges to slip back.
People in this stage progress by being taught techniques for keeping up their commitments such as substituting activities related to the unhealthy behavior with positive ones, rewarding themselves for taking steps toward changing, and avoiding people and situations that tempt them to behave in unhealthy ways.
Stage 5: Maintenance (monitoring)
People at this stage changed their behavior more than 6 months ago. It is important for people in this stage to be aware of situations that may tempt them to slip back into doing the unhealthy behavior -- particularly stressful situations.
It is recommended that people in this stage seek support from and talk with people whom they trust, spend time with people who behave in healthy ways, and remember to engage in healthy activities to cope with stress instead of relying on unhealthy behavior.
Relapse (recycling)
Relapse in the TTM specifically applies to individuals who successfully quit smoking or using drugs or alcohol, only to resume these unhealthy behaviors. Individuals who attempt to quit highly addictive behaviors such as drug, alcohol, and tobacco use are at particularly high risk of a relapse. Achieving a long - term behavior change often requires ongoing support from family members, a health coach, a physician, or another motivational source. Supportive literature and other resources can also be helpful to avoid a relapse from happening.
The 10 processes of change are "covert and overt activities that people use to progress through the stages ''.
To progress through the early stages, people apply cognitive, affective, and evaluative processes. As people move toward Action and Maintenance, they rely more on commitments, conditioning, contingencies, environmental controls, and support.
Prochaska and colleagues state that their research related to the transtheoretical model shows that interventions to change behavior are more effective if they are "stage - matched '', that is, "matched to each individual 's stage of change ''.
In general, for people to progress they need:
The ten processes of change include:
Health researchers have extended Prochaska 's and DiClemente 's 10 original processes of change by an additional 21 processes. In the first edition of Planning Health Promotion Programs, Bartholomew et al. (2006) summarised the processes that they identified in a number of studies; however, their extended list of processes was removed from later editions of the text. The additional processes of Bartholomew et al. were:
While most of these processes are associated with health interventions such as smoking cessation and other addictive behaviour, some of them are also used in travel interventions. Depending on the target behaviour the effectiveness of the process should differ. Also some processes are recommended in a specific stage, while others can be used in one or more stages. Recently, these processes have been identified in travel interventions, broadening the scope of TTM in other research domains.
This core construct "reflects the individual 's relative weighing of the pros and cons of changing ''. Decision making was conceptualized by Janis and Mann as a "decisional balance sheet '' of comparative potential gains and losses. Decisional balance measures, the pros and the cons, have become critical constructs in the transtheoretical model. The pros and cons combine to form a decisional "balance sheet '' of comparative potential gains and losses. The balance between the pros and cons varies depending on which stage of change the individual is in.
Sound decision making requires the consideration of the potential benefits (pros) and costs (cons) associated with a behavior 's consequences. TTM research has found the following relationships between the pros, cons, and the stage of change across 48 behaviors and over 100 populations studied.
The evaluation of pros and cons is part of the formation of attitudes. Attitude is defined as a "psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour ''. This means that by evaluating pros and cons we form a positive or negative attitude about something or someone. During the change process individuals gradually shift from cons to pros, forming a more positive attitude towards the target behaviour. Attitudes are one of the core constructs explaining behaviour and behaviour change in various research domains. Other behaviour models, such as the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the stage model of self - regulated change, also emphasise attitude as an important determinant of behaviour. The progression through the different stages of change is reflected in a gradual change in attitude before the individual acts. Most of the processes of change aim at evaluating and reevaluating as well as reinforcing specific elements of the current and target behaviour. The processes of change contribute to a great degree on attitude formation.
Due to the synonymous use of decisional balance and attitude, travel behaviour researchers have begun to combine the TTM with the TPB. Forward uses the TPB variables to better differentiate the different stages. Especially all TPB variables (attitude, perceived behaviour control, descriptive and subjective norm) are positively show a gradually increasing relationship to stage of change for bike commuting. As expected, intention or willingness to perform the behaviour increases by stage. Similarly, Bamberg uses various behavior models, including the transtheoretical model, theory of planned behavior and norm - activation model, to build the stage model of self - regulated behavior change (SSBC). Bamberg claims that his model is a solution to criticism raised towards the TTM. Some researchers in travel, dietary, and environmental research have conducted empirical studies, showing that the SSBC might be a future path for TTM - based research.
This core construct is "the situation - specific confidence people have that they can cope with high - risk situations without relapsing to their unhealthy or high risk - habit ''. The construct is based on Bandura 's self - efficacy theory and conceptualizes a person 's perceived ability to perform on a task as a mediator of performance on future tasks. In his research Bandura already established that greater levels of perceived self - efficacy leads to greater changes in behavior. Similarly, Ajzen mentions the similarity between the concepts of self - efficacy and perceived behavioral control. This underlines the integrative nature of the transtheoretical model which combines various behavior theories. A change in the level of self - efficacy can predict a lasting change in behavior if there are adequate incentives and skills. The transtheoretical model employs an overall confidence score to assess an individual 's self - efficacy. Situational temptations assess how tempted people are to engage in a problem behavior in a certain situation.
This core construct identifies the depth or complexity of presenting problems according to five levels of increasing complexity. Different therapeutic approaches are recommended for each level as well as for each stage of change. The levels are:
The outcomes of the TTM computerized tailored interventions administered to participants in pre-Action stages are outlined below.
A national sample of pre-Action adults was provided a stress management intervention. At the 18 - month follow - up, a significantly larger proportion of the treatment group (62 %) was effectively managing their stress when compared to the control group. The intervention also produced statistically significant reductions in stress and depression and an increase in the use of stress management techniques when compared to the control group. Two additional clinical trials of TTM programs by Prochaska et al. and Jordan et al. also found significantly larger proportions of treatment groups effectively managing stress when compared to control groups.
Over 1,000 members of a New England group practice who were prescribed antihypertensive medication participated in an adherence to antihypertensive medication intervention. The vast majority (73 %) of the intervention group who were previously pre-Action were adhering to their prescribed medication regimen at the 12 - month follow - up when compared to the control group.
Members of a large New England health plan and various employer groups who were prescribed a cholesterol lowering medication participated in an adherence to lipid - lowering drugs intervention. More than half of the intervention group (56 %) who were previously pre-Action were adhering to their prescribed medication regimen at the 18 - month follow - up. Additionally, only 15 % of those in the intervention group who were already in Action or Maintenance relapsed into poor medication adherence compared to 45 % of the controls. Further, participants who were at risk for physical activity and unhealthy diet were given only stage - based guidance. The treatment group doubled the control group in the percentage in Action or Maintenance at 18 months for physical activity (43 %) and diet (25 %).
Participants were 350 primary care patients experiencing at least mild depression but not involved in treatment or planning to seek treatment for depression in the next 30 days. Patients receiving the TTM intervention experienced significantly greater symptom reduction during the 9 - month follow - up period. The intervention 's largest effects were observed among patients with moderate or severe depression, and who were in the Precontemplation or Contemplation stage of change at baseline. For example, among patients in the Precontemplation or Contemplation stage, rates of reliable and clinically significant improvement in depression were 40 % for treatment and 9 % for control. Among patients with mild depression, or who were in the Action or Maintenance stage at baseline, the intervention helped prevent disease progression to Major Depression during the follow - up period.
Fifty - hundred - and - seventy - seven overweight or moderately obese adults (BMI 25 - 39.9) were recruited nationally, primarily from large employers. Those randomly assigned to the treatment group received a stage - matched multiple behavior change guide and a series of tailored, individualized interventions for three health behaviors that are crucial to effective weight management: healthy eating (i.e., reducing calorie and dietary fat intake), moderate exercise, and managing emotional distress without eating. Up to three tailored reports (one per behavior) were delivered based on assessments conducted at four time points: baseline, 3, 6, and 9 months. All participants were followed up at 6, 12, and 24 months. Multiple Imputation was used to estimate missing data. Generalized Labor Estimating Equations (GLEE) were then used to examine differences between the treatment and comparison groups. At 24 months, those who were in a pre-Action stage for healthy eating at baseline and received treatment were significantly more likely to have reached Protons or Maintenance than the comparison group (47.5 % vs. 34.3 %). The intervention also impacted a related, but untreated behavior: fruit and vegetable consumption. Over 48 % of those in the treatment group in a pre-Action stage at baseline progressed to Action or Maintenance for eating at least 5 servings a day of fruit and vegetables as opposed to 39 % of the comparison group. Individuals in the treatment group who were in a pre-Action stage for exercise at baseline were also significantly more likely to reach Action or Maintenance (44.9 % vs. 38.1 %). The treatment also had a significant effect on managing emotional distress without eating, with 49.7 % of those in a pre-Action stage at baseline moving to Action or Maintenance versus 30.3 % of the comparison group. The groups differed on weight lost at 24 months among those in a pre-action stage for healthy eating and exercise at baseline. Among those in a pre-Action stage for both healthy eating and exercise at baseline, 30 % of those randomized to the treatment group lost 5 % or more of their body weight vs. 18.6 % in the comparison group. Coaction of behavior change occurred and was much more pronounced in the treatment group with the treatment group losing significantly more than the comparison group. This study demonstrates the ability of TTM - based tailored feedback to improve healthy eating, exercise, managing emotional distress, and weight on a population basis. The treatment produced the highest population impact to date on multiple health risk behaviors.
Multiple studies have found individualized interventions tailored on the 14 TTM variables for smoking cessation to effectively recruit and retain pre-Action participants and produce long - term abstinence rates within the range of 22 % -- 26 %. These interventions have also consistently outperformed alternative interventions including best - in - class action - oriented self - help programs, non-interactive manual - based programs, and other common interventions. Furthermore, these interventions continued to move pre-Action participants to abstinence even after the program ended. For a summary of smoking cessation clinical outcomes, see Velicer, Redding, Sun, & Prochaska, 2007 and Jordan, Evers, Spira, King & Lid, 2013.
In the treatment of smoke control, TTM focuses on each stage to monitor and to achieve a progression to the next stage.
In each stage, a patient may have multiple sources that could influence their behavior. These may include: friends, books, and interactions with their healthcare providers. These factors could potentially influence how successful a patient may be in moving through the different stages. This stresses the importance to have continuous monitoring and efforts to maintain progress at each stage. TTM helps guide the treatment process at each stage, and may assist the healthcare provider in making an optimal therapeutic decision.
The use of TTM in travel behaviour interventions is rather novel. A number of cross-sectional studies investigated the individual constructs of TTM, e.g. stage of change, decisional balance and self - efficacy, with regards to transport mode choice. The cross-sectional studies identified both motivators and barriers at the different stages regarding biking, walking and public transport. The motivators identified were e.g. liking to bike / walk, avoiding congestion and improved fitness. Perceived barriers were e.g. personal fitness, time and the weather. This knowledge was used to design interventions that would address attitudes and misconceptions to encourage an increased use of bikes and walking. These interventions aim at changing people 's travel behaviour towards more sustainable and more active transport modes. In health - related studies, TTM is used to help people walk or bike more instead of using the car. Most intervention studies aim to reduce car trips for commute to achieve the minimum recommended physical activity levels of 30 minutes per day. Other intervention studies using TTM aim to encourage sustainable behaviour. By reducing single occupied motor vehicle and replacing them with so called sustainable transport (public transport, car pooling, biking or walking), green house gas emissions can be reduced considerably. A reduction in the number of cars on our roads solves other problems such as congestion, traffic noise and traffic accidents. By combining health and environment related purposes, the message becomes stronger. Additionally, by emphasising personal health, physical activity or even direct economic impact, people see a direct result from their changed behaviour, while saving the environment is a more general and effects are not directly noticeable.
Different outcome measures were used to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Health - centred intervention studies measured BMI, weight, waist circumference as well as general health. However only one of three found a significant change in general health, while BMI and other measures had no effect. Measures that are associated with both health and sustainability were more common. Effects were reported as number of car trips, distance travelled, main mode share etc. Results varied due to greatly differing approaches. In general, car use could be reduced between 6 % and 55 %, while use of the alternative mode (walking, biking and / or public transport) increased between 11 % and 150 %. These results indicate a shift to action or maintenance stage, some researchers investigated attitude shifts such as the willingness to change. Attitudes towards using alternative modes improved with approximately 20 % to 70 %. Many of the intervention studies did not clearly differentiate between the five stages, but categorised participants in pre-action and action stage. This approach makes it difficult to assess the effects per stage. Also, interventions included different processes of change; in many cases these processes are not matched to the recommended stage. It highlights the need to develop a standardised approach for travel intervention design. Identifying and assessing which processes are most effective in the context of travel behaviour change should be a priority in the future in order to secure the role of TTM in travel behaviour research.
The TTM has been called "arguably the dominant model of health behaviour change, having received unprecedented research attention, yet it has simultaneously attracted criticism ''. Depending on the field of application (e.g. smoking cessation, substance abuse, condom use, diabetes treatment, obesity and travel) somewhat different criticisms have been raised.
In a systematic review, published in 2003, of 23 randomized controlled trials, the authors found that "stage based interventions are no more effective than non-stage based interventions or no intervention in changing smoking behaviour. However, it was also mentioned that stage based interventions are often used and implemented inadequately in practice. Thus, criticism is directed towards the use rather the effectiveness of the model itself. Looking at interventions targeting smoking cessation in pregnancy found that stage - matched interventions were more effective than non-matched interventions. One reason for this was the greater intensity of stage - matched interventions. Also, the use of stage - based interventions for smoking cessation in mental illness proved to be effective. Further studies, e.g. a randomized controlled trail published in 2009, found no evidence that a TTM based smoking cessation intervention was more effective than a control intervention not tailored to stage of change. The study claims that those not wanting to change (i.e. precontemplators) tend not to be responsive to neither stage nor non-stage based interventions. Since stage - based interventions tend to be more intensive they appear to be most effective at targeting contemplators and above rather than pre-contemplators. A 2010 systematic review of smoking cessation studies under the auspices of the Cochrane Collaboration found that "stage - based self - help interventions (expert systems and / or tailored materials) and individual counselling were neither more nor less effective than their non-stage - based equivalents.
Main criticism is raised regarding the "arbitrary dividing lines '' that are drawn between the stages. West claimed that a more coherent and distinguishable definition for the stages is needed. Especially the fact that the stages are bound to a specific time interval is perceived to be misleading. Additionally, the effectiveness of stage - based interventions differs depending on the behavior. A continuous version of the model has been proposed, where each process is first increasingly used, and then decreases in importance, as smokers make progress along some latent dimension. This proposal suggests the use of processes without reference to stages of change.
The model "assumes that individuals typically make coherent and stable plans '', when in fact they often do not.
Within research on prevention of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases a systematic review from 2003 comes to the conclusion that "no strong conclusions '' can be drawn about the effectiveness of interventions based on the transtheoretical model. Again this conclusion is reached due to the inconsistency of use and implementation of the model. This study also confirms that the better stage - matched the intervention the more effect it has to encourage condom use.
Within the health research domain, a 2005 systematic review of 37 randomized controlled trials claims that "there was limited evidence for the effectiveness of stage - based interventions as a basis for behavior change. Studies with which focused on increasing physical activity levels through active commute however showed that stage - matched interventions tended to have slightly more effect than non-stage matched interventions. Since many studies do not use all constructs of TTM, additional research suggested that the effectiveness of interventions increases the better it is tailored on all all core constructs of the TTM in addition to stage of change. In diabetes research the "existing data are insufficient for drawing conclusions on the benefits of the transtheoretical model '' as related to dietary interventions. Again, studies with slightly different design, e.g. using different processes, proved to be effective in predicting the stage transition of intention to exercise in relation to treating patients with diabetes.
TTM has generally found a greater popularity regarding research on physical activity, due to the increasing problems associated with unhealthy diets and sedentary living, e.g. obesity, cardiovascular problems. A 2011 Cochrane Systematic Review found that there is little evidence to suggest that using the Transtheoretical Model Stages of Change (TTM SOC) method is effective in helping obese and overweight people lose weight. Earlier in a 2009 paper, the TTM was considered to be useful in promoting physical activity. In this study, the algorithms and questionnaires that researchers used to assign people to stages of change lacked standardisation to be compared empirically, or validated.
Similar criticism regarding the standardisation as well as consistency in the use of TTM is also raised in a recent review on travel interventions. With regard to travel interventions only stages of change and sometimes decisional balance constructs are included. The processes used to build the intervention are rarely stage - matched and short cuts are taken by classifying participants in a pre-action stage, which summarises the precontemplation, contemplation and preparation stage, and an action / maintenance stage. More generally, TTM has been criticised within various domains due to the limitations in the research designs. For example, many studies supporting the model have been cross-sectional, but longitudinal study data would allow for stronger causal inferences. Another point of criticism is raised in a 2002 review, where the model 's stages were characterized as "not mutually exclusive ''. Furthermore, there was "scant evidence of sequential movement through discrete stages ''. While research suggests that movement through the stages of change is not always linear, a study conducted in 1996 demonstrated that the probability of forward stage movement is greater than the probability of backward stage movement. Due to the variations in use, implementation and type of research designs, data confirming TTM are ambiguous. More care has to be taken in using a sufficient amount of constructs, trustworthy measures, and longitudinal data.
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gary barlow since i saw you last songs | Since I Saw You Last - wikipedia
Since I Saw You Last is the fourth studio album released by British singer - songwriter Gary Barlow. The album was released by Polydor Records on 22 November 2013 in Ireland, and on 25 November in the United Kingdom. It debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart, and met with a mixed critical reaction.
It is Barlow 's first full - length solo album in fourteen years, following 1999 's Twelve Months, Eleven Days. It features a range of genres, described by Barlow as a mixture of pop, folk pop and alternative. The album 's lead single, "Let Me Go '', was released a week before the album, and became Barlow 's 21st UK top 3 single.
Following the success of a series of solo concerts over the previous two years, Barlow announced plans to release his first solo studio album in fourteen years. The album was released on 25 November 2013, to be followed by a live tour in 2014. The album was confirmed to feature a duet with Elton John on the track Face to Face on 24 September 2013. Regarding "Let Me Go '', Barlow said, "I 've always liked folky, acoustic music, but I 've never fully explored it. I turned back time and was listening to Johnny Cash and early Elton John before I wrote ' Let Me Go '. I 'm 42; I do n't want to do urban or dance music. I love Mumford & Sons -- it 's good, English music, but let 's be honest, they got it off Johnny Cash too. ''
Barlow cites that after the release of Twelve Months, Eleven Days, he stopped singing as he walked away from the limelight. He said, "I never even sang in my own studio; I was telling myself (that) I do n't need to be an artist anymore; I started as a songwriter. '' However, after the success of the Take That reunion, he felt that he had to face his demons and right the wrongs he felt took hold of his last full studio album. He said, "The one thing I was dreading was that the last album would be on my shoulder the whole time I made this one, but it was n't -- it was flushed out really quickly. I 'm not haunted by that time. My experience 14 years ago was completely different from now. The last album I made was so laden with people telling me who I should sound like that I listen back now and think ' Who 's that? ', but Since I Saw You Last was easy to make; there 's a lot of my life on this record. ''
Several of the album 's songs were co-written in 2011, for a planned duo - album with Robbie Williams titled Cain & Abel, a nod to Barlow 's autobiography, where he refers to himself and Williams as the Cain and Abel of Take That. Williams called the Cain & Abel album ' middle - of - the - road ' -- believing its sound was too mature to garner mass appeal with his desired youthful, mainstream audience, and decided to cancel the Cain & Abel project. Williams poached Candy and Different for his Take the Crown album, whilst Barlow acquired the remaining numbers for Since I Saw You Last.
The album debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart, behind One Direction 's third album Midnight Memories, selling 116,000 copies. It became the fastest selling album of 2013 to miss out on the top spot, while also selling more copies in its first week than Barlow 's Take That bandmate Robbie Williams ' album Swings Both Ways, which sold 109,000 copies the previous week to claim the top spot. The following week, the album sold a further 77,358 copies in the UK. In its third week of release, it once again broke the 100,000 sales mark, with 105,344 sales. In its fourth week of sales, the album sold a further 116,730 copies, up 10.81 % from the previous week, and passed sales of 500,000 in the UK with a further 79,000 sold the week after. The album was certified 2 × Platinum in the UK at the beginning of 2014 with sales of 652,342 in the UK alone. The album also became Barlow 's second top 10 album in Germany, achieving similar chart success to his debut record, Open Road.
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Since I Saw You Last received an average score of 54, based on six reviews, which indicates "Mixed or average reviews ''.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine at AllMusic awarded the record four stars, calling it a "handsome album '' that "captures what was good about post-McCartney pop singer / songwriters in the mid - ' 70s, when the best songsmiths never let their ambitions get in the way of a good tune ''. Conversely, Observer writer Hermione Hoby gave a one - star review in which she said that the album serves to provide "sonic reference points '' for "how unassailably uncool '' Barlow is.
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has a rookie ever won the nfl mvp | National Football League Most Valuable Player award - wikipedia
The National Football League Most Valuable Player Award (NFL MVP) is an award given by various entities to the American football player who is considered the most valuable in the National Football League (NFL). Organizations which currently give an NFL MVP award or have in the past include the Associated Press (AP), the Newspaper Enterprise Association (NEA), Pro Football Writers of America (PFWA), and United Press International (UPI). The first award described as a most valuable player award was the Joe F. Carr Trophy, awarded by the NFL from 1938 to 1946. Today, the AP award is considered the de facto official NFL MVP award. Since the 2011 season, the NFL has held the annual NFL Honors ceremony to recognize the winner of the Associated Press MVP award.
The AP has presented an MVP award since 1957. The award is voted upon by a panel of 50 sportswriters at the end of the regular season, before the playoffs, though the results are not announced to the public until the day before the Super Bowl.
Pro Football Writers of America began naming their most valuable player in 1975 and continue to do so as of the 2016 season.
The Newspaper Enterprise Association presented its MVP award from 1955 to 2008. The winner was chosen by a poll of NFL players and received the Jim Thorpe Trophy, which by 1975 was described as "one of the pros ' most coveted honors. '' Beginning in 1997, the trophy was presented by the Jim Thorpe Association, with the winner determined by a "vote of NFLPA representatives ''.
The Joe F. Carr Trophy was the first award in the NFL to recognize a most valuable player. It was named in honor of NFL commissioner Joseph Carr and remains the only MVP award the NFL has officially sanctioned.
United Press International gave an NFL MVP / player of the year award from 1948 through 1969, excepting 1949 -- 50, and 1952. In 1970 UPI instituted separate awards for the NFC and AFC. In 1975 UPI added a Defensive Player of the Year Award for both the NFC and AFC.
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who is the actress that plays hope on the bold and the beautiful | Kim Matula - wikipedia
Kimberly Marie "Kim '' Matula (born August 23, 1988) is an American actress, best known for her role as Hope Logan in the CBS daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful.
Matula was born in Fort Worth, Texas to David and Karin Matula. She is of Norwegian ancestry. Matula has always dreamed of acting and created videos of her acting. She studied film at the University of Texas at Arlington, but dropped out because her acting career was taking off. In 2008, Matula appeared in the Lifetime movie Queen Sized, and in next year moved to Los Angeles, then in 2010, she landed the role of Hope Logan in the CBS daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful.
In 2014, Matula was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series. In her two final years on the soap, Matula 's character had major storylines. In November 2014, it was announced that Matula had not renewed her contract and would be departing the series for a career in primetime television and film.
In 2016, Matula joined the cast of the second season of the critically acclaimed Lifetime dark comedy - drama series, Unreal.
As of 2018 she has a leading role in the Fox comedy series LA to Vegas.
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who wrote the song take a load off fanny | The Weight - wikipedia
"The Weight '' is a song originally by the Canadian - American group the Band that was released as Capitol Records single 2269 in 1968 and on the group 's debut album Music from Big Pink. Written by Band member Robbie Robertson, the song is about a visitor 's experiences in a town mentioned in the lyric 's first line as Nazareth. "The Weight '' has significantly influenced American popular music, having been listed as # 41 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time published in 2004. Pitchfork Media named it the 13th best song of the Sixties, and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame named it one of the 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. PBS, which broadcast performances of the song in "Ramble at the Ryman '' (2011), "Austin City Limits '' (2012), and "Quick Hits '' (2012), describes it as "a masterpiece of Biblical allusions, enigmatic lines and iconic characters '' and notes its enduring popularity as "an essential part of the American songbook. ''
"The Weight '' is one of The Band 's best known songs though it was not a significant mainstream hit for the group in the U.S., peaking at only # 63. The Band 's recording fared much better in Canada and the UK -- in those countries, the single was a top 40 hit, peaking at # 35 in Canada and # 21 in the UK in 1968. The song 's popularity was greatly enhanced by three cover releases in 1968 and 1969 with arrangements that appealed to a diversity of music audiences. Aretha Franklin 's 1969 soul music arrangement was included in her This Girl 's in Love with You album, which peaked in the U.S. at # 19 and # 3 on the soul chart, and peaked in Canada at # 12. Jackie DeShannon 's 1968 pop music arrangement, debuting on the Hot 100 one week before The Band 's, peaked at # 55 in the U.S., # 35 in Canada. A joint single rhythm and blues arrangement released by Diana Ross & the Supremes and The Temptations in 1969, hit # 46 in the U.S., and # 36 in Canada. The Band 's and Jackie DeShannon 's versions never mentioned the title. The Band 's version credits the group 's individual members - Jaime Robbie Robertson, Rick Danko, Richard Manuel, Garth Hudson and Levon Helm - on the record label, rather than The Band as a single entity.
The inspiration for and influences affecting the composition of "The Weight '' came from the music of the American South, the life experiences of band members, particularly Levon Helm, and movies of Spanish filmmaker Luis Buñuel.
The original members of The Band performed "The Weight '' as an American Southern folk song with country music (vocals, guitars and drums) and gospel music (piano and organ) elements. The lyrics, written in the first - person, are about a traveler 's experiences arriving, visiting, and departing a town called Nazareth. According to Robertson, this is based on Nazareth, Pennsylvania because it was the home of Martin Guitars. He wrote the guitar parts on a 1951 Martin. The singers, led by Helm, vocalize the traveler 's encounters with people in the town from the perspective of a Bible Belt American Southerner, like Helm himself, a native of rural Arkansas. After Helm 's death in 2012, Robertson, who was raised in Canada, described how visits to the Memphis, Tennessee area, around which Helm grew up, affected him and influenced his songwriting:
The colorful characters in "The Weight '' were based on real people members of The Band knew, as Levon Helm explained in his autobiography, This Wheel 's on Fire. In particular, "young Anna Lee '' mentioned in the third verse is Helm 's longtime friend Anna Lee Amsden, and, according to her, "Carmen '' was from Helm 's hometown, Turkey Scratch, Arkansas. "Crazy Chester '' was an eccentric resident of Fayetteville, Arkansas, who carried a cap gun. Ronnie Hawkins would tell him to "keep the peace '' at his Rockwood Club when Chester arrived.
According to Robertson, "The Weight '' was inspired by the movies of Spanish filmmaker Luis Buñuel. Buñuel 's films are known for their surreal imagery and criticism of organized religion, particularly Catholicism. The song 's lyrics and music invoke vivid imagery, the main character 's perspective is influenced by the Bible, and the episodic story was inspired by the predicaments Buñuel 's film characters faced that undermined their goals for maintaining or improving their moral character. Of this, Robertson once stated:
This is also related in Robertson 's 2016 autobiography, Testimony.
The Band 's performance of "The Weight '' in the 1968 studio recording included
The official recording credits on the single belong to the above names, in that order, not to The Band per se. In 2005, a remix of the song with Richard Manuel 's organ restored was released as a download - only bonus track for the iTunes Music Store version of A Musical History.
An edited version of the studio recording was included in the popular American counterculture film Easy Rider, which was released in July 1969. "The Weight '' played while the protagonists, hippie motorcyclists, enjoyed a ride through Monument Valley. The version on the soundtrack album is performed by Smith due to a failure to negotiate the rights to the original song.
On August 17, 1969, The Band performed "The Weight '' as the tenth song in their set at Woodstock. The Woodstock arrangement was more elaborate than the comparatively elemental and spare studio recording. Notably, it retained Robertson 's simple folk guitar introduction, but Helm 's slow studio performance drum bangs were replaced by a short drum roll that provided the feel of a faster tempo though the actual tempo was the same as the studio performance. Manuel 's Lowrey organ, which was mixed out of the studio recording, was prominent; and Robertson participated vocally in the choruses.
In the 1970s, "The Weight '' appeared on three live albums by The Band, Rock of Ages, Before the Flood, and The Last Waltz.
Just after their November 25, 1976, "farewell concert, '' The Band performed a gospel arrangement of "The Weight '' with The Staple Singers that was filmed for The Last Waltz. Mavis and Pops Staples sang second and third verse lead vocals, respectively, and Robertson performed with an electric guitar. This performance of "The Weight '' was included on the 1978 soundtrack album from the film. The Band 's performance of the song during the concert itself was later included in a 2002 extended re-release of the soundtrack album.
The songwriting credit to Robbie Robertson for "The Weight '', like credit for many of the songs performed by The Band, was disputed years later by Levon Helm. Helm insisted that the composition of the lyrics and the music was collaborative, declaring that each band member made a substantial contribution. In an interview, Helm credited Robertson with 60 percent of the lyrics, Danko and Manuel with 20 percent each of the lyrics, much of the music credit to Garth Hudson, and a small credit to himself for lyrics.
"The Weight '' has become a modern standard, and hence has been performed by many artists, including Little Feat, the Chambers Brothers, Eric Church, Chris Stapleton, Stoney LaRue, The Staple Singers, Waylon Jennings, Joe Cocker, Travis, Grateful Dead, Blues Traveler, the New Riders of the Purple Sage, O.A.R., Edwin McCain, the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, the Black Crowes, Spooky Tooth, Hanson, Old Crow Medicine Show, Panic! At the Disco, Shannon Curfman, Aretha Franklin, Joan Osborne, John Denver, Trampled by Turtles, Cassandra Wilson, Miranda Lambert, Al Kooper and Mike Bloomfield, Deana Carter, New Madrid, Dionne Warwick and Gillian Welch. Mumford & Sons, Ratdog and Bob Weir are also known to cover this song from time to time. Additional notable versions are by Zac Brown Band, Hoyt Axton, Lee Ann Womack, the band Smith, Weezer, the Allman Brothers Band, the Marshall Tucker Band, Jimmy Barnes with the Badloves, Free Wild, and Aaron Pritchett.
As a recording session guitarist, Duane Allman played lead slide guitar on Aretha Franklin 's and King Curtis 's versions of the song. These are included on Allman 's An Anthology (1972) and An Anthology Volume II (1974) respectively.
Jackie DeShannon 's cover of the song for Imperial Records in 1968 reached # 55 on the U.S. Pop chart, and # 35 in Canada. The song was recorded by Diana Ross and The Supremes with The Temptations in 1969 for their album Together on Motown Records. Country artist Sammi Smith included a cover of the song on her 1971 album Lonesome.
Folk singer Michelle Shocked covers the song as part of her 2007 gospel album ToHeavenURide. Charly García covered the song in Spanish under the title "El Peso, '' and Czech singer Marie Rottrová covered the song with the band Flamingo in 1970. Jeff Healey covered it on his album Mess of Blues in 2008. Jensen Ackles also covered a portion of the song along with Jason Manns in 2010.
Conan O'Brien performed the song as an encore during his The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour.
Aaron Weiss is known to perform the song during acoustic sets following performances of his band mewithoutYou.
The Black Keys performed the song at Coachella 2012, with John Fogerty as a special guest, in honor of Levon Helm, who had died the day before.
Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, who were honoring a fan 's sign request, performed "The Weight '' at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey on May 2, 2012, as a tribute to Levon Helm, who had died two weeks before. It was the first time the band had ever performed the song. Springsteen called Helm "one of the greatest, greatest voices in country, rockabilly and rock ' n ' roll... staggering... while playing the drums. Both his voice and his drumming were so incredibly versatile. He had a feel on the drums that comes out of certain place in the past and you ca n't replicate it. '' Springsteen also joked that when he was auditioning drummer Max Weinberg he made him sing.
Panic! At The Disco performed "The Weight '' for a television special on April 17, 2008.
A rendition of "The Weight '' was performed at the 55th Grammy Awards by various artists including Elton John, Zac Brown, Mumford and Sons, Mavis Staples, and Brittany Howard of Alabama Shakes as a tribute to Levon Helm and other deceased artists.
"The Weight '' was traditionally the last song played during the Midnight Rambles in Levon Helm 's barn in Woodstock, New York, often including the guest musicians for the evening 's festivities. Some of the musicians who played with Levon Helm in the re-formed Band or the Levon Helm Band, including guitarist Jim Weider, bassist Byron Isaacs and drummer Randy Ciarlante, have formed a group called "The Weight '' which performs a complete set of Band material.
Garth Brooks covered "The Weight '' on his 2013 compilation boxed set Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences.
"The Weight '' is a frequent cover, and inspiration for, The Weight Band, featuring former Band member Jim Weider, and past members of the Levon Helm Band and Rick Danko Group. Recently, The Weight Band performed "The Weight '' on a nationally broadcast PBS special, Infinity Hall Live.
"The Weight '' was performed by Jimmy Fallon and The Muppets in the closing moments of the final episode of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on February 7, 2014. The performance (which mirrored the arrangement and staging of the Band 's performance of the song with the Staple Singers in The Last Waltz) featured several notable Muppet characters including Kermit the Frog, Miss Piggy, and Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem, and ended with Fallon walking out of the Late Night studio, down the hall, and into the new studio of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.
After Levon Helm 's death, Graham Nash and Shane Fontayne wrote a song in tribute to him, entitled "Back Home. '' The refrain from "The Weight '' ("take a load off Fannie,... '') is included as a coda. The song has since become a staple of Nash 's public performances, including those of Crosby, Stills, and Nash.
Rickie Lee Jones recorded "The Weight '' for her 2012 album The Devil You Know (Rickie Lee Jones album).
"The Weight '' has been featured in a number of commercials, concerts, films and television shows, and onstage.
The song has also been used in commercials for:
Since 2009, the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band usually closes their live shows with a medley of "Will The Circle Be Unbroken '' and "The Weight ''. Jeff Hanna has commented on occasion, "this is for Brother Levon. ''
Sherie Rene Scott covered "The Weight '' in the Broadway musical Everyday Rapture
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how i met your mother cats in the cradle | Not a Father 's Day - Wikipedia
Michael Hagiwara (Mr. Li) Michael Antosy (Recruit) Elena K. Smith (Ted 's Cousin) Dan Lauria (Nolan) Daniele Watts (Lori) Lindsey Stoddart (Charlotte) Michael McCafferty (Cabbie)
"Not a Father 's Day '' is the seventh episode in the fourth season of the television series How I Met Your Mother and 71st overall. It originally aired on November 10, 2008.
In the bar, Barney announces that he is n't impressed with the girls there, not seeing anyone attractive. Ted points out a group of women in the corner who they agree are hot, but Barney states they are simply experiencing the ' Cheerleader effect ': as a group, they look hot, but seen individually, each one is unattractive. As he concludes this observation, Barney receives a call, in which he is told he is going to be a father. He panics, saying no one in their right mind would want kids.
Marshall and Lily have been noticing babies everywhere, and decide to have a discussion about having children. Lily tries to point out possible problems, but Marshall is too caught up in how cute babies are. They decide to have a baby, but are soon interrupted by Robin, who is living with them while she looks for a job and apartment. They ask her to stay at Ted 's while they have a romantic evening, and she reluctantly agrees.
Barney is praying to God for help when he receives news that the girl is not actually pregnant. He is so happy he dances down the street to Marshall 's office, where he announces he is going to create a holiday for people like him, called ' Not a Father 's Day '.
Marshall is told by his boss that he needs to be at a conference that night, and so ca n't spend the night with Lily. After telling her about this, Lily begins to think seriously about having kids, and starts to panic. She asks Ted and Robin over to her apartment to help her decide, with Ted supporting the idea to have a baby, and Robin opposing the idea. Lily says that Marshall is only focusing on the positive, while she has had time to see the problems they might have after speaking with other new parents. Robin says that although Ted does n't have children, he 's already a dorky dad, as he often lectures the rest of the group and tells bad jokes. Ted replies that Robin is just afraid of babies, and is seen not wanting to hold them and letting them sniff her like a dog. Lily, meanwhile, gets drunk.
Barney has been producing some Not a Father 's Day merchandise, including T - shirts, mugs and cards. He tells Marshall the idea is a hit, and that he already has a large following.
After seeing their neighbor 's baby 's sock, Lily decides to have a baby, and runs out while Ted and Robin are arguing. As Marshall prepares for his conference, he finds a drunk Lily in his office, ready to make a baby. She quickly causes trouble, pulling out Marshall 's files and throwing up in his trash bin.
While trying to find Lily, Ted and Robin continue to argue over kids, with Robin pointing out all the problems they cause, while Lily illustrates them. They go to the bar, and encounter Barney 's group, proudly celebrating the fact they do n't have kids. When Robin goes to look for Lily in the bathroom, Ted answers her phone, and Marshall tells him he has Lily. While putting her phone back, Ted finds the baby 's sock in Robin 's bag. While she denies it at first, Robin eventually admits that she took the sock, saying she 's confused at the moment, having no place to live. Ted invites her to move in with him while she looks for a place, and she accepts, while Future Ted announces that 's how Robin moved in with him.
Lily continues to cause problems for Marshall as he makes his presentation, by dancing around and stripping in the background. Afterwards, Marshall puts her in a cab to get her to fall asleep, before taking her home.
At the bar, Barney tells Ted and Robin how proud he is of the holiday he created, but Ted tells him it 's a day for losers. Barney disagrees, but Ted reveals it 's just the cheerleader effect, and individually, the guys are all geeks and weirdos, and are n't childless by choice. They leave Barney in the bar with this revelation, where he finds the sock, and sees how cute it is.
The next morning, Lily tells Marshall she sees now that he is ready for a baby, as he took care of her so well. Marshall says he is n't ready to balance work and children, and suggests they decide to wait a bit longer.
As the episode ends, Barney is seen at the karaoke bar, tearfully singing "Cat 's in the Cradle '' while holding the sock.
The episode had the title "Jeremy 's Sock '' but was changed to "Not a Father 's Day ''.
Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode 8.5 out of 10.
Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B+.
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who has starred in the most bond films | James Bond filmography - wikipedia
Commander James Bond RN -- code number 007 -- is a fictional character created by the British journalist and novelist Ian Fleming in 1952. The character appeared in a series of twelve novels and two short story collections written by Fleming and a number of continuation novels and spin - off works after Fleming 's death in 1964. There have been twenty - six films in total, produced between 1962 and 2015.
Fleming portrayed Bond as a tall, athletic, handsome secret agent in his thirties or forties; he has several vices including drinking, smoking, gambling, automobiles and womanising. He is an exceptional marksman, and skilled in unarmed combat, skiing, swimming and golf. While Bond kills without hesitation or regret, he usually kills only when carrying out orders, while acting in self - defence and occasionally as revenge.
American actor Barry Nelson was the first to portray Bond on screen, in a 1954 television adaptation, "Casino Royale ''. In 1961 Eon Productions began work on Dr. No, an adaptation of the novel of the same name. The result was a film that spawned a series of twenty - four films produced by Eon Productions and two independent films. After considering the likes of "refined '' English actors such as Cary Grant and David Niven, the producers cast Sean Connery as Bond in the film. Fleming was appalled at the selection of the uncouth, 31 - year - old Scottish actor, considering him to be the antithesis of his character. However, Connery 's physical prowess and sexual magnetism in the role came to be closely identified with the character, with Fleming ultimately changing his view on Connery and incorporating aspects of his portrayal into the books.
Seven actors in total have portrayed Bond on film. Following Connery 's portrayal, David Niven, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan and Daniel Craig have assumed the role. These screen versions have retained many traits from Fleming 's depiction, although some of Bond 's less fashionable attitudes have been dropped, such as racism, homophobia, retaining the services of a maid, and in the more recent films, smoking. Despite playing the same character, there have been notable differences among the portrayals. Daniel Craig is the incumbent Bond in the long - running Eon series, and played the part for a fourth time in the latest film, Spectre, released in October 2015.
A Secret Service agent, Bond was a composite based on a number of commandos whom author Ian Fleming had known during his service in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II, to whom he added his own style and a number of his own tastes. Fleming appropriated the name from American ornithologist James Bond. Bond 's code number 007 comes from one of British naval intelligence 's key achievements of World War I: the breaking of the German diplomatic code. One of the German documents cracked and read by the British was the Zimmermann Telegram, which was coded 0075, and which was one of the factors that led the US entering the war. Subsequently, if material was graded 00 it meant it was highly classified. Fleming later told a journalist, "When I was at the Admiralty... all the top - secret signals had the double - 0 prefix... and I decided to borrow it for Bond ''.
Although James Bond is in his mid-to - late thirties, he does not age in Fleming 's stories. Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett noted that, "within the first few pages (of Casino Royale) Ian had introduced most of Bond 's idiosyncrasies and trademarks '', which included his looks, his Bentley and his smoking and drinking habits: Bond 's penchant for alcohol runs throughout the series of books and he smokes up to 70 cigarettes a day.
Fleming decided to underplay Bond 's character, observing that "Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure ''. On another occasion, he reinforced his point, saying, "When I wrote the first one in 1953, I wanted Bond to be an extremely dull, uninteresting man to whom things happened; I wanted him to be a blunt instrument ''.
Sean Connery was the first actor to portray Bond on film in Dr. No (1962). An amateur bodybuilder, he had come to the attention of the Bond film producers after several appearances in British films from the late 1950s. At a muscular 6'2 ", Connery was initially met with disapproval from Fleming, who believed him to be an overgrown stuntman who lacked the finesse and elegance to play James Bond; he envisaged a suave actor, such as David Niven playing the role. Producer Albert R. Broccoli -- known to all as Cubby -- disagreed with Fleming 's view, later commenting that "I wanted a ballsy guy... put a bit of veneer over that tough Scottish hide and you 've got Fleming 's Bond instead of all the mincing poofs we had applying for the job ''. Eon 's choice of Connery was also based on his looks and sex appeal, an appeal that would later be echoed by Honor Blackman who said, after appearing with Connery in Goldfinger, "He was exceedingly handsome, virile and sexy and that really was the tenor of what the script was always trying to display ''. After Connery was chosen, director Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser, and introduced him to the high life, restaurants, casinos and women of London. In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson, Young educated the actor "in the ways of being dapper, witty, and above all, cool ''.
Connery 's interpretation of the character differed considerably from Fleming 's, being more promiscuous and cold blooded than the literary version. Connery described Bond as "a complete sensualist -- senses highly tuned, awake to everything, quite amoral. I particularly like him because he thrives on conflict ''. Academic James Chapman observed that for Dr. No, Connery 's interpretation of the character, although not complete, showed the actor "should be credited with having established a new style of performance: a British screen hero in the manner of an American leading man ''. In his second film, From Russia with Love, Connery looked less nervous and edgy; he gave "a relaxed, wry performance of subtle wit and style ''. Pfeiffer and Worrall noted that Connery "personified James Bond with such perfection that even Ian Fleming... admitted that it was difficult imagining anyone else in the part ''; academic Jeremy Black agreed and declared that "Connery made the role his own and created the Bond audience for the cinema ''. Black also observed that Connery gave the character a "spare, pared - down character... (with) inner bleakness along with the style ''. Connery played Bond with "the right mix of cool charisma, violence and arrogance... against which all others are judged ''. Raymond Benson perceived that Connery "embodies a ruggedness and an intense screen presence this transcends any preconceived notions about the character ''. Benson also noted that Bond was witty, but contains "an assured toughness that epitomises the machismo male ''. Roger Moore agreed with Black and Benson, commenting that "Sean was Bond. He created Bond. He embodied Bond and because of Sean, Bond became an instantly recognisable character the world over -- he was rough, tough, mean and witty... he was a bloody good 007 ''. However, despite his charm and virility, Connery was characteristically laconic in his delivery. Christopher Bray says of him that "in his single - minded, laconic, mocking, self - sufficient vanity, Connery 's Bond was the epitome of sixties consumer culture ''.
Interviewed by Oriana Fallaci in 1965, Connery identified where he had altered the character for the films, saying "I said to the producers that the character had one defect, there was no humor about him; to get him accepted, they 'd have to let me play him tongue - in - cheek, so people could laugh. They agreed, and there you are: today Bond is accepted to such an extent that even philosophers take the trouble to analyze him, even intellectuals enjoy defending him or attacking him. And even while they 're laughing at him, people take him terribly seriously ''. Connery went on to add that "Bond is important: this invincible superman that every man would like to copy, that every woman would like to conquer, this dream we all have of survival. And then one ca n't help liking him ''. After the pressures of five films in six years, Connery left the role after the 1967 film You Only Live Twice saying, "It became a terrible pressure, like living in a goldfish bowl... that was part of the reason I wanted to be finished with Bond. Also I had become completely identified with it, and it became very wearing and very boring ''.
After a hiatus of one film -- On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, in which George Lazenby played Bond -- Connery returned to the role for Diamonds Are Forever after David Picker, the head of United Artists, made it clear that Connery was to be enticed back to the role and that money was no object. When approached about resuming the role of Bond, Connery demanded -- and received -- a fee of £ 1.25 million (£ 24 million in 2016 pounds), 12.5 % of the gross profits and, as a further enticement, United Artists offered to back two films of his choice. His performance received mixed reviews, with Raymond Benson considering that Connery "looks weary and bored... he is overweight, slow - moving, and does n't seem to be trying to create a credible character ''. Despite that, Benson considers that Connery "still radiates more screen presence than Roger Moore or George Lazenby ''. On the other hand, Pauline Kael said "Connery 's James Bond is less lecherous than before and less foppish -- and he 's better this way ''.
In the early 1980s producer Jack Schwartzman moved ahead with a non-Eon Bond film, following the controversy over the 1961 novel Thunderball and the subsequent long legal battle; the result was Never Say Never Again. Connery accepted an offer to play Bond once more, asking for (and receiving) a fee of $3 million ($7 million in 2017 dollars), a percentage of the profits, as well as casting, director and script approval. The script has several references to Bond 's advancing years -- playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming. David Robinson, reviewing the film for The Times considered that, "Connery... is back, looking hardly a day older or thicker, and still outclassing every other exponent of the role, in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way ''. In 2003 Bond, as portrayed by Connery, was selected as the third - greatest hero in cinema history by the American Film Institute.
When Sean Connery had been cast in November 1961, David Niven had been Fleming 's choice for the role as the actor reflected his image of the character. In 1965 producer Charles Feldman signed Niven to play Sir James Bond for Casino Royale, a film not made by Eon Productions. Connery and Peter Sellers had both turned down the role. Niven was 56 when he played Bond and his characterisation was that of an elderly man who had won the Victoria Cross at the Siege of Mafeking, had a daughter by his lover, the spy Mata Hari, played Claude Debussy on the piano, ate royal jelly and cultivated black roses. The concept of Bond is that once Niven 's Bond retired, his name and 007 designation was passed to another agent to keep the legend alive; James Chapman notes that the implication was that the "other Bond '' was that played by Connery.
Chapman considered the concept of an elderly Bond to be an interesting one, with Bond referring to Connery 's Bond as a "sexual acrobat who leaves a trail of beautiful dead women behind like blown roses ''. In line with the literary Bond, Niven 's character drives a vintage Bentley, rather than the Aston Martin favoured by Connery. Bond scholar Steven Jay Rubin thought Niven perfectly cast as the retired Bond, and saw him as "a throw - back to the hell - for - leather adventure heroes '' of the character, which paralleled Niven 's own life and career. Barnes and Hearn describe this as a "perfectly fair interpretation '', given the way Niven approached the role, while Raymond Benson thinks casting Niven was "intelligent ''. Jeremy Black questioned the use of Niven in the role, observing that he did not seem to be a killer, and did not have the "disconcerting edge '' that Connery had.
With the departure of Connery after You Only Live Twice, Broccoli and director Peter R. Hunt chose Australian George Lazenby to play the role of Bond. He first came to their attention after seeing him in a Fry 's Chocolate Cream advertisement. Lazenby dressed the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit (ordered, but uncollected, by Connery), and going to Connery 's barber at the Dorchester Hotel. Lazenby consolidated his claim during a screen test, when he accidentally punched a professional wrestler, who was acting as stunt coordinator, in the face, impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression. Lazenby never signed a contract, with negotiations dragging on during production, and he was subsequently convinced by his agent Ronan O'Rahilly that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s; as a result he left the role before the release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service in 1969. For his performance as Bond, Lazenby was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year -- Actor at the 27th Golden Globe Awards.
Critical opinion was split about Lazenby; he has been considered to have been the worst Bond, and has variously been described as "laconic and humourless '', "a little stiff '' and "annoying and smug ''. Derek Malcolm of The Guardian was dismissive of Lazenby 's performance, saying that he "is not a good actor and though I never thought Sean Connery was all that stylish either, there are moments when one yearns for a little of his louche panache ''. The New York Times critic AH Weiler also weighed in against Lazenby, saying that "Lazenby, if not a spurious Bond, is merely a casual, pleasant, satisfactory replacement ''. Pauline Kael called Lazenby "quite a dull fellow '' in her otherwise positive review in The New Yorker. However, Peter R. Hunt, director of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, stated that Lazenby should have undertaken more films in the role, saying "he would have made a very credible Bond and been very good indeed ''.
Smith and Lavington consider that Lazenby "had chosen to play Bond the same way as Sean Connery had, with perhaps more humility and humanity ''; they went on to say that "Lazenby 's inexperience rarely shows '' in the film, and that "he invariably rises to the occasion ''. Alexander Walker in the London Evening Standard said that, "The truth is that George Lazenby is almost as good a James Bond as the man referred to in his film as ' the other fellow '. Lazenby 's voice is more suave than sexy - sinister and he could pass for the other fellow 's twin on the shady side of the casino. Bond is now definitely all set for the Seventies ''. Judith Crist of New York Magazine commented that, "This time around there 's less suavity and a no - nonsense muscularity and maleness to the role via the handsome Mr. Lazenby ''. Feminist film critic Molly Haskell wrote an approving review in the Village Voice: "Lazenby... seems more comfortable in a wet tuxedo than a dry martini, more at ease as a donnish genealogist than reading (or playing) Playboy, and who actually dares to think that one woman who is his equal is better than a thousand part - time playmates ''.
James Chapman considers that Lazenby looks the part of Bond, identifying his athleticism and "arrogant swagger '', which "convey the snobbery of the character ''. Chapman also distinguished a more vulnerable and human characterisation in Bond -- feeling exhausted and falling in love -- as opposed to the "heroic superman '' of Connery. Brian Fairbanks noted that "OHMSS gives us a James Bond capable of vulnerability, a man who can show fear and is not immune to heartbreak. Lazenby is that man, and his performance is superb ''. Ben Macintyre also observed that of all the Bonds, Lazenby 's characterisation was closest to that of Fleming 's original character.
After Diamonds Are Forever, Broccoli and Saltzman tried to convince Sean Connery to return as Bond, but he declined. After considering Jeremy Brett, Michael Billington and Julian Glover, the two producers finally turned to Roger Moore, who they had previously discussed for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, but who had been unavailable, and he was ultimately cast to play Bond in Live and Let Die. At the time Moore was an established television actor, known for his performances as Simon Templar in The Saint and Lord Brett Sinclair in The Persuaders!: in both of which he played a "charming, debonair, international playboy ''. When playing Bond, Moore tried not to imitate either Connery or his previous roles, and screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz fitted the screenplay around Moore 's persona by giving more comedy scenes and a light - hearted feel to Bond, an approach that led Raymond Benson to describe Moore 's Bond as "a rather smarmy, eyebrow - raising international playboy who never seemed to get hurt ''.
Film writer Andrew Spicer considered Roger Moore to be the most elegant and mannerly of the Bonds, with the voice and style of an English debonair country gentleman. Benson agreed, stating that Moore was, "too nice and well - mannered to be a James Bond of any real substance '', while Doug Pratt said that "the writers worked out an amenable personality for Roger Moore and found a breezy balance between comedy and action ''. To make Moore 's character appear tougher, a Smith & Wesson. 44 Magnum -- which at the time was associated with the macho image of the Clint Eastwood character, Dirty Harry -- was chosen for Moore to use in Live and Let Die rather than Bond 's usual choice of Walther PPK.
Spicer says "Roger Moore re-created Bond as an old - style debonair hero, more polished and sophisticated than Connery 's incarnation, using the mocking insouciance he had perfected in his role as Simon Templar... Moore 's humour was a throwaway, and certainly in the later films, verged on self - parody. It was an essential strand in the increasingly tongue - in - cheek direction of the series which became more light - hearted, knowing and playfully intertextual ''. Chapman noted that Moore was the most comedic of the Bonds, with a more light - hearted approach to playing the character with a mocking wit and innuendo. Additionally, Moore 's one - liners were delivered in a way to suggest that the violence inherent in the films was a joke, as opposed to Connery 's, which was used to mitigate the violence. Moore explained his approach to the humour by saying "to me, the Bond situations are so ridiculous... I mean, this man is supposed to be a spy, and yet everybody knows he 's a spy... it 's outrageous. So you have to treat the humour outrageously as well ''.
Pauline Kael was a fairly vocal critic of Moore 's, dismissing him as an "iceberg '' in The Man with the Golden Gun. In reviewing For Your Eyes Only, she wrote "Roger Moore is Bond again, and his idea of Bond 's imperturbable cool is the same as playing dead ''. Reviewing Moonraker, she wrote "Roger Moore is dutiful and passive as Bond; his clothes are neatly pressed and he shows up for work, like an office manager who is turning into dead wood but hanging on to collect his pension ''. Only in The Spy Who Loved Me, one of Kael 's favourite Bond films, did she praise him describing him as self - effacing: "Moore gets the chance to look scared -- an emotion that suits him and makes him more likable ''.
A number of Moore 's personal preferences were transferred into his characterisation of Bond: his taste for Cuban cigars and his wearing of safari suits were assigned to the character. Moore 's use for cigars in his early films put him in contrast to the cigarette - smoking Connery, Lazenby and Dalton. By the time of Moore 's fifth film, For Your Eyes Only, released in 1981, his characterisation had come to represent an old - fashioned character, in contrast to the fashionability Connery had brought to the role in the 1960s.
In 1985 Moore appeared in his seventh and final film, A View to a Kill; he was 57 (he appeared alongside co-star Tanya Roberts, who was 30). Critics focused on Moore 's age: The Washington Post said "Moore is n't just long in the tooth -- he 's got tusks, and what looks like an eye job has given him the pie - eyed blankness of a zombie. He 's not believable anymore in the action sequences, even less so in the romantic scenes ''. When he was cast for the film, Moore recalled that he felt "a bit long in the tooth '', and in December 2007 admitted that he "was only about four hundred years too old for the part ''. Like Connery, Moore appeared as Bond in seven films; by the time he retired in 1985, he was the oldest actor to play 007 in the Eon series, and his Bond films had earned over $1 billion at the box office.
With the retirement of Roger Moore in 1985, a search for a new actor to play Bond took place that saw a number of actors, including Sam Neill, Pierce Brosnan and Timothy Dalton, audition for the role in 1986. Bond co-producer Michael G. Wilson, director John Glen, Dana and Barbara Broccoli "were impressed with Sam Neill and very much wanted to use him '', although Bond producer Albert R. Broccoli was not sold on the actor. Dalton and Brosnan were both considered by Eon, but after Brosnan was eventually ruled out by his Remington Steele contract, Dalton was appointed in August 1986 on a salary of $5.2 million. When he was either 24 or 25 years old Dalton had discussed playing Bond with Broccoli, but decided he was too young to accept the role, thinking Bond should be played between 35 and 40 years old. In preparing for the role, Dalton, a green - eyed, dark haired, slender, 6'2 '' (1 m 88 cm) classically trained Shakespearean actor, was keen to portray the character as accurately as possible, reading up extensively on the books before his role in The Living Daylights (1987).
Dalton 's Bond was a serious one: dark, cold, emotional, stern, ruthless, showing little humour, and focused as a killer with little time for fun and indulgence. Dalton 's interpretation of the character came from his "desire to see a darker Bond '', one that was "less of a womaniser, tougher and closer to the darker character Ian Fleming wrote about ''. James Chapman also considered Dalton to be closer to Fleming 's Bond than the previous actors, writing that Dalton was "clearly less comfortable... with the witty asides and one - liners... so he becomes something closer to the Bond of the books, who rarely develops a sense of humour ''. When reviewing Licence to Kill, Iain Johnstone of The Sunday Times disagreed, declaring that "any vestiges of the gentleman spy... by Ian Fleming '' have now gone; he went on to say that "this character is remarkably close both in deed and action to the eponymous hero of the new Batman film ''.
Not all viewers were taken with Dalton. Jay Scott of The Globe and Mail was entirely dismissive. "The new Bond has been widely described in feature stories as a throwback to the Ian Fleming original (studying the Fleming novels, Dalton was pleased to discover that Bond was a human being, he says), and that may be true, if the Fleming original lacked charm, sex appeal and wit. Timothy Dalton 's Bond is a serious bloke who swallows his words and approaches his job with responsibility and humanity, and eschews promiscuity -- Dirtless Harry. You get the feeling that on his off nights, he might curl up with the Reader 's Digest and catch an episode of Moonlighting -- he 'd try to memorize the jokes -- before nodding off under the influence of Ovaltine. The British reviews of The Living Daylights have been laudatory, perhaps because this Bond is the most British of all, if British is to be understood as a synonym for reserved ''.
Raymond Benson noted that Dalton "purposely played Bond as a ruthless and serious man with very little of the wit displayed by Connery, Lazenby or Moore '', and considered him to be "the most accurate and literal interpretation of the role... ever seen on screen ''. His character also reflected a degree of moral ambiguity; in Licence to Kill, for instance, he becomes a rogue agent, while Dalton himself saw the character as a "man, not a superhuman; a man who is beset with moral confusions and apathies and uncertainties, and who is often very frightened and nervous and tense ''. Smith and Lavington observed that during Dalton 's portrayal in Licence to Kill, Bond appeared "self - absorbed... reckless, brutal, prone to nervous laughter and... probably insane, or at least seriously disturbed. In the light of Licence to Kill, one academic, Martin Willis, referred to Dalton 's Bond as a "muscular vigilante ''. Steven Jay Rubin noted that Dalton 's films had "a hard - edged reality and some unflinching violent episodes that were better suited to Dalton 's more realistic approach to the character ''. Rubin considered Dalton 's portrayal to be "Fleming 's Bond... the suffering Bond ''. In contrast to the previous incarnations of the character, Smith and Lavington identified Dalton 's humour as "brooding rather than flippant ''; combined with his heavy smoking, they considered him "an effective leading man ''. Eoghan Lyng, writing for The James Bond Dossier, favourably compared him to Daniel Craig, stating that "Despite chronological placement, it was Dalton, not Brosnan, who proved to be the prototype for the 21st century Bond. ''. Although Bond screenwriter Richard Maibaum called Sean Connery the best Bond, he considered Dalton the best actor of the four he worked with. His predecessor, Roger Moore also felt that Dalton was the best actor to play Bond.
Dalton 's films did not perform as well at the box office as most of the previous films. Commentators such as Screen International considered the Bond series had run its course in the age of series such as Indiana Jones and Lethal Weapon. Edward P. Comentale observed that "Dalton, for all his occasional flat northern vowels, was probably too much the stage actor to be convincing as an action hero in the age of Willis, Schwarzenegger and Stallone ''. After just two films -- The Living Daylights and Licence to Kill -- litigation ensued over the licensing of the Bond catalogue, delaying what would have been Dalton 's third film by several years. His six - year contract expired in 1993 and he left the series in 1994.
After Timothy Dalton retired from the Bond role in 1994, Eon turned to the actor they had considered after A View to a Kill: Pierce Brosnan. He was offered a three - film contract, with an option on a fourth; his salary for his first film, GoldenEye, was $4 million, which rose to $16.5 million for his fourth and final outing, Die Another Day. Brosnan had first met Broccoli on the set of For Your Eyes Only, when Brosnan 's wife, Cassandra Harris, was appearing in the film as Countess Lisl von Schlaf, and the couple lunched with Broccoli during filming. Brosnan went on to play a criminal - turned - private investigator in Remington Steele in the 1980s, where he captured some of the traits of previous Bonds in playing the role: like Moore, he exemplified a high degree of suavity, elegance, charm and wit, but displayed a masculinity and grittiness on occasion reminiscent of Connery 's Bond, both successfully "combine the character 's Englishness with a classless internationalism that is highly knowing ''. Andrew Spicer says that "Brosnan 's frame carries the ' Armani look ' with its refined understated Englishness, to perfection. His lithe, sinuous athleticism is well suited to the fast - paced action and state - of - the - art gadgetry that retains the series ' core appeal ''. James Chapman also considered Brosnan 's appearance striking, saying the actor had "old - fashioned, darkly handsome matinee idol looks ''.
With Brosnan, the Bond writers knew that because of the changes in public attitudes, he could not be as overtly sexual and dominant over women as Connery 's Bond, and was denounced by M in GoldenEye to be a "sexist, misogynist dinosaur, a relic of the Cold War ''. Brosnan was seen by many as the quintessential James Bond in appearance and manner; displaying an air of coolness, elegance and a grace which made him believable as an international playboy, if not purely as an assassin. John G. Stackhouse for instance argues that it is preposterous that any man as strikingly handsome as Brosnan and Connery could be a secret agent, saying, "When Sean Connery or Pierce Brosnan enters a room, everyone notices. Thus it is ridiculous to suppose that James Bond, looking like that, could be a secret agent for longer than about two seconds ''.
Brosnan 's Bond was introduced in GoldenEye; James Chapman argues that the film works his portrayal of Bond into the history of the others in the series through the post-credits sequence use of the Aston Martin DB5, previously seen in Goldfinger and Thunderball, "thus immediately evoking the memory of (Sean) Connery ''. Brosnan 's characterisation of Bond was seen by Jeremy Black as being "closer to the Fleming novels than Moore... yet he is also lighter and less intense than Dalton ''. Black also commented that the shift in character in the first three films reflected changing social opinions, with Bond not smoking. Brosnan was clear he wanted to change Bond 's smoking habit, saying "I do n't give a damn about everyone 's perception of the character: I think smoking causes cancer therefore he does n't smoke '', although he did smoke a Cuban cigar in Die Another Day. Brosnan continued with the use of humour prevalent with other portrayals, and provided a "mix of action and danger threaded through with the right amount of wit and humour ''; Smith and Lavington saw the humour largely as puns that were "flippant, but not crass ''.
After four films in the role, Brosnan stated he wished to do one final Bond film. Although plans were made for a film to be released in 2004, negotiations stalled and Brosnan announced his intention to leave in July 2004.
On 14 October 2005 Eon Productions, Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Sony Pictures Entertainment announced at a press conference in London that Daniel Craig would be the sixth actor to portray Bond in the Eon series (although seventh film Bond overall). A tuxedo - and lifejacket - clad Craig arrived via a Royal Navy speedboat. Craig had based his acceptance of the role on the strength of the script for the first film, Casino Royale; he later recalled that "once I sat down and read the story, I just thought that I wanted to tell (it)... I 'm a big Bond fan, and I love what he represents ''. Significant controversy followed the decision, with some critics and fans expressing doubt the producers had made the right choice. Throughout the entire production period, Internet campaigns such as danielcraigisnotbond.com expressed their dissatisfaction and threatened to boycott the film in protest. Craig, unlike previous actors, was not considered by the protesters to fit the tall, dark, handsome and charismatic image of Bond to which viewers had been accustomed. Many disparagingly called him "James Blonde '', believing the 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m) blond - haired blue - eyed rugged Craig to be far fitting from the traditional tall, dark and suave actors who had earlier portrayed him. The Daily Mirror ran a front - page news story critical of Craig, with the headline, The Name 's Bland -- James Bland.
Craig first played Bond in the 2006 film Casino Royale, an adaptation of Fleming 's novel of the same name and a reboot of the Eon series, which saw Bond earn his 00 status. Despite the negative press on his appointment, Craig was widely praised by critics and former Bonds after the release of Casino Royale, believing him to have been the first actor to truly nail Fleming 's character in the book: Todd McCarthy, reviewing the film for Variety, considered that "Craig comes closer to the author 's original conception of this exceptionally long - lived male fantasy figure than anyone since early Sean Connery '', and he went on to say that "Craig once and for all claims the character as his own '', while Steven Spielberg called Craig "the perfect 21st - century Bond ''. Paul Arendt, writing for the BBC, agreed, observing that "Daniel Craig is not a good Bond. He 's a great Bond. Specifically, he is 007 as conceived by Ian Fleming -- a professional killing machine, a charming, cold - hearted patriot with a taste for luxury. Craig is the first actor to really nail 007 's defining characteristic: he 's an absolute swine ''. James Chapman commented on the realism and violence in the film noting that Bond is seen to seriously bleed for the first time in the series; Chapman also identified a number of violent scenes which make Casino Royale notable in the series. In 2012 Skyfall was released: it was Craig 's third outing as 007. Reviewing the film, Philip French, writing in The Observer, considered that Craig managed to "get out of the shadow of Connery '', while the New Statesman thought that he had "relaxed into Bond without losing any steeliness ''.
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when was i am a child of god written | I Am a Child of God - wikipedia
"I Am a Child of God '' is a Latter - day Saint hymn and song for children. The lyrics were written in 1957 by Naomi W. Randall and set to music by Mildred Tanner Pettit. The song has been translated into over 90 languages. The phrase "I Am a Child of God '' is also used in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) as a declaration of a basic teaching of the church.
Randall composed the first three verses of "I Am a Child of God '' at the request of the general board of the Primary Association, of which she was a member. The board wanted a song that could teach children about LDS Church teachings on the nature of a child 's relationship with God. Randall described how she composed the song:
I got down on my knees and prayed aloud, pleading that our Heavenly Father would let me know the right words.
Around 2: 00 a.m., I awakened and began to think again about the song. Words came to my mind.... I immediately got up and began to write the words down as they had come to me. Three verses and a chorus were soon formed.
I gratefully surveyed the work, drank of the message of the words, and returned to my bedroom where I knelt before my Father in Heaven to say "Thank you! ''
Randall mailed the lyrics to her friend Mildred T. Pettit in California, who wrote the accompanying music.
The song was first performed at a stake Primary conference in 1957. After hearing the performance, apostle Spencer W. Kimball asked the Primary general board if the phrase "Teach me all that I must know / To live with him someday '' could be changed to "Teach me all that I must do / To live with him someday ''. As Kimball later explained, "To know is n't enough. The devils know and tremble; the devils know everything. We have to do something. '' Randall accepted the change.
The song was first published in the church 's 1969 Sing with Me, a songbook for children. In 1978, Randall composed a fourth verse to the song. However, when the song was added to the LDS Church 's 1985 hymnal, the decision was made to not include the fourth verse because it was considered by the Church Correlation Committee to be "not officially part of the song ''. When a new church songbook for children was produced in 1989, the fourth verse was included.
"I Am a Child of God '' is hymn number 301 in Hymns of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints and on page 2 in the Children 's Songbook.
"I Am a Child of God '' is one of the 45 hymns that the church publishes in its basic curriculum sources that are used in areas of the world where the church is new or underdeveloped. Thus, it is often one of the first hymns that new Latter - day Saints receive and learn. The song has been translated into over 90 languages and has been the subject of numerous musical adaptations by choirs and other musicians. "I Am a Child of God '' is a common phrase used in curriculum, magazines, sermons, and children 's clothing, jewelry and novelties as a means of teaching a basic doctrine of Mormonism in simple language.
In February 2007, the LDS Church celebrated the 50th anniversary of the writing of "I Am a Child of God ''.
The copyright to "I Am a Child of God '' is owned by Intellectual Reserve, Inc., a corporation established by the LDS Church to hold its intellectual property. Intellectual Reserve allows copying or downloading of the music and lyrics of the song for incidental, noncommercial church, or noncommercial home uses. In the United States, the phrase "I Am a Child of God '' is not trademarked and may be used by anyone for commercial purposes.
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when was the most complete version of gilgamesh compiled | Epic of Gilgamesh - wikipedia
The Epic of Gilgamesh (/ ˈɡɪlɡəmɛʃ /) is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia that is often regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh (Sumerian for "Gilgamesh ''), king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC). These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic. The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as the "Old Babylonian '' version, dates to the 18th century BC and is titled after its incipit, Shūtur eli sharrī ("Surpassing All Other Kings ''). Only a few tablets of it have survived. The later "standard '' version dates from the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the incipit Sha naqba īmuru ("He who Saw the Abyss '', in modern terms: "He who Sees the Unknown ''). Approximately two thirds of this longer, twelve - tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th - century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.
The first half of the story discusses Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, and Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to stop Gilgamesh from oppressing the people of Uruk. After Enkidu becomes civilized through sexual initiation with a prostitute, he travels to Uruk, where he challenges Gilgamesh to a test of strength. Gilgamesh wins the contest; nonetheless, the two become friends. Together, they make a six - day journey to the legendary Cedar Forest, where they plan to slay the Guardian, Humbaba the Terrible, and cut down the sacred Cedar. The goddess Ishtar sends the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh for spurning her advances. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill the Bull of Heaven after which the gods decide to sentence Enkidu to death and kill him.
In the second half of the epic, distress over Enkidu 's death causes Gilgamesh to undertake a long and perilous journey to discover the secret of eternal life. He eventually learns that "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands ''. However, because of his great building projects, his account of Siduri 's advice, and what the immortal man Utnapishtim told him about the Great Flood, Gilgamesh 's fame survived well after his death with expanding interest in the Gilgamesh story which has been translated into many languages and is featured in works of popular fiction.
Distinct sources exist from over a 2000 - year timeframe. The earliest Sumerian poems are now generally considered to be distinct stories, rather than parts of a single epic. They date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC). The Old Babylonian tablets (c. 1800 BC), are the earliest surviving tablets for a single Epic of Gilgamesh narrative. The older Old Babylonian tablets and later Akkadian version are important sources for modern translations, with the earlier texts mainly used to fill in gaps (lacunae) in the later texts. Although several revised versions based on new discoveries have been published, the epic remains incomplete. Analysis of the Old Babylonian text has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The most recent Akkadian version (c. 1200 BC), also referred to as the standard version, consisting of twelve tablets, was edited by Sin - liqe - unninni and was found in the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh.
The New York Times, front page, 1872
The Epic of Gilgamesh was discovered by Austen Henry Layard, Hormuzd Rassam, and W.K. Loftus in 1853. The central character of Gilgamesh was initially reintroduced to the world as "Izdubar '', before the cuneiform logographs in his name could be pronounced accurately. The first modern translation was published in the early 1870s by George Smith. Smith then made further discoveries of texts on his later expeditions, which culminated in his final translation which is given in his book The Chaldaean Account of Genesis (1880).
The most definitive modern translation is a two - volume critical work by Andrew George, published by Oxford University Press in 2003. A book review by the Cambridge scholar, Eleanor Robson, claims that George 's is the most significant critical work on Gilgamesh in the last 70 years. George discusses the state of the surviving material, and provides a tablet - by - tablet exegesis, with a dual language side - by - side translation. In 2004, Stephen Mitchell supplied a controversial version that takes many liberties with the text and includes modernized allusions and commentary relating to the Iraq War of 2003.
The first direct Arabic translation from the original tablets was made in the 1960s by the Iraqi archaeologist Taha Baqir.
The discovery of artifacts (c. 2600 BC) associated with Enmebaragesi of Kish, mentioned in the legends as the father of one of Gilgamesh 's adversaries, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.
From the diverse sources found, two main versions of the epic have been partially reconstructed: the standard Akkadian version, or He who saw the deep, and the Old Babylonian version, or Surpassing all other kings. Five earlier Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh have been partially recovered, some with primitive versions of specific episodes in the Akkadian version, others with unrelated stories.
The standard version was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh in 1853. It was written in a dialect of Akkadian that was used for literary purposes. This version was compiled by Sin - liqe - unninni sometime between 1300 and 1000 BC from earlier texts.
The standard Akkadian version has different opening words, or incipit, from the older version. The older version begins with the words "Surpassing all other kings '', while the standard version has "He who saw the deep '' (ša nagba īmuru), "deep '' referring to the mysteries of the information brought back by Gilgamesh from his meeting with Uta - Napishti (Utnapishtim) about Ea, the fountain of wisdom. Gilgamesh was given knowledge of how to worship the gods, why death was ordained for human beings, what makes a good king, and how to live a good life. The story of Utnapishtim, the hero of the flood myth, can also be found in the Babylonian Epic of Atrahasis.
The 12th tablet is a sequel to the original 11, and was probably added at a later date. It bears little relation to the well - crafted 11 - tablet epic; the lines at the beginning of the first tablet are quoted at the end of the 11th tablet, giving it circularity and finality. Tablet 12 is a near copy of an earlier Sumerian tale, a prequel, in which Gilgamesh sends Enkidu to retrieve some objects of his from the Underworld, and he returns in the form of a spirit to relate the nature of the Underworld to Gilgamesh.
This summary is based on Andrew George 's translation.
The story introduces Gilgamesh, king of Uruk. Gilgamesh, two - thirds god and one - third man, is oppressing his people, who cry out to the gods for help. For the young women of Uruk this oppression takes the form of a droit du seigneur, or "lord 's right '', to sleep with brides on their wedding night. For the young men (the tablet is damaged at this point) it is conjectured that Gilgamesh exhausts them through games, tests of strength, or perhaps forced labour on building projects. The gods respond to the people 's pleas by creating an equal to Gilgamesh who will be able to stop his oppression. This is the primitive man, Enkidu, who is covered in hair and lives in the wild with the animals. He is spotted by a trapper, whose livelihood is being ruined because Enkidu is uprooting his traps. The trapper tells the sun - god Shamash about the man, and it is arranged for Enkidu to be seduced by Shamhat, a temple prostitute, his first step towards being tamed. After six days and seven nights (or two weeks, according to more recent scholarship) of lovemaking and teaching Enkidu about the ways of civilization, she takes Enkidu to a shepherd 's camp to learn how to be civilized. Gilgamesh, meanwhile, has been having dreams about the imminent arrival of a beloved new companion and asks his mother, Ninsun, to help interpret these dreams.
Shamhat brings Enkidu to the shepherds ' camp, where he is introduced to a human diet and becomes the night watchman. Learning from a passing stranger about Gilgamesh 's treatment of new brides, Enkidu is incensed and travels to Uruk to intervene at a wedding. When Gilgamesh attempts to visit the wedding chamber, Enkidu blocks his way, and they fight. After a fierce battle, Enkidu acknowledges Gilgamesh 's superior strength and they become friends. Gilgamesh proposes a journey to the Cedar Forest to slay the monstrous demi - god Humbaba in order to gain fame and renown. Despite warnings from Enkidu and the council of elders, Gilgamesh is not deterred.
The elders give Gilgamesh advice for his journey. Gilgamesh visits his mother, the goddess Ninsun, who seeks the support and protection of the sun - god Shamash for their adventure. Ninsun adopts Enkidu as her son, and Gilgamesh leaves instructions for the governance of Uruk in his absence.
Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest. Every few days they camp on a mountain, and perform a dream ritual. Gilgamesh has five terrifying dreams about falling mountains, thunderstorms, wild bulls, and a thunderbird that breathes fire. Despite similarities between his dream figures and earlier descriptions of Humbaba, Enkidu interprets these dreams as good omens, and denies that the frightening images represent the forest guardian. As they approach the cedar mountain, they hear Humbaba bellowing, and have to encourage each other not to be afraid.
The heroes enter the cedar forest. Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest, insults and threatens them. He accuses Enkidu of betrayal, and vows to disembowel Gilgamesh and feed his flesh to the birds. Gilgamesh is afraid, but with some encouraging words from Enkidu the battle commences. The mountains quake with the tumult and the sky turns black. The god Shamash sends 13 winds to bind Humbaba, and he is captured. Humbaba pleads for his life, and Gilgamesh pities him. He offers to make Gilgamesh king of the forest, to cut the trees for him, and to be his slave. Enkidu, however, argues that Gilgamesh should kill Humbaba to establish his reputation forever. Humbaba curses them both and Gilgamesh dispatches him with a blow to the neck, as well as killing his seven sons. The two heroes cut down many cedars, including a gigantic tree that Enkidu plans to fashion into a gate for the temple of Enlil. They build a raft and return home along the Euphrates with the giant tree and (possibly) the head of Humbaba.
Gilgamesh rejects the advances of the goddess Ishtar because of her mistreatment of previous lovers like Dumuzi. Ishtar asks her father Anu to send Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven, to avenge her. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise the dead who will "outnumber the living '' and "devour them ''. Anu becomes frightened, and gives in to her. Ishtar leads Gugalanna to Uruk, and it causes widespread devastation. It lowers the level of the Euphrates river, and dries up the marshes. It opens up huge pits that swallow 300 men. Without any divine assistance, Enkidu and Gilgamesh attack and slay it, and offer up its heart to Shamash. When Ishtar cries out, Enkidu hurls one of the hindquarters of the bull at her. The city of Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has an ominous dream about his future failure.
In Enkidu 's dream, the gods decide that one of the heroes must die because they killed Humbaba and Gugalanna. Despite the protestations of Shamash, Enkidu is marked for death. Enkidu curses the great door he has fashioned for Enlil 's temple. He also curses the trapper and Shamhat for removing him from the wild. Shamash reminds Enkidu of how Shamhat fed and clothed him, and introduced him to Gilgamesh. Shamash tells him that Gilgamesh will bestow great honors upon him at his funeral, and will wander into the wild consumed with grief. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamhat instead. In a second dream, however, he sees himself being taken captive to the Netherworld by a terrifying Angel of Death. The underworld is a "house of dust '' and darkness whose inhabitants eat clay, and are clothed in bird feathers, supervised by terrifying beings. For 12 days, Enkidu 's condition worsens. Finally, after a lament that he could not meet a heroic death in battle, he dies. In a famous line from the epic Gilgamesh clings to Enkidu 's body and denies that he has died until a maggot drops from the corpse 's nose.
Gilgamesh delivers a lament for Enkidu, in which he calls upon mountains, forests, fields, rivers, wild animals, and all of Uruk to mourn for his friend. Recalling their adventures together, Gilgamesh tears at his hair and clothes in grief. He commissions a funerary statue, and provides grave gifts from his treasury to ensure that Enkidu has a favourable reception in the realm of the dead. A great banquet is held where the treasures are offered to the gods of the Netherworld. Just before a break in the text there is a suggestion that a river is being dammed, indicating a burial in a river bed, as in the corresponding Sumerian poem, The Death of Gilgamesh.
Tablet nine opens with Gilgamesh roaming the wild wearing animal skins, grieving for Enkidu. Having now become fearful of his own death, he decides to seek Utnapishtim ("the Faraway ''), and learn the secret of eternal life. Among the few survivors of the Great Flood, Utnapishtim and his wife are the only humans to have been granted immortality by the gods. Gilgamesh crosses a mountain pass at night and encounters a pride of lions. Before sleeping he prays for protection to the moon god Sin. Then, waking from an encouraging dream, he kills the lions and uses their skins for clothing. After a long and perilous journey, Gilgamesh arrives at the twin peaks of Mount Mashu at the end of the earth. He comes across a tunnel, which no man has ever entered, guarded by two scorpion monsters, who appear to be a married couple. The husband tries to dissuade Gilgamesh from passing, but the wife intervenes, expresses sympathy for Gilgamesh, and (according to the poem 's editor Benjamin Foster) allows his passage. He passes under the mountains along the Road of the Sun. In complete darkness he follows the road for 12 "double hours '', managing to complete the trip before the Sun catches up with him. He arrives at the Garden of the gods, a paradise full of jewel - laden trees.
Gilgamesh meets alewife Siduri, who assumes that he is a murderer or thief because of his disheveled appearance. Gilgamesh tells her about the purpose of his journey. She attempts to dissuade him from his quest, but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman, who will help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh, out of spontaneous rage, destroys the stone charms that Urshanabi keeps with him. He tells him his story, but when he asks for his help, Urshanabi informs him that he has just destroyed the objects that can help them cross the Waters of Death, which are deadly to the touch. Urshanabi instructs Gilgamesh to cut down 120 trees and fashion them into punting poles. When they reach the island where Utnapishtim lives, Gilgamesh recounts his story, asking him for his help. Utnapishtim reprimands him, declaring that fighting the common fate of humans is futile and diminishes life 's joys.
Gilgamesh observes that Utnapishtim seems no different from himself, and asks him how he obtained his immortality. Utnapishtim explains that the gods decided to send a great flood. To save Utnapishtim the god Ea told him to build a boat. He gave him precise dimensions, and it was sealed with pitch and bitumen. His entire family went aboard together with his craftsmen and "all the animals of the field ''. A violent storm then arose which caused the terrified gods to retreat to the heavens. Ishtar lamented the wholesale destruction of humanity, and the other gods wept beside her. The storm lasted six days and nights, after which "all the human beings turned to clay ''. Utnapishtim weeps when he sees the destruction. His boat lodges on a mountain, and he releases a dove, a swallow, and a raven. When the raven fails to return, he opens the ark and frees its inhabitants. Utnapishtim offers a sacrifice to the gods, who smell the sweet savor and gather around. Ishtar vows that just as she will never forget the brilliant necklace that hangs around her neck, she will always remember this time. When Enlil arrives, angry that there are survivors, she condemns him for instigating the flood. Ea also castigates him for sending a disproportionate punishment. Enlil blesses Utnapishtim and his wife, and rewards them with eternal life. This account matches the flood story that concludes the Epic of Atra - Hasis (see also Gilgamesh flood myth).
The main point seems to be that when Enlil granted eternal life it was a unique gift. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights. Gilgamesh falls asleep, and Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake a loaf of bread on each of the days he is asleep, so that he can not deny his failure to keep awake. Gilgamesh, who is seeking to overcome death, can not even conquer sleep. After instructing Urshanabi the ferryman to wash Gilgamesh, and clothe him in royal robes, they depart for Uruk.
As they are leaving, Utnapishtim 's wife asks her husband to offer a parting gift. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that at the bottom of the sea there lives a boxthorn - like plant that will make him young again. Gilgamesh, by binding stones to his feet so he can walk on the bottom, manages to obtain the plant. Gilgamesh proposes to investigate if the plant has the hypothesized rejuvenation ability by testing it on an old man once he returns to Uruk.
There is a plant that looks like a box - thorn, it has prickles like a dogrose, and will prick one who plucks it. But if you can possess this plant, you 'll be again as you were in your youth
This plant, Ur - shanabi, is the "Plant of Heartbeat '', with it a man can regain his vigour. To Uruk - the - sheepfold I will take it, to an ancient I will feed some and put the plant to the test!
Unfortunately, when Gilgamesh stops to bathe, it is stolen by a serpent, who sheds its skin as it departs. Gilgamesh weeps at the futility of his efforts, because he has now lost all chance of immortality. He returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this enduring work to Urshanabi.
This tablet is mainly an Akkadian translation of an earlier Sumerian poem, Gilgamesh and the Netherworld (also known as "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld '' and variants), although it has been suggested that it is derived from an unknown version of that story. The contents of this last tablet are inconsistent with previous ones: Enkidu is still alive, despite having died earlier in the epic. Because of this, its lack of integration with the other tablets, and the fact that it is almost a copy of an earlier version, it has been referred to as an ' inorganic appendage ' to the epic. Alternatively, it has been suggested that "its purpose, though crudely handled, is to explain to Gilgamesh (and the reader) the various fates of the dead in the Afterlife '' and in "an awkward attempt to bring closure '', it both connects the Gilgamesh of the epic with the Gilgamesh who is the King of the Netherworld, and is "a dramatic capstone whereby the twelve - tablet epic ends on one and the same theme, that of "seeing '' (= understanding, discovery, etc.), with which it began. ''
Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that various of his possessions (the tablet is unclear exactly what -- different translations include a drum and a ball) have fallen into the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted, Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and must not do in the underworld if he is to return. Enkidu does everything which he was told not to do. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to give him back his friend. Enlil and Suen do n't reply, but Ea and Shamash decide to help. Shamash makes a crack in the earth, and Enkidu 's ghost jumps out of it. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu about what he has seen in the underworld.
This version of the epic, called in some fragments Surpassing all other kings, is composed of tablets and fragments from diverse origins and states of conservation. It remains incomplete in its majority, with several tablets missing and big lacunae in those found. They are named after their current location or the place where they were found.
Surpassing all other kings Tablet II, greatly correlates with tablets I - II of the standard version. Gilgamesh tells his mother Ninsun about two dreams he had. His mother explains that they mean that a new companion will soon arrive at Uruk. In the meanwhile the wild Enkidu and the priestess (here called Shamkatum) are making love. She tames him in company of the shepherds by offering him bread and beer. Enkidu helps the shepherds by guarding the sheep. They travel to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh and stop his abuses. Enkidu and Gilgamesh battle but Gilgamesh breaks off the fight. Enkidu praises Gilgamesh.
Surpassing all other kings Tablet III, partially matches tablets II - III of the standard version. For reasons unknown (the tablet is partially broken) Enkidu is in a sad mood. In order to cheer him up Gilgamesh suggests going to the Pine Forest to cut down trees and kill Humbaba (known here as Huwawa). Enkidu protests, as he knows Huwawa and is aware of his power. Gilgamesh talks Enkidu into it with some words of encouragement, but Enkidu remains reluctant. They prepare, and call for the elders. The elders also protest, but after Gilgamesh talks to them, they agree to let him go. After Gilgamesh asks his god (Shamash) for protection, and both he and Enkidu equip themselves, they leave with the elder 's blessing and counsel.
Possibly another version of the contents of the Yale Tablet, practically irrecoverable.
In the journey to the cedar forest and Huwawa, Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh 's dreams.
Fragments from two different versions / tablets tell how Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh 's dreams on the way to the Forest of Cedar, and their conversation when entering the forest.
After defeating Huwawa, Gilgamesh refrains from slaying him, and urges Enkidu to hunt Huwawa 's "seven auras ''. Enkidu convinces him to smite their enemy. After killing Huwawa and the auras, they chop down part of the forest and discover the gods ' secret abode. The rest of the tablet is broken.
The auras are not referred to in the standard version, but are in one of the Sumerian poems.
Partially overlapping the felling of the trees from the Ishchali tablet.
Partially overlapping the standard version tablets IX -- X. Gilgamesh mourns the death of Enkidu wandering in his quest for immortality. Gilgamesh argues with Shamash about the futility of his quest. After a lacuna, Gilgamesh talks to Siduri about his quest and his journey to meet Utnapishtim (here called Uta - na'ishtim). Siduri attempts to dissuade Gilgamesh in his quest for immortality, urging him to be content with the simple pleasures of life. After one more lacuna, Gilgamesh smashes the "stone ones '' and talks to the ferryman Urshanabi (here called Sur - sunabu). After a short discussion, Sur - sunabu asks him to carve 300 oars so that they may cross the waters of death without needing the "stone ones ''. The rest of the tablet is missing.
The text on the Old Babylonian Meissner fragment (the larger surviving fragment of the Sippar tablet) has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and it has been suggested that a "prior form of the story -- earlier even than that preserved on the Old Babylonian fragment -- may well have ended with Siduri sending Gilgamesh back to Uruk... '' and "Utnapistim was not originally part of the tale. ''
There are five extant Gilgamesh stories in the form of older poems in Sumerian. These probably circulated independently, rather than being in the form of a unified epic. Some of the names of the main characters in these poems differ slightly from later Akkadian names; for example, "Bilgamesh '' is written instead of "Gilgamesh '', and there are some differences in the underlying stories such as the fact that Enkidu is Gilgamesh 's servant in the Sumerian version:
Various themes, plot elements, and characters in the Epic of Gilgamesh have counterparts in the Hebrew Bible -- notably, the accounts of the Garden of Eden, the advice from Ecclesiastes, and the Genesis flood narrative.
The parallels between the stories of Enkidu / Shamhat and Adam / Eve have been long recognized by scholars. In both, a man is created from the soil by a god, and lives in a natural setting amongst the animals. He is introduced to a woman who tempts him. In both stories the man accepts food from the woman, covers his nakedness, and must leave his former realm, unable to return. The presence of a snake that steals a plant of immortality from the hero later in the epic is another point of similarity.
Several scholars suggest direct borrowing of Siduri 's advice by the author of Ecclesiastes.
A rare proverb about the strength of a triple - stranded rope, "a triple - stranded rope is not easily broken '', is common to both books.
Andrew George submits that the Genesis flood narrative matches that in Gilgamesh so closely that "few doubt '' that it derives from a Mesopotamian account. What is particularly noticeable is the way the Genesis flood story follows the Gilgamesh flood tale "point by point and in the same order '', even when the story permits other alternatives. In a 2001 Torah commentary released on behalf of the Conservative Movement of Judaism, rabbinic scholar Robert Wexler stated: "The most likely assumption we can make is that both Genesis and Gilgamesh drew their material from a common tradition about the flood that existed in Mesopotamia. These stories then diverged in the retelling. '' Ziusudra, Utnapishtim and Noah are the respective heroes of the Sumerian, Akkadian and biblical flood legends of the ancient Near East.
Matthias Henze suggests that Nebuchadnezzar 's madness in the biblical Book of Daniel draws on the Epic of Gilgamesh. He claims that the author uses elements from the description of Enkidu to paint a sarcastic and mocking portrait of the king of Babylon.
Many characters in the Epic have mythical biblical parallels, most notably Ninti, the Sumerian goddess of life, was created from Enki 's rib to heal him after he had eaten forbidden flowers. It is suggested that this story served as the basis for the story of Eve created from Adam 's rib in the Book of Genesis. Esther J. Hamori, in Echoes of Gilgamesh in the Jacob Story, also claims that the myth of Jacob and Esau is paralleled with the wrestling match between Gilgamesh and Enkidu.
Numerous scholars have drawn attention to various themes, episodes, and verses, indicating that the Epic of Gilgamesh had a substantial influence on both of the epic poems ascribed to Homer. These influences are detailed by Martin Litchfield West in The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. According to Tzvi Abusch of Brandeis University, the poem "combines the power and tragedy of the Iliad with the wanderings and marvels of the Odyssey. It is a work of adventure, but is no less a meditation on some fundamental issues of human existence. ''
The Epic of Gilgamesh has inspired many works of literature, art, and music, as Theodore Ziolkowski points out in his book Gilgamesh Among Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic (2011). It was only after the First World War that the Gilgamesh epic reached a modern audience, and only after the Second World War that it began to feature in a variety of genres.
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super nes classic what games are on it | Super NES Classic Edition - Wikipedia
Super Nintendo Entertainment System: Super NES Classic Edition, known as Nintendo Classic Mini: Super Nintendo Entertainment System in Europe and Australia and the Nintendo Classic Mini: Super Famicom (Japanese: ニンテンドー クラシック ミニ スーパーファミコン) in Japan, and also colloquially as the SNES Mini or SNES Classic, is a dedicated video game console by Nintendo, which emulates the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The console, a successor to the NES Classic Edition, comes with twenty - one Super NES titles pre-installed, including the first official release of Star Fox 2. It was released in North America and Europe on September 29, 2017.
The console is distributed in three variations, featuring the unique design of the original systems released in Japan, North America, and Europe respectively. While the North American release features an appearance based on the straight - angled grey - and - purple design of the SNES, the Japan and PAL region releases are modelled after the rounded edge Super Famicom / PAL Super Nintendo design as originally released in these regions.
Internally, the console uses hardware similar to that of the NES Classic Edition. It uses an Allwinner R16 system on a chip with four ARM Cortex - A7 central processing units and an ARM Mali 400 MP2 graphics processing unit. It includes 512 MB of flash storage and 256 MB of DDR3 memory.
The system features HDMI display output and two controller ports; two wired SNES controllers are bundled with the system. The controller ports are hidden behind a faux front flap which is designed to appear like the original Super NES controller ports. Similarly to the predecessor 's controllers, the Super NES Classic Edition controllers have connectors that can be inserted into the Wii Remote, and be used to play Super NES games on the Wii and Wii U Virtual Console. The Wii 's Classic Controller is also compatible with the Super NES Classic Edition. While the NES Classic Edition controller is technically functional with the Super NES Classic Edition, gameplay is impossible in most games due to the missing action buttons (X, Y, L, and R).
The console uses the Linux operating system and runs a set of emulators developed by Nintendo 's European Research & Development (NERD). These emulators provide the basic compatibility with the Super NES system, and for specific games, chipsets that were included on the cartridges, such as the Super FX chip used for Star Fox.
The Super NES Classic Edition ships with controllers with 5 - foot (1.5 m) cables, addressing complaints about the short 3 - foot (0.91 m) ones used for the NES Classic.
A means to hack the SNES Classic System to allow users to install additional software onto the unit was discovered by the same user that found the hack for the NES Classic Edition. The hack has more limitations compared to the NES Classic Edition, in that not all SNES games can work due to the need to emulate the custom cartridge chipset.
The Super NES Classic Edition was revealed on June 26, 2017, as the successor to the widely - popular NES Classic. Nintendo announced that the system would come with 21 Super Nintendo games, including the unreleased Star Fox 2. It was released in North America on September 29, 2017 with a price of $79.99.
With the release of the NES Classic Edition, Nintendo was strongly criticized for the system 's lack of availability for the console, which reached levels of popularity that they had not been fully prepared for. With the Super NES Classic Edition, Nintendo originally said that although they were prepared to produce significantly more Super NES Classics than NES Classics, they would be halting production at the end of 2017. Due to overwhelming demand, Nintendo changed their plans, with Nintendo of America CEO Reggie Fils - Aimé confirming the continued production of the system throughout 2018 alongside announcing the return of the NES Classic in 2018, which many people were unable to get after scalpers bought masses of them and resold them for much more than their MSRP. Fils - Aimé also discouraged consumers from buying from these scalpers and said there would be plenty stock of both NES and SNES. In May 2018, Nintendo of America announced via Twitter that both consoles would be in stock throughout the second half of 2018, with the NES Classic returning to stores on June 29.
On July 21, 2017, the console was mistakenly made available for pre-order at Walmart in the United States due to a "technical glitch '', and all pre-orders were cancelled on July 26, leading to widespread criticism among the gaming press. PC Magazine called the situation "badly handled by Walmart '' and said that the future availability of the console was "not looking good ''. USGamer called attempting to obtain a Super NES Classic Edition a "waking nightmare '' and stated the availability would likely be as low as the NES Classic, saying the situation was "because we ca n't have nice things ''. GameSpot stated that there was "frustratingly little word '' from Nintendo as to when pre-orders would be made available. Nintendo gave no comment about the situation.
On August 22, 2017, pre-orders officially opened at several major retailers, causing many of their sites to crash before customers could buy the system, as well as at physical GameStop locations in limited amounts, which also sold out quickly on a first - come, first - served basis. The Target website became "glitched out '', removing the items from users ' carts, and pre-orders from Walmart were sold out in less than a minute. This led to Nintendo of America being criticized as "inept or underhanded '', and that they contributed to a "chaotic '' situation.
Polygon also confirmed that the Tai Ding internet bot was being used to quickly pre-order systems before humans could get the chance to order them, which was proving successful due to a lack of CAPTCHAs on store websites. Scalpers soon flooded eBay with pre-order listings, some at markups of over 300 %.
Reggie Fils - Aimé stated in September 2017 that people should not buy SNES Classic pre-orders from scalpers, and suggested SNES Classics would be readily available. He also stated that the company was not trying to create artificial scarcity, saying that the issues with pre-orders were "outside our control ''. Nintendo has also stated that there would be more SNES Classics available on launch day than the entire amount of NES Classics that were shipped in 2016, and that shipments would continue into 2018 unlike originally planned due to high demand.
Despite slightly criticizing its library of titles and issues carried over from the NES Classic, IGN 's Jonathon Dornbush praised the Super NES Classic 's features and enjoyability.
The SNES Mini sold 368,913 copies within its first four days on sale in Japan. By the end of October 2017, it had sold more than 2 million units worldwide. By its fiscal year 2017 report, ending March 31, 2018, the SNES Classic had sold more than 5 million units.
The microconsole contains 21 built - in games. These include Star Fox 2, a sequel to Star Fox that had been cancelled near the very end of its development in 1996; while Nintendo had given no official word to the cancellation, developer Dylan Cuthbert said that Nintendo feared how Star Fox 2 would look compared to similar games on the more - advanced PlayStation and Sega Saturn consoles. Players can unlock Star Fox 2 on the SNES Classic upon clearing the first level of Star Fox.
Despite the fact that the hardware shells are different, both western editions of the microconsole feature identical software, and all included games are based on their American localizations running at 60 Hz, similarly to the NES Classic Edition. Consequently, games that originally had different titles in the PAL regions now use their respective American monikers, such as Contra III: The Alien Wars (originally Super Probotector: Alien Rebels), Star Fox (originally Starwing) and Kirby Super Star (originally Kirby 's Fun Pak).
From the 21 included titles, 16 are common between all regions, while the five remaining ones are exclusive to either Japan or North America / PAL region respectively.
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how to know if a match will end in draw | Result (cricket) - wikipedia
The result in a game of cricket may be a "win '' for one of the two teams playing, a "draw '' or a "tie ''. In the case of a limited overs game, the game can also end with "no result ''. Which of these results applies, and how the result is expressed, is governed by Law 16 of the laws of cricket.
The result of a match is a "win '' when one side scores more runs than the opposing side and all the innings of the team that has fewer runs have been completed. The side scoring more runs has "won '' the game, and the side scoring fewer has "lost ''. If the match ends without all the innings being completed, the result may be a draw or no result.
The result of a match is a "tie '' when the scores are equal at the conclusion of play, but only if the side batting last has completed its innings (i.e. all innings are completed, or, in limited - overs cricket, the set number of overs has been played or play is terminally stopped by weather or bad light).
This is unusual in Test cricket: only two tied Tests have ever occurred.
In some forms of one - day cricket, such as Twenty20, a Super Over or a bowl - out is used as a tiebreaker to decide a result that would otherwise be a tie. In such cases, the result of the match is recorded in official statistics as Tie + W or Tie + L to indicate matches tied and then won or lost in the tiebreaker.
The result of a match is a "draw '' if a match is concluded, as defined in Law 12, without being a win or a tie. A draw therefore occurs when the one or both of the teams have not completed their innings by the scheduled end of play. In matches where the number of overs is not limited, therefore, a team unable to win may be able to ' save the draw ' by either avoiding being all - out if they are batting (i.e. by having two or more batsmen left at the end of play who are ' not out '), or, if bowling, by slowing down the scoring of the batting team. The match is then drawn regardless of the total of runs accumulated by either side.
A "no result '' is recorded if a limited over match which has been started can not be completed. This would usually occur if weather or light interrupts play. The result is effectively the same as a draw.
Limited overs cricket formats require that each team can bat for a sufficient number of overs in order for a result to be possible. As of 2016 this stands at 20 overs in One Day International cricket and five overs in Twenty20 cricket. If each team is able to face at least this number of overs a result is possible and can be calculated using the Duckworth -- Lewis method or other competition rules.
A match can be "abandoned '' if weather or other conditions prevent any play from occurring at all. If the bowler of the first over of play has not started his / her runup when the officials decide to abandon play then the result is termed ' abandoned without a ball being bowled '. Such a game is not included in official statistical records.
Before July 2004, the same result occurred if the toss had been taken but the match was abandoned before a ball was bowled. Since 2004, the International Cricket Council for International matches has decreed that a match where the toss takes place but which is abandoned without a ball being bowled is either a draw or (for a limited - overs match) a no result. Such games are now included in statistical records, counting, for example, as a game played by the teams and nominated players.
The umpires also have the power to "award '' a match to one side where the other side either concedes defeat or in the opinion of the umpires refuses to play, in which case the game can be deemed to have been forfeited by the side in question. (Note that this is not the same as the (voluntary) forfeiture of an innings under Law 15.) This power is very rarely used. Before this rule was introduced there had been cases in the international arena where one team has refused to play, or deliberately stopped playing for a while. One notable incident was when Sri Lanka temporarily stopped play against England when Muttiah Muralitharan was called for throwing by umpire Darrell Hair.
The only time that a Test match has been won in this manner is when umpires Darrell Hair and Billy Doctrove awarded England the Fourth Test against Pakistan on 20 August 2006 after Pakistan refused to take the field at the scheduled time after tea on the fourth day. This was because Hair alleged that Pakistani bowlers tampered with the ball. He did not name a player involved in the incident. Later during the ICC general body meeting in 2008, the result was changed to "match drawn '', and then in February 2009 changed back to an England win.
Law 16 allows a team to concede a match. This seldom happens, but it covers the situation where the scoreboard has in good faith displayed an incorrect score which is accepted by the "losing '' team, who leave the field, thereby conceding the match to the opposition.
The result of a cricket match is stated in several ways.
If the side batting last wins the match without losing all its wickets, the result shall be stated as a win by the number of wickets still then to fall. For example, in a single - innings match, if Team A bat first and make 200 runs, then Team B make 201 after losing four wickets out of ten, Team B is said to have "won by six wickets '', regardless of how many batsmen Team A lost during their innings.
If the side fielding last wins the match, the result shall be stated as a win by runs. For instance, if Team A bat first and make 200 runs, but Team B make only 192, Team A is said to have "won by eight runs ''.
If the side batting last has lost all its wickets, but as the result of an award of 5 penalty runs at the end of the match has scored a total of runs in excess of the total scored by the opposing side, the result shall be stated as a win to that side by penalty runs.
In a two - innings match, if the number of runs scored in its first innings by the side due to bat last is greater than the total runs scored by the opposition in both its innings, the result is stated as a win by an innings and number of runs short. Here "due to bat last '' includes a team who batted first, but forced their opponent to follow on. If Team A bat first and make 200 runs in their first innings, Team B make 300 runs in their first innings, and Team A only make 95 runs in their second innings, Team B is said to have "won by an innings and five runs ''.
If the match is decided by one side conceding defeat or refusing to play, the result shall be stated as "Match Conceded '' or "Match Awarded ''.
If a match is unfinished when time expires, the result is a "draw '' (this does not apply to limited overs cricket, where this is considered to be "no result ''). If all innings of both teams are completed (either because all batsmen have been dismissed or one / more innings are completed by way of a declaration) and the totals are exactly equal, the match is a "tie ''.
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who plays the voice of nala in lion king | Nala (the Lion King) - wikipedia
Nala is a fictional character who appears in Disney 's The Lion King franchise. Introduced in the animated film The Lion King in 1994, Nala subsequently appears as a less prominent character in the film 's sequels The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (1998) and The Lion King 11⁄2 (2004), and serves as a recurring character in The Lion Guard (2015 --). In the original film, the adult Nala is voiced by American actress Moira Kelly. Young Nala 's speaking voice is provided by actress Niketa Calame, while singers Laura Williams and Sally Dworsky provide the singing voices of young and adult Nala respectively.
Nala is introduced as the childhood best friend of Simba, and ultimately becomes his wife by the end of The Lion King. Several years after Simba 's uncle Scar has killed Simba 's father Mufasa and usurped the throne, Nala desperately ventures into the jungle to find help. Upon unexpectedly reuniting with a grown Simba, who she had long been tricked by Scar into presuming dead, Nala encourages him to return to Pride Rock, overthrow his uncle and ultimately become king. As Simba 's queen, Nala has a daughter, Kiara, whose story is explored in The Lion King: Simba 's Pride and also has a son named Kion, who serves as the protagonist of The Lion Guard
Nala is the most significant female character in The Lion King. As the film was inspired by William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet, Nala is considered to be The Lion King 's equivalent of Hamlet 's love interest Ophelia, although differences remain between the two characters. Many early concepts first developed for Nala were eventually abandoned, including a brother and father for the character, as well as her being romantically pursued by Scar. While critical reception towards Nala has been generally mixed, Kelly 's vocal performance has been praised.
Nala appears in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film, first played by singer Heather Headley. The character also appears in the television series The Lion Guard, with Gabrielle Union replacing Kelly as the voice of Nala. Beyoncé is set to voice the character in the upcoming 2019 remake of the original film directed by Jon Favreau.
Screenwriter Linda Woolverton conceived Nala "as part of a gradual progression... which have driven recent public conversation about what young girls should be able to expect from their cinematic role models. '' In early versions of the screenplay, Nala has a younger brother named Mheetu, who enjoys accompanying her and her best friend Simba on their adventures. Pronounced "me too '', the character 's name is a reference to this personality trait. Simba was intended to save the cub from a wildebeest stampede, and Nala would eventually become responsible for protecting Mheetu from Simba 's tyrannical uncle Scar. Nala also had a fox friend named Bhati. According to Woolverton, Mheetu and Bhati were eventually written out of the film because their stories were beginning to distract from Simba 's, in addition to the Mheetu - Scar subplot making the film too dark when combined with the death of Simba 's father Mufasa. At one point, Nala also had a named father; the character was similarly abandoned.
Because The Lion King was originally conceived as a much more mature and adult - oriented film, Nala was intended to have been banished from the Pride Lands as punishment for rejecting Scar 's romantic advances. This idea was to have been further explored in Scar 's song "Be Prepared (Reprise) '', during which Scar demands that Nala become his queen, but the musical number was ultimately cut from the final film because the scene was considered too "creepy. '' Matthew Roulette of TheFW believes that the scene was abandoned because of the significant age difference between Nala and Scar.
Nala means "gift '' in Swahili. The character has a mother, whose name is never mentioned in the film; however, she is credited as Sarafina during the film 's end credits. Candice Russel of the Sun - Sentinel believes that Nala contributes to the film 's love story -- "an indispensable factor in Disney cartoon features '' -- in addition to convincing Simba to return to Pride Rock. It has been observed that, unlike Disney 's three previous animated efforts (The Little Mermaid (1989), Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Aladdin (1992), the romantic relationship between Nala and Simba is not main plot of the film. Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog observed that "At (Simba 's) return, she 's not exactly the friendliest little kitten, either... but is willing to overlook her own hurt ego in the spirit of their friendship. She believes in Simba, and does n't understand why he would n't want to fight for his right to rule. ''
The speaking voice of adult Nala is provided by American actress Moira Kelly. Kelly learned that Disney was auditioning actresses for the role of Nala from her agent. Despite having not been the directors ' first choice for the role, Kelly was allowed to audition because the filmmakers were interested in hearing different voices at the time. Kelly believes the directors had been searching for a specific "quality of voice... a sort of authoritative voice but with a lot of warmth '' to compliment Nala 's sensible yet nurturing personality. After attending a series of callbacks, during which Kelly returned to Disney several times to re-read the character 's lines, Kelly was selected as one of two finalists. Kelly would not officially be offered the part until several months after her audition; Disney 's first choice for the role remains undisclosed. Actor Matthew Broderick, voice of Simba, had already begun recording alongside another actress who had been cast as Nala before that actress was replaced with Kelly. Broderick was not informed that his original co-star had been recast, and only learned that Nala was voiced by Kelly at the film 's premiere.
The film 's entire recording process took approximately three years to complete, during which Kelly 's sessions were held in both the United States and Canada, while her co-stars Broderick and Jeremy Irons, voice of Scar, were recording in the United States and England, respectively. Each main cast member recorded their dialogue separately, which took Kelly some time to get used to because she had grown accustomed to working with several other actors at a time on the sets of her live - action films. For The Lion King, a director would often take the place of another actor for Kelly to act opposite of. Vocally, Kelly decided to approach the role as though she were reading to a child, explaining, "it 's kind of fun to play with different voices and try to color the lines for the child so they can imagine it more fully '', which she admitted is different than how the actress would approach a live - action role. Because Nala is a "very straight character '', determining what kind of voice she would use for her was not a particularly challenging task. Additionally, the filmmakers would also film Kelly 's performances in order to incorporate her own facial expressions into her character 's design, the process of which impressed the actress. In her film debut, actress Niketa Calame voices young Nala. According to Calame 's official website, Nala remains the actress ' "biggest role to date ''. A classically trained pianist and chorister, Laura Williams provides the singing voice of young Nala, which can be heard in the song "I Just Ca n't Wait to Be King ''; the singer was 15 years old at the time. Meanwhile, singer - songwriter Sally Dworsky provides the singing voice of adult Nala, which is heard during the song "Can You Feel the Love Tonight ''. The film 's love theme, "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' 's lyrics were re-written approximately 15 times, according to lyricist Tim Rice, who wrote the song alongside composer Elton John. At one point, the producers wanted the song to be a comical duet performed by supporting characters Timon and Pumbaa, despite the fact that John had originally composed the song with Nala and Simba in mind. However, John lobbied in favor of "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' being a love song performed as a duet by Nala and Simba, with which the filmmakers ultimately agreed.
When asked by Disney if she was interested in reprising her role as Nala in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, Kelly immediately accepted, joking, "Sure, you wan na do a third, fourth, fifth? I 'm right there ''. In the case of The Lion King 11⁄2, it took the actress only a few days to record her character 's dialogue due to Nala 's comparatively smaller role in the film; much of Nala 's footage from the first film was simply reused accordingly. Elton John 's official website cites Kelly among the film 's cast of actors who "would grace any red carpet. '' Kelly 's performance as Nala is responsible for introducing the actress to a younger audience. Previously, she had been better known for appearing in more adult - oriented live - action films at that time. In 2011, Kelly revealed that fans of the film rarely recognize her speaking voice as the voice of Nala, although Robert DeSalvo of NextMovie.com claims that the actress "has a... distinctive voice that The Lion King fans will instantly recognize as the voice of adult Nala. ''
A straight woman character, Kelly described Nala as a sensible and nurturing yet authoritative character, while Amber Leab of Bitch Flicks described her as strong, independent and intelligent. According to Oh My Disney, Nala serves as "the proverbial glue that keeps The Lion King together '', from whose perspective the audience watches the film because she "says EXACTLY what we 're thinking ''. Occupying the role of the film 's female lead, Nala is The Lion King 's most important female character, who contributes to the film 's "small romance element ''. Often identified as the film 's deuteragonist, Taylor Orci of The Atlantic felt that "Nala is really the agent of change in The Lion King '', dismissing Simba as a "rich, lazy boyfriend. '' Leab observed that The Lion King 's male characters tend to "take the center stage '' while "female characters take a backseat to the action. '' Lenka Křivánková of Masaryk University wrote in her thesis "1990s Hollywood Break - Away Hits: A Feminist Perspective '' that she was not particularly surprised by the film 's lack of strong roles for women because of its Shakespearean source material, dubbing the film "an old traditional fairy tale with all its traditional features '', including patriarchy and monarchism. Writing for the University of Waterloo 's Kinema, Vicky Wong believes that Nala reinforces the film 's "take your place '' motif, reminding main character Simba of his responsibilities. In his book Retelling Stories, Framing Culture: Traditional Story and Metanarratives in Children 's Literature, author John Stephens credits Nala with teaching Simba about responsibility -- "the lesson the hero must learn before he can become an adult ''.
Film critic James Berardinelli identified Nala as The Lion King 's "sole significant female character. '' Including Nala, The Lion King has only three major female characters in comparison to the film 's total of nine male ones. Shepherd University 's Emmylou Allen observed that Nala is introduced "as a dominating young girl '' who ultimately matures into "a strong woman '' by the film 's conclusion. Mouse Morality: The Rhetoric of Disney Animated Film author Annalee R. Ward wrote that Nala 's role in The Lion King reflected "a 1990s feminist reversal ''. In her book Biblical Allusions, author Lindsay Bacher acknowledged that Nala is often depicted as a stronger and more responsible character than Simba, despite observations that The Lion King 's female characters lack agency. Leab identified Nala as Simba 's "equal '' who is "a more naturally sound leader throughout the film, while Simba tends to be comparatively a bit more immature and in need of multiple characters propelling him into responsible / rightful action. '' Physically, Nala is also a stronger and more skilled fighter than Simba, proven by the character 's ability to overwhelm him in battle, which is reminiscent "of the physical power of lionesses in the real nature. '' However, as strong as she is, Nala has little impact elsewhere; author Brian K. Pennington wrote in his book Teaching Religion and Violence that "Nala 's assertions of gender equality are clearly groundless, since only a male lion can stop Scar. '' New York 's David Denbey dismissed Nala 's athleticism as nothing more than Disney 's attempt to "disguise (the film 's) essential boss - daddy ethos. '' Bacher believes that had The Lion King featured Nala as the Pride Lands ' hero as opposed to Simba, the film could have avoided having a "patriarchal structure. '' Leab concluded that "the main and most problematic aspects of the film '' remain that The Lion King "boils down to the fact that an entire group of strong female characters are unable to confront a single male oppressor; to do so, they need to be led by a dominant male. '' Leab continued, "It almost sucks more that Nala is such a strong... female character and still ends up constrained by this plot device '', accusing the film of depicting women as weak.
Alongside Faline from Bambi (1942) and Maid Marian from Robin Hood (1973) added, Nala belongs to a trio of Disney heroines who, after having been separated from their love interests for several years, eventually reunite with them. Stephens believes that Nala and Simba 's separation allows the characters to fall in love "properly '' upon reuniting as young adults. Because The Lion King is loosely based on William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet, Nala is considered to be the film 's "representative '' of the Hamlet character Ophelia, Hamlet 's love interest. Both characters ' relationships with and opinions of their love interests are similar, however, there are several differences between the two women. The Daily Californian 's Miyako Singer argued that "Nala is no poor, tragic Ophelia '', instead resembling a "fierce princess warrior '' similar to the strong heroines Disney introduced during the 1990s. While identifying Nala as "the closest character in The Lion King to Ophelia, '' Shepherd University 's Emmylou Allen acknowledged in her article "Shakespeare in the Pride Lands '' that "their similarities are not as great as their contrasts. '' Unlike Ophelia, Nala does not succumb to insanity, nor does she eventually die. Instead, Nala establishes herself as "a physically powerful ally '' by encouraging Simba to return to Pride Rock, and helping the character overthrow Scar. Additionally, Nala is a more stubborn character than Ophelia, the latter of whom is quite passive and obedient. While Ophelia is raised by a single father, Nala is raised solely by her mother, which inspired Allen to believe that Nala is a manifestation of how Ophelia would have turned out had she been raised by a woman instead of a man, concluding, "Nala is able to show the potential that Ophelia could have had. ''.
A young Nala debuted in The Lion King (1994) as the daughter of Sarafina and the best friend of Simba, who she often accompanies on his adventures throughout the Pride Lands. Simba invites Nala to visit the forbidden Elephant Graveyard with him, despite his father Mufasa 's orders. The cubs are soon ambushed by Shenzi, Banzai and Ed, a trio of hyenas chosen by Simba 's treacherous uncle Scar to kill Simba in order to improve his own chances of becoming king, but are ultimately rescued by Mufasa. The following day, however, Nala is devastated to learn from Scar that both Simba and Mufasa have perished during a wildebeest stampede. With both Simba and Mufasa dead, Scar usurps the throne and becomes king. Several years into Scar 's tyrannical rule, which has left the kingdom barren and starving, a desperate Nala ventures into the jungle in search of help, where she attempts to eat a warthog named Pumbaa; little does she know that the warthog is actually a friend of Simba 's, who is in fact alive and well. While defending Pumbaa from Nala, Simba recognizes Nala, and the two finally reunite only to argue over why Simba is refusing to face his responsibilities and return to Pride Rock. Upon learning that Simba has eventually decided to return to Pride Rock and face Scar, Nala travels back to the Pride Lands to assist him. Surprised to find Simba alive, Scar forces his guilt - ridden nephew to "admit '' to the pride that he is responsible for Mufasa 's death, which was in fact caused by Scar himself by throwing Mufasa off a cliff into the stampede. Upon learning the truth, Simba forces his uncle to admit his crime to the pride, and a battle ensues between the pride and Scar 's army of hyenas. Simba eventually defeats Scar and becomes king, with Nala ultimately becoming his queen.
In the film 's first direct - to - video sequel The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (1998), Nala appears in a less prominent role as Queen of the Pride Lands and mother of Kiara, the spirited daughter of her and Simba. Nala observes that Kiara, of whom Simba is very protective, has inherited her father 's rebellious personality and love of adventure. When Kiara befriends Zira 's son Kovu, a young lion from an exiled pride of Scar 's followers known as the Outsiders, Nala is much more tolerant of their relationship than Simba, and convinces him to offer Kovu a chance to prove himself trustworthy.At the end of the film, Nala gains Kovu as her son - in - law after he marries Kiara. In The Lion King 11⁄2 (2004), which focuses instead on Timon and Pumbaa 's friendship, Nala 's role is virtually identical to that of her appearance in The Lion King because filmmakers reused most of the character 's footage from the first film.
Nala also makes a brief non-speaking cameo appearance in an episode of Timon & Pumbaa, despite that she is the queen at that time.
Voiced by actress Gabrielle Union, Nala reprises her role as Queen of the Pride Lands in the television series The Lion Guard, the 2016 premiere of which was preceded by the made - for - television film The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar (2015). Set within the time gap in The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride, the show revolves around Nala and Simba 's son Kion who, being their second - born cub after Kiara, has been tasked with forming the next Lion Guard, a group responsible for protecting the Pride Lands. Although a fan of the Lion King franchise, Union avoided watching previous Lion King films in preparation for the role because she wanted to "put (her) own stamp '' on the character.
On November 1, 2017, it was confirmed that Beyoncé would voice adult Nala in Jon Favreau 's The Lion King, which is expected to be released in July 19, 2019. The same day Shahadi Wright Joseph was cast as young Nala in the film.
In the Broadway musical adaptation of The Lion King, the role of Nala was originated by Trinidadian - American singer Heather Headley. Her Broadway debut, at first auditioning for the role proved a challenge for the singer due to her Ragtime contract, which her agent was eventually successful in getting her released from. Director Julie Taymor felt that Nala 's journey in the film was underdeveloped and among the story 's weaker elements, and thus decided to "strengthen '' the character 's narrative for Broadway.
Her role in the musical remains the same as the film except for a scene where during the song "The Madness of King Scar '', Nala comes to Scar to urge him to do something about the drought in the Pride Lands, only for Scar to try and seduce her into becoming his queen and mother of his children. Nala refuses since she 's already been betrothed to Simba, prince of the Pride Lands as an infant by their parents, Sarafina, Mufasa and Sarabi and flees the Pride Lands to find help.
Critical reception towards Nala has been generally mixed; both film and feminist critics have accused the film of lacking empowering roles for female characters, including Nala. James Berardinelli of ReelViews appreciated the fact that "after three animated motion pictures centered upon the love of two people from different worlds '', the love story between Nala and Simba has been relegated to that of "a subplot. '' Desson Howe of The Washington Post advised parents to remind their daughters that despite the fact that Nala "pads in the supportive shadows, awaiting her inevitable marriage to Simba, it does n't mean human girls ca n't grow up to be monarchs too. ''
Nala 's role and demeanor during the film 's romantic "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' sequence has drawn criticism in regards to her "submissive behaviour ''. The New York Times ' Janet Maslin cited the film 's lack of a strong heroine among its weaknesses, dismissing Nala and Simba 's interaction throughout "Can You Feel the Love Tonight '' as "obligatory '' and "gratuitous ''. Joel W. Martin wrote in the Journal of Religion and Film, "One song later, (Nala and Simba) have fallen in love. Playing one day, they literally tumble down a hillside in the jungle, and he ends up on top of her. This time, she does not bear her teeth, but instead, shows ' bedroom eyes ' ''. Martin ultimately accused the scene 's "reversal of positions '' of "establish (ing) male dominance. '' Criticizing the film for "being merely distracting when it could have been both meaningful and instructive '', Robert Humanick of Slant Magazine wrote, "Small potatoes, then, when Simba 's former childhood friend and betrothed queen Nala... unexpectedly reappears in his duty - free, protein - rich life, demanding he return to his kingly responsibilities and coaxing the lion to sleep tonight with arguably the most blatant ' fuck me now ' face to ever appear in a PG - rated film. ''
However, the character has garnered positive reviews as well. Sara Franks - Allen of ScreenCrush wrote that "If being a Disney princess is about being a good role model for little girls, then Nala has a lot in her favor '', elaborating, "She 's strong enough to take down Simba, ventures out on her own to find help for her pride and calls Simba out for ignoring his responsibilities. '' Meanwhile, Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog ranked Nala 14th on her list of "The 16 Most Awesome Female Characters From Disney Movies ''. Responsible for introducing the seasoned actress to a younger audience, Kelly 's vocal performance as Nala has garnered critical acclaim. Writing for The Washington Post, Desson Howe hailed Kelly 's voice acting as "terrific. '' Jeremy Gerard of Variety commended Kelly for voicing the character "beautifully ''. PopSugar ranked Kelly among the website 's "Favorite Animated Voices '', writing, "there are a lot of great voices in Disney 's The Lion King... but Moira Kelly has a unique quality to her voice, and I remember reveling in it as a youngster anytime the adult Nala was on the screen. '' Official Disney Blogs published an article entitled "We All Thought it... But Nala Actually Said It '', which cites the character 's most revered quotes. The blog also ranked Nala eighth on the website 's "Definitive Ranking of Disney Cats '' list. In a 2014 interview, actor Eddie Redmayne admitted that Nala was his first "celebrity crush '', having been specifically attracted to the character 's "sweet '' face and singing voice, referring to the experience as his "sexual awakening ''.
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which type of kidney is present in mammals | Kidney - wikipedia
The kidneys are two bean - shaped organs found on the left and right sides of the body in vertebrates. They are located at the back of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space. In adults they are about 11 centimetres (4.3 in) in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder.
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult kidney contains around one million nephrons. The nephron utilizes four processes to alter the blood plasma which flows to it: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion. Via one or more of these mechanisms, the kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluid compartments, fluid osmolality, acid - base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one - fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute - free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid. The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephron. For example, they convert a precursor of vitamin D to its active form, calcitriol; and synthesize the hormones erythropoietin and renin.
Renal physiology is the study of kidney function. Nephrology is the medical specialty which addresses diseases of kidney function: these include chronic kidney disease, nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, acute kidney injury, and pyelonephritis. Urology addresses diseases of kidney (and urinary tract) anatomy: these include cancer, renal cysts, kidney stones and ureteral stones, and urinary tract obstruction.
Procedures used in the management of kidney disease include chemical and microscopic examination of the urine (urinalysis), measurement of kidney function by calculating the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) using the serum creatinine; and kidney biopsy and CT scan to evaluate for abnormal anatomy. Dialysis and kidney transplantation are used to treat kidney failure; one (or both sequentially) of these are almost always used when renal function drops below 15 %. Nephrectomy is frequently used to cure renal cell carcinoma.
In humans, the kidneys are located high in the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the spine, and lie in a retroperitoneal position at a slightly oblique angle. The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the liver, typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney. The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3, and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver. The left sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen. On top of each kidney is an adrenal gland. The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the perirenal fat present between renal fascia and renal capsule and pararenal fat superior to the renal fascia.
The kidney is a bean - shaped structure with a convex and a concave border. A recessed area on the concave border is the renal hilum, where the renal artery enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule, which is itself surrounded by perirenal fat, renal fascia, and pararenal fat. The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) surface is the transversalis fascia.
The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver. For the left kidney, it is next to the spleen. Both, therefore, move down upon inhalation.
In adult males, the kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115 and 155 grams. A Danish study measured the median renal length to be 11.2 cm (4.4 in) on the left side and 10.9 cm (4.3 in) on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm on the left and 134 cm on the right.
The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone - shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid. Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns. Nephrons, the urine - producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct.
The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx; minor calyces empty into major calyces, and major calyces empty into the renal pelvis. This becomes the ureter. At the hilum, the ureter and renal vein exit the kidney and the renal artery enters. Hilar fat and lymphatic tissue with lymph nodes surrounds these structures. The hilar fat is contiguous with a fat - filled cavity called the renal sinus. The renal sinus collectively contains the renal pelvis and calyces and separates these structures from the renal medullary tissue.
The kidneys possess no overtly moving structures
The renal circulation supplies the blood to the kidneys via the renal arteries, left and right, which branch directly from the abdominal aorta. Despite their relatively small size, the kidneys receive approximately 20 % of the cardiac output.
Each renal artery branches into segmental arteries, dividing further into interlobar arteries, which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. The interlobar arteries then supply blood to the arcuate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli.
After filtration occurs, the blood moves through a small network of venules that converge into interlobular veins. As with the arteriole distribution, the veins follow the same pattern: the interlobular provide blood to the arcuate veins then back to the interlobar veins, which come to form the renal vein exiting the kidney for transfusion for blood.
The table below shows the path that blood takes when it travels through the glomerulus, traveling "down '' the arteries and "up '' the veins. However, this model is greatly simplified for clarity and symmetry. Some of the other paths and complications are described at the bottom of the table. The interlobar artery and vein (not to be confused with interlobular) are between two renal lobes, also known as the renal column (cortex region between two pyramids).
The kidney and nervous system communicate via the renal plexus, whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney. Input from the sympathetic nervous system triggers vasoconstriction in the kidney, thereby reducing renal blood flow. The kidney also receives input from the parasympathetic nervous system, by way of the renal branches of the vagus nerve; the function of this is yet unclear. Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10 - 11 levels of the spinal cord and is sensed in the corresponding dermatome. Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney.
Renal histology is the study of the microscopic structure of the kidney. Distinct cell types include:
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 70 % of these genes are expressed in normal, adult kidneys. Just over 300 genes are more specifically expressed in the kidney, with only some 50 genes being highly specific for the kidney. Many of the corresponding kidney specific proteins are expressed in the cell membrane and function as transporter proteins. The highest expressed kidney specific protein is uromodulin, the most abundant protein in urine with functions that prevent calcification and growth of bacteria. Specific proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the kidney with podocin and nephrin expressed in glomeruli, Solute carrier family protein SLC22A8 expressed in proximal tubules, calbindin expressed in distal tubules and aquaporin 2 expressed in the collecting duct cells.
The mammalian kidney develops from intermediate mesoderm. Kidney development, also called nephrogenesis, proceeds through a series of three successive developmental phases: the pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros. The metanephros are primordia of the permanent kidney.
The microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. It processes the blood supplied to it via filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of those processes is the production of urine.
Filtration, which takes place at the renal corpuscle, is the process by which cells and large proteins are retained while materials of smaller molecular weights are filtered from the blood to make an ultrafiltrate that eventually becomes urine. The kidney generates 180 liters of filtrate a day. The process is also known as hydrostatic filtration due to the hydrostatic pressure exerted on the capillary walls.
Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the peritubular capillary. It is accomplished via selective receptors on the luminal cell membrane. Water is 65 % reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. Glucose at normal plasma levels is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The mechanism for this is the Na / glucose cotransporter. A plasma level of 350 mg / dL will fully saturate the transporters and glucose will be lost in the urine. A plasma glucose level of approximately 160 is sufficient to allow glucosuria, which is an important clinical clue to diabetes mellitus. Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule. Hartnup disease is a deficiency of the tryptophan amino acid transporter, which results in pellagra.
Secretion is the reverse of reabsorption: molecules are transported from the peritubular capillary through the interstitial fluid, then through the renal tubular cell and into the ultrafiltrate.
The last step in the processing of the ultrafiltrate is excretion: the ultrafiltrate passes out of the nephron and travels through a tube called the collecting duct, which is part of the collecting duct system, and then to the ureters where it is renamed urine. In addition to transporting the ultrafiltrate, the collecting duct also takes part in reabsorption.
The kidney participates in whole - body homeostasis, regulating acid - base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide, among others.
The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism into the urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism. The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate countercurrent multiplication mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive countercurrent exchange by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.
Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid - base homeostasis, which is the maintenance of pH around a relatively stable value. The lungs contribute to acid - base homeostasis by regulating carbon dioxide (CO) concentration. The kidneys have two very important roles in maintaining the acid - base balance: to reabsorb and regenerate bicarbonate from urine, and to excrete hydrogen ions and fixed acids (anions of acids) into urine.
Maintaining water and salt level of the body. Any significant rise in plasma osmolality is detected by the hypothalamus, which communicates directly with the posterior pituitary gland. An increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in urine concentration. The two factors work together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels.
ADH binds to principal cells in the collecting duct that translocate aquaporins to the membrane, allowing water to leave the normally impermeable membrane and be reabsorbed into the body by the vasa recta, thus increasing the plasma volume of the body.
There are two systems that create a hyperosmotic medulla and thus increase the body plasma volume: Urea recycling and the ' single effect. '
Urea is usually excreted as a waste product from the kidneys. However, when plasma blood volume is low and ADH is released the aquaporins that are opened are also permeable to urea. This allows urea to leave the collecting duct into the medulla creating a hyperosmotic solution that ' attracts ' water. Urea can then re-enter the nephron and be excreted or recycled again depending on whether ADH is still present or not.
The ' single effect ' describes the fact that the ascending thick limb of the loop of Henle is not permeable to water but is permeable to sodium chloride. This allows for a countercurrent exchange system whereby the medulla becomes increasingly concentrated, but at the same time setting up an osmotic gradient for water to follow should the aquaporins of the collecting duct be opened by ADH.
The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, calcitriol, and renin. Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow. Calcitriol, the activated form of vitamin D, promotes intestinal absorption of calcium and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Renin is an enzyme which regulates angiotensin and aldosterone levels.
Although the kidney can not directly sense blood, long - term regulation of blood pressure predominantly depends upon the kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the extracellular fluid compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma sodium concentration. Renin is the first in a series of important chemical messengers that make up the renin -- angiotensin system. Changes in renin ultimately alter the output of this system, principally the hormones angiotensin II and aldosterone. Each hormone acts via multiple mechanisms, but both increase the kidney 's absorption of sodium chloride, thereby expanding the extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When renin levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and aldosterone increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption, expansion of the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood pressure. Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and aldosterone levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid compartment, and decreasing blood pressure.
Calculations of kidney performance are an important part of physiology and can be estimated using the calculations below.
The filtration fraction is the amount of plasma that is actually filtered through the kidney. This can be defined using the equation:
FF = GFR / RPF
Normal human FF is 20 %.
Renal clearance is the volume of plasma from which the substance is completely cleared from the blood per unit time.
C = (U) V / P
The kidney is a very complex organ and mathematical modelling has been used to better understand kidney function at several scales, including fluid uptake and secretion.
Kidney disease is an abnormal structure, function or process in the kidney (s). Nephrosis is non-inflammatory nephropathy and nephritis is inflammatory kidney disease. Nephrology is the speciality that deals with kidney function and disease. Medical terms related to the kidneys commonly use terms such as renal and the prefix nephro -. The adjective renal, meaning related to the kidney, is from the Latin rēnēs, meaning kidneys; the prefix nephro - is from the Ancient Greek word for kidney, nephros (νεφρός). For example, surgical removal of the kidney is a nephrectomy, while a reduction in kidney function is called renal dysfunction.
Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop chronic kidney disease. Renal replacement therapy, in the form of dialysis or kidney transplantation, is indicated when the glomerular filtration rate has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.
Dialysis is a treatment that takes over jobs that healthy kidneys normally do. Kidneys are in need of dialysis when approximately 85 % - 90 % of kidney function is lost, in addition to a Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) of less than 15. Dialysis maintains homeostasis by removing excess water and other salts, regulating blood pressure, and maintaining chemical levels within the body. Dialysis is a treatment that does not cure kidney disease, a kidney transplant will cure kidney disease. While a costly procedure, Dialysis has a life expectancy of 5 -- 10 years with patients having lived up to 30 years while receiving treatment. However, patients receiving the dialysis treatments are able to lead normal lives, despite the regular appointments.
Many renal diseases are diagnosed on the basis of a detailed medical history, and physical examination. The medical history takes into account present and past symptoms, especially those of kidney disease; recent infections; exposure to substances toxic to the kidney; and family history of kidney disease.
Kidney function is tested for using blood tests and urine tests. A usual blood test is for urea and electrolytes, known as a U and E. Creatinine is also tested for. Urine tests such as urinalysis can evaluate for pH, protein, glucose, and the presence of blood. Microscopic analysis can also identify the presence of urinary casts and crystals. The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) can be calculated.
Renal ultrasonography is essential in the diagnosis and management of kidney - related diseases. Other modalities, such as CT and MRI, should always be considered as supplementary imaging modalities in the assessment of renal disease.
The role of the renal biopsy is to diagnose renal disease in which the etiology is not clear based upon noninvasive means (clinical history, past medical history, medication history, physical exam, laboratory studies, imaging studies). In general, a renal pathologist will perform a detailed morphological evaluation and integrate the morphologic findings with the clinical history and laboratory data, ultimately arriving at a pathological diagnosis. A renal pathologist is a physician who has undergone general training in anatomic pathology and additional specially training in the interpretation of renal biopsy specimens.
Ideally, multiple core sections are obtained and evaluated for adequacy (presence of glomeruli) intraoperatively. A pathologist / pathology assistant divides the specimen (s) for submission for light microscopy, immunofluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy.
The pathologist will examine the specimen using light microscopy with multiple staining techniques (hematoxylin and eosin / H&E, PAS, trichrome, silver stain) on multiple level sections. Multiple immunofluorescence stains are performed to evaluate for antibody, protein and complement deposition. Finally, ultra-structural examination is performed with electron microscopy and may reveal the presence of electron - dense deposits or other characteristic abnormalities that may suggest an etiology for the patient 's renal disease.
In the majority of vertebrates, the mesonephros persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced metanephros; only in amniotes is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of fish and amphibians are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an archinephric duct, which is homologous with the vas deferens of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in cartilaginous fish and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.
In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfish and lampreys, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys '', but, even in Amphioxus, these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as nephridia. In amphibians, kidneys and the urinary bladder harbour specialized parasites, monogeneans of the family Polystomatidae.
The kidneys of reptiles consist of a number of lobules arranged in a broadly linear pattern. Each lobule contains a single branch of the ureter in its centre, into which the collecting ducts empty. Reptiles have relatively few nephrons compared with other amniotes of a similar size, possibly because of their lower metabolic rate.
Birds have relatively large, elongated kidneys, each of which is divided into three or more distinct lobes. The lobes consists of several small, irregularly arranged, lobules, each centred on a branch of the ureter. Birds have small glomeruli, but about twice as many nephrons as similarly sized mammals.
The human kidney is fairly typical of that of mammals. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short intermediate segment between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney '' shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds and cetaceans.
Kidneys of various animals show evidence of evolutionary adaptation and have long been studied in ecophysiology and comparative physiology. Kidney morphology, often indexed as the relative medullary thickness, is associated with habitat aridity among species of mammals, and diet (e.g., carnivores have only long loops of Henle).
In ancient Egypt, the kidneys, like the heart, were left inside the mummified bodies, unlike other organs which were removed. Comparing this to the biblical statements, and to drawings of human body with the heart and two kidneys portraying a set of scales for weighing justice, it seems that the Egyptian beliefs had also connected the kidneys with judgement and perhaps with moral decisions.
According to studies in modern and ancient Hebrew, various body organs in humans and animals served also an emotional or logical role, today mostly attributed to the brain and the endocrine system. The kidney is mentioned in several biblical verses in conjunction with the heart, much as the bowels were understood to be the "seat '' of emotion -- grief, joy and pain. Similarly, the Talmud (Berakhoth 61. a) states that one of the two kidneys counsels what is good, and the other evil.
In the sacrifices offered at the biblical Tabernacle and later on at the temple in Jerusalem, the priests were instructed to remove the kidneys and the adrenal gland covering the kidneys of the sheep, goat and cattle offerings, and to burn them on the altar, as the holy part of the "offering for God '' never to be eaten.
In ancient India, according to the Ayurvedic medical systems, the kidneys were considered the beginning of the excursion channels system, the ' head ' of the Mutra Srotas, receiving from all other systems, and therefore important in determining a person 's health balance and temperament by the balance and mixture of the three ' Dosha 's -- the three health elements: Vatha (or Vata) -- air, Pitta -- bile, and Kapha -- mucus. The temperament and health of a person can then be seen in the resulting color of the urine.
Modern Ayurveda practitioners, a practice which is characterized as pseudoscience, have attempted to revive these methods in medical procedures as part of Ayurveda Urine therapy. These procedures have been called "nonsensical '' by skeptics.
The Latin term renes is related to the English word "reins '', a synonym for the kidneys in Shakespearean English (e.g. Merry Wives of Windsor 3.5), which was also the time when the King James Version of the Bible was translated. Kidneys were once popularly regarded as the seat of the conscience and reflection, and a number of verses in the Bible (e.g. Ps. 7: 9, Rev. 2: 23) state that God searches out and inspects the kidneys, or "reins '', of humans, together with the heart.
The kidneys, like other offal, can be cooked and eaten.
Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed, but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor. In many preparations, kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver, as in mixed grill. Dishes include the British steak and kidney pie, the Swedish hökarpanna (pork and kidney stew), the French rognons de veau sauce moutarde (veal kidneys in mustard sauce) and the Spanish riñones al Jerez (kidneys stewed in sherry sauce).
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how long did it take to create the lego movie | The Lego Movie - Wikipedia
The Lego Movie is a 2014 3D computer - animated adventure comedy film written for the screen and directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller from a story by Lord, Miller, and Dan and Kevin Hageman, and starring the voices of Chris Pratt, Will Ferrell, Elizabeth Banks, Will Arnett, Nick Offerman, Alison Brie, Charlie Day, Liam Neeson, and Morgan Freeman; although the film features few live - action scenes, it is primarily an animated film. Based on the Lego line of construction toys, the story focuses on an ordinary Lego minifigure who finds himself being the only one to help a resistance group stop a tyrannical businessman from gluing everything in the Lego worlds into his vision of perfection. The Lego Movie was the first film produced by Warner Animation Group since the release of Looney Tunes: Back in Action in 2003, and was an international co-production between the United States, Australia and Denmark.
The film was released on February 7, 2014 by Warner Bros. Pictures to near - unanimous acclaim; critics praised its visual style, humor, voice cast and heartwarming message. It earned more than $257 million in the U.S. and Canada and $210 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of over $469 million. The film won the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film, the Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Animated Feature, and the Saturn Award for Best Animated Film; it was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film and an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for "Everything Is Awesome ''.
The film has since expanded into a major franchise which ties into the Lego brand, with a sequel to the film, entitled The Lego Movie Sequel, scheduled for release on February 8, 2019. A spin - off film, The Lego Batman Movie, was released to theaters on February 10, 2017, with a second spin - off, The Lego Ninjago Movie, set to be released later in the year, and a third spin - off, The Billion Brick Race, planned for development. The film was dedicated to the memory of Kathleen Fleming, the former director of entertainment development of the Lego company, following her death in Cancun, Mexico in April 2013.
In a Lego world populated by anthropomorphic minifigures, the evil Lord Business finds a super weapon called the "Kragle ''. The wizard Vitruvius attempts to stop him, but is blinded by Business ' robots. Before Business leaves with the weapon, Vitruvius prophesies that a person called "the Special '' will find the Piece of Resistance, a brick capable of stopping the Kragle.
Eight and a half years later, construction worker Emmet Brickowski finds a woman called Wyldstyle searching for something at his construction site after hours. When he investigates, Emmet falls into a hole and finds the Piece of Resistance. Compelled to touch it, Emmet experiences vivid visions and passes out. He awakens with the Piece of Resistance attached to his back, in the custody of Bad Cop, Lord Business 's lieutenant. Wyldstyle rescues Emmett, believing him to be the Special, and takes him to meet Vitruvius in the Old West. Emmet learns that Wyldstyle and Vitruvius are "Master Builders '' -- people capable of building anything from their imagination without the need of instructions -- who oppose Business. Wyldstyle explains Business wants to use the Kragle, a tube of Krazy Glue with a weathered label, to freeze the world into perfection. Though disappointed to find Emmet is not a Master Builder, Wyldstyle and Vitruvius are convinced of his potential when he recalls visions of a seemingly human deity referred to as "the Man Upstairs ''.
Emmet, Wyldstyle, and Vitruvius evade Bad Cop 's forces with the aid of Batman, Wyldstyle 's boyfriend. They go to the hidden Cloud Cuckoo Land, a realm where minifigures can create whatever they desire, to attend a council of Master Builders, all of whom are unimpressed with Emmet and refuse to fight Business. Bad Cop 's forces attack, having placed a tracking device on Emmett, and capture everyone except Emmet and a small team of Master Builders. Escaping, Emmet devises a plan to infiltrate Business 's office tower and disarm the Kragle, but the group is captured and imprisoned in the Think Tank, where all the Master Builders are forced to make instructions. Trying to retaliate, Vitruvius is decapitated by Business, who sets a self - destruct protocol and leaves everyone to die, including Bad Cop. As he dies, Vitruvius reveals he made up the prophecy. He soon reappears to Emmet as a ghost and tells him that his belief makes him the Special. Strapped to the self - destruct mechanism 's battery, Emmet jumps into the abyss outside the tower and severs the connection, saving his friends. Inspired by Emmet 's sacrifice, Wyldstyle rallies the Lego people across the universe to use whatever creativity they have to build machines and weapons to fight against Lord Business 's forces.
Emmet finds himself in the human world as a Lego minifigure unable to move. The events of the story are being played out by a little boy named Finn on his father 's expansive Lego set in their basement. His father -- "the Man Upstairs '' -- comes home from work and chastises his son for ruining the set by creating variations of different playsets, and proceeds to permanently rebuild and glue his perceived perfect creations together. Realizing the danger his friends are in, Emmet wills himself to move and gains Finn 's attention. Finn returns Emmet and the Piece of Resistance to the set, where Emmet now possesses the powers of a Master Builder and confronts Business. Meanwhile, Finn 's father looks at his son 's creations and realizes that Finn had based the villainous Business on him and his perfectionism. Through a speech Emmet gives Business, Finn tells his father that he is special and has the power to change everything. Finn reconciles with his father, which plays out as Business having a change of heart, capping the Kragle, and ungluing his victims with mineral spirits. Emmet is hailed as a hero, and begins a relationship with Wyldstyle with Batman 's blessing.
As a result of Finn 's father allowing Finn 's younger sister to join them in playing with his Lego sets, aliens from the planet Duplon beam down and announce their plans to destroy them.
In addition, Anthony Daniels and Billy Dee Williams reprise their Star Wars roles as C - 3PO and Lando Calrissian respectively, with Keith Ferguson voicing Han Solo (whom he previously voiced in Robot Chicken and Mad). Shaquille O'Neal voices a Lego version of himself who is a Master Builder alongside two generic members of the 2002 NBA All - Stars.
Will Forte, Dave Franco, Jake Johnson, Keegan - Michael Key, Chris McKay, and Jorma Taccone provide voice cameos in the film.
Co-director Christopher Miller cameos as a TV presenter in the studio that films the Where Are My Pants? TV series.
Dan Lin conceived of the idea for the film and began discussing it with Roy Lee before leaving Warner Bros. to form his own production company, Lin Pictures, in 2008. Meanwhile, Warner Bros. home entertainment executive Kevin Tsujihara had recognized the value of the Lego franchise by engineering the studio 's purchase of Lego video game licensee Traveller 's Tales in 2007, thought the success of the Lego - based video games indicated a Lego - based film was a good idea, and reportedly "championed '' the development of the film. By August 2009, Dan and Kevin Hageman were writing the script described as "action adventure set in a Lego world. '' Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs directors Phil Lord and Christopher Miller were in talks in June 2010 to write and direct the film. Warner Bros. green - lit the film by November 2011, with a planned 2014 release date. The Australian studio Animal Logic was contracted to provide the animation, which was expected to comprise 80 % of the film. By this time Chris McKay, the director of Robot Chicken, had also joined Lord and Miller to co-direct. McKay explained that his role was to supervise the production in Australia once Lord and Miller left to work on 22 Jump Street. In March 2012, Lord and Miller revealed the film 's working title, Lego: The Piece of Resistance, and a storyline. In April 2012, Warner Bros. scheduled the film for release on February 28, 2014, a date that subsequently changed.
By June 2012, Chris Pratt had been cast as the voice of Emmet, the lead Lego character, and Will Arnett voicing Lego Batman; the role of Lego Superman was offered to Channing Tatum. By August 2012, Elizabeth Banks was hired to voice Lucy (later getting the alias "Wyldstyle '') and Morgan Freeman to voice Vitruvius, an old mystic. In October 2012, Warner Bros. shifted the release date for the film, simply titled Lego, to February 7, 2014. In November 2012, Alison Brie, Will Ferrell, Liam Neeson, and Nick Offerman signed on for roles. Brie voices Unikitty, a member of Emmet 's team; Ferrell voices the antagonist President / Lord Business; Neeson voices Bad Cop; and Offerman voices Metal Beard, a pirate seeking revenge on Business.
In July 2012, a Lego - user contest announced on the film 's Facebook page would choose a winning Lego vehicle to appear in the film. Miller 's childhood Space Village playset is utilized in the film.
Animal Logic tried to make the film 's animation replicate a stop motion film even if everything was done through computer graphics, with the animation rigs following the same articulation limits actual Lego figures have. The camera systems also tried to replicate live action cinematography, including different lenses and a Steadicam simulator. The scenery was projected through The Lego Group 's own Lego Digital Designer, which as CG supervisor Aidan Sarsfield detailed, "uses the official LEGO Brick Library and effectively simulates the connectivity of each of the bricks. '' The saved files were then converted to design and animate in Maya and XSI. At times the minifigures were even placed under microscopes to capture the seam lines, dirt and grime into the digital textures. Benny the spaceman was based on the line of Lego space sets sold in the 1980s, and his design includes the broken helmet chin strap, a common defect of the space sets at that time.
The film 's total cost, including production, promotion and advertising (P&A), was $100 million. Half of the film 's cost was financed by Village Roadshow Pictures. The rest was covered by Warner Bros., with RatPac - Dune Entertainment providing a smaller share as part of its multi-year financing agreement with Warner Bros. Initially Warner Bros. turned down Village Roadshow Pictures when it asked to invest in the film. However, Warner Bros. later changed its mind, reportedly due to lack of confidence in the film, initially offering Village Roadshow Pictures the opportunity to finance 25 % of the film, and later, an additional 25 %.
The Lego Movie premiered at the Regency Village Theatre in Los Angeles, California on February 1, 2014, and was released in theaters on February 7, 2014. The film was released in Australia by the film 's co-producer, Roadshow Films.
Over twenty Lego sets inspired by scenes from the film were released for the film including a set of Collectible Minifigures. A website was opened up so fans could make minifigure versions of themselves, and later, put that in the film 's official trailer. The company recruited a roster of global partners to a broad, multi-category licensing program to support the film. Official Lego Brand Stores also scheduled events. Each week of January 2014, a new character poster (Wyldstyle, Batman, Emmet, Lord Business) came with every purchase. By building a creative model in - store, people received a free accessory pack. Barnes & Noble hosted a themed event in January, February, and March. On February 7, 2014, McDonald 's released eight collectible holographic / 3D cups in Happy Meals to promote the film. A video game based on the film, The Lego Movie Videogame, by TT Fusion for Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, was released on February 4, 2014. An exclusive "Wild West Emmet '' minifigure was released with preorders of the game at GameStop.
The Lego Movie was released on Digital HD on May 20, 2014. It was released by Warner Home Video on DVD and Blu - ray (2D and 3D) on June 17, 2014. A special Blu - ray 3D "Everything is Awesome Edition '' also includes an exclusive Vitruvius minifigure and a collectible 3D Emmett photo.
The Lego Movie was met with "nearly unanimous positive reviews. '' Review - aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 96 % approval rating with an average rating of 8.2 / 10 based on 226 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Boasting beautiful animation, a charming voice cast, laugh - a-minute gags, and a surprisingly thoughtful story, The Lego Movie is colorful fun for all ages. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics, the film has a score of 83 (indicating "universal acclaim '') based on 43 reviews. According to CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, the average grade cinemagoers gave The Lego Movie was A on an A+ to F scale. Filmmaker Edgar Wright, and TIME Magazine film critic Richard Corliss, each named The Lego Movie as one of their favorite films of 2014.
Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Arriving at a time when feature animation was looking and feeling mighty anemic... The LEGO Movie shows ' em how it 's done, '' with Peter Debruge of Variety adding that Lord and Miller "irreverently deconstruct the state of the modern blockbuster and deliver a smarter, more satisfying experience in its place, emerging with a fresh franchise for others to build upon. '' Tom Huddleston of Time Out said, "The script is witty, the satire surprisingly pointed, and the animation tactile and imaginative. '' Drew Hunt of the Chicago Reader said the filmmakers "fill the script with delightfully absurd one - liners and sharp pop culture references '', with A.O. Scott of The New York Times noting that, "Pop - culture jokes ricochet off the heads of younger viewers to tickle the world - weary adults in the audience, with just enough sentimental goo applied at the end to unite the generations. Parents will dab their eyes while the kids roll theirs. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News said the filmmakers "do n't sink into cynicism. Their computer animation embraces the retro look and feel of the toys to both ingenious and adorable effect. ''
Claudia Puig of USA Today called the film "a spirited romp through a world that looks distinctively familiar, and yet freshly inventive. '' Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail asked, "Can a feature - length toy commercial also work as a decent kids ' movie? The bombast of the G.I. Joe and Transformers franchises might suggest no, but after an uninspired year for animated movies, The Lego Movie is a 3 - D animated film that connects. '' Joel Arnold of NPR acknowledged that the film "may be one giant advertisement, but all the way to its plastic - mat foundation, it 's an earnest piece of work -- a cash grab with a heart. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "sassy enough to shoot well - aimed darts at corporate branding. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post said that, "While clearly filled with affection for -- and marketing tie - ins to -- the titular product that 's front and center, it 's also something of a sharp plastic brick flung in the eye of its corporate sponsor. ''
On the negative side, Kyle Smith of the New York Post called the film "more exhausting than fun, too unsure of itself to stick with any story thread for too long. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times, while generally positive, found "it falls apart a bit near the end. '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap said the film "will doubtless tickle young fans of the toys. It 's just too bad that a movie that encourages you to think for yourself does n't follow its own advice. ''
Television personality, author, filmmaker, radio host and conservative political commentator Glenn Beck praised the film for avoiding "the double meanings and adult humor I just hate. ''
Oscar host Neil Patrick Harris referenced The Lego Movie not being nominated Best Animated Feature, which many critics considered a major snub, saying prior to the award 's presentation "If you 're at the Oscar party with the guys who directed ' The Lego Movie, ' now would be a great time to distract them. ''
U.S. Senator Ron Johnson criticized the film 's anti-corporate message, saying that it taught children that "government is good and business is bad '', citing the villain 's name of Lord Business. "That 's done for a reason '', Johnson told WisPolitics.com. "They 're starting that propaganda, and it 's insidious ''. The comments were criticized by many, and Russ Feingold brought up the comments on the campaign trail during his 2016 Senate bid against Johnson.
The Lego Movie grossed $257.8 million in the U.S. and Canada, and $210.3 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $469.2 million. Calculating in all expenses, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $229 million.
In the U.S. and Canada, the film opened at number one in its first weekend with over $69 million, which was the second highest weekend debut in February, at the time, behind The Passion of the Christ ($83.8 million). The movie retained the top spot at box office in its second weekend by declining only 28 % and grossing $49.8 million. The Lego Movie was number one again in its third weekend while declining 37 % and grossing $31.3 million. In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number three grossing $20.8 million.
Elsewhere, The Lego Movie was released in 34 markets in February 7, 2014 -- the same weekend as its U.S. release. It made $18.7 million on its opening weekend from 5,695 screens from 34 countries. On its opening weekend, which varies depending on the country, it earned $3.8 million in Mexico, $2 million in Spain, $1.8 million in Brazil. With a total gross of £ 34.3 million, it was the second highest - grossing film in the UK and Ireland in 2014.
The popularity of the film led to a shortage of Lego products by September 2014.
The film 's original score was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh, who had previously worked with Lord and Miller on Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs and 21 Jump Street. The Lego Movie soundtrack contains the score as the majority of its tracks. Also included is the song "Everything Is Awesome!!! '' written by Shawn Patterson (El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera and Robot Chicken), Joshua Bartholomew and Lisa Harriton, who also perform the song in the movie under the name, Jo Li. The single, released on January 27, 2014, is performed by Tegan and Sara featuring The Lonely Island (Andy Samberg, Akiva Schaffer and Jorma Taccone) who wrote the rap lyrics, and is the first song played in the end credits of the movie. The soundtrack was released on February 4, 2014 by WaterTower Music.
The film 's theme song, "Everything is Awesome!!! '', has been critically praised and has undergone some close analysis. Eric Brown, writing in the International Business Times, describes the song as a parody of fascism, saying that the song "seems little more than an infectiously catchy parody of watered - down radio pop, right down to the faux - dubstep breakdown. There 's a lot more happening under the surface, however. '' In an interview with Fox News, producer Mark Mothersbaugh says the song "was supposed to be like mind control early in the film. It 's totally irritating, this kind of mindless mantra to get people up and working. ''
Because of its critical and commercial success, The Lego Movie has been turned into a franchise and a shared fictional universe. It consists of two spin - off films, The Lego Batman Movie and The Lego Ninjago Movie, both with 2017 release dates, a sequel scheduled for release in 2019, and a third spin - off titled The Billion Brick Race. A 4 - D ride attraction, based on the film itself, titled The Lego Movie: 4D - A New Adventure, opened at select Legoland theme parks across the globe in the summer of 2016.
On May 10, 2017, Warner Bros. and Lego announced that the character Unikitty would receive a spin - off television series on Cartoon Network, with Tara Strong voicing the character. The premiere date is yet to be announced.
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the most frequently awarded damages under contract law are incidental damages | Damages - wikipedia
In law, damages are an award, typically of money, to be paid to a person as compensation for loss or injury. The rules for damages can and frequently do vary based on the type of claim which is presented (e.g., breach of contract versus a tort claim) and the jurisdiction.
At common law, damages are categorized into compensatory (or actual) damages, and punitive damages. Compensatory damages are further categorized into special damages, which are economic losses such as loss of earnings, property damage and medical expenses, and general damages, which are noneconomic damages such as pain and suffering and emotional distress.
Among the Saxons, a price called Weregild was placed on every human being and every piece of property in the Salic Code. If property was stolen, or someone was injured or killed, the guilty person would have to pay weregild as restitution to the victim 's family or to the owner of the property
Recovery of damages is subject to the legal principle that damages must be proximately caused by the wrongful conduct of the defendant. This is known as the principle of proximate cause. This principle governs the recovery of all compensatory damages, whether the underlying claim is based on contract, tort, or both. Damages are likely to be limited to those reasonably foreseeable by the defendant. If a defendant could not reasonably have foreseen that someone might be hurt by their actions, there may be no liability.
This rule does not usually apply to intentional torts (for example, tort of deceit), and also has stunted applicability to the quantum in negligence where the maxim Intended consequences are never too remote applies -- ' never ' is inaccurate here but resorts to unforeseeable direct and natural consequences of an act.
It may be useful for the lawyers for the plaintiff and / or the defendant to employ forensic accountants or someone trained in the relevant field of economics to give evidence on the value of the loss. In this case, they may be called upon to give opinion evidence as an expert witness.
Compensatory damages are paid to compensate the claimant for loss, injury, or harm suffered as a result of (see requirement of causation) another 's breach of duty. (e.g., in a negligence claim under tort law). Expectation damages are used in contract law.
Liability for payment of an award of damages is established when the claimant proves, on the balance of probabilities, that a defendant 's wrongful act caused a tangible, harm, loss or injury to the plaintiff. Once that threshold is met, the plaintiff is entitled to some amount of recovery for that loss or injury. No recovery is not an option. The court must then assess the amount of compensation attributable to the harmful acts of the defendant.
Special damages compensate the claimant for the quantifiable monetary losses suffered by the plaintiff. For example, extra costs, repair or replacement of damaged property, lost earnings (both historically and in the future), loss of irreplaceable items, additional domestic costs, and so on. They are seen in both personal and commercial actions.
Special damages can include direct losses (such as amounts the claimant had to spend to try to mitigate damages) and consequential or economic losses resulting from lost profits in a business. Special damages basically include compensatory damages for the injury or harm to the plaintiff that result from the tort committed by the defendant.
Damages in tort are awarded generally to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the tort not taken place. Damages for breach of contract are generally awarded to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the contract not been breached. This can often result in a different measure of damages. In cases where it is possible to frame a claim in either contract or tort, it is necessary to be aware of what gives the best outcome.
If the transaction was a "good bargain, '' contract generally gives a better result for the claimant.
As an example, Neal agrees to sell Mary an antique Rolex for £ 100. In fact the watch is a fake and worth only £ 50. If it had been a genuine antique Rolex, it would have been worth £ 500. Neal is in breach of contract and could be sued. In contract, Mary is entitled to an item worth £ 500, but she has only one worth £ 50. Her damages are £ 450. Neal also induced Mary to enter into the contract through a misrepresentation (a tort). If Mary sues in tort, she is entitled to damages that put herself back to the same financial position place she would have been in had the misrepresentation not been made. She would clearly not have entered into the contract knowing the watch was fake, and is entitled to her £ 100 back. Thus her damages in tort are £ 100. (However, she would have to return the watch, or else her damages would be £ 50.)
If the transaction were a "bad bargain '', tort gives a better result for the claimant. If in the above example Mary had overpaid, paying £ 750 for the watch, her damages in contract would still be £ 450 (giving him the item he contracted to buy), however in tort damages are £ 700. This is because damages in tort put her in the position she would have been in had the tort not taken place, and are calculated as her money back (£ 750) less the value of what she actually got (£ 50).
Special damages are sometimes divided into incidental damages, and consequential damages.
Incidental losses include the costs needed to remedy problems and put things right. The largest element is likely to be the reinstatement of property damage. Take for example a factory which was burnt down by the negligence of a contractor. The claimant would be entitled to the direct costs required to rebuild the factory and replace the damaged machinery.
The claimant may also be entitled to any consequential losses. These may include the lost profits that the claimant could have been expected to make in the period whilst the factory was closed and rebuilt.
On a breach of contract by a defendant, a court generally awards the sum that would restore the injured party to the economic position they expected from performance of the promise or promises (known as an "expectation measure '' or "benefit - of - the - bargain '' measure of damages). This rule, however, has attracted increasing scrutiny from Australian courts and legal commentators.
When it is either not possible or not desirable to award the victim in that way, a court may award money damages designed to restore the injured party to the economic position s / he occupied at the time the contract was entered (known as the "reliance measure ''), or designed to prevent the breaching party from being unjustly enriched ("restitution '') (see below).
Parties may contract for liquidated damages to be paid upon a breach of the contract by one of the parties. Under common law, a liquidated damages clause will not be enforced if the purpose of the term is solely to punish a breach (in this case it is termed penal damages). The clause will be enforceable if it involves a genuine attempt to quantify a loss in advance and is a good faith estimate of economic loss. Courts have ruled as excessive and invalidated damages which the parties contracted as liquidated, but which the court nonetheless found to be penal. To determine whether a clause is a liquidated damages clause or a penalty clause, it is necessary to consider:
i) Whether the clause is ' extravagant, out of all proportion, exorbitant or unconscionable '
ii) Whether there is a single sum stipulated for a number of different breaches, or individual sums for each breach
iii) Whether a genuine pre-estimate of damage is ascertainable
Damages in tort are generally awarded to place the claimant in the position that would have been taken had the tort not taken place. Damages in tort are quantified under two headings: general damages and special damages.
In personal injury claims, damages for compensation are quantified by reference to the severity of the injuries sustained (see below general damages for more details). In non-personal injury claims, for instance, a claim for professional negligence against solicitors, the measure of damages will be assessed by the loss suffered by the client due to the negligent act or omission by the solicitor giving rise to the loss. The loss must be reasonably foreseeable and not too remote. Financial losses are usually simple to quantify but in complex cases which involve loss of pension entitlements and future loss projections, the instructing solicitor will usually employ a specialist expert actuary or accountant to assist with the quantification of the loss.
General damages compensate the claimant for the non-monetary aspects of the specific harm suffered. This is usually termed ' pain, suffering and loss of amenity '. Examples of this include physical or emotional pain and suffering, loss of companionship, loss of consortium, disfigurement, loss of reputation, loss or impairment of mental or physical capacity, hedonic damages or loss of enjoyment of life, etc. This is not easily quantifiable, and depends on the individual circumstances of the claimant. Judges in the United Kingdom base the award on damages awarded in similar previous cases.
General damages are generally awarded only in claims brought by individuals, when they have suffered personal harm. Examples would be personal injury (following the tort of negligence by the defendant), or the tort of defamation.
Speculative damages are damages that have not yet occurred, but the plaintiff expects them to. Typically, these damages can not be recovered unless the plaintiff can prove that they are reasonably likely to occur.
Statutory damages are an amount stipulated within the statute rather than calculated based on the degree of harm to the plaintiff. Lawmakers will provide for statutory damages for acts in which it is difficult to determine the value of the harm to the victim. Mere violation of the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award, even if no actual injury occurred. These are similar to, but different from, nominal damages (see below), in which no written sum is specified.
Nominal damages are very small damages awarded to show that the loss or harm suffered was technical rather than actual. Perhaps the most famous nominal damages award in modern times has been the $1 verdict against the National Football League (NFL) in the 1986 antitrust suit prosecuted by the United States Football League. Although the verdict was automatically trebled pursuant to antitrust law in the United States, the resulting $3 judgment was regarded as a victory for the NFL. Historically, one of the best known nominal damage awards was the farthing that the jury awarded to James Whistler in his libel suit against John Ruskin. In the English jurisdiction, nominal damages are generally fixed at £ 2.
Many times a party that has been wronged but is not able to prove significant damages will sue for nominal damages. This is particularly common in cases involving alleged violations of constitutional rights, such as freedom of speech.
Contemptuous damages are a form of damage award available in some jurisdictions. They are similar to nominal damages awards, as they are given when the plaintiff 's suit is trivial, used only to settle a point of honour or law. Awards are usually of the smallest amount, usually 1 cent or similar. The key distinction is that in jurisdictions that follow the loser - pays for attorney fees, the claimaint in a contemptuous damages case may be required to pay his or her own attorney fees.
Traditionally, the court awarded the smallest coin in the Realm, which in England was one farthing, 1 / 960 of a pound before decimalisation in the 1970s. Court costs are not awarded.
Generally, punitive damages, which are also termed exemplary damages in the United Kingdom, are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant and similar persons from pursuing a course of action such as that which damaged the plaintiff. Punitive damages are awarded only in special cases where conduct was egregiously insidious and are over and above the amount of compensatory damages, such as in the event of malice or intent. Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their application. In the United States punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the due process of law clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.
In England and Wales, exemplary damages are limited to the circumstances set out by Lord Devlin in the leading case of Rookes v. Barnard. They are:
Rookes v Barnard has been much criticised and has not been followed in Canada or Australia or by the Privy Council.
Punitive damages awarded in a US case would be difficult to get recognition for in a European court, where punitive damages are most likely to be considered to violate ordre public.
Some jurisdictions recognize a form of damages, called, aggravated damages, that are similar to punitive or exemplary damages. Aggravated damages are not often awarded; they apply where the injury has been aggravated by the wrongdoer 's behaviour, for example, their cruelty.
In certain areas of the law another head of damages has long been available, whereby the defendant is made to give up the profits made through the civil wrong in restitution. Doyle and Wright define restitutionary damages as being a monetary remedy that is measured according to the defendant 's gain rather than the plaintiff 's loss. The plaintiff thereby gains damages which are not measured by reference to any loss sustained. In some areas of the law this heading of damages is uncontroversial; most particularly intellectual property rights and breach of fiduciary relationship.
In England and Wales the House of Lords case of Attorney - General v. Blake opened up the possibility of restitutionary damages for breach of contract. In this case the profits made by a defecting spy, George Blake, for the publication of his book, were awarded to the British Government for breach of contract. The case has been followed in English courts, but the situations in which restitutionary damages will be available remain unclear.
The basis for restitutionary damages is much debated, but is usually seen as based on denying a wrongdoer any profit from his wrongdoing. The really difficult question, and one which is currently unanswered, relates to what wrongs should allow this remedy.
In addition to damages, the successful party is entitled to be awarded their reasonable legal costs that they spent during the case. This is the rule in most countries other than the United States. In the United States, a party generally is not entitled to its attorneys ' fees or for hardships undergone during trial unless the parties agreed in a contract that attorney 's fees should be covered or a specific statute or law permits recovery of legal fees, such as discrimination.
The quantification of personal injury is not an exact science. In English law solicitors like to call personal injury claims as "general damages '' for pain and suffering and loss of amenity (PSLA). Solicitors quantify personal injury claims by reference to previous awards made by the courts which are "similar '' to the case in hand. The guidance solicitors will take into account to help quantify general damages are as hereunder:
The age of the client is important especially when dealing with fatal accident claims or permanent injuries. The younger the injured victim with a permanent injury the longer that person has to live with the PSLA. As a consequence, the greater the compensation payment. In fatal accident claims, generally the younger deceased, the greater the dependency claim by the partner and children.
Solicitors will consider "like for like '' injuries with the case in hand and similar cases decided by the courts previously. These cases are known as precedents. Generally speaking decisions from the higher courts will bind the lower courts. Therefore, judgments from the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal have greater authority than the lower courts such as the High Court and the County Court. A compensation award can only be right or wrong with reference to that specific judgment. Solicitors must be careful when looking at older cases when quantifying a claim to ensure that the award is brought up to date and to take into account the court of appeal case in Heil v Rankin Generally speaking the greater the injury the greater the damages awarded.
This heading is inextricably linked with the other points above. Where two clients are of the same age, experience and suffer the same injury, it does not necessarily mean that they will be affected the same. We are all different. Some people will recover more quickly than others. The courts will assess each claim on its own particular facts and therefore if one claimant recovers more quickly than another, the damages will be reflected accordingly. It is important to note here that "psychological injuries '' may also follow from an accident which may increase the quantum of damages.
When a personal injury claim is settled either in court or out of court, the most common way the compensation payment is made is by a lump sum award in full and final settlement of the claim. Once accepted there can be no further award for compensation at a later time unless the claim is settled by provisional damages often found in industrial injury claims such as asbestos related injuries.
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is the plant that produced the peanut a monocot or dicot | Cotyledon - wikipedia
A cotyledon (/ kɒtɪˈliːdən /; "seed leaf '' from Latin cotyledon, from Greek: κοτυληδών kotylēdōn, gen.: κοτυληδόνος kotylēdonos, from κοτύλη kotýlē "cup, bowl '') is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant, and is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "The primary leaf in the embryo of the higher plants (Phanerogams); the seed - leaf. '' Upon germination, the cotyledon may become the embryonic first leaves of a seedling. The number of cotyledons present is one characteristic used by botanists to classify the flowering plants (angiosperms). Species with one cotyledon are called monocotyledonous ("monocots ''). Plants with two embryonic leaves are termed dicotyledonous ("dicots '') and placed in the class Magnoliopsida.
In the case of dicot seedlings whose cotyledons are photosynthetic, the cotyledons are functionally similar to leaves. However, true leaves and cotyledons are developmentally distinct. Cotyledons are formed during embryogenesis, along with the root and shoot meristems, and are therefore present in the seed prior to germination. True leaves, however, are formed post-embryonically (i.e. after germination) from the shoot apical meristem, which is responsible for generating subsequent aerial portions of the plant.
The cotyledon of grasses and many other monocotyledons is a highly modified leaf composed of a scutellum and a coleoptile. The scutellum is a tissue within the seed that is specialized to absorb stored food from the adjacent endosperm. The coleoptile is a protective cap that covers the plumule (precursor to the stem and leaves of the plant).
Gymnosperm seedlings also have cotyledons, and these are often variable in number (multicotyledonous), with from 2 to 24 cotyledons forming a whorl at the top of the hypocotyl (the embryonic stem) surrounding the plumule. Within each species, there is often still some variation in cotyledon numbers, e.g. Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) seedlings have 5 -- 9, and Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) 7 -- 13 (Mirov 1967), but other species are more fixed, with e.g. Mediterranean cypress always having just two cotyledons. The highest number reported is for big - cone pinyon (Pinus maximartinezii), with 24 (Farjon & Styles 1997).
The cotyledons may be ephemeral, lasting only days after emergence, or persistent, enduring at least a year on the plant. The cotyledons contain (or in the case of gymnosperms and monocotyledons, have access to) the stored food reserves of the seed. As these reserves are used up, the cotyledons may turn green and begin photosynthesis, or may wither as the first true leaves take over food production for the seedling.
Cotyledons may be either epigeal, expanding on the germination of the seed, throwing off the seed shell, rising above the ground, and perhaps becoming photosynthetic; or hypogeal, not expanding, remaining below ground and not becoming photosynthetic. The latter is typically the case where the cotyledons act as a storage organ, as in many nuts and acorns.
Hypogeal plants have (on average) significantly larger seeds than epigeal ones. They are also capable of surviving if the seedling is clipped off, as meristem buds remain underground (with epigeal plants, the meristem is clipped off if the seedling is grazed). The tradeoff is whether the plant should produce a large number of small seeds, or a smaller number of seeds which are more likely to survive.
Related plants show a mixture of hypogeal and epigeal development, even within the same plant family. Groups which contain both hypogeal and epigeal species include, for example, the Araucariaceae family of Southern Hemisphere conifers, the Fabaceae (pea family), and the genus Lilium (see Lily seed germination types). The frequently garden grown common bean - Phaseolus vulgaris - is epigeal while the closely related runner bean - Phaseolus coccineus - is hypogeal.
The term cotyledon was coined by Marcello Malpighi (1628 -- 1694). John Ray was the first botanist to recognize that some plants have two and others only one, and eventually the first to recognize the immense importance of this fact to systematics, in Methodus plantarum (1682).
Theophrastus (3rd or 4th century BC) and Albertus Magnus (13th century) may also have recognized the distinction between the dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
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ornamental architectural openwork in the upper part of some gothic window | Tracery - wikipedia
In architecture, tracery is the stonework elements that support the glass in a Gothic window. The term probably derives from the ' tracing floors ' on which the complex patterns of late Gothic windows were laid out. There are two main types, plate tracery and the later bar tracery.
The earliest form of window tracery, typical of Gothic architecture prior to the early 13th century, is known as plate tracery because the individual lights (the glazed openings in the window) have the appearance of being cut out of a flat plate of masonry. Romanesque church windows were normally quite small, somewhat taller than wide and with a simple round - headed (' segmental ') arch at the top. From around the 1140s, the pointed - arch Gothic window (employed by Abbot Suger for the redesign of the choir at St Denis) started to take over.
As the buttressing systems of early Gothic architecture reduced the structural need for broad expanses of thick walls, window openings grew progressively larger and instead of having just one very large window per bay division (which would create problems with supporting the glass), the typical early - Gothic ' twin lancet plus oculus ' form of plate tracery developed. This consists of two (sometimes three) tall thin lights topped with pointed arches, with a round or trefoil opening placed above them, often contained within a blind arch which gives the whole assemblage a pointed lancet shape (see the example from Soissons Cathedral, right). With this type of design, the spandrels (i.e. the spaces between the tops of the lancet windows and the oculus) are just blank wall. The practicalities of building window tracery in this way severely limited the complexity of designs that could be produced and although plate tracery designs evolved over the course of the 12th and early 13th centuries, in practice, the only real variation was in the number and size of lancets and in the trefoils, quatrefoils and oculi used to fill the spaces above them.
The rose windows of early - and high - Gothic cathedrals, such as the example in the north transept of Laon Cathedral (1170 's) or the west facade at Chartres (c. 1210), also employed plate tracery. This greatly limited the overall amount of light admitted to the interior by these windows, as well as restricting the complexity of patterns that could be created.
The earliest bar tracery designs were made for the aisle windows at Reims around 1215. The Reims windows still used the same ' two lancets plus oculus ' pattern (as in the Soissons example above) but now the glass panels were held between narrow stone mullions made up of carefully shaped lengths of masonry (fitted together with mortar and metal pins) quite distinct from the wall surrounding them. These mullions were much more slender than the corresponding elements in plate tracery windows and crucially, the previously solid wall areas such as the spandrels could also now be glazed, greatly increasing the amount of light admitted.
The cross-section of each mullion or tracery bar was important both for the structural integrity of the window and for the visual effect. As can be seen in Viollet - le - Duc 's diagram (right) there was normally a roll - moulding on both the inside and outside of the windows, which made the mullions appear even more slender than they actually were. The shoulder marked ' B ' on the diagram is the glazing slot, into which the metal frame (armature) of the window glass is mounted. Unlike with plate tracery, where each stone had to be individually shaped, the elements of bar tracery could be mass - produced to standard templates in the mason 's yard - work that could continue even when it was too cold for lime mortar to set. The technical aspects of the windows at Reims clearly fascinated Villard de Honnecourt, who visited the construction site, probably in the 1220s, and made a detailed sketch of the various templates, using a key to show how they fitted into the different parts of the window (the templates are in the lower half of folio 32 recto; the symbols besides the templates match similar ones on the detailed drawing of the Reims elevations on the facing page, folio 31 verso).
As bar tracery opened the way for more complex patterns, masons started applying those same patterns to other surfaces as well as the actual window openings. When used on an otherwise solid walls, such motifs are known as blind tracery, a decorative effect first applied on the west facade of the church of St Nicaise at Reims (1230 's). Conversely, tracery was also constructed as openwork screens, which could either match the window tracery behind them (e.g. the Basilica of Saint Urbain, Troyes) or create a visual counterpoint to it, as on the exterior of the west facade of Strasbourg Cathedral. Open tracery in particular was a key feature of the later phases of Rayonnant Gothic.
Most 19th - century histories of Gothic architectural style used a series of rather arbitrary categories based on the supposed evolution of the dominant patterns of window tracery. Such teleological models are now regarded as oversimplistic and are generally shunned by art historians, although they live on in the popular literature. In terms of the overall development of Gothic architecture, the crucial development was not so much the use of any particular tracery patterns but the transition from plate - to bar - tracery, which was what made the Rayonnant and subsequent styles possible.
As the complexity of tracery increased, so did the need for masons to draw out their designs in advance, either as a way of experimenting with patterns or as a way of communicating their designs to other craftsmen or to their patrons. Because of the cost and size limitations of parchment sheets, such designs would normally be drawn by incising onto a whitewashed board or a conveniently placed section of flat wall. In the latter case, the wall would be prepared with a thin layer of plaster, which would show the design more clearly.
A number of churches and cathedrals still show the faint remains of these tracings (or épures as they are known in France), from where the mason 's compass points scratched through the plaster and into the masonry below. (Examples include some experimental 14th century window tracery patterns at the eastern end of the south wall inside the Galillee porch of Ely Cathedral, or the extensive series of tracings on the flat aisle roofs of Clermont - Ferrand Cathedral.) A number of major building sites (including Westminster Abbey, Wells Cathedral and York Minster) originally had dedicated tracery chambers, where the architects could prepare their designs in relative comfort. The availability of a large flat floor surface meant that designs could be drawn life - size and the individual elements of bar tracery laid out on the plan to test their goodness of fit, before hoisting them up the scaffolding for installation in the actual window openings. This also meant that masons could carry on working through the winter season, when building work would normally grind to a halt.
The tracing floors themselves were covered with plaster of paris, which could be relaid and smoothed down after each set of designs were finished with. The 14th - century tracing house at York (also known as the Mason 's Loft) survives to this day on the upper storey of the corridor leading to the Chapter House, the complex web of lines and curves scratched into the floor serving as witnesses to the countless different designs that were worked out in there. The high - quality carpentry and the inclusion of a garderobe and fireplace in the York tracing house also give an indication of the rising status of the architect around the 14th century.
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what caused the congress to pass the national defense education act | National Defense Education Act - wikipedia
The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was signed into law on September 2, 1958, providing funding to United States education institutions at all levels.
NDEA was among many science initiatives implemented by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1958 to increase the technological sophistication and power of the United States alongside, for instance, DARPA and NASA. It followed a growing national sense that U.S. scientists were falling behind scientists in the Soviet Union. The early Soviet success in the Space Race catalyzed a national sense of unease with Soviet technological advances, especially after the Soviet Union launched the first - ever satellite, Sputnik, the previous year.
The act authorized funding for four years, increasing funding per year: for example, funding increased on eight program titles from $183 million in 1959 to $222 million in 1960. In total, over a billion dollars was directed towards improving American science curricula. However, in the aftermath of McCarthyism, a mandate was inserted in the act that all beneficiaries must complete an affidavit disclaiming belief in the overthrow of the U.S. government. This requisite loyalty statement stirred concern and protest from the American Association of University Professors and over 153 institutions.
The NDEA was influenced by the Soviet launch of the satellite Sputnik on October 4, 1957. U.S. citizens feared that education in the USSR was superior to that in the United States, and Congress reacted by adding the act to bring U.S. schools up to speed.
The year 1957 also coincided with an acute shortage of mathematicians in the United States. The electronic computer created a demand for mathematicians as programmers and it also shortened the lead time between the development of a new mathematical theory and its practical application, thereby making their work more valuable. The United States could no longer rely on European refugees for all of its mathematicians, though they remained an important source, so it had to drastically increase the domestic supply. At the time, "mathematics '' was interpreted as pure mathematics rather than applied mathematics. The problem in the 1950s and 1960s was that industry, including defense, was absorbing the mathematicians who should have been at high schools and universities training the next generation. At the university level, even more recently, there have been years when it was difficult to hire applied mathematicians and computer scientists because of the rate that industry was absorbing them.
Additionally, more high school graduates were beginning to attend college. In 1940 about one - half million Americans attended college, which was about 15 percent of their age group. By 1960, however, college enrollments had expanded to 3.6 million. By 1970, 7.5 million students were attending colleges in the United States, or 40 percent of college - age youths.
The act, therefore, was designed to fulfill two purposes. First, it was designed to provide the country with specific defense oriented personnel. This included providing federal help to foreign language scholars, area studies centers, and engineering students. Second it provided financial assistance -- primarily through the National Defense Student Loan program -- for thousands of students who would be part of the growing numbers enrolling at colleges and universities in the 1960s.
Title I of the NDEA serves as an introduction to the content and purposes of the Act.
Title II authorizes the provision of student loans and provides terms by which they may be awarded. Initially, Title II provided scholarships (also known as grants) rather than loans. However, some members of Congress expressed worry about the message sent by giving students a "free ride. '' The House version of the bill eliminated scholarship money, while the Senate reduced the amount of scholarship money. By the time the bill was passed into law, student aid was exclusively loan - based.
Title III provides additional financial assistance for the purposes of strengthening science, math, and foreign language programs. Latin and Greek programs are not funded under this title, on the grounds that they are not modern foreign languages, and thus do not support defense needs.
Title IV provides funding for graduate fellowships in order to increase the number of graduate - level professionals and university professors. Priority was given to students who stated an interest in becoming a professor. However, certain fields (such as folklore) were specifically exempted from these fellowships. Title IV was also one of the only two federal programs (along with Title VI of the NDEA) in existence at the time that gave any funding to the humanities.
Title V includes provisions for the training of guidance counselors and the implementation of testing programs to identify gifted students. This laid the groundwork for Academically Gifted (AG) and Gifted & Talented (GT) programs and began the trend of using standardized testing in schools to measure competency.
Title VI provides funding for language and area studies programs. "Area studies '' includes such subjects as African American studies and Latin American studies.
Title VII provided funding for research in the more effective use of technology for educational purposes.
Title VIII provided funding for vocational training in order to better prepare citizens for the workforce.
Title IX established the Science Information Institute and Science Information Council in order to disseminate scientific information and assist the government in matters of a highly technical nature.
Title X contains miscellaneous provisions regarding legal and pragmatic details of the Act.
The NDEA includes Title X, Section 1001 (f), a mandate that all beneficiaries of the act complete an affidavit disclaiming belief in the overthrow of the U.S. government. Some in higher education opposed the disclaimer affidavit, as it came to be called, because they said it attempted to control beliefs and as such violated academic freedom. Initially, a small number of institutions (Barnard, Yale, and Princeton) refused to accept funding under the student loan program established by the act because of the affidavit requirement. By 1962, when the disclaimer affidavit was repealed, the number of schools protesting the clause was 153.
After four years of seemingly ineffective protest, the disclaimer requirement was repealed in the Fall of 1962 by President John F. Kennedy who was spurred by an incident extraneous to universities ' protests. In particular, following the public disclosure of the case of a National Science Foundation Fellowship recipient who had run into trouble with the House Un-American Activities Committee, and had been convicted of contempt of Congress. Kennedy interpreted this case proved the affidavit clause to be ineffective, and, in spite of -- rather than because of -- protest prior to 1961, the disclaimer requirement was excised.
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a type of correlative association between an exposure and an effect is a | Correlation does not imply causation - wikipedia
In statistics, many statistical tests calculate correlations between variables and when two variables are found to be correlated, it is tempting to assume that this shows that one variable causes the other. That "correlation proves causation, '' is considered a questionable cause logical fallacy when two events occurring together are taken to have established a cause - and - effect relationship. This fallacy is also known as cum hoc ergo propter hoc, Latin for "with this, therefore because of this, '' and "false cause. '' A similar fallacy, that an event that followed another was necessarily a consequence of the first event, is the post hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin for "after this, therefore because of this. '') fallacy.
For example, in a widely studied case, numerous epidemiological studies showed that women taking combined hormone replacement therapy (HRT) also had a lower - than - average incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD), leading doctors to propose that HRT was protective against CHD. But randomized controlled trials showed that HRT caused a small but statistically significant increase in risk of CHD. Re-analysis of the data from the epidemiological studies showed that women undertaking HRT were more likely to be from higher socio - economic groups (ABC1), with better - than - average diet and exercise regimens. The use of HRT and decreased incidence of coronary heart disease were coincident effects of a common cause (i.e. the benefits associated with a higher socioeconomic status), rather than a direct cause and effect, as had been supposed.
As with any logical fallacy, identifying that the reasoning behind an argument is flawed does not imply that the resulting conclusion is false. In the instance above, if the trials had found that hormone replacement therapy does in fact have a negative incidence on the likelihood of coronary heart disease the assumption of causality would have been correct, although the logic behind the assumption would still have been flawed. Indeed, a few go further, using correlation as a basis for testing a hypothesis to try to establish a true causal relationship; examples are the Granger causality test and convergent cross mapping.
In logic, the technical use of the word "implies '' means "is a sufficient circumstance for ''. This is the meaning intended by statisticians when they say causation is not certain. Indeed, p implies q has the technical meaning of the material conditional: if p then q symbolized as p → q. That is "if circumstance p is true, then q follows. '' In this sense, it is always correct to say "Correlation does not imply causation. ''
However, in casual use, the word "implies '' loosely means suggests rather than requires. The idea that correlation and causation are connected is certainly true; where there is causation, there is a likely correlation. Indeed, correlation is used when inferring causation; the important point is that such inferences are made after correlations are confirmed as real and all causational relationship are systematically explored using large enough data sets.
For any two correlated events, A and B, the different possible relationships include:
Thus there can be no conclusion made regarding the existence or the direction of a cause - and - effect relationship only from the fact that A and B are correlated. Determining whether there is an actual cause - and - effect relationship requires further investigation, even when the relationship between A and B is statistically significant, a large effect size is observed, or a large part of the variance is explained.
Reverse causation or reverse causality or wrong direction is an informal fallacy of questionable cause where cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa.
In this example, the correlation (simultaneity) between windmill activity and wind velocity does not imply that wind is caused by windmills. It is rather the other way around, as suggested by the fact that wind does n't need windmills to exist, while windmills need wind to rotate. Wind can be observed in places where there are no windmills or non-rotating windmills -- and there are good reasons to believe that wind existed before the invention of windmills.
This argument by Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff was refuted by Paul Krugman on the basis that they got the causality backwards: in actuality, slow growth causes debt to increase.
In other cases it may simply be unclear which is the cause and which is the effect. For example:
This could easily be the other way round; that is, violent children like watching more TV than less violent ones.
A correlation between recreational drug use and psychiatric disorders might be either way around: perhaps the drugs cause the disorders, or perhaps people use drugs to self medicate for preexisting conditions. Gateway drug theory may argue that marijuana usage leads to usage of harder drugs, but hard drug usage may lead to marijuana usage (see also confusion of the inverse). Indeed, in the social sciences where controlled experiments often can not be used to discern the direction of causation, this fallacy can fuel long - standing scientific arguments. One such example can be found in education economics, between the screening / signaling and human capital models: it could either be that having innate ability enables one to complete an education, or that completing an education builds one 's ability.
A historical example of this is that Europeans in the Middle Ages believed that lice were beneficial to your health, since there would rarely be any lice on sick people. The reasoning was that the people got sick because the lice left. The real reason however is that lice are extremely sensitive to body temperature. A small increase of body temperature, such as in a fever, will make the lice look for another host. The medical thermometer had not yet been invented, so this increase in temperature was rarely noticed. Noticeable symptoms came later, giving the impression that the lice left before the person got sick.
In other cases, two phenomena can each be a partial cause of the other; consider poverty and lack of education, or procrastination and poor self - esteem. One making an argument based on these two phenomena must however be careful to avoid the fallacy of circular cause and consequence. Poverty is a cause of lack of education, but it is not the sole cause, and vice versa.
The third - cause fallacy (also known as ignoring a common cause or questionable cause) is a logical fallacy where a spurious relationship is confused for causation. It asserts that X causes Y when, in reality, X and Y are both caused by Z. It is a variation on the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy and a member of the questionable cause group of fallacies.
All of these examples deal with a lurking variable, which is simply a hidden third variable that affects both causes of the correlation. A difficulty often also arises where the third factor, though fundamentally different from A and B, is so closely related to A and / or B as to be confused with them or very difficult to scientifically disentangle from them (see Example 4).
The above example commits the correlation - implies - causation fallacy, as it prematurely concludes that sleeping with one 's shoes on causes headache. A more plausible explanation is that both are caused by a third factor, in this case going to bed drunk, which thereby gives rise to a correlation. So the conclusion is false.
This is a scientific example that resulted from a study at the University of Pennsylvania Medical Center. Published in the May 13, 1999 issue of Nature, the study received much coverage at the time in the popular press. However, a later study at Ohio State University did not find that infants sleeping with the light on caused the development of myopia. It did find a strong link between parental myopia and the development of child myopia, also noting that myopic parents were more likely to leave a light on in their children 's bedroom. In this case, the cause of both conditions is parental myopia, and the above - stated conclusion is false.
This example fails to recognize the importance of time of year and temperature to ice cream sales. Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater rate than during colder times, and it is during these hot summer months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving water, such as swimming. The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more exposure to water - based activities, not ice cream. The stated conclusion is false.
However, as encountered in many psychological studies, another variable, a "self - consciousness score '', is discovered that has a sharper correlation (+. 73) with shyness. This suggests a possible "third variable '' problem, however, when three such closely related measures are found, it further suggests that each may have bidirectional tendencies (see "bidirectional variable '', above), being a cluster of correlated values each influencing one another to some extent. Therefore, the simple conclusion above may be false.
Richer populations tend to eat more food and produce more CO.
Further research has called this conclusion into question. Instead, it may be that other underlying factors, like genes, diet and exercise, affect both HDL levels and the likelihood of having a heart attack; it is possible that medicines may affect the directly measurable factor, HDL levels, without affecting the chance of heart attack.
Causality is not necessarily one - way; in a predator - prey relationship, predator numbers affect prey numbers, but prey numbers, i.e. food supply, also affect predator numbers.
The two variables are n't related at all, but correlate by chance. The more things are examined, the more likely it is that two unrelated variables will appear to be related. For example:
The nature of causality is systematically investigated in several academic disciplines, including philosophy and physics.
In academia, there are a significant number of theories on causality; The Oxford Handbook of Causation (Beebee, Hitchcock & Menzies 2009) encompasses 770 pages. Among the more influential theories within philosophy are Aristotle 's Four causes and Al - Ghazali 's occasionalism. David Hume argued that beliefs about causality are based on experience, and experience similarly based on the assumption that the future models the past, which in turn can only be based on experience -- leading to circular logic. In conclusion, he asserted that causality is not based on actual reasoning: only correlation can actually be perceived. Immanuel Kant, according to Beebee, Hitchcock & Menzies (2009), held that "a causal principle according to which every event has a cause, or follows according to a causal law, can not be established through induction as a purely empirical claim, since it would then lack strict universality, or necessity ''.
Outside the field of philosophy, theories of causation can be identified in classical mechanics, statistical mechanics, quantum mechanics, spacetime theories, biology, social sciences, and law. To establish a correlation as causal within physics, it is normally understood that the cause and the effect must connect through a local mechanism (cf. for instance the concept of impact) or a nonlocal mechanism (cf. the concept of field), in accordance with known laws of nature.
From the point of view of thermodynamics, universal properties of causes as compared to effects have been identified through the Second law of thermodynamics, confirming the ancient, medieval and Cartesian view that "the cause is greater than the effect '' for the particular case of thermodynamic free energy. This, in turn, is challenged by popular interpretations of the concepts of nonlinear systems and the butterfly effect, in which small events cause large effects due to, respectively, unpredictability and an unlikely triggering of large amounts of potential energy.
Intuitively, causation seems to require not just a correlation, but a counterfactual dependence. Suppose that a student performed poorly on a test and guesses that the cause was his not studying. To prove this, one thinks of the counterfactual -- the same student writing the same test under the same circumstances but having studied the night before. If one could rewind history, and change only one small thing (making the student study for the exam), then causation could be observed (by comparing version 1 to version 2). Because one can not rewind history and replay events after making small controlled changes, causation can only be inferred, never exactly known. This is referred to as the Fundamental Problem of Causal Inference -- it is impossible to directly observe causal effects.
A major goal of scientific experiments and statistical methods is to approximate as best possible the counterfactual state of the world. For example, one could run an experiment on identical twins who were known to consistently get the same grades on their tests. One twin is sent to study for six hours while the other is sent to the amusement park. If their test scores suddenly diverged by a large degree, this would be strong evidence that studying (or going to the amusement park) had a causal effect on test scores. In this case, correlation between studying and test scores would almost certainly imply causation.
Well - designed experimental studies replace equality of individuals as in the previous example by equality of groups. The objective is to construct two groups that are similar except for the treatment that the groups receive. This is achieved by selecting subjects from a single population and randomly assigning them to two or more groups. The likelihood of the groups behaving similarly to one another (on average) rises with the number of subjects in each group. If the groups are essentially equivalent except for the treatment they receive, and a difference in the outcome for the groups is observed, then this constitutes evidence that the treatment is responsible for the outcome, or in other words the treatment causes the observed effect. However, an observed effect could also be caused "by chance '', for example as a result of random perturbations in the population. Statistical tests exist to quantify the likelihood of erroneously concluding that an observed difference exists when in fact it does not (for example see P - value).
When experimental studies are impossible and only pre-existing data are available, as is usually the case for example in economics, regression analysis can be used. Factors other than the potential causative variable of interest are controlled for by including them as regressors in addition to the regressor representing the variable of interest. False inferences of causation due to reverse causation (or wrong estimates of the magnitude of causation due the presence of bidirectional causation) can be avoided by using explanators (regressors) that are necessarily exogenous, such as physical explanators like rainfall amount (as a determinant of, say, futures prices), lagged variables whose values were determined before the dependent variable 's value was determined, instrumental variables for the explanators (chosen based on their known exogeneity), etc. See Causality # Statistics and economics. Spurious correlation due to mutual influence from a third, common, causative variable, is harder to avoid: the model must be specified such that there is a theoretical reason to believe that no such underlying causative variable has been omitted from the model.
Much of scientific evidence is based upon a correlation of variables -- they are observed to occur together. Scientists are careful to point out that correlation does not necessarily mean causation. The assumption that A causes B simply because A correlates with B is often not accepted as a legitimate form of argument.
However, sometimes people commit the opposite fallacy -- dismissing correlation entirely. This would dismiss a large swath of important scientific evidence. Since it may be difficult or ethically impossible to run controlled double - blind studies, correlational evidence from several different angles may be useful for prediction despite failing to provide evidence for causation. For example, social workers might be interested in knowing how child abuse relates to academic performance. Although it would be unethical to perform an experiment in which children are randomly assigned to receive or not receive abuse, researchers can look at existing groups using a non-experimental correlational design. If in fact a negative correlation exists between abuse and academic performance, researchers could potentially use this knowledge of a statistical correlation to make predictions about children outside the study who experience abuse, even though the study failed to provide causal evidence that abuse decreases academic performance. The combination of limited available methodologies with the dismissing correlation fallacy has on occasion been used to counter a scientific finding. For example, the tobacco industry has historically relied on a dismissal of correlational evidence to reject a link between tobacco and lung cancer, as did biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher.
Correlation is a valuable type of scientific evidence in fields such as medicine, psychology, and sociology. But first correlations must be confirmed as real, and then every possible causative relationship must be systematically explored. In the end correlation alone can not be used as evidence for a cause - and - effect relationship between a treatment and benefit, a risk factor and a disease, or a social or economic factor and various outcomes. It is one of the most abused types of evidence, because it is easy and even tempting to come to premature conclusions based upon the preliminary appearance of a correlation.
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how many deputy governors are there in rbi | Reserve bank of India - Wikipedia
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) (IAST: Bhāratīya Rija़rva Baiṃka) is India 's central banking institution, which controls the monetary policy of the Indian rupee. It commenced its operations on 1 April 1935 in accordance with the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. The original share capital was divided into shares of 100 each fully paid, which were initially owned entirely by private shareholders. Following India 's independence on 15 August 1947, the RBI was nationalised on 1 January 1949.
The RBI plays an important part in the Development Strategy of the Government of India. It is a member bank of the Asian Clearing Union. The general superintendence and direction of the RBI is entrusted with the 21 - member central board of directors: the governor; four deputy governors; two finance ministry representatives (usually the Economic Affairs Secretary and the Financial Services Secretary); ten government - nominated directors to represent important elements of India 's economy; and four directors to represent local boards headquartered at Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and the capital New Delhi. Each of these local boards consists of five members who represent regional interests, the interests of co-operative and indigenous banks.
The central bank was an independent apex monetary authority which regulates banks and provides important financial services like storing of foreign exchange reserves, control of inflation, monetary policy report till August 2016. A central bank is known by different names in different countries. The functions of a central bank vary from country to country and are autonomous or quasi-autonomous body and perform or through another agency vital monetary functions in the country. A central bank is a vital financial apex institution of an economy and the key objects of central banks may differ from country to country still they perform activities and functions with the goal of maintaining economic stability and growth of an economy.
The bank is also active in promoting financial inclusion policy and is a leading member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI). The bank is often referred to by the name Mint Street. RBI is also known as banker 's bank.
The preamble of the Reserve Bank of India describes the basic functions of the reserve bank as:
"to regulate the issue of Bank notes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage; to have a modern monetary policy framework to meet the challenge of an increasingly complex economy, to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth. ''
The Reserve Bank of India was established following the Reserve Bank of India Act of 1934. Though privately owned initially, it was nationalised in 1949 and since then fully owned by Government of India (GoI).
The Reserve Bank of India was founded on 1 April 1935 to respond to economic troubles after the First World War. The Reserve Bank of India was conceptualized based on the guidelines presented by the Central Legislative Assembly which passed these guidelines as the RBI Act 1934. RBI was conceptualized as per the guidelines, working style and outlook presented by B.R. Ambedkar in his book titled "The Problem of the Rupee -- Its origin and its solution '' and presented to the Hilton Young Commission. The bank was set up based on the recommendations of the 1926 Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance, also known as the Hilton -- Young Commission. The original choice for the seal of RBI was The East India Company Double Mohur, with the sketch of the Lion and Palm Tree. However, it was decided to replace the lion with the tiger, the national animal of India. The Preamble of the RBI describes its basic functions to regulate the issue of bank notes, keep reserves to secure monetary stability in India, and generally to operate the currency and credit system in the best interests of the country. The Central Office of the RBI was established in Calcutta (now Kolkata) but was moved to Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1937. The RBI also acted as Burma 's (now Myanmar) central bank until April 1947 (except during the years of Japanese occupation (1942 -- 45)), even though Burma seceded from the Indian Union in 1937. After the Partition of India in August 1947, the bank served as the central bank for Pakistan until June 1948 when the State Bank of Pakistan commenced operations. Though set up as a shareholders ' bank, the RBI has been fully owned by the Government of India since its nationalization in 1949. RBI has monopoly of note issue.
In the 1950s, the Indian government, under its first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, developed a centrally planned economic policy that focused on the agricultural sector. The administration nationalized commercial banks and established, based on the Banking Companies Act, 1949 (later called the Banking Regulation Act), a central bank regulation as part of the RBI. Furthermore, the central bank was ordered to support economic plan with loans.
As a result of bank crashes, the RBI was requested to establish and monitor a deposit insurance system. Meant to restore the trust in the national bank system, it was initialized on 7 December 1961. The Indian government founded funds to promote the economy, and used the slogan "Developing Banking ''. The government of India restructured the national bank market and nationalized a lot of institutes. As a result, the RBI had to play the central part in controlling and supporting this public banking sector.
In 1969, the Indira Gandhi - headed government nationalized 14 major commercial banks. Upon Indira Gandhi 's return to power in 1980, a further six banks were nationalized. The regulation of the economy and especially the financial sector was reinforced by the Government of India in the 1970s and 1980s. The central bank became the central player and increased its policies a lot for a lot of tasks like interests, reserve ratio and visible deposits. These measures aimed at better economic development and had a huge effect on the company policy of the institutes. The banks lent money in selected sectors, like agricultural business and small trade companies.
The branch was forced to establish two new offices in the country for every newly established office in a town. The oil crises in 1973 resulted in increasing inflation, and the RBI restricted monetary policy to reduce the effects.
A lot of committees analysed the Indian economy between 1985 and 1991. Their results had an effect on the RBI. The Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction, the Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research and the Security & Exchange Board of India investigated the national economy as a whole, and the security and exchange board proposed better methods for more effective markets and the protection of investor interests. The Indian financial market was a leading example for so - called "financial repression '' (Mckinnon and Shaw). The Discount and Finance House of India began its operations in the monetary market in April 1988; the National Housing Bank, founded in July 1988, was forced to invest in the property market and a new financial law improved the versatility of direct deposit by more security measures and liberalisation.
The national economy contracted in July 1991 as the Indian rupee was devalued. The currency lost 18 % of its value relative to the US dollar, and the Narsimham Committee advised restructuring the financial sector by a temporal reduced reserve ratio as well as the statutory liquidity ratio. New guidelines were published in 1993 to establish a private banking sector. This turning point was meant to reinforce the market and was often called neo-liberal. The central bank deregulated bank interests and some sectors of the financial market like the trust and property markets. This first phase was a success and the central government forced a diversity liberalisation to diversify owner structures in 1998.
The National Stock Exchange of India took the trade on in June 1994 and the RBI allowed nationalized banks in July to interact with the capital market to reinforce their capital base. The central bank founded a subsidiary company -- the Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Limited -- on 3 February 1995 to produce banknotes.
The Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 came into force in June 2000. It should improve the item in 2004 -- 2005 (National Electronic Fund Transfer). The Security Printing & Minting Corporation of India Ltd., a merger of nine institutions, was founded in 2006 and produces banknotes and coins.
The national economy 's growth rate came down to 5.8 % in the last quarter of 2008 -- 2009 and the central bank promotes the economic development.
The central board of directors is the main committee of the central bank. The Government of India appoints the directors for a four - year term. The Board consists of a governor, and not more than four deputy governors; four directors to represent the regional boards; 2 -- usually the Economic Affairs Secretary and the Financial Services Secretary -- from the Ministry of Finance and 10 other directors from various fields. The Reserve Bank -- under Raghuram Rajan 's governorship -- wanted to create a post of a chief operating officer (COO), in the rank of deputy governor and wanted to re-allocate work between the five of them (four deputy governor and COO).
The bank is headed by the governor and the post is currently held by economist Urjit Patel. There are four deputy governors BP Kanungo,, NS Vishwanathan and Viral Acharya, Mahesh Kumar Jain.
Two of the four deputy governors are traditionally from RBI ranks and are selected from the Bank 's Executive Directors. One is nominated from among the Chairpersons of public sector banks and the other is an economist. An Indian Administrative Service officer can also be appointed as deputy governor of RBI and later as the governor of RBI as with the case of Y. Venugopal Reddy and Duvvuri Subbarao. Other persons forming part of the central board of directors of the RBI are Dr. Nachiket Mor, YC Deveshwar, Prof Damodar Acharya, Ajay Tyagi and Anjuly Duggal.
Uma Shankar, chief general manager (CGM) in charge of the Reserve Bank of India 's financial inclusion and development department has taken over as executive director (ED) in the central bank.
Sudha Balakrishnan, a former vice president at National Securities Depository Limited, assumed charge as the first chief financial officer (CFO) of the Reserve Bank on 15 May 2018; she was given the rank of an executive director.
The RBI has four zonal offices at Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai. It has 27 regional offices and four sub-offices throughout India. Regional offices are located in Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Chennai, Delhi, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Jammu, Kanpur, Kochi, Kolkata, Dewas, Lucknow, Mumbai, Nagpur, Patna, Dehradun and Thiruvananthapuram and sub-offices are located in Agartala, Aizawal, Dehradun, Gangtok, Imphal, Panaji, Raipur, Ranchi, Shillong, Shimla and Srinagar.
The RBI has four regional representations: North in New Delhi, South in Chennai, East in Kolkata and West in Mumbai. The representations are formed by five members, appointed for four years by the central government and with the advice of the central board of directors serve as a forum for regional banks and to deal with delegated tasks from the Central Board.
It has two training colleges for its officers, viz. Reserve Bank Staff College, Chennai and College of Agricultural Banking, Pune. There are three autonomous institutions run by RBI namely National Institute of Bank Management (NIBM), Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR), Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT). There are also four Zonal Training Centres at Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and New Delhi.
The Board of Financial Supervision (BFS), formed in November 1994, serves as a CCBD committee to control the financial institutions. It has four members, appointed for two years, and takes measures to strength the role of statutory auditors in the financial sector, external monitoring and internal controlling systems. The Tarapore committee was set up by the Reserve Bank of India under the chairmanship of former RBI deputy governor S.S. Tarapore to "lay the road map '' to capital account convertibility. The five - member committee recommended a three - year time frame for complete convertibility by 1999 -- 2000.
On 8 December 2017, Surekha Marandi, Executive Director (ED) of Reserve Bank of India, said RBI will open an office in the north - eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh
The central bank of any country executes many functions such as overseeing monetary policy, issuing currency, managing foreign exchange, working as a bank for government and as a banker of scheduled commercial banks. It also works for overall economic growth of the country. The preamble of the Reserve Bank of India describes it main functions as:
... to regulate the issue of Bank Notes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage.
The primary objective of RBI is to undertake consolidated supervision of the financial sector comprising commercial banks, financial institutions and non-banking finance companies.
The Board is constituted by co-opting four Directors from the Central Board as members for a term of two years and is chaired by the governor. The deputy governors of the reserve bank are ex-officio members. One deputy governor, usually, the deputy governor in charge of banking regulation and supervision, is nominated as the vice-chairman of the board. The Board is required to meet normally once every month. It considers inspection reports and other supervisory issues placed before it by the supervisory departments.
BFS through the Audit Sub-Committee also aims at upgrading the quality of the statutory audit and internal audit functions in banks and financial institutions. The audit sub-committee includes deputy governor as the chairman and two Directors of the Central Board as members. The BFS oversees the functioning of Department of Banking Supervision (DBS), Department of Non-Banking Supervision (DNBS) and Financial Institutions Division (FID) and gives directions on the regulatory and supervisory issues.
The institution is also the regulator and supervisor of the financial system and prescribes broad parameters of banking operations within which the country 's banking and financial system functions. Its objectives are to maintain public confidence in the system, protect depositors ' interest and provide cost - effective banking services to the public. The Banking Ombudsman Scheme has been formulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) for effective addressing of complaints by bank customers. The RBI controls the monetary supply, monitors economic indicators like the gross domestic product and has to decide the design of the rupee banknotes as well as coins.
Payment and settlement systems play an important role in improving overall economic efficiency. The Payment and Settlement Systems Act of 2007 (PSS Act) gives the Reserve Bank oversight authority, including regulation and supervision, for the payment and settlement systems in the country. In this role, the RBI focuses on the development and functioning of safe, secure and efficient payment and settlement mechanisms. Two payment systems National Electronic Fund Transfer (NEFT) and Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) allow individuals, companies and firms to transfer funds from one bank to another. These facilities can only be used for transferring money within the country.
NEFT operates on a deferred net settlement (DNS) basis and settles transactions in batches. The settlement takes place for all transactions received till a particular cut - off time. It operates in hourly batches -- there are 12 settlements from 8 am to 7 pm on weekdays and SIX between 8 am and 1 pm on Saturdays. Any transaction initiated after the designated time would have to wait till the next settlement time. In RTGS, transactions are processed continuously, all through the business hours. RBI 's settlement time is 9 am to 4: 30 pm on weekdays and 9 am to 2: 00 pm on Saturdays.
Just like individuals need a bank to carry out their financial transactions effectively & efficiently, Governments also need a bank to carry out their financial transactions. RBI serves this purpose for the Government of India (GoI). As a banker to the GoI, RBI maintains its accounts, receive payments into & make payments out of these accounts. RBI also helps GoI to raise money from public via issuing bonds and government approved securities.
The central bank manages to reach different goals of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. Their objective is to facilitate external trade and payment and promote orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India.
With increasing integration of the Indian economy with the global economy arising from greater trade and capital flows, the foreign exchange market has evolved as a key segment of the Indian financial market and RBI has an important role to play in regulating & managing this segment. RBI manages forex and gold reserves of the nation.
On a given day, the foreign exchange rate reflects the demand for and supply of foreign exchange arising from trade and capital transactions. The RBI 's Financial Markets Department (FMD) participates in the foreign exchange market by undertaking sales / purchases of foreign currency to ease volatility in periods of excess demand for / supply of foreign currency.
Reserve bank of India is the sole body who is authorized to issue currency in India. The bank also destroys the same when they are not fit for circulation. All the money issued by the central bank is its monetary liability, i.e., the central bank is obliged to back the currency with assets of equal value, to enhance public confidence in paper currency. The objectives are to issue bank notes and give public adequate supply of the same, to maintain the currency and credit system of the country to utilize it in its best advantage, and to maintain the reserves. RBI maintains the economic structure of the country so that it can achieve the objective of price stability as well as economic development because both objectives are diverse in themselves. For printing of notes, the Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited (SPMCIL), a wholly owned company of the Government of India, has set up printing presses at Nashik, Maharashtra and Dewas, Madhya Pradesh. The Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Limited (BRBNMPL), also has set up printing presses in Mysore in Karnataka and Salboni in West Bengal. In all, there are four printing presses. And for the minting of coins, SPMCIL has four mints at Mumbai, Noida (UP), Kolkata and Hyderabad for coin production.
While coins and one rupee notes are minted by Government of India (GoI), the RBI works as an agent of GoI for distributing and handling of coins. RBI also works to prevent counterfeiting of currency by regularly upgrading security features of currency. For printing currency, RBI has four facilities at Dewas, Nasik, Mysore and Salboni. The RBI is authorized to issue notes up to value of Rupees ten thousands and coin up to one thousands. New notes of Rupees 500 and 2000 have been issued on 8 November 2016. The old series note of Rupees 1000 and 500 are considered illegal and just paper from midnight on 8 November 2016. Earlier 1000 notes have been discarded by RBI.
Reserve Bank of India also works as a central bank where commercial banks are account holders and can deposit money. RBI maintains banking accounts of all scheduled banks. Commercial banks create credit. It is the duty of the RBI to control the credit through the CRR, bank rate and open market operations. As banker 's bank, the RBI facilitates the clearing of cheques between the commercial banks and helps the inter-bank transfer of funds. It can grant financial accommodation to schedule banks. It acts as the lender of the last resort by providing emergency advances to the banks. It supervises the functioning of the commercial banks and takes action against it if the need arises. The RBI also advises the banks on various matters for example Corporate Social Responsibility.
RBI has the responsibility of regulating the nation 's financial system. As a regulator and supervisor of the Indian banking system it ensures financial stability & public confidence in the banking system. RBI uses methods like On - site inspections, off - site surveillance, scrutiny & periodic meetings to supervise new bank licenses, setting capital requirements and regulating interest rates in specific areas. RBI is currently focused on implementing Basel III norms.
In order to curb the fake currency menace, RBI has launched a website to raise awareness among masses about fake notes in the market. www.paisaboltahai.rbi.org.in provides information about identifying fake currency.
On 22 January 2014; RBI gave a press release stating that after 31 March 2014, it will completely withdraw from circulation of all banknotes issued prior to 2005. From 1 April 2014, the public will be required to approach banks for exchanging these notes. Banks will provide exchange facility for these notes until further communication. The reserve bank has also clarified that the notes issued before 2005 will continue to be legal tender. This would mean that banks are required to exchange the notes for their customers as well as for non-customers. From 1 July 2014, however, to exchange more than 15 pieces of ` 500 and ` 1000 notes, non-customers will have to furnish proof of identity and residence as well as show aadhar to the bank branch in which she / he wants to exchange the notes.
This move from the reserve bank is expected to unearth black money held in cash. As the new currency notes have added security features, they would help in curbing the menace of fake currency.
The central bank has to perform a wide range of promotional functions to support national objectives and industries. The RBI faces a lot of inter-sectoral and local inflation - related problems. Some of these problems are results of the dominant part of the public sector.
Key tools in this effort include Priority Sector Lending such as agriculture, micro and small enterprises (MSE), housing and education. RBI work towards strengthening and supporting small local banks and encourage banks to open branches in rural areas to include large section of society in banking net.
The RBI is also a banker to the government and performs merchant banking function for the central and the state governments. It also acts as their banker. The National Housing Bank (NHB) was established in 1988 to promote private real estate acquisition. The institution maintains banking accounts of all scheduled banks, too. RBI on 7 August 2012 said that Indian banking system is resilient enough to face the stress caused by the drought - like situation because of poor monsoon this year.
The Reserve Bank has the custody of the country 's reserves of international currency, and this enables the Reserve Bank to deal with crisis connected with adverse balance of payments position.
On 8 November 2016, the Government of India announced the demonetisation of all ₹ 500 (US $7.30) and ₹ 1,000 (US $15) banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series on the recommendation of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.
The Reserve Bank of India laid down a detailed procedure for the exchange of the demonetised banknotes with new ₹ 500 and ₹ 2,000 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series and ₹ 100 banknotes of the preceding Mahatma Gandhi Series. Following are the key points:
However, exceptions were given to petrol, CNG and gas stations, government hospitals, railway and airline booking counters, state - government recognised dairies and ration stores, and crematoriums to accept the old ₹ 500 and ₹ 1,000 banknotes until 11 November 2016, which was later extended to 14 November 2016 and once again to 24 November 2016. International airports were also instructed to facilitate an exchange of notes amounting to a total value of ₹ 5,000 for foreign tourists and out - bound passengers.
Under the revised guidelines issued on 17 November 2016, families were allowed to withdraw ₹ 250,000 for wedding expenses from one account provided it was KYC compliant. The rules were also changed for farmers who are permitted to withdraw ₹ 25,000 per week from their accounts against crop loan.
The scarcity of cash due to demonetisation led to chaos, and most people holding old banknotes faced difficulties exchanging them due to endless lines outside banks and ATMs across India, which became a daily routine for millions of people waiting to deposit or exchange the ₹ 500 and ₹ 1000 banknotes since 9 November. ATMs were running out of cash after a few hours of being functional, and around half the ATMs in the country were non-functional. Sporadic violence was reported in New Delhi, but there were no reports of any grievous injury, people attacked bank premises and ATMs, and a ration shop was looted in Madhya Pradesh after the shop owner refused to accept ₹ 500 banknotes.
Repo (Repurchase) rate also known as the benchmark interest rate is the rate at which the RBI lends money to the commercial banks for a short - term (max. 90 days). When the repo rate increases, borrowing from RBI becomes more expensive. If RBI wants to make it more expensive for the banks to borrow money, it increases the repo rate similarly, if it wants to make it cheaper for banks to borrow money it reduces the repo rate. If the repo rate is increased, banks ca n't carry out their business at a profit whereas the very opposite happens when the repo rate is cut down. Generally, repo rates are cut down whenever the country needs to progress in banking and economy. Currently, the new RBI governor Sri Urjit Patel has cut the previous Repo rate to 6 % for facilitation of India 's economy.
In its fifth bi-monthly Monetary policy review on 6 December 2017, RBI unchanged Repo Rate and kept at 6 %.
If banks want to borrow money (for short term, usually overnight) from RBI then banks have to charge this interest rate. currently, Repo rate is set to 6 % w.e.f 9 August 2017. Banks have to pledge government securities as collateral. This kind of deal happens through a re-purchase agreement. If a bank wants to borrow Rs. 100 crores, it has to provide government securities at least worth Rs. 100 crore (could be more because of margin requirement which is 5 % - 10 % of loan amount) and agree to repurchase them at Rs. 106.75 crore at the end of borrowing period. So the bank has paid Rs. 6.75 crore as interest. This is the reason it is called repo rate. The government securities which are provided by banks as collateral can not come from SLR quota (otherwise the SLR will go below 19.5 % of NDTL and attract penalty). Banks have to provide these securities additionally.
To curb inflation, RBI increases Repo rate which will make borrowing costly for banks. Banks will pass this increased cost to their customers which make borrowing costly in whole economy. Fewer people will apply for loan and aggregate demand will get reduced. This will result in inflation coming down. RBI does the opposite to fight deflation. Although when RBI reduce Repo rate, banks are not legally required to reduce their base rate.
As the name suggest, reverse repo rate is just the opposite of repo rate. Reverse Repo rate is the short term borrowing rate at which RBI borrows money from banks. The reserve bank uses this tool when it feels there is too much money floating in the banking system. An increase in the reverse repo rate means that the banks will get a higher rate of interest from RBI. As a result, banks prefer to lend their money to RBI which is always safe instead of lending it to others (people, companies etc.) which is always risky.
Repo Rate signifies the rate at which liquidity is injected into the banking system by RBI, whereas Reverse Repo rate signifies the rate at which the central bank absorbs liquidity from the banks. Currently, Reverse Repo Rate is pegged to be 0.25 % below Repo Rate.
Apart from the CRR, banks are required to maintain liquid assets in the form of gold, cash and approved securities. Higher liquidity ratio forces commercial banks to maintain a larger proportion of their resources in liquid form and thus reduces their capacity to grant loans and advances, thus it is an anti-inflationary impact. A higher liquidity ratio diverts the bank funds from loans and advances to investment in government and approved securities. In well - developed economies, central banks use open market operations -- buying and selling of eligible securities by the central bank in the money market -- to influence the volume of cash reserves with commercial banks and thus influence the volume of loans and advances they can make to the commercial and industrial sectors. In the open money market, government securities are traded at market - related rates of interest. The RBI is resorting more to open market operations in the more recent years. Generally, RBI uses
Direct credit controls in India are of three types:
The share of net demand and time liabilities that banks must maintain in safe and liquid assets, such as government securities, cash and gold. The present SLR is 19.5 %.
It is defined in Sec 49 of RBI Act of 1934 as the ' standard rate at which RBI is prepared to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial papers eligible for purchase '. When banks want to borrow long term funds from RBI, it is the interest rate which RBI charges to them. It is currently set to 6.75 % (Second Bi-monthly Monetary Policy Statement, 2018 -- 19). The bank rate is not used to control money supply these days. Although penal rates are linked to bank rate. If a bank fails to keep SLR or CRR then RBI will impose penalty & it will be 300 basis points above bank rate.
Liquidity Adjustment facility was introduced in 2000. LAF is a facility provided by the Reserve Bank of India to scheduled commercial banks to avail of liquidity in case of need or to park excess funds with the RBI on an overnight basis against the collateral of Government securities. RBI accept application for a minimum amount of Rs. 5 crore and in multiples of Rs. 5 crore thereafter. LAF enables liquidity management on a day - to - day basis. The operations of LAF are conducted by way of repurchase agreements called Repos & Reverse Repos.
CRR refers to the ratio of bank 's cash reserve balances with RBI with reference to the bank 's net demand & time liabilities to ensure the liquidity & solvency of the scheduled banks. The share of net demand and time liabilities that banks must maintain as cash with RBI. The RBI has set CRR at 4 %. 1 % change in it today affects the economy with Rs. 96000 crores. An increase sucks this amount from the economy, while a decrease injects this amount into the economy.So if a bank has 200 Crore of NDTL then it has to keep Rs. 8 Crore in cash with RBI. RBI pays no interest on CRR.
Let 's assume economy is showing inflationary trends & RBI wants to control this situation by adjusting SLR & CRR. If RBI increases SLR to 50 % and CRR to 20 % then bank will be left only with Rs. 60 crore for operations. Now it will be very difficult for bank to maintain profitability with such small capital. Bank will be left with no choice but to raise interest rate which will make borrowing costly. This will in turn reduce the overall demand & hence price will come down eventually.
Open market operation is the activity of buying and selling of government securities in open market to control the supply of money in banking system. When there is excess supply of money, central bank sells government securities thereby sucking out excess liquidity. Similarly, when liquidity is tight, RBI will buy government securities and thereby inject money supply into the economy.
This scheme was introduced in May, 2011 and all the scheduled commercial bank can participate in this scheme. Banks can borrow up to 2.5 % percent of their respective Net Demand and Time Liabilities. RBI receive application under this facility for a minimum amount of Rs. One crore and in multiples of Rs. One crore thereafter. The important difference with repo rate is that bank can pledge government securities from SLR quota (up to one percent). So even if SLR goes below 20.5 % (RBI / 2014 - 15 / 445 DBR. Ret. BC. 70 / 12.02. 001 / 2014 - 15, dt. 16.10. 2016) by pledging SLR quota securities under MSF, bank will not have to pay any penalty. The MSF rate is set to 100 basis point above bank rate and currently is at 6.50 % as of 1.6. 17.
Loan to Value is the ratio of loan amount to the actual value of asset purchased. RBI regulates this ratio so as to control the amount bank can lend to its customers. For example, if an individual wants to buy a car from borrowed money and the car value is Rs. 10 Lac, he can only avail a loan amount of Rs. 7 Lac if the LTV is set to 70 %. RBI can decrease or increase to curb inflation or deflation respectively.
Under this measure, RBI can specifically instruct banks not to give loans to traders of certain commodities e.g. sugar, edible oil etc. This prevents speculations / hoarding of commodities using money borrowed from banks.
Under this measure RBI try to persuade bank through meetings, conferences, media statements to do specific things under certain economic trends. For example, when RBI reduces repo rate, it asks banks to reduce their base rate as well. Another example of this measure is to ask banks to reduce their Non-performing assets (NPAs).
In developing countries like India, Monetary Policy fails to show immediate or no results because of below factors:
A report titled "Trend and Progress of Banking In India '' is published annually, as required by the Banking Regulation Act, 1949. The report sums up trends and developments throughout the financial sector. Starting in April 2014, the Reserve Bank of India publishes bi-monthly policy updates.
Media related to Reserve Bank of India at Wikimedia Commons
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atherosclerosis is though to begin at an early age and the process is thought to be initiated by | Atherosclerosis - Wikipedia
Atherosclerosis is a disease in which the inside of an artery narrows due to the build up of plaque. Initially, there are generally no symptoms. When severe, it can result in coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral artery disease, or kidney problems depending on the arteries affected. Symptoms, if they occur, generally do not begin until middle age.
The exact cause is not known. Risk factors include abnormal cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking, obesity, family history, and an unhealthy diet. Plaque is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. The narrowing of arteries limits the flow of oxygen - rich blood to parts of the body. Diagnosis is based upon a physical exam, electrocardiogram, and exercise stress test, among others.
Prevention is generally by eating a healthy diet, exercising, not smoking, and maintaining a normal weight. Treatment of established disease may include medications to lower cholesterol such as statins, blood pressure medication, or medications that decrease clotting, such as aspirin. A number of procedures may also be carried out such as percutaneous coronary intervention, coronary artery bypass graft, or carotid endarterectomy.
Atherosclerosis generally starts when a person is young and worsens with age. Almost all people are affected to some degree by the age of 65. Atherosclerosis is the number one cause of death and disability in the developed world. Atherosclerosis was first described in 1575. There is evidence, however, that the condition occurred in people more than 5,000 years ago.
The following terms are similar, yet distinct, in both spelling and meaning, and can be easily confused: arteriosclerosis, arteriolosclerosis, and atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis is a general term describing any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of medium or large arteries (from Greek ἀρτηρία (artēria), meaning ' artery ', and σκλήρωσις (sklerosis), meaning ' hardening '); arteriolosclerosis is any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of arterioles (small arteries); atherosclerosis is a hardening of an artery specifically due to an atheromatous plaque. The term atherogenic is used for substances or processes that cause formation of atheroma.
Atherosclerosis is asymptomatic for decades because the arteries enlarge at all plaque locations, thus there is no effect on blood flow. Even most plaque ruptures do not produce symptoms until enough narrowing or closure of an artery, due to clots, occurs. Signs and symptoms only occur after severe narrowing or closure impedes blood flow to different organs enough to induce symptoms. Most of the time, patients realize that they have the disease only when they experience other cardiovascular disorders such as stroke or heart attack. These symptoms, however, still vary depending on which artery or organ is affected.
Typically, atherosclerosis begins in childhood, as a thin layer of white - yellowish streaks with the inner layers of the artery walls (an accumulation of white blood cells, mostly monocytes / macrophages) and progresses from there.
Clinically, given enlargement of the arteries for decades, symptomatic atherosclerosis is typically associated with men in their 40s and women in their 50s to 60s. Sub-clinically, the disease begins to appear in childhood, and rarely is already present at birth. Noticeable signs can begin developing at puberty. Though symptoms are rarely exhibited in children, early screening of children for cardiovascular diseases could be beneficial to both the child and his / her relatives. While coronary artery disease is more prevalent in men than women, atherosclerosis of the cerebral arteries and strokes equally affect both sexes.
Marked narrowing in the coronary arteries, which are responsible for bringing oxygenated blood to the heart, can produce symptoms such as the chest pain of angina and shortness of breath, sweating, nausea, dizziness or light - headedness, breathlessness or palpitations. Abnormal heart rhythms called arrhythmias (the heart is either beating too slow or too fast) are another consequence of ischemia.
Carotid arteries supply blood to the brain and neck. Marked narrowing of the carotid arteries can present with symptoms such as a feeling of weakness, not being able to think straight, difficulty speaking, becoming dizzy and difficulty in walking or standing up straight, blurred vision, numbness of the face, arms, and legs, severe headache and losing consciousness. These symptoms are also related to stroke (death of brain cells). Stroke is caused by marked narrowing or closure of arteries going to the brain; lack of adequate blood supply leads to the death of the cells of the affected tissue.
Peripheral arteries, which supply blood to the legs, arms, and pelvis, also experience marked narrowing due to plaque rupture and clots. Symptoms for the marked narrowing are numbness within the arms or legs, as well as pain. Another significant location for the plaque formation is the renal arteries, which supply blood to the kidneys. Plaque occurrence and accumulation leads to decreased kidney blood flow and chronic kidney disease, which, like all other areas, are typically asymptomatic until late stages.
According to United States data for 2004, in about 66 % of men and 47 % of women, the first symptom of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is a heart attack or sudden cardiac death (death within one hour of onset of the symptom). Cardiac stress testing, traditionally the most commonly performed non-invasive testing method for blood flow limitations, in general, detects only lumen narrowing of ≈ 75 % or greater, although some physicians claim that nuclear stress methods can detect as little as 50 %.
Case studies have included autopsies of U.S. soldiers killed in World War II and the Korean War. A much - cited report involved autopsies of 300 U.S. soldiers killed in Korea. Although the average age of the men was 22.1 years, 77.3 percent had "gross evidence of coronary arteriosclerosis ''. Other studies done of soldiers in the Vietnam War showed similar results, although often worse than the ones from the earlier wars. Theories include high rates of tobacco use and (in the case of the Vietnam soldiers) the advent of processed foods after World War II.
The atherosclerotic process is not fully understood. Atherosclerosis is initiated by inflammatory processes in the endothelial cells of the vessel wall associated with retained low - density lipoprotein (LDL) particles. This retention may be a cause, an effect, or both, of the underlying inflammatory process.
The presence of the plaque induces the muscle cells of the blood vessel to stretch, compensating for the additional bulk, and the endothelial lining thickens, increasing the separation between the plaque and lumen. This somewhat offsets the narrowing caused by the growth of the plaque, but it causes the wall to stiffen and become less compliant to stretching with each heart beat.
The relation between dietary fat and atherosclerosis is controversial. Writing in Science, Gary Taubes detailed that political considerations played into the recommendations of government bodies. The USDA, in its food pyramid, promotes a diet of about 64 % carbohydrates from total calories. The American Heart Association, the American Diabetes Association and the National Cholesterol Education Program make similar recommendations. In contrast, Prof Walter Willett (Harvard School of Public Health, PI of the second Nurses ' Health Study) recommends much higher levels of fat, especially of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat. These differing views reach a consensus, though, against consumption of trans fats.
The role of dietary oxidized fats / lipid peroxidation (rancid fats) in humans is not clear. Laboratory animals fed rancid fats develop atherosclerosis. Rats fed DHA - containing oils experienced marked disruptions to their antioxidant systems, and accumulated significant amounts of phospholipid hydroperoxide in their blood, livers and kidneys.
Rabbits fed atherogenic diets containing various oils were found to undergo the greatest amount of oxidative susceptibility of LDL via polyunsaturated oils. In another study, rabbits fed heated soybean oil "grossly induced atherosclerosis and marked liver damage were histologically and clinically demonstrated. '' However, Fred Kummerow claims that it is not dietary cholesterol, but oxysterols, or oxidized cholesterols, from fried foods and smoking, that are the culprit.
Rancid fats and oils taste very bad even in small amounts, so people avoid eating them. It is very difficult to measure or estimate the actual human consumption of these substances. Highly unsaturated omega - 3 rich oils such as fish oil are being sold in pill form so that the taste of oxidized or rancid fat is not apparent. The health food industry 's dietary supplements are self - regulated and outside of FDA regulations. To properly protect unsaturated fats from oxidation, it is best to keep them cool and in oxygen - free environments.
Atherogenesis is the developmental process of atheromatous plaques. It is characterized by a remodeling of arteries leading to subendothelial accumulation of fatty substances called plaques. The buildup of an atheromatous plaque is a slow process, developed over a period of several years through a complex series of cellular events occurring within the arterial wall and in response to a variety of local vascular circulating factors. One recent hypothesis suggests that, for unknown reasons, leukocytes, such as monocytes or basophils, begin to attack the endothelium of the artery lumen in cardiac muscle. The ensuing inflammation leads to formation of atheromatous plaques in the arterial tunica intima, a region of the vessel wall located between the endothelium and the tunica media. The bulk of these lesions is made of excess fat, collagen, and elastin. At first, as the plaques grow, only wall thickening occurs without any narrowing. Stenosis is a late event, which may never occur and is often the result of repeated plaque rupture and healing responses, not just the atherosclerotic process by itself.
Early atherogenesis is characterized by the adherence of blood circulating monocytes (a type of white blood cell) to the vascular bed lining, the endothelium, then by their migration to the sub-endothelial space, and further activation into monocyte - derived macrophages. The primary documented driver of this process is oxidized lipoprotein particles within the wall, beneath the endothelial cells, though upper normal or elevated concentrations of blood glucose also plays a major role and not all factors are fully understood. Fatty streaks may appear and disappear.
Low - density lipoprotein (LDL) particles in blood plasma invade the endothelium and become oxidized, creating risk of cardiovascular disease. A complex set of biochemical reactions regulates the oxidation of LDL, involving enzymes (such as Lp - LpA2) and free radicals in the endothelium.
Initial damage to the endothelium results in an inflammatory response. Monocytes enter the artery wall from the bloodstream, with platelets adhering to the area of insult. This may be promoted by redox signaling induction of factors such as VCAM - 1, which recruit circulating monocytes, and M - CSF, which is selectively required for the differentiation of monocytes to macrophages. The monocytes differentiate into macrophages, which proliferate locally, ingest oxidized LDL, slowly turning into large "foam cells '' -- so - called because of their changed appearance resulting from the numerous internal cytoplasmic vesicles and resulting high lipid content. Under the microscope, the lesion now appears as a fatty streak. Foam cells eventually die and further propagate the inflammatory process.
In addition to these cellular activities, there is also smooth muscle proliferation and migration from the tunica media into the intima in response to cytokines secreted by damaged endothelial cells. This causes the formation of a fibrous capsule covering the fatty streak. Intact endothelium can prevent this smooth muscle proliferation by releasing nitric oxide.
Calcification forms among vascular smooth muscle cells of the surrounding muscular layer, specifically in the muscle cells adjacent to atheromas and on the surface of atheroma plaques and tissue. In time, as cells die, this leads to extracellular calcium deposits between the muscular wall and outer portion of the atheromatous plaques. With the atheromatous plaque interfering with the regulation of the calcium deposition, it accumulates and crystallizes. A similar form of an intramural calcification, presenting the picture of an early phase of arteriosclerosis, appears to be induced by a number of drugs that have an antiproliferative mechanism of action (Rainer Liedtke 2008).
Cholesterol is delivered into the vessel wall by cholesterol - containing low - density lipoprotein (LDL) particles. To attract and stimulate macrophages, the cholesterol must be released from the LDL particles and oxidized, a key step in the ongoing inflammatory process. The process is worsened if there is insufficient high - density lipoprotein (HDL), the lipoprotein particle that removes cholesterol from tissues and carries it back to the liver.
The foam cells and platelets encourage the migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells, which in turn ingest lipids, become replaced by collagen and transform into foam cells themselves. A protective fibrous cap normally forms between the fatty deposits and the artery lining (the intima).
These capped fatty deposits (now called ' atheromas ') produce enzymes that cause the artery to enlarge over time. As long as the artery enlarges sufficiently to compensate for the extra thickness of the atheroma, then no narrowing ("stenosis '') of the opening ("lumen '') occurs. The artery becomes expanded with an egg - shaped cross-section, still with a circular opening. If the enlargement is beyond proportion to the atheroma thickness, then an aneurysm is created.
Although arteries are not typically studied microscopically, two plaque types can be distinguished:
In effect, the muscular portion of the artery wall forms small aneurysms just large enough to hold the atheroma that are present. The muscular portion of artery walls usually remain strong, even after they have remodeled to compensate for the atheromatous plaques.
However, atheromas within the vessel wall are soft and fragile with little elasticity. Arteries constantly expand and contract with each heartbeat, i.e., the pulse. In addition, the calcification deposits between the outer portion of the atheroma and the muscular wall, as they progress, lead to a loss of elasticity and stiffening of the artery as a whole.
The calcification deposits, after they have become sufficiently advanced, are partially visible on coronary artery computed tomography or electron beam tomography (EBT) as rings of increased radiographic density, forming halos around the outer edges of the atheromatous plaques, within the artery wall. On CT, > 130 units on the Hounsfield scale (some argue for 90 units) has been the radiographic density usually accepted as clearly representing tissue calcification within arteries. These deposits demonstrate unequivocal evidence of the disease, relatively advanced, even though the lumen of the artery is often still normal by angiography.
Although the disease process tends to be slowly progressive over decades, it usually remains asymptomatic until an atheroma ulcerates, which leads to immediate blood clotting at the site of atheroma ulcer. This triggers a cascade of events that leads to clot enlargement, which may quickly obstruct the flow of blood. A complete blockage leads to ischemia of the myocardial (heart) muscle and damage. This process is the myocardial infarction or "heart attack ''.
If the heart attack is not fatal, fibrous organization of the clot within the lumen ensues, covering the rupture but also producing stenosis or closure of the lumen, or over time and after repeated ruptures, resulting in a persistent, usually localized stenosis or blockage of the artery lumen. Stenoses can be slowly progressive, whereas plaque ulceration is a sudden event that occurs specifically in atheromas with thinner / weaker fibrous caps that have become "unstable ''.
Repeated plaque ruptures, ones not resulting in total lumen closure, combined with the clot patch over the rupture and healing response to stabilize the clot is the process that produces most stenoses over time. The stenotic areas tend to become more stable despite increased flow velocities at these narrowings. Most major blood - flow - stopping events occur at large plaques, which, prior to their rupture, produced very little if any stenosis.
From clinical trials, 20 % is the average stenosis at plaques that subsequently rupture with resulting complete artery closure. Most severe clinical events do not occur at plaques that produce high - grade stenosis. From clinical trials, only 14 % of heart attacks occur from artery closure at plaques producing a 75 % or greater stenosis prior to the vessel closing.
If the fibrous cap separating a soft atheroma from the bloodstream within the artery ruptures, tissue fragments are exposed and released. These tissue fragments are very clot - promoting, containing collagen and tissue factor; they activate platelets and activate the system of coagulation. The result is the formation of a thrombus (blood clot) overlying the atheroma, which obstructs blood flow acutely. With the obstruction of blood flow, downstream tissues are starved of oxygen and nutrients. If this is the myocardium (heart muscle) angina (cardiac chest pain) or myocardial infarction (heart attack) develops.
The distribution of atherosclerotic plaques in a part of arterial endothelium is inhomogeneous. The multiple and focal development of atherosclerotic changes is similar to that in the development of amyloid plaques in the brain and that of age spots on the skin. Misrepair - accumulation aging theory suggests that misrepair mechanisms play an important role in the focal development of atherosclerosis. Development of a plaque is a result of repair of injured endothelium. Because of the infusion of lipids into sub-endothelium, the repair has to end up with altered remodeling of local endothelium. This is the manifestation of a misrepair. Important is this altered remodeling makes the local endothelium have increased fragility to damage and have reduced repair - efficiency. As a consequence, this part of endothelium has increased risk to be injured and to be misrepaired. Thus, the accumulation of misrepairs of endothelium is focalized and self - accelerating. In this way, the growing of a plaque is also self - accelerating. Within a part of arterial wall, the oldest plaque is always the biggest, and is the most dangerous one to cause blockage of local artery.
The plaque is divided into three distinct components:
Apart from thromboembolism, chronically expanding atherosclerotic lesions can cause complete closure of the lumen. Chronically expanding lesions are often asymptomatic until lumen stenosis is so severe (usually over 80 %) that blood supply to downstream tissue (s) is insufficient, resulting in ischemia. These complications of advanced atherosclerosis are chronic, slowly progressive and cumulative. Most commonly, soft plaque suddenly ruptures (see vulnerable plaque), causing the formation of a thrombus that will rapidly slow or stop blood flow, leading to death of the tissues fed by the artery in approximately five minutes. This event is called an infarction.
Areas of severe narrowing, stenosis, detectable by angiography, and to a lesser extent "stress testing '' have long been the focus of human diagnostic techniques for cardiovascular disease, in general. However, these methods focus on detecting only severe narrowing, not the underlying atherosclerosis disease. As demonstrated by human clinical studies, most severe events occur in locations with heavy plaque, yet little or no lumen narrowing present before debilitating events suddenly occur. Plaque rupture can lead to artery lumen occlusion within seconds to minutes, and potential permanent debility and sometimes sudden death.
Plaques that have ruptured are called complicated plaques. The extracellular matrix of the lesion breaks, usually at the shoulder of the fibrous cap that separates the lesion from the arterial lumen, where the exposed thrombogenic components of the plaque, mainly collagen will trigger thrombus formation. The thrombus then travels downstream to other blood vessels, where the blood clot may partially or completely block blood flow. If the blood flow is completely blocked, cell deaths occur due to the lack of oxygen supply to nearby cells, resulting in necrosis. The narrowing or obstruction of blood flow can occur in any artery within the body. Obstruction of arteries supplying the heart muscle results in a heart attack, while the obstruction of arteries supplying the brain results in an ischaemic stroke.
Lumen stenosis that is greater than 75 % was considered the hallmark of clinically significant disease in the past because recurring episodes of angina and abnormalities in stress tests are only detectable at that particular severity of stenosis. However, clinical trials have shown that only about 14 % of clinically debilitating events occur at sites with more than 75 % stenosis. The majority of cardiovascular events that involve sudden rupture of the atheroma plaque do not display any evident narrowing of the lumen. Thus, greater attention has been focused on "vulnerable plaque '' from the late 1990s onwards.
Besides the traditional diagnostic methods such as angiography and stress - testing, other detection techniques have been developed in the past decades for earlier detection of atherosclerotic disease. Some of the detection approaches include anatomical detection and physiologic measurement.
Examples of anatomical detection methods include coronary calcium scoring by CT, carotid IMT (intimal media thickness) measurement by ultrasound, and intravascular ultrasound (IVUS). Examples of physiologic measurement methods include lipoprotein subclass analysis, HbA1c, hs - CRP, and homocysteine. Both anatomic and physiologic methods allow early detection before symptoms show up, disease staging and tracking of disease progression. Anatomic methods are more expensive and some of them are invasive in nature, such as IVUS. On the other hand, physiologic methods are often less expensive and safer. But they do not quantify the current state of the disease or directly track progression. In recent years, developments in nuclear imaging techniques such as PET and SPECT have provided ways of estimating the severity of atherosclerotic plaques.
Up to 90 % of cardiovascular disease may be preventable if established risk factors are avoided. Medical management of atherosclerosis first involves modification to risk factors -- for example, via smoking cessation and diet restrictions. Additionally, a controlled exercise program combats atherosclerosis by improving circulation and functionality of the vessels. Exercise is also used to manage weight in patients who are obese, lower blood pressure, and decrease cholesterol. Often lifestyle modification is combined with medication therapy. For example, statins help to lower cholesterol, antiplatelet medications like aspirin help to prevent clots, and a variety of antihypertensive medications are routinely used to control blood pressure. If the combined efforts of risk factor modification and medication therapy are not sufficient to control symptoms, or fight imminent threats of ischemic events, a physician may resort to interventional or surgical procedures to correct the obstruction.
Combinations of statins, niacin and intestinal cholesterol absorption - inhibiting supplements (ezetimibe and others, and to a much lesser extent fibrates) have been the most successful in changing common but sub-optimal lipoprotein patterns and group outcomes. In the many secondary prevention and several primary prevention trials, several classes of lipoprotein - expression - altering (less correctly termed "cholesterol - lowering '') agents have consistently reduced not only heart attack, stroke and hospitalization but also all - cause mortality rates. The first of the large secondary prevention comparative statin / placebo treatment trials was the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) with over fifteen more studies extending through to the more recent ASTEROID trial published in 2006. The first primary prevention comparative treatment trial was AFCAPS / TexCAPS with multiple later comparative statin / placebo treatment trials including EXCEL, ASCOT and SPARCL. While the statin trials have all been clearly favorable for improved human outcomes, only ASTEROID and SATURN showed evidence of atherosclerotic regression (slight). Both human and animal trials that showed evidence of disease regression used more aggressive combination agent treatment strategies, which nearly always included niacin.
Medical treatments often focus on alleviating symptoms. However measures which focus on decreasing underlying atherosclerosis -- as opposed to simply treating symptoms -- are more effective. Non-pharmaceutical means are usually the first method of treatment, such as stopping smoking and practicing regular exercise. If these methods do not work, medicines are usually the next step in treating cardiovascular diseases, and, with improvements, have increasingly become the most effective method over the long term.
The key to the more effective approaches is to combine multiple different treatment strategies. In addition, for those approaches, such as lipoprotein transport behaviors, which have been shown to produce the most success, adopting more aggressive combination treatment strategies taken on a daily basis and indefinitely has generally produced better results, both before and especially after people are symptomatic.
Changes in diet may help prevent the development of atherosclerosis. Tentative evidence suggests that a diet containing dairy products has no effect on or decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease.
A diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Evidence suggests that the Mediterranean diet may improve cardiovascular results. There is also evidence that a Mediterranean diet may be better than a low - fat diet in bringing about long - term changes to cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., lower cholesterol level and blood pressure).
The group of medications referred to as statins are widely prescribed for treating atherosclerosis. They have shown benefit in reducing cardiovascular disease and mortality in those with high cholesterol with few side effects.
These data are primarily in middle - age men and the conclusions are less clear for women and people over the age of 70.
Monocyte counts, as well as cholesterol markers such as LDL: HDL ratio and apolipiprotein B: apolipoprotein A-1 ratio can be used as markers to monitor the extent of atherosclerotic regression which proves useful in guiding patient treatments.
When atherosclerosis has become severe and caused irreversible ischemia, such as tissue loss in the case of peripheral artery disease, surgery may be indicated. Vascular bypass surgery can re-establish flow around the diseased segment of artery, and angioplasty with or without stenting can reopen narrowed arteries and improve bloodflow. Coronary artery bypass grafting without manipulation of the ascending aorta has demonstrated reduced rates of postoperative stroke and mortality compared to traditional on - pump coronary revascularization.
There is evidence that some anticoagulants, particularly warfarin, which inhibit clot formation by interfering with Vitamin K metabolism, may actually promote arterial calcification in the long term despite reducing clot formation in the short term.
Diabetics, despite not having clinically detectable atherosclerotic disease, have more severe debility from atherosclerotic events over time than non-diabetics who have already had atherosclerotic events. Thus diabetes has been upgraded to be viewed as an advanced atherosclerotic disease equivalent.
An indication of the role of HDL on atherosclerosis has been with the rare Apo - A1 Milano human genetic variant of this HDL protein. A small short - term trial using bacterial synthetized human Apo - A1 Milano HDL in people with unstable angina produced fairly dramatic reduction in measured coronary plaque volume in only six weeks vs. the usual increase in plaque volume in those randomized to placebo. The trial was published in JAMA in early 2006. Ongoing work starting in the 1990s may lead to human clinical trials -- probably by about 2008. These may use synthesized Apo - A1 Milano HDL directly, or they may use gene - transfer methods to pass the ability to synthesize the Apo - A1 Milano HDLipoprotein.
Methods to increase high - density lipoprotein (HDL) particle concentrations, which in some animal studies largely reverses and remove atheromas, are being developed and researched. However, increasing HDL by any means is not necessarily helpful. For example, the drug torcetrapib is the most effective agent currently known for raising HDL (by up to 60 %). However, in clinical trials it also raised deaths by 60 %. All studies regarding this drug were halted in December 2006. See CETP inhibitor for similar approaches.
The actions of macrophages drive atherosclerotic plaque progression. Immunomodulation of atherosclerosis is the term for techniques that modulate immune system function to suppress this macrophage action.
Research on genetic expression and control mechanisms is progressing. Topics include:
Involvement of lipid peroxidation chain reaction in atherogenesis triggered research on the protective role of the heavy isotope (deuterated) polyunsaturated fatty acids (D - PUFAs) that are less prone to oxidation than ordinary PUFAs (H - PUFAs). PUFAs are essential nutrients -- they are involved in metabolism in that very form as they are consumed with food. In transgenic mice, that are a model for human - like lipoprotein metabolism, adding D - PUFAs to diet indeed reduced body weight gain, improved cholesterol handling and reduced atherosclerotic damage to aorta.
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have complementary sequences in the 3 ' UTR and 5 ' UTR of target mRNAs of protein - coding genes, and cause mRNA cleavage or repression of translational machinery. In diseased vascular vessels, miRNAs are dysregulated and highly expressed. miR - 33 is found in cardiovascular diseases. It is involved in atherosclerotic initiation and progression including lipid metabolism, insulin signaling and glucose homeostatis, cell type progression and proliferation, and myeloid cell differentiation. It was found in rodents that the inhibition of miR - 33 will raise HDL level and the expression of miR - 33 is down - regulated in humans with atherosclerotic plaques.
miR - 33a and miR - 33b are located on intron 16 of human sterol regulatory element - binding protein 2 (SREBP2) gene on chromosome 22 and intron 17 of SREBP1 gene on chromosome 17. miR - 33a / b regulates cholesterol / lipid homeostatis by binding in the 3'UTRs of genes involved in cholesterol transport such as ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters and enhance or represses its expression. Study have shown that ABCA1 mediates transport of cholesterol from peripheral tissues to Apolipoprotein - 1 and it is also important in the reverse cholesterol transport pathway, where cholesterol is delivered from peripheral tissue to the liver, where it can be excreted into bile or converted to bile acids prior to excretion. Therefore, we know that ABCA1 plays an important role in preventing cholesterol accumulation in macrophages. By enhancing miR - 33 function, the level of ABCA1 is decreased, leading to decrease cellular cholesterol efflux to apoA - 1. On the other hand, by inhibiting miR - 33 function, the level of ABCA1 is increased and increases the cholesterol efflux to apoA - 1. Suppression of miR - 33 will lead to less cellular cholesterol and higher plasma HDL level through the regulation of ABCA1 expression.
The sugar, cyclodextrin, removed cholesterol that had built up in the arteries of mice fed a high - fat diet.
Aging is the most important risk factor for cardiovascular problems. The causative basis by which aging mediates its impact, independently of other recognized risk factors, remains to be determined. Evidence has been reviewed for a key role of DNA damage in vascular aging. 8 - oxoG, a common type of oxidative damage in DNA, is found to accumulate in plaque vascular smooth muscle cells, macrophages and endothelial cells, thus linking DNA damage to plaque formation. DNA strand breaks also increased in atherosclerotic plaques. Werner syndrome (WS) is a premature aging condition in humans. WS is caused by a genetic defect in a RecQ helicase that is employed in several repair processes that remove damages from DNA. WS patients develop a considerable burden of atherosclerotic plaques in their coronary arteries and aorta: calcification of the aortic valve is also frequently observed. These findings link excessive unrepaired DNA damage to premature aging and early atherosclerotic plaque development (see DNA damage theory of aging).
Microorganisms, living in the body (all together called microbiome), can contribute to atherosclerosis in many ways: modulation of the immune system, changes in metabolism, processing of nutrients and production of certain metabolites that can get into blood circulation. One of such metabolites, produced by gut bacteria, is trimethylamine N - oxide (TMAO). Its levels have been associated with atherosclerosis in human studies and animal research suggest that there can be a causal relation. An association between the bacterial genes encoding trimethylamine lyases -- the enzymes involved in TMAO generation -- and atherosclerosis has been noted.
Some controversial research has suggested a link between atherosclerosis and the presence of several different nanobacteria in the arteries, e.g., Chlamydophila pneumoniae, though trials of current antibiotic treatments known to be usually effective in suppressing growth or killing these bacteria have not been successful in improving outcomes.
In 2011, coronary atherosclerosis was one of the top ten most expensive conditions seen during inpatient hospitalizations in the US, with aggregate inpatient hospital costs of $10.4 billion.
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how old was moana at the end of the movie | Moana (2016 film) - Wikipedia
Moana (/ moʊˈɑːnə /) is a 2016 American 3D computer - animated musical adventure film produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. It is the 56th Disney animated feature film. Directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, co-directed by Don Hall and Chris Williams, the film introduces Auliʻi Cravalho as Moana and features the voices of Dwayne Johnson, Rachel House, Temuera Morrison, Jemaine Clement, Nicole Scherzinger, and Alan Tudyk. The film features songs written by Lin - Manuel Miranda and Opetaia Foa'i and orchestral score composed by Mark Mancina.
The film tells the story of Moana, the strong - willed daughter of a chief of a Polynesian village, who is chosen by the ocean itself to reunite a mystical relic with a goddess. When a blight strikes her island, Moana sets sail in search of Maui, a legendary demigod, in the hope of returning the heart of Te Fiti and saving her people.
Moana was released theatrically in the United States on November 23, 2016 to generally positive reviews from critics, with particular praise going towards its animation, music, and vocal performances. The film went on to gross over $643 million worldwide. Along with Zootopia, it marked the first time since 2002 that Walt Disney Animation Studios released two feature films in the same year. It received two Academy Award nominations at the 89th Academy Awards: one for Best Animated Feature and another for Best Original Song ("How Far I 'll Go '').
On the Polynesian island of Motunui, the inhabitants worship the goddess Te Fiti, who brought life to the ocean, using a pounamu stone as her heart and the source of her power. Maui, the shapeshifting demigod and master of sailing, steals the heart to give humanity the power of creation. However, Te Fiti disintegrates, and Maui is attacked by Te Kā, a volcanic demon, losing both his magical giant fishhook and the heart to the depths.
A millennium later, Moana, daughter of Motunui 's chief Tui, is chosen by the ocean to return the heart to Te Fiti. However, Tui arrives and takes Moana away, causing her to lose the heart. Tui and Moana 's mother Sina try to keep her away from the ocean to prepare for her ascension as the island 's chief. Years later, after Moana has grown older, a blight strikes the island, rotting the coconuts and dwindling the number of fish caught. Moana suggests going beyond the island 's reef to find more fish, but Tui forbids it. Sina explains to Moana that Tui and his best friend tried going beyond the reef, but the latter perished. Moana and her pet pig Pua try conquering the reef but are overpowered by the ocean 's tides and end up shipwrecked back on Motunui.
Moana 's grandmother Tala shows her a secret cave, where a number of ships are hidden, revealing to Moana that their people used to be voyagers. Tala explains they stopped when Maui stole Te Fiti 's heart and that Te Kā 's darkness is poisoning the island, but it can be cured if Moana finds Maui and gets him to restore the heart of Te Fiti, which she gives to Moana. Tala falls ill shortly after and dies, but not before encouraging Moana to go and fulfill her destiny.
Moana sets sail on a camakau found in the cavern, accidentally accompanied by her dim - witted rooster Heihei. Moana is caught in a typhoon and shipwrecked on an island where she finds the stranded Maui, who traps her and steals the camakau, but Moana catches up to him with help from the ocean. She demands that Maui return the heart but he refuses. Maui is accompanied by a sentient "Mini-Maui '' tattoo, acting as his conscience.
They are attacked by Kakamora -- coconut - armored pirates -- who seek to steal the heart, but Moana and Maui outwit them. Moana realizes Maui is no longer a hero, and convinces him to redeem himself by returning the heart. Maui first needs to obtain his magical fishhook, which is located in Lalotai, the Realm of Monsters, and is in the possession of Tamatoa, a giant, greedy coconut crab. Moana enters Tamatoa 's lair, using herself as live bait to distract him and allowing Maui to climb atop the crab and retrieve his fishhook. However, Maui discovers he can not control his shapeshifting and loses self - confidence, quickly becoming overpowered by Tamatoa. Moana 's quick thinking allows them to escape with Maui 's hook. Maui reveals that his first tattoo was earned when his mortal parents rejected him. After reassurance from Moana, Maui teaches her the art of sailing and regains control of his powers.
The two arrive at Te Fiti 's island, only to be attacked by Te Kā, who badly damages Maui 's fishhook. Tired of all the trials and tribulations and fearful he will lose his hook, and therefore his power, Maui angrily abandons Moana, who tearfully asks the ocean to find someone else to restore the heart. The ocean obliges and takes the heart from Moana. Tala 's spirit appears, inspiring Moana to find her true calling. Moana decides to fulfill her destiny, retrieves the heart, and sails back to confront Te Kā. Maui returns, convinced by his Mini-Maui tattoo to change his mind, and buys Moana time to reach Te Fiti by fighting Te Kā, destroying his fishhook in the process. Moana discovers Te Fiti is missing, and realizes Te Kā is Te Fiti without her heart. Moana tells the ocean to clear a path while singing, allowing her to restore Te Fiti 's heart, transforming her back to normal. Te Fiti then heals the ocean and islands of Te Kā 's poison. Maui apologizes to Te Fiti, who forgivingly restores his fishhook and goes into a deep sleep. Moana bids farewell to Maui, returning home where she reunites with her parents. Moana takes up her role as chief and wayfinder, leading her people on a voyage, accompanied from afar by Maui (in a form of a giant hawk) and Tala (in the form of a manta ray).
In a post-credits scene, Tamatoa, still stuck on his back, addresses the audience, knowing they would help if he was named Sebastian and sang in a Jamaican accent (making reference to The Little Mermaid).
After directing The Princess and the Frog (2009), Clements and Musker started working on an adaptation of Terry Pratchett 's Mort, but problems with acquiring the necessary film rights prevented them from continuing with that project. To avoid a recurrence of that issue, they pitched three original ideas. The genesis of one of those ideas (the one that was ultimately green - lighted) occurred in 2011, when Musker began reading up on Polynesian mythology, and learned of the heroic exploits of the demigod Māui. Intrigued with the rich culture of Polynesia, he felt it would be a suitable subject for an animated film. Shortly thereafter, Musker and Clements wrote a treatment and pitched it to John Lasseter, who recommended that both of them should go on research trips. Accordingly, in 2012, Clements and Musker went on research trips to Fiji, Samoa, and Tahiti to meet the people of the South Pacific Ocean and learn about their culture. At first, they had planned to make the film entirely about Maui, but their initial research trips inspired Clements to pitch a new idea focused on the young daughter of a chief.
Clements and Musker were fascinated to learn during their research that the people of Polynesia abruptly stopped making long - distance voyages about three thousand years ago. Their navigational traditions predated those of European explorers, beginning around 300 CE. Native people of the Pacific possessed knowledge of the world and their place in it prior to the incursion of foreigners. For example, Kānaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians) were well aware of the existence of far away islands, had names for these places, and were interested in exploring them to benefit their societies. This voyaging heritage was made possible by a geographical knowledge system based on individual perspective rather than the European cardinal direction system. The reasons for the halt of this voyaging tradition remain unknown, but scholars have offered climate change and resulting shifts in ocean currents and wind patterns as one possible explanation. Native peoples of the Pacific resumed voyaging again a thousand years later. Clements and Musker set the film at the end of that era, about two thousand years ago, on a fictional island in the central Pacific Ocean, which drew inspiration from elements of the real - life island nations of Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga.
Over the five years it took to develop and produce the film, Clements and Musker recruited experts from across the South Pacific to form an Oceanic Story Trust, who consulted on the film 's cultural accuracy and sensitivity as the story evolved through nine versions. The Trust responded negatively, for example, to a depiction of Maui as bald, and to a proposed scene in which Moana threw a tantrum by throwing coconuts. In response, Maui was reworked with long hair and the coconut scene was scrapped.
Te Kā was referred to in early drafts of the film as Te Pō, a reference to the Māori goddess Hine - nui - te - pō, who was originally the life - giving goddess Hine - tītama, but became the goddess of death upon discovering that her husband the god Tāne was also her father. Māui set out to defeat her in order to bring immortality to humans, but failed and was himself killed.
During the 2015 D23 Expo 's panel for Disney 's slate of upcoming animated films, Moana 's last name was given as "Waialiki '', but that name was not retained in the final film.
Taika Waititi wrote the initial screenplay. The first draft focused on Moana as the sole daughter in a family with "five or six brothers '', in which gender played into the story. However, the brothers and gender - based theme were deleted from the story, as the directors thought Moana 's journey should be about finding herself. A subsequent draft presented Moana 's father as the one who wanted to resume navigation, but it was rewritten to have him oppose navigation so he would not overshadow Moana. Instead, Pamela Ribon came up with the idea of a grandmother character for the film, who would serve as a mentor linking Moana to ancient traditions. Another version focused on Moana rescuing her father, who had been lost at sea. The film 's story changed drastically during the development phase (which happens with most Disney films), and that idea ultimately survived only as a subtle element of the father 's backstory. Aaron and Jordan Kandell joined the project during a critical period to help deepen the emotional story architecture of the film. They are credited with developing the core relationship between Moana and Maui, the prologue, the Cave of the Wayfinders, the Kakamora, and the collector crab Tamatoa (played by Jemaine Clement). Jared Bush received sole credit as the writer of the final version of the screenplay.
Like most Disney and Pixar animated films, several major story problems were identified in 2015 only after the film had already transitioned from development into production, but computer - generated films tend to have much shorter production schedules and much larger animation teams (in this case, about 90 animators) than traditionally animated films. Since Clements and Musker were already working 12 - hour days (and Saturdays) directing such a large team of animators, Don Hall and Chris Williams (who had just finished directing Big Hero 6) came on board as co-directors to help fix the film 's story issues. The scene in which Maui and Moana encounter the Kakamora is an intentional homage to Mad Max: Fury Road.
After the filmmakers sat through auditions of hundreds of candidates from across the Pacific, 14 - year - old high school freshman Auliʻi Cravalho was cast as the lead character Moana. At that point in time, the design of Moana 's face and personality was already complete, and Cravalho 's obvious physical resemblance to her character was simply a coincidence. During animation production, Disney animators were able to integrate some of Cravalho 's mannerisms into Moana 's behavior as depicted onscreen.
The majority of the film 's cast members are of Polynesian descent: Auliʻi Cravalho (Moana) and Nicole Scherzinger (Sina, Moana 's mother) were born in Hawaii and are of Native Hawaiian heritage; Dwayne Johnson (Maui), Oscar Kightley (Fisherman), and Troy Polamalu (Villager No. 1) are of Samoan heritage; and New Zealand -- born Rachel House (Tala, Moana 's grandmother), Temuera Morrison (Tui, Moana 's father), and Jemaine Clement (Tamatoa) are of Māori heritage.
Moana is Clements and Musker 's first fully computer - animated film. One of the reasons for using computer animation was that the environment, including the ocean, benefited much more from the use of CGI as opposed to traditional animation. The filmmakers have also suggested that three - dimensional computer animation is well - suited to the "beautiful sculpturing '' of the faces of the people of the South Pacific. Eric Goldberg worked on the hand - drawn animation used to depict Maui 's sentient tattoos. During early development, the filmmakers considered the possibility of making the film with hand - drawn traditional animation, but only a few early animation tests were made in that style. In the final cut, only Maui 's tattoos are hand - drawn.
Moana was produced in makeshift quarters in a giant warehouse in North Hollywood (together with Zootopia), while Disney Animation 's headquarters building in Burbank was being renovated. Musker observed that Moana was similar in that respect to The Little Mermaid, which was produced in a warehouse in Glendale. Production wrapped on October 20, 2016.
The film 's soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on November 18, 2016. The songs were written by Opetaia Foa'i, Mark Mancina, and Lin - Manuel Miranda, while the score was written by Mancina. The lyrics are in English, Samoan and the Tokelauan language. The soundtrack peaked at number two on the Billboard 200.
On October 20, 2014, Walt Disney Pictures announced that it would be releasing the film in late 2016, and hinted that it might be the November 23, 2016 release window previously announced by the studio in March 2014 for a then - untitled film. In November 2014, Disney confirmed that it would be releasing the film on November 23, 2016. The film is accompanied by the short film, Inner Workings. The film 's world premiere was held at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on November 14, 2016.
In many European countries, the name of the titular character, Moana, was changed to Vaiana due to a trademark conflict. The film was released in those countries to bear the alternative name in the title. In Italy, the film was released with the title Oceania. Media outlets speculated that the name change was to avoid confusion with Italian pornographic actress Moana Pozzi, and Disney Italy 's head of theatrical marketing, Davide Romani, acknowledged they were "thinking about the issue '' at a meeting of Italian exhibitors in 2015.
On October 25, 2016, at a press conference in Papeete, it was announced that the film will be the first motion picture to be fully dubbed in the Tahitian language. This marks the third time Disney has released a special dubbing dedicated to the culture which inspired the film: the first case was The Lion King (1994), for which the directors travelled to South Africa to cast voice actors for a Zulu - dubbed version; and the second case was Mulan (1998), which was the first Disney film to have a Mandarin Chinese dubbing made in China, separate from and independent of the version released in Taiwan. In June 2017, a Māori - language dubbing of the movie was announced, premiering in Auckland on September 11, with 30 theatres screening it for free as part of Māori Language Week. Rachel House, Jemaine Clement, Temuera Morrison and Oscar Kightley reprised their respective roles in this version, directed by Rachel House herself. In November 2017, a Hawaiian - language dubbing was announced to be under way, with Auliʻi Cravalho reprising her role as Moana.
In India, popular music composer Bappi Lahiri (who is known to be India 's "gold - man '') voiced the character of Tamatoa in the Hindi - dubbed version of the film; mostly because in reality, he too, similar to Tamatoa, has an immense love and fondness for gold. In Russia, Tamatoa was voiced by a popular singer, Ilya Lagutenko, who performed Tamatoa 's song with his distinctive soft "meowing '' intonations.
On January 27, 2017, a sing - along version of Moana was released in more than 2,000 theaters in the United States, featuring on - screen lyrics.
On October 15, 2016, Hawaiian Airlines unveiled their Moana - themed livery for three of their Airbus A330 - 200 fleet.
There are currently meet - and - greets with Moana at Disneyland, Walt Disney World, Disneyland Paris, and at Aulani, a Disney Resort and Spa. At Hong Kong Disneyland, there will be a stage show called Moana 's Village Festival, which is scheduled to open in 2018.
Moana was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray (2D and 3D) and DVD in the United States on March 7, 2017, with a digital release on February 21, 2017. The releases include the short film, Inner Workings. The Blu - ray release also introduces a short film featuring Maui and Moana, titled Gone Fishing. The film is also available for streaming on Netflix.
Moana grossed $248.7 million in the U.S. and Canada, and $394.5 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $643.3 million. On January 22 and March 16, 2017, respectively, the film reached the $500 million and $600 million marks, becoming the fourth consecutive Walt Disney Animation Studios film to reach both milestones after Frozen (2013), Big Hero 6 (2014), and Zootopia (2016). Although Disney has not disclosed the film 's production budget, most of its animated films cost around $150 million. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $121.3 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the 12th most profitable release of 2016.
In the United States, Moana was released during the Thanksgiving weekend. The film played in 3,875 theaters of which a majority of them (80 %) screened it in 3D. It also played in 50 premium large format screens and more than 400 D - Box screens. It was projected to take in around $50 million in three days, with $75 -- 85 million in five days (some estimates going as high as $90 million). Deadline.com said the numbers were good for the original Disney film and marked a great rebound for the company in the wake of Pixar 's The Good Dinosaur the previous year, which had made $55 million over five days off a production budget of $175 -- 200 million.
Moana made $2.6 million from Tuesday paid previews which began at 7 pm, the highest ever for a Walt Disney Animation Studios film and for a non-Pixar Disney animated film. On its opening day, it made $15.5 million, a new record for a Walt Disney Animation Studios film opening on Wednesday (breaking Frozen 's record) and the biggest opening day ever for a film released on pre-Thanksgiving Day. On Thanksgiving Day, it earned $9.9 million, a decrease of 36 % from its previous day. On Black Friday -- the highest - grossing day of the Thanksgiving stretch -- it made $21.8 million, a 127 % increase from the day before. Through Sunday, the film posted a three - day opening weekend worth $56.6 million over its Friday - to - Sunday debut and $82.1 million from Wednesday to Sunday, the third biggest three - day Thanksgiving opening (behind Frozen and Toy Story 2) and the second biggest five - day Thanksgiving opening (behind Frozen), dethroning Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them off the top spot. Among all films that did not necessarily open in this weekend but may have played, Moana ranks sixth among three - day weekends and fifth among five - day weekends.
The film 's opening was considered to be another animated success for the studio after Zootopia and Pixar 's Finding Dory posted huge openings, respectively, the same year in March and June.
In its second weekend, the film dropped by about 50 % for a total of $28.3 million, a smaller drop than Toy Story 2, Frozen, Tangled, and The Good Dinosaur. The film managed to top the box office for its third weekend, despite competition from newcomers and holdovers, earning $18.5 million while falling by 34 %. It became the sixth film of 2016 to top the box office three times, following Deadpool, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, Finding Dory, and Suicide Squad. The film was overtaken by Disney 's own Rogue One: A Star Wars Story in its fourth weekend, despite only a marginal decline.
It fell to number six in its fifth weekend, due to competition from four new releases -- Sing, Passengers, Why Him?, and Assassin 's Creed -- despite a small drop again; it grossed $2.9 million on Christmas Day. On the holiday week of December 23 -- 29, the film finished at number four with a gross of $26 million, which was 14 % up from the previous week, despite losing over 300 theaters. It finished at number four in its sixth weekend, going up 42 % and 97 %, respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends; it grossed $3.6 million on New Year 's Day.
It fell outside the top ten in its eighth weekend (which included Martin Luther King Jr. Day), dropping 33 % and 4 % respectively, during the three - day and four - day weekends.
Internationally, the film earned $17.2 million in its first weekend from 12 markets, the bulk of which came from China. In its second weekend, the film expanded to a total of 30 markets, adding an additional $33.7 million.
In China, the film had a November 25 opening day with $1.9 million from 38,000 screenings. However, it enjoyed a big weekend bump on Saturday -- even though its screens dipped -- and Sunday. In total, it scored an opening weekend of $17.2 million, the second best for a Disney animated title, behind only Zootopia. It was No. 2 behind Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. Strong social media numbers showed among the highest the studio has seen there. Similar to how Zootopia started off slow and later became a blockbuster phenomenon. The film slipped 55 % in its second weekend, earning $5.8 million, and $21.8 in total in China. It would eventually earn a total of $32.7 million in China.
It had similar successful number - one debuts in France, Russia, Mexico and Spain. The film also saw success in Belgium, the Netherlands and French - speaking Switzerland. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film faced competition from Fantastic Beasts -- which was playing in its third weekend -- and as a result, it posted a low opening of only £ 2.2 million ($2.8 million).
The biggest earning markets to date have been Japan ($45.9 million), followed by France ($35.5 million), China ($32.8 million), the UK ($25.3 million), Brazil ($22.9 million), Australia ($19 million), Germany ($17 million), Italy ($15.9 million), and South Korea ($15.5 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Moana holds an approval rating of 96 % based on 245 reviews, and an average rating of 7.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With a title character as three - dimensional as its lush animation and a story that adds fresh depth to Disney 's time - tested formula, Moana is truly a family - friendly adventure for the ages. '' Subsequently, the film is also listed as number 11 on the website 's "50 Best Computer Animated Movies '' list. On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on a scale ranging from A+ to F, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave an 89 % overall positive score and a 71 % "definite recommend ''.
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal proclaimed that "Moana is beautiful in more ways than I can tell, thanks to the brilliance of more animators than I could count. '' Animator Eric Goldberg received praise from critics and audiences for his hand - drawn animation of Maui 's tattoos, which they claimed "stole the show '' from the actual CGI - animated motion picture. Wai Chee Dimock, writing in the Los Angeles Review of Books, compared the ocean in Moana to the one in "The Water Baby, '' a short story by Jack London, saying that both are animated: one, by the tension between digital and analog animation, and the other, by the tension between an encroaching future and a past in retreat still capable of pushing back.
Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.com gave the film three and a half out of four stars, stating that "Moana would have been enormously entertaining regardless of when it came out, but its arrival at this particular moment in history gives it an added sense of significance -- as well as inspiration. '' Peter Debruge of Variety praised the film, calling it "a return to the heights of the Disney Renaissance ''.
Disney has been accused of appropriating Polynesian mythology and culture. Through the film, the corporation has been claimed to perpetuate settler colonialist practices of exploitation and erasure by utilizing the knowledge and narratives of native peoples to spur a profitable capitalist enterprise of music, celebrities and merchandise. A Maui "skin suit '' costume made to tie in with the film was pulled by Disney from its online store following complaints about it being culturally insensitive and for appearing to promote brownface.
The film takes specific cultural elements from a variety of native Pacific groups and incorporates them into one generalized portrayal of Polynesian culture. This conglomeration of cultures has been regarded as degrading to the diversity of the Pacific, falsely reducing all of Polynesia to a single cultural entity.
The film has also been criticized as a tourism advertisement for the Pacific. It has been accused of fetishizing Polynesian island nations as exotic vacation spots, the people and culture of which exist only to entertain foreign audiences. Disney initiating a partnership with Hawaiian Airlines to promote the film has been perceived as having this particular motive, as well as Auliʻi Cravalho speaking with The New York Times in an interview sharing travel tips for visitors to Hawaii. Critiques of these promotional tactics focus on how adverse effects of tourism have devastated native communities in the Pacific, resulting in environmental degradation and poverty.
Colin Philp, an educator on Polynesian history, noted that the sailing canoe used by the film 's protagonists is believed to be a Fijian camakau, and that the film 's concept artists based it on one of the canoes they saw when they visited the Korova settlement in Laucala. Philp said that using that design without permission of the Korova community could be viewed as a violation of the intellectual property rights of their elders.
Brigham Young University -- Hawaii sociocultural anthropologist Tēvita ' Ō. Ka'ili stated that "despite its important girl - power message, the film had a major flaw. It lacked symmetry by its omission of a heroic goddess. Disney resorted to reducing the mighty god Maui to a one - dimensional, selfish, borderline abusive, buffoon to foreground the strength of the movie 's protagonist Moana. '' He went on to explain that, "the omission of a goddess - heroine is significant because Polynesia is a culture with a vast pantheon of powerful heroic goddesses. Hina, a companion goddess to the god Maui, was nowhere to be found in Disney 's imagineering of Moana. ''
Maui 's Fish Hook, an item featured on Moana, makes an appearance in the seventh season of ABC 's Once Upon a Time as an enchanted talisman, establishing that the film 's history exists in its universe.
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which of the following are examples of cooperative games | Cooperative game theory - wikipedia
In game theory, a cooperative game (or coalitional game) is a game with competition between groups of players ("coalitions '') due to the possibility of external enforcement of cooperative behavior (e.g. through contract law). Those are opposed to non-cooperative games in which there is either no possibility to forge alliances or all agreements need to be self - enforcing (e.g. through credible threats).
Cooperative games are often analysed through the framework of cooperative game theory, which focuses on predicting which coalitions will form, the joint actions that groups take and the resulting collective payoffs. It is opposed to the traditional non-cooperative game theory which focuses on predicting individual players ' actions and payoffs and analyzing Nash equilibriums.
Cooperative game theory provides a high - level approach as it only describes the structure, strategies and payoffs of coalitions, whereas non-cooperative game theory also looks at how bargaining procedures will affect the distribution of payoffs within each coalition. As non-cooperative game theory is more general, cooperative games can be analyzed through the approach of non-cooperative game theory (the converse does not hold) provided that sufficient assumptions are made to encompass all the possible strategies available to players due to the possibility of external enforcement of cooperation. While it would thus be optimal to have all games expressed under a non-cooperative framework, in many instances insufficient information is available to accurately model the formal procedures available to the players during the strategic bargaining process, or the resulting model would be of too high complexity to offer a practical tool in the real world. In such cases, cooperative game theory provides a simplified approach that allows to analyze the game at large without having to make any assumption about bargaining powers.
A cooperative game is given by specifying a value for every coalition. Formally, the coalitional game consists of a finite set of players N (\ displaystyle N), called the grand coalition, and a characteristic function v: 2 N → R (\ displaystyle v: 2 ^ (N) \ to \ mathbb (R)) from the set of all possible coalitions of players to a set of payments that satisfies v (∅) = 0 (\ displaystyle v (\ emptyset) = 0). The function describes how much collective payoff a set of players can gain by forming a coalition, and the game is sometimes called a value game or a profit game. The players are assumed to choose which coalitions to form, according to their estimate of the way the payment will be divided among coalition members.
Conversely, a cooperative game can also be defined with a characteristic cost function c: 2 N → R (\ displaystyle c: 2 ^ (N) \ to \ mathbb (R)) satisfying c (∅) = 0 (\ displaystyle c (\ emptyset) = 0). In this setting, players must accomplish some task, and the characteristic function c (\ displaystyle c) represents the cost of a set of players accomplishing the task together. A game of this kind is known as a cost game. Although most cooperative game theory deals with profit games, all concepts can easily be translated to the cost setting.
Let v (\ displaystyle v) be a profit game. The dual game of v (\ displaystyle v) is the cost game v ∗ (\ displaystyle v ^ (*)) defined as
Intuitively, the dual game represents the opportunity cost for a coalition S (\ displaystyle S) of not joining the grand coalition N (\ displaystyle N). A dual profit game c ∗ (\ displaystyle c ^ (*)) can be defined identically for a cost game c (\ displaystyle c). A cooperative game and its dual are in some sense equivalent, and they share many properties. For example, the core of a game and its dual are equal. For more details on cooperative game duality, see for instance (Bilbao 2000).
Let S ⊊ N (\ displaystyle S \ subsetneq N) be a non-empty coalition of players. The subgame v S: 2 S → R (\ displaystyle v_ (S): 2 ^ (S) \ to \ mathbb (R)) on S (\ displaystyle S) is naturally defined as
In other words, we simply restrict our attention to coalitions contained in S (\ displaystyle S). Subgames are useful because they allow us to apply solution concepts defined for the grand coalition on smaller coalitions.
Characteristic functions are often assumed to be superadditive (Owen 1995, p. 213). This means that the value of a union of disjoint coalitions is no less than the sum of the coalitions ' separate values:
v (S ∪ T) ≥ v (S) + v (T) (\ displaystyle v (S \ cup T) \ geq v (S) + v (T)) whenever S, T ⊆ N (\ displaystyle S, T \ subseteq N) satisfy S ∩ T = ∅ (\ displaystyle S \ cap T = \ emptyset).
Larger coalitions gain more:
S ⊆ T ⇒ v (S) ≤ v (T) (\ displaystyle S \ subseteq T \ Rightarrow v (S) \ leq v (T)).
This follows from superadditivity. i.e. if payoffs are normalized so singleton coalitions have zero value.
A coalitional game v is considered simple if payoffs are either 1 or 0, i.e. coalitions are either "winning '' or "losing ''.
Equivalently, a simple game can be defined as a collection W of coalitions, where the members of W are called winning coalitions, and the others losing coalitions. It is sometimes assumed that a simple game is nonempty or that it does not contain an empty set. However, in other areas of mathematics, simple games are also called hypergraphs or Boolean functions (logic functions).
A few relations among the above axioms have widely been recognized, such as the following (e.g., Peleg, 2002, Section 2.1):
More generally, a complete investigation of the relation among the four conventional axioms (monotonicity, properness, strongness, and non-weakness), finiteness, and algorithmic computability has been made (Kumabe and Mihara, 2011), whose results are summarized in the Table "Existence of Simple Games '' below.
The restrictions that various axioms for simple games impose on their Nakamura number were also studied extensively. In particular, a computable simple game without a veto player has a Nakamura number greater than 3 only if it is a proper and non-strong game.
Let G be a strategic (non-cooperative) game. Then, assuming that coalitions have the ability to enforce coordinated behaviour, there are several cooperative games associated with G. These games are often referred to as representations of G. The two standard representations are:
The main assumption in cooperative game theory is that the grand coalition N (\ displaystyle N) will form. The challenge is then to allocate the payoff v (N) (\ displaystyle v (N)) among the players in some fair way. (This assumption is not restrictive, because even if players split off and form smaller coalitions, we can apply solution concepts to the subgames defined by whatever coalitions actually form.) A solution concept is a vector x ∈ R N (\ displaystyle x \ in \ mathbb (R) ^ (N)) that represents the allocation to each player. Researchers have proposed different solution concepts based on different notions of fairness. Some properties to look for in a solution concept include:
An efficient payoff vector is called a pre-imputation, and an individually rational pre-imputation is called an imputation. Most solution concepts are imputations.
The stable set of a game (also known as the von Neumann - Morgenstern solution (von Neumann & Morgenstern 1944)) was the first solution proposed for games with more than 2 players. Let v (\ displaystyle v) be a game and let x (\ displaystyle x), y (\ displaystyle y) be two imputations of v (\ displaystyle v). Then x (\ displaystyle x) dominates y (\ displaystyle y) if some coalition S ≠ ∅ (\ displaystyle S \ neq \ emptyset) satisfies x i > y i, ∀ i ∈ S (\ displaystyle x_ (i) > y_ (i), \ forall ~ i \ in S) and ∑ i ∈ S x i ≤ v (S) (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (i \ in S) x_ (i) \ leq v (S)). In other words, players in S (\ displaystyle S) prefer the payoffs from x (\ displaystyle x) to those from y (\ displaystyle y), and they can threaten to leave the grand coalition if y (\ displaystyle y) is used because the payoff they obtain on their own is at least as large as the allocation they receive under x (\ displaystyle x).
A stable set is a set of imputations that satisfies two properties:
Von Neumann and Morgenstern saw the stable set as the collection of acceptable behaviours in a society: None is clearly preferred to any other, but for each unacceptable behaviour there is a preferred alternative. The definition is very general allowing the concept to be used in a wide variety of game formats.
Let v (\ displaystyle v) be a game. The core of v (\ displaystyle v) is the set of payoff vectors
In words, the core is the set of imputations under which no coalition has a value greater than the sum of its members ' payoffs. Therefore, no coalition has incentive to leave the grand coalition and receive a larger payoff.
For simple games, there is another notion of the core, when each player is assumed to have preferences on a set X (\ displaystyle X) of alternatives. A profile is a list p = (≻ i p) i ∈ N (\ displaystyle p = (\ succ _ (i) ^ (p)) _ (i \ in N)) of individual preferences ≻ i p (\ displaystyle \ succ _ (i) ^ (p)) on X (\ displaystyle X). Here x ≻ i p y (\ displaystyle x \ succ _ (i) ^ (p) y) means that individual i (\ displaystyle i) prefers alternative x (\ displaystyle x) to y (\ displaystyle y) at profile p (\ displaystyle p). Given a simple game v (\ displaystyle v) and a profile p (\ displaystyle p), a dominance relation ≻ v p (\ displaystyle \ succ _ (v) ^ (p)) is defined on X (\ displaystyle X) by x ≻ v p y (\ displaystyle x \ succ _ (v) ^ (p) y) if and only if there is a winning coalition S (\ displaystyle S) (i.e., v (S) = 1 (\ displaystyle v (S) = 1)) satisfying x ≻ i p y (\ displaystyle x \ succ _ (i) ^ (p) y) for all i ∈ S (\ displaystyle i \ in S). The core C (v, p) (\ displaystyle C (v, p)) of the simple game v (\ displaystyle v) with respect to the profile p (\ displaystyle p) of preferences is the set of alternatives undominated by ≻ v p (\ displaystyle \ succ _ (v) ^ (p)) (the set of maximal elements of X (\ displaystyle X) with respect to ≻ v p (\ displaystyle \ succ _ (v) ^ (p))):
The Nakamura number of a simple game is the minimal number of winning coalitions with empty intersection. Nakamura 's theorem states that the core C (v, p) (\ displaystyle C (v, p)) is nonempty for all profiles p (\ displaystyle p) of acyclic (alternatively, transitive) preferences if and only if X (\ displaystyle X) is finite and the cardinal number (the number of elements) of X (\ displaystyle X) is less than the Nakamura number of v (\ displaystyle v). A variant by Kumabe and Mihara states that the core C (v, p) (\ displaystyle C (v, p)) is nonempty for all profiles p (\ displaystyle p) of preferences that have a maximal element if and only if the cardinal number of X (\ displaystyle X) is less than the Nakamura number of v (\ displaystyle v). (See Nakamura number for details.)
Because the core may be empty, a generalization was introduced in (Shapley & Shubik 1966). The strong ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) - core for some number ε ∈ R (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon \ in \ mathbb (R)) is the set of payoff vectors
In economic terms, the strong ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) - core is the set of pre-imputations where no coalition can improve its payoff by leaving the grand coalition, if it must pay a penalty of ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) for leaving. Note that ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) may be negative, in which case it represents a bonus for leaving the grand coalition. Clearly, regardless of whether the core is empty, the strong ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) - core will be non-empty for a large enough value of ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) and empty for a small enough (possibly negative) value of ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon). Following this line of reasoning, the least - core, introduced in (Maschler, Peleg & Shapley 1979), is the intersection of all non-empty strong ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) - cores. It can also be viewed as the strong ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) - core for the smallest value of ε (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon) that makes the set non-empty (Bilbao 2000).
The Shapley value is the unique payoff vector that is efficient, symmetric, additive, and assigns zero payoffs to dummy players. It was introduced by Lloyd Shapley (Shapley 1953). The Shapley value of a superadditive game is individually rational, but this is not true in general. (Driessen 1988)
Let v: 2 N → R (\ displaystyle v: 2 ^ (N) \ to \ mathbb (R)) be a game, and let x ∈ R N (\ displaystyle x \ in \ mathbb (R) ^ (N)) be an efficient payoff vector. The maximum surplus of player i over player j with respect to x is
the maximal amount player i can gain without the cooperation of player j by withdrawing from the grand coalition N under payoff vector x, assuming that the other players in i 's withdrawing coalition are satisfied with their payoffs under x. The maximum surplus is a way to measure one player 's bargaining power over another. The kernel of v (\ displaystyle v) is the set of imputations x that satisfy
for every pair of players i and j. Intuitively, player i has more bargaining power than player j with respect to imputation x if s i j v (x) > s j i v (x) (\ displaystyle s_ (ij) ^ (v) (x) > s_ (ji) ^ (v) (x)), but player j is immune to player i 's threats if x j = v (j) (\ displaystyle x_ (j) = v (j)), because he can obtain this payoff on his own. The kernel contains all imputations where no player has this bargaining power over another. This solution concept was first introduced in (Davis & Maschler 1965).
Let v: 2 N → R (\ displaystyle v: 2 ^ (N) \ to \ mathbb (R)) be a game, and let x ∈ R N (\ displaystyle x \ in \ mathbb (R) ^ (N)) be a payoff vector. The excess of x (\ displaystyle x) for a coalition S ⊆ N (\ displaystyle S \ subseteq N) is the quantity v (S) − ∑ i ∈ S x i (\ displaystyle v (S) - \ sum _ (i \ in S) x_ (i)); that is, the gain that players in coalition S (\ displaystyle S) can obtain if they withdraw from the grand coalition N (\ displaystyle N) under payoff x (\ displaystyle x) and instead take the payoff v (S) (\ displaystyle v (S)).
Now let θ (x) ∈ R 2 N (\ displaystyle \ theta (x) \ in \ mathbb (R) ^ (2 ^ (N))) be the vector of excesses of x (\ displaystyle x), arranged in non-increasing order. In other words, θ i (x) ≥ θ j (x), ∀ i < j (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (i) (x) \ geq \ theta _ (j) (x), \ forall ~ i < j). Notice that x (\ displaystyle x) is in the core of v (\ displaystyle v) if and only if it is a pre-imputation and θ 1 (x) ≤ 0 (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (1) (x) \ leq 0). To define the nucleolus, we consider the lexicographic ordering of vectors in R 2 N (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (R) ^ (2 ^ (N))): For two payoff vectors x, y (\ displaystyle x, y), we say θ (x) (\ displaystyle \ theta (x)) is lexicographically smaller than θ (y) (\ displaystyle \ theta (y)) if for some index k (\ displaystyle k), we have θ i (x) = θ i (y), ∀ i < k (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (i) (x) = \ theta _ (i) (y), \ forall ~ i < k) and θ k (x) < θ k (y) (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (k) (x) < \ theta _ (k) (y)). (The ordering is called lexicographic because it mimics alphabetical ordering used to arrange words in a dictionary.) The nucleolus of v (\ displaystyle v) is the lexicographically minimal imputation, based on this ordering. This solution concept was first introduced in (Schmeidler 1969).
Although the definition of the nucleolus seems abstract, (Maschler, Peleg & Shapley 1979) gave a more intuitive description: Starting with the least - core, record the coalitions for which the right - hand side of the inequality in the definition of C ε (v) (\ displaystyle C_ (\ varepsilon) (v)) can not be further reduced without making the set empty. Continue decreasing the right - hand side for the remaining coalitions, until it can not be reduced without making the set empty. Record the new set of coalitions for which the inequalities hold at equality; continue decreasing the right - hand side of remaining coalitions and repeat this process as many times as necessary until all coalitions have been recorded. The resulting payoff vector is the nucleolus.
Introduced by Shapley in (Shapley 1971), convex cooperative games capture the intuitive property some games have of "snowballing ''. Specifically, a game is convex if its characteristic function v (\ displaystyle v) is supermodular:
It can be shown (see, e.g., Section V. 1 of (Driessen 1988)) that the supermodularity of v (\ displaystyle v) is equivalent to
that is, "the incentives for joining a coalition increase as the coalition grows '' (Shapley 1971), leading to the aforementioned snowball effect. For cost games, the inequalities are reversed, so that we say the cost game is convex if the characteristic function is submodular.
Convex cooperative games have many nice properties:
Submodular and supermodular set functions are also studied in combinatorial optimization. Many of the results in (Shapley 1971) have analogues in (Edmonds 1970), where submodular functions were first presented as generalizations of matroids. In this context, the core of a convex cost game is called the base polyhedron, because its elements generalize base properties of matroids.
However, the optimization community generally considers submodular functions to be the discrete analogues of convex functions (Lovász 1983), because the minimization of both types of functions is computationally tractable. Unfortunately, this conflicts directly with Shapley 's original definition of supermodular functions as "convex ''.
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highest exporter of natural gas in the middle east | List of countries by natural gas exports - Wikipedia
This is a list of countries by natural gas exports mostly based on The World Factbook (1). For informational purposes several non-sovereign entities are also included in this list.
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who plays sophie's boyfriend in mamma mia | Mamma Mia! (Film) - wikipedia
Mamma Mia! (promoted as Mamma Mia! The Movie) is a 2008 British - American - Swedish musical romantic comedy film adapted from the 1999 West End / 2001 Broadway musical of the same name, based on the songs of successful pop group ABBA, with additional music composed by ABBA member Benny Andersson. The film was directed by Phyllida Lloyd and distributed by Universal Pictures in partnership with Tom Hanks and Rita Wilson 's Playtone and Littlestar, and the title originates from ABBA 's 1975 chart - topper "Mamma Mia ''. Meryl Streep heads the cast, playing the role of single mother Donna Sheridan. Pierce Brosnan (Sam Carmichael), Colin Firth (Harry Bright), and Stellan Skarsgård (Bill Anderson) play the three possible fathers to Donna 's daughter, Sophie (Amanda Seyfried). Mamma Mia! received mixed reviews from critics and earned $609.8 million on a $52 million budget.
A sequel, titled Mamma Mia: Here We Go Again!, is scheduled for a July 20, 2018 release in the United States with Seyfried, Streep, Firth, Brosnan, Baranski and Cooper returning to reprise their roles.
On the Greek island of Kalokairi, bride - to - be Sophie Sheridan reveals to her bridesmaids that she has secretly invited three men to her wedding without telling her mother, Donna. They are the men that her mother 's diary reveals could have been her father: Irish - American architect Sam Carmichael, Swedish adventurer and writer Bill Anderson, and British banker Harry Bright. She dreams of being given away by her father at her wedding, and believes that after she spends time with them she will know which is her father.
Sophie 's mother Donna, who owns a villa, is ecstatic to reunite with her former Dynamos bandmates, wisecracking author Rosie Mulligan and wealthy multiple divorcée Tanya Chesham - Leigh, and reveals her bafflement at her daughter 's desire to get married. Donna shows off the villa to Rosie and Tanya. The three men arrive and Sophie smuggles them to their room, explaining that she and not her mother sent the invitations. She begs them to hide so Donna will be surprised by the old friends of whom she "so often '' favourably speaks. They overhear Donna working and swear not to reveal Sophie 's secret.
Donna spies them and is dumbfounded to find herself facing former lovers, demanding they leave. She confides in Tanya and Rosie that she does not know who fathered Sophie. Tanya and Rosie rally her spirits by getting her to dance with the female staff and islanders. Sophie finds the men aboard Bill 's yacht, and they sail around Kalokairi, telling stories of Donna 's carefree youth. Sophie plans to tell her fiancé Sky about her ploy, but loses her nerve. Sky and Sophie sing to each other, but Sky is abducted for his bachelor party.
At Sophie 's bachelorette party, Donna, Tanya, and Rosie perform. When Sam, Bill, and Harry arrive, Sophie decides to talk with each of them alone. While her girlfriends dance with the men, Sophie learns from Bill that Donna received the money for her villa from his great - aunt Sofia. Sophie guesses she must be Sofia 's namesake. She asks him to give her away and keep their secret until the wedding. Sophie 's happiness is short - lived as Sam and Harry each tell her they are her father and will give her away. Sophie can not tell them the truth and, overwhelmed by the consequences of her actions, faints.
In the morning, Rosie and Tanya assure Donna they will take care of the men. Bill and Harry intend to confide in each other, but Rosie interrupts them. Donna confronts Sophie, believing Sophie wants the wedding stopped. Sophie says that all she wants is to avoid her mother 's mistakes. Sam accosts Donna, concerned about Sophie getting married so young. Donna confronts him and they realize they still have feelings for each other. Tanya and young Pepper continue flirtations from the previous night. Sophie confesses to Sky and asks for his help. He reacts angrily to Sophie 's deception and she turns to her mother for support. As Donna helps her daughter dress for the wedding, their rift is healed and Donna reminisces about Sophie 's childhood. Donna admits her mother disowned her when she became pregnant. Sophie asks Donna to give her away. As the bridal party walks to the chapel, Sam intercepts Donna, who reveals the pain she felt over losing him.
Sophie and Donna walk down the aisle as the band plays. Donna tells Sophie her father could be any of the three men. Sam reveals that while he left Donna to get married, he did not go through with it, but returned to find Donna with another man. The men agree to be one - third of a father for Sophie. She tells Sky they should postpone their wedding and travel the world. Sam proposes to Donna. She accepts and they are married. At the reception, Sam sings to Donna, which prompts Rosie to make a play for Bill. The couples proclaim their love. Sophie and Sky sail away.
The following songs are included in the film, of which 18 (including a hidden track) are on the soundtrack album, and 3 are excluded:
The Musical Director of the film was Grammy - Award winner Martin Lowe, a graduate of the University of Hull.
Most of the outdoor scenes were filmed on location at the small Greek island of Skopelos (during August / September 2007), and the seaside hamlet of Damouchari in the Pelion area of Greece. On Skopelos, Kastani beach on the south west coast was the film 's main location site. The producers built a beach bar and jetty along the beach, but removed both set pieces after production wrapped. A complete set for Donna 's Greek villa was built at the 007 stage at Pinewood Studios and most of the film was shot there. Real trees were utilised for the set, watered daily through an automated watering system and given access to daylight in order to keep them growing.
The part of the film where Brosnan 's character, Sam, leaves his New York office to go to the Greek Island was actually filmed at the Lloyd 's Building on Lime Street in the City of London. He dashes down the escalators and through the porte - cochere, where yellow cabs and actors representing New York mounted police were used for authenticity.
The Fernando, Bill Anderson 's yacht (actually a ketch) in the film was the Tai - Mo - Shan built in 1934 by H.S. Rouse at the Hong Kong and Whampoa dockyards.
Meryl Streep took opera singing lessons as a child, and as an adult, she previously sang in several films, including Postcards from the Edge, Silkwood, Death Becomes Her, and A Prairie Home Companion. She was a fan of the stage show Mamma Mia! after seeing it on Broadway in September 2001, when she found the show to be an affirmation of life in the midst of the destruction of 9 / 11.
Though the world premiere of the film occurred elsewhere, most of the media attention was focused on the Swedish premiere, where Anni - Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog joined Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson with the cast at the Rival Theatre in Mariatorget, Stockholm, owned by Andersson, on July 4, 2008. It was the first time all four members of ABBA had been photographed together since 1986.
Mamma Mia! received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 54 % of critics gave the film positive reviews based upon a sample of 175 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The Times gave it four stars out of five, as did Channel 4 (Britain) which said it had "all the swing and sparkle of sequined bell - bottoms. '' BBC Radio 5 Live 's film critic Mark Kermode admitted to enjoying the film, despite describing the experience as ' the closest you get to see A-List actors doing drunken karaoke '. The Guardian was more negative, giving it one star, stating that the film gave the reviewer a "need to vomit '', while Bob Chipman of Escape to the Movies said it was "so base, so shallow and so hinged on meaningless spectacle, it 's amazing it was n't made for men ''. The Daily Telegraph stated that it was enjoyable but poorly put together ("Finding the film a total shambles was sort of a shame, but I have a sneaking suspicion I 'll go to see it again anyway. ''), whereas Empire said it was "cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine and toe tappers. ''
The casting of actors not known for their singing abilities led to some mixed reviews. Variety stated that "some stars, especially the bouncy and rejuvenated Streep, seem better suited for musical comedy than others, including Brosnan and Skarsgård. '' Brosnan, especially, was savaged by many critics: his singing was compared to "a water buffalo '' (New York Magazine), "a donkey braying '' (The Philadelphia Inquirer) and "a wounded raccoon '' (The Miami Herald), and Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing Charlotte said he "looks physically pained choking out the lyrics, as if he 's being subjected to a prostate exam just outside of the camera 's eye. ''
Mamma Mia! grossed a worldwide total of $602.6 million and is the fifth highest - grossing film of 2008. It became the highest grossing live - action musical of all time, until it was surpassed by Bill Condon 's Beauty and the Beast in 2017. It was also the highest - grossing movie directed by a woman, until it was surpassed by Patty Jenkins ' Wonder Woman in 2017. It is the third highest - grossing film of 2008 internationally (i.e., outside North America) with an international total of $458.4 million and the thirteenth highest gross of 2008 in North America (the US and Canada) with $144.1 million.
In the United Kingdom, Mamma Mia! has grossed £ 69.2 million as of January 23, 2009, and is the ninth highest - grossing film of all time at the UK box office. The film opened at # 1 in the U.K, taking £ 6.6 million on 496 screens. It managed to hold onto the top spot for 2 weeks, narrowly keeping Pixar 's WALL - E from reaching # 1 in its second week.
When released on July 3 in Greece, the film grossed $1.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 1 at the Greek box office.
The film made $9.6 million in its opening day in the United States and Canada, and $27.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 2 at the box office, behind The Dark Knight. At the time, it made Mamma Mia! the record - holder for the highest grossing opening weekend for a movie based on a Broadway musical, surpassing Hairspray 's box office record in 2007 and later surpassed by Into the Woods.
In November 2008, Mamma Mia! became the fastest - selling DVD of all time in the UK, according to Official UK Charts Company figures. It sold 1,669,084 copies on its first day of release, breaking the previous record (held by Titanic) by 560,000 copies. By the end of 2008, the Official UK Charts Company declared that it had become the biggest selling DVD ever in the UK, with one in every four households owning a copy (over 5 million copies sold). The record was previously held by Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl with sales of 4.7 million copies.
In the United States, the DVD made over $30 million on its first day of release. By December 31, 2008, Mamma Mia! became the best - selling DVD of all time in Sweden with 545,000 copies sold.
The single - disc DVD released in Sweden on 26 November contains all of the following:
The widescreen single - disc includes a bonus disc which includes:
A bonus disc is included in a separate case and bundled with the movie, and includes:
Because of the film 's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, the co-chairman of Universal Studios told The Daily Mail that it would take a while, but there could be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson, and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there are still plenty of ABBA songs to use. Mamma Mia: Here We Go Again! was announced on May 19, 2017, with a planned release date of July 20, 2018. It will be written and directed by Ol Parker. On June 1, 2017, it was announced that Seyfried would be returning as Sophie. Later that month, Dominic Cooper confirmed in an interview that he would be returning for the sequel along with Streep, Firth and Brosnan. In July 2017, Baranski was confirmed to return as Tanya. That same month, Lily James was confirmed to portray young Donna. Jeremy Irvine and Alexa Davies are also set to portray younger versions of Sam and Rosie, respectively. Julie Walters and Stellan Skarsgård will also return as Rosie and Bill, respectively.
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in the absence of oxygen muscle cells may convert pyruvic acid into what compound | Pyruvic acid - wikipedia
Pyruvic acid (CH COCOOH) is the simplest of the alpha - keto acids, with a carboxylic acid and a ketone functional group. Pyruvate, the conjugate base, CH COCOO, is a key intermediate in several metabolic pathways.
Pyruvic acid can be made from glucose through glycolysis, converted back to carbohydrates (such as glucose) via gluconeogenesis, or to fatty acids through a reaction with acetyl - CoA. It can also be used to construct the amino acid alanine and can be converted into ethanol or lactic acid via fermentation.
Pyruvic acid supplies energy to cells through the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) when oxygen is present (aerobic respiration), and alternatively ferments to produce lactate when oxygen is lacking (fermentation).
In 1834, Théophile - Jules Pelouze distilled both tartaric acid (L - tartaric acid) and racemic acid (a mix of D - and L - tartaric acid) and isolated pyrotartaric acid (methyl succinic acid) and another acid that Jöns Jacob Berzelius characterized the following year and named pyruvic acid. Pyruvic acid is a colorless liquid with a smell similar to that of acetic acid and is miscible with water. In the laboratory, pyruvic acid may be prepared by heating a mixture of tartaric acid and potassium hydrogen sulfate, by the oxidation of propylene glycol by a strong oxidizer (e.g., potassium permanganate or bleach), or by the hydrolysis of acetyl cyanide, formed by reaction of acetyl chloride with potassium cyanide:
Pyruvate is an important chemical compound in biochemistry. It is the output of the metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis. One molecule of glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate, which are then used to provide further energy, in one of two ways. Pyruvate is converted into acetyl - coenzyme A, which is the main input for a series of reactions known as the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle). Pyruvate is also converted to oxaloacetate by an anaplerotic reaction, which replenishes Krebs cycle intermediates; also, the oxaloacetate is used for gluconeogenesis. These reactions are named after Hans Adolf Krebs, the biochemist awarded the 1953 Nobel Prize for physiology, jointly with Fritz Lipmann, for research into metabolic processes. The cycle is also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle, because citric acid is one of the intermediate compounds formed during the reactions.
If insufficient oxygen is available, the acid is broken down anaerobically, creating lactate in animals and ethanol in plants and microorganisms (and carp). Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted by fermentation to lactate using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and the coenzyme NADH in lactate fermentation, or to acetaldehyde (with the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase) and then to ethanol in alcoholic fermentation.
Pyruvate is a key intersection in the network of metabolic pathways. Pyruvate can be converted into carbohydrates via gluconeogenesis, to fatty acids or energy through acetyl - CoA, to the amino acid alanine, and to ethanol. Therefore, it unites several key metabolic processes.
In glycolysis, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is converted to pyruvate by pyruvate kinase. This reaction is strongly exergonic and irreversible; in gluconeogenesis, it takes two enzymes, pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase, to catalyze the reverse transformation of pyruvate to PEP.
Compound C00074 at KEGG Pathway Database. Enzyme 2.7. 1.40 at KEGG Pathway Database. Compound C00022 at KEGG Pathway Database.
Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.
Pyruvate decarboxylation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex produces acetyl - CoA.
Carboxylation by pyruvate carboxylase produces oxaloacetate.
Transamination by alanine transaminase produces alanine.
Reduction by lactate dehydrogenase produces lactate.
Pyruvate is sold as a weight - loss supplement, though evidence supporting this use is lacking. A systematic review of six trials found a statistically significant difference in body weight with pyruvate compared to placebo. However, all of the trials had methodological weaknesses and the magnitude of the effect was small. The review also identified adverse events associated with pyruvate such as diarrhea, bloating, gas, and increase in low - density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. The authors concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support the use of pyruvate for weight loss.
There is also in vitro as well as in vivo evidence in hearts that pyruvate improves metabolism by NADH production stimulation and increases cardiac function.
Glucose
Hexokinase
Glucose 6 - phosphate
Glucose - 6 - phosphate isomerase
Fructose 6 - phosphate
phosphofructokinase - 1
Fructose 1, 6 - bisphosphate
Fructose - bisphosphate aldolase
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
+
Glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate
Triosephosphate isomerase
2 × Glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate
Glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase
2 × 1, 3 - Bisphosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate kinase
2 × 3 - Phosphoglycerate
Phosphoglycerate mutase
2 × 2 - Phosphoglycerate
Phosphopyruvate hydratase (Enolase)
2 × Phosphoenolpyruvate
Pyruvate kinase
2 × Pyruvate
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who stars in a river runs through it | A River Runs Through It (film) - wikipedia
A River Runs Through It is a 1992 American period coming - of - age drama film directed by Robert Redford and starring Craig Sheffer, Brad Pitt, Tom Skerritt, Brenda Blethyn, and Emily Lloyd. It is a based on the 1976 semi-autobiographical novel A River Runs Through It by Norman Maclean, adapted for the screen by Richard Friedenberg. Set in and around Missoula, Montana, the story follows two sons of a Presbyterian minister, one studious and the other rebellious, as they grow up and come of age in the Rocky Mountain region during a span of time from roughly World War I to the early days of the Great Depression, including part of the Prohibition era.
The film won an Academy Award for Best Cinematography in 1993 and was nominated for two other Oscars, for Best Music, Original Score and Best Adapted Screenplay. The film grossed $43 million in US domestic returns.
The Maclean brothers, Norman and Paul, grow up in Missoula, Montana with their father, Presbyterian minister John, from whom they learn a love of fly fishing for trout in the Blackfoot River. They learn to cast using a ticking metronome. The boys become accomplished fishermen as a result. Norman and Paul are home taught and must adhere to the strict moral and educational code of their father. As they grow older, it becomes clear that Norman is more disciplined and studious, while Paul is fun - loving, wild, and the more talented fisherman.
Norman attends a July 4th dance with his friends after returning home from six years away at Dartmouth, where he meets Jessie Burns. Paul has become a reporter at a newspaper in Helena. He has angered many of the locals by falling behind in a big poker game at a bar that is a front for gambling and prostitution. He is also dating an Indian woman, Mabel, who is deemed inferior by the community. Paul is arrested after fighting a man who has insulted her, and Norman is awakened in the middle of the night by a phone call from the police to come and bail Paul out of jail.
After Norman and Jessie go on several dates, she asks that Norman make an effort to get along with her brother Neal, who is visiting from California. Norman and Paul do not like Neal, but at Jessie 's insistence they invite him to go fishing. Neal shows up drunk with a woman he met at a bar the night before. Norman and Paul decide to fish anyway and return to their car hours later to find that Neal and the woman have drunk all the beer and passed out naked in the sun.
Norman returns a painfully sunburned Neal home, where Jessie is waiting for them. She is angry that the brothers did not fish with Neal. Norman asks Jessie to drive him home, as he had brought Neal back in Neal 's car, and he tells her that he is falling for her. She drives away angry but a week later asks Norman to come to the train station to see Neal off. After the train departs, Norman shows Jessie a letter from the University of Chicago: a job offer for an English Literature teaching position. Norman asks Jessie to marry him.
When Norman tells Paul about the job offer and marriage proposal, he urges Paul to come with him and Jessie to Chicago. Paul says that he will never leave Montana. Just before leaving for Chicago, Norman, Paul, and their father go fly fishing one last time. Paul catches a huge fish that drags him down the river through a set of rapids before he finally lands it. John proudly tells him what a wonderful fisherman he has become, and how he is an artist in the craft, much to Paul 's delight. They pose for pictures with the huge fish.
Soon after the fishing excursion, Norman is called by the police, who tell him that Paul has been found beaten to death in an alley. Norman goes home and tells his parents the news. Years later, Mrs. Maclean, Norman, Jessie, and their two children listen to a sermon being given by John, who dies soon after. Norman is now an old man, back in the Montana river where he used to fish with his family many years before. He says that nearly everyone from his youth is dead, including Jessie, and that he is haunted by waters.
Although both the book and movie are set in Missoula and on the Blackfoot River, it was filmed in late June, early July 1991 in south central Montana in Livingston and Bozeman, and on the nearby upper Yellowstone, Gallatin, and Boulder Rivers. The waterfall shown is Granite Falls in Wyoming. Filming was completed in early September 1991.
An article published in the Helena Independent Record in July 2000, based on recollections of people who knew both brothers, noted a number of specifics about the Macleans -- notably various chronological and educational details about Paul Maclean 's adult life -- that differ somewhat from their portrayal in the film and novella.
Mark Isham, who would go on to compose the scores to most Robert Redford - directed films, composed the musical score for the film. Originally, Elmer Bernstein was hired to score the film. However, after Redford and Bernstein disagreed over the tone of the music, Bernstein was replaced by Isham. Rushed for time, Isham completed the score within four weeks at Schnee Studio of Signet Sound Studios in Hollywood, CA. Upon release, the music was met with positive reviews earning the film both nominations for Grammy and Academy awards. The A River Runs Through It (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) was released on October 27, 1992.
In some home video releases of the film, Elmer Bernstein is credited as the film 's composer despite his score being rejected during post-production.
Released on October 9, 1992, the film grossed $43,440,294 in US domestic returns. The film holds an 81 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 43 polled critical reviews. The site 's consensus reads: "Tasteful to a fault, this period drama combines a talented cast (including a young Brad Pitt) with some stately, beautifully filmed work from director Robert Redford. '' Much of the praise focused on Pitt 's portrayal of Paul, which has been cited as his career - making performance.
The film was nominated for three Academy Awards in 1993, including Best Cinematography (Philippe Rousselot); Best Music, Original Score (Mark Isham); and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium (Richard Friedenberg). Rousselot won for Best Cinematography. At the Golden Globes, Robert Redford was nominated for Best Director - Motion Picture, but did not win.
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how many amp hours in a d cell battery | D battery - wikipedia
A D battery (D cell or IEC R20) is a size of dry cell. AD cell is cylindrical with an electrical contact at each end; the positive end has a nub or bump. D cells are typically used in high current drain applications, such as in large flashlights, radio receivers and transmitters, boomboxes, products with electric motors, safety systems, Geiger counters, megaphones, or other applications that require an extended running time. AD cell may be either rechargeable or non-rechargeable. Its terminal voltage and capacity depend upon its cell chemistry.
The National Carbon Company introduced the first D cell in 1898. Before smaller cells became more common, D cells were widely known as flashlight batteries. The U.S. military designation for this battery has been BA - 30 since sometime before World War II. During World War II it was designated the Type C battery by the Navy leading to confusion with the smaller C cell battery (BA - 42).
In 2007, D batteries accounted for 8 % of alkaline primary battery sales (numerically) in the US. In 2008, Swiss purchases of D batteries amounted to 3.4 % of primary and 1.4 % of secondary sales.
(12 Wh)
(18 - 27 Wh)
(2.5 - 6.9 Wh)
(2.75 - 15 Wh)
A battery 's capacity depends upon its cell chemistry and current draw. Energizer brand rates its alkaline D cell at approximately 20,000 mAh at 25mA draw, but estimates performance closer to about 10,000 mAh at 500mA draw. This effect is generally less pronounced in cells with NiCd and NiMH chemistries; see Peukert 's law. Many commonly available size D rechargeable cells are actually sub-C cells in a D - sized holder.
D batteries have: Nominal diameter of 33.2 ± 1 millimeters (1.3 inches). Overall length of 61.5 millimeters (2.42 inches).
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who were the characters on leave it to beaver | Leave It to Beaver characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters featured in the American television series Leave It to Beaver, which was broadcast from 1957 through 1963.
The show 's four main characters appeared in all 234 episodes of the show, and, in the opening sequence, were introduced in the following order:
Beaver 's best pals include apple - munching Larry Mondello (Rusty Stevens, November 22, 1957 -- June 6, 1960), Gilbert Bates (Stephen Talbot, March 19, 1959 -- June 6, 1963), Hubert "Whitey '' Whitney (Stanley Fafara, October 4, 1957 -- June 6, 1963), and the old fireman, Gus (Burt Mustin, October 4, 1957 -- February 24, 1962). Except for Gus, Beaver 's friends steer him into trouble time and again. Other friends include Harry Henderson (Keith Taylor), a chubby, bespectacled boy brought in after Rusty Stevens ' departure, and Richard Rickover (Richard Correll, April 30, 1960 -- October 18, 1962).
Judy Hensler (Jeri Weil, October 4, 1957 -- October 15, 1960) is Beaver 's snitching, goody - goody classroom nemesis on the show. Penny Woods (Karen Sue Trent, February 20, 1960 -- January 20, 1962) filled the nemesis role when Judy was dropped. Other friends include Lumpy 's sister Violet Rutherford, (Wendy Winkleman, 1957 and Veronica Cartwright, February 19, 1959 -- May 2, 1963). Benjie Bellamy (Joey Scott) and Chuckie Murdock (Rory Stevens) are both small boys and Cleaver neighbors who cause trouble. Beaver 's notorious classmate Angela Valentine is an unseen character, mentioned a dozen times in the series but never shown on screen.
Beaver had two female teachers in the earliest seasons. Miss Canfield (Diane Brewster, October 4, 1957 -- March 21, 1958) is Beaver 's kind and understanding second grade teacher at Grant Ave. Grammar School and appears in four first - season episodes. Beaver has a crush on her in one episode. Alice Landers (Sue Randall, October 16, 1958 -- February 17, 1962) becomes Beaver 's third grade teacher in the second season, replacing Miss Canfield. She remains his teacher for several seasons. Beaver develops a crush on her but his joy turns sour when she announces her engagement to Tom Brittingham. Cornelia Rayburn (Doris Packer, October 4, 1957 -- June 13, 1963) is the principal of Grant Ave. Grammar School and, later Beaver 's teacher, after Miss Landers, replacing Mr. Bloomgarten. In the later seasons, Beaver has male, rather than female, teachers who include Mr. Willet and Mr. Blair, both played by Wendell Holmes.
Wally 's closest friends are archetypal wise - guy Eddie Haskell (Ken Osmond, November 1, 1957 -- June 6, 1963), Clarence "Lumpy '' Rutherford (Frank Bank, January 24, 1958 -- May 30, 1963), Tooey Brown (Tiger Fafara, November 15, 1957 -- May 28, 1960) and Chester Anderson (Buddy Hart, November 8, 1957 -- May 28, 1960). Eddie and Lumpy appear in all six seasons while Tooey and Chester appear in the first through third seasons. Buddy Hart 's father, John Hart (star of television 's Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans, and part - time Lone Ranger), appears in three episodes though in no scenes with his son.
Several episodes in the last seasons concentrate on Eddie 's adventures, with one episode following his plans to work on an Alaskan fishing boat and another chronicling his troubles with a credit card.
Lumpy is the heavy - set, not - very - bright, yet sincere football - playing Clarence, the son of Ward 's co-worker, Fred Rutherford. While later appearances would cast him as a friend and classmate, Initially he is an ' outsider ' between Beaver and Wally 's age. As Beaver 's nemesis, he bullies both Beaver and Wally in his first appearance
Wally has several girlfriends through the series ' run, with Mary Ellen Rogers (Pamela Baird, occasionally as Pamela Beaird, April 16, 1958 -- June 6, 1963) and Julie Foster (Cheryl Holdridge, January 7, 1961 -- April 11, 1963) making many appearances (Holdridge had earlier played girlfriend Gloria Cusick in two 1959 episodes). Carol Sydes (aka Cindy Carol) appears as Wally 's first girlfriend, Penny Jamison, in "Wally 's Girl Trouble '', and later appears as classmate and date Alma Hanson.
Aunt Martha Bronson (Madge Kennedy, December 13, 1957 -- March 28, 1963) is June 's beloved aunt. She is proper old maid who lives not far from Mayfield and wants Beaver to attend a prep school. Ward is nervous around her, as he feels that he must always be apologizing for something when she comes. She appears in five episodes and is mentioned in other episodes. Because she once gave Wally and Beaver umbrellas, she is called "their umbrella aunt ''.
Uncle Billy (Edgar Buchanan, December 30, 1960 -- March 21, 1963) is Wally and Beaver 's fancy - free, globe - trotting, story - telling great uncle. June does not trust him completely because he fills her sons ' heads with tales of irresponsible living.
Larry Mondello 's mother Margaret Mondello (Madge Blake, June 25, 1958 -- February 27, 1960) is a nervous woman who finds her son 's misadventures exasperating. The character was dropped when Rusty Stevens left the show in its fourth season. George and Agnes Haskell are Eddie 's parents. George was played by Karl Swenson and George O. Petrie. However, in one episode, it is implied that Mr. Haskell 's name is "Edward Clark Haskell, Sr. ''; and in another episode, where he 's played by John Alvin, he is "Frank ''. Agnes was played by Ann Doran and Anne Barton. Tooey Brown 's mother, Mr. Mondello, Judy Hensler 's parents, and Whitey Whitney 's parents make one - time appearances. Larry Mondello 's sister in high school is never seen.
Fred Rutherford (Richard Deacon, October 18, 1957 -- May 23, 1963) is Ward 's pompous, overbearing co-worker. Fred is the father of an awkward teenage son named Clarence ("Lumpy ''), and a daughter about Beaver 's age named Violet. The Rutherfords socialize with the Cleavers on a couple of occasions: playing cards in the Cleaver home and, at a later time, enjoying a picnic outing together. Fred travels widely and gives Ward a meerschaum pipe after visiting Germany.
Several Andy Griffith Show players appeared on Leave It to Beaver. Hal Smith, Mayberry 's town sot Otis Campbell, appeared as a restaurant manager in the fourth - season episode "Beaver Wo n't Eat '', while Dorothy Neumann, Otis Campbell 's wife Rita on The Andy Griffith Show, appeared in "The Community Chest '' as a Mayfield housewife. Howard McNear, Mayberry 's barber Floyd Lawson, played a barber in a second - season Beaver episode. Burt Mustin (Mayfield 's Gus, the fireman) had a long career as Jud Fletcher on The Andy Griffith Show and Will Wright (Mayfield 's first season Pete, the fireman) appeared on The Andy Griffith Show as Ben Weaver, a sour, miserly Mayberry department store owner.
Phyllis Coates, who portrayed Lois Lane during the first season of The Adventures of Superman, played Mrs. Donaldson in "New Neighbors, '' while Superman heavy Herb Vigran appeared in the first - season episode "Brotherly Love ''.
Two actors playing veterinarians on the long - running CBS children 's series Lassie appeared on Leave It to Beaver. Frank Ferguson (Dr. Peter Wilson in the early seasons of Lassie) played Jeff, the tramp, in "Beaver 's Good Deed '', and Arthur Space, who portrayed Doc Weaver through the Timmy years of Lassie, played Mr. Judson in "Wally 's Present ''.
Veteran film and television character actresses appearing on the show included Maudie Prickett as Mrs. Bennett, the owner of a lost chihuahua in "Beaver and Poncho '', Irene Tedrow as Mrs. Hathaway, Aunt Martha 's traveling companion in "The Visiting Aunts '', and Lurene Tuttle as Mrs. Evans, Eddie 's landlady in "Bachelor - at - Large ''.
Barbara Parkins, Judy Walker, a babysitter for an older Beaver. "No Time for Babysitters '' She understands Beaver wanting to be alone when Gilbert and Richard arrive.
Actress Lee Meriwether, winner of the 1955 Miss America beauty pageant, appeared as an unnamed housewife in "Community Chest ''.
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where are the falls in chippewa falls wi | Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin - wikipedia
Chippewa Falls is a city located on the Chippewa River in Chippewa County in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. The population was 13,661 at the 2010 census. Incorporated as a city in 1869, it is the county seat of Chippewa County.
The city 's name originated from its location on the Chippewa River, which is named after the Ojibwa Native Americans. Chippewa is an alternative rendition of Ojibwa.
Chippewa Falls is the birthplace of Seymour Cray, known as the "father of supercomputing '', and the headquarters for the original Cray Research. It is also the home of the Jacob Leinenkugel Brewing Company, the Heyde Center for the Arts, a showcase venue for artists and performers, Irvine Park, and the annual Northern Wisconsin State Fair. Chippewa Falls is 15 miles from the annual four - day music festivals Country Fest and Rock Fest.
Chippewa Falls was originally a lumber town that became a railroad town, even though the main railroad line of the 1870s went through Eau Claire, about 10 miles to the south. In 1870, the West Wisconsin Railway built a line from St. Paul, Minnesota, to Milwaukee through the area at Eau Claire. Following this, the Eau Claire and Chippewa Falls Railway established a line running from Eau Claire to Chippewa Falls. In 1880, the CF&W was joined by the Wisconsin and Minnesota Railway pushing its way west from Abbotsford. This was followed in 1881 by the Chippewa Falls & Northern Railroad, which built a line north from Chippewa Falls to Bloomer, eventually being extended to Superior.
Around 1700, French explorer Pierre - Charles Le Sueur discovered the Chippewa Spring near the river. Politician Thaddeus C. Pound founded the Chippewa Springs Health Club in 1887 and at one point oversaw the company that bottled the water for sale. A Spring House was built over the original spring in 1893 and remains today, across from the modern water bottling plant on Park Ave.
Chippewa Falls is located at 44.9341, - 91.3932.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.92 square miles (30.87 km), of which 11.37 square miles (29.45 km) is land and 0.55 square miles (1.42 km) is water.
As of the census of 2010, there were 13,661 people, 5,896 households, and 3,275 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,201.5 inhabitants per square mile (463.9 / km). There were 6,304 housing units at an average density of 554.4 per square mile (214.1 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 95.1 % White, 1.7 % African American, 0.7 % Native American, 0.9 % Asian, 0.2 % from other races, and 1.4 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.6 % of the population.
There were 5,896 households of which 29.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.7 % were married couples living together, 13.0 % had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.5 % were non-families. 37.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 16.7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.86.
The median age in the city was 38 years. 22.9 % of residents were under the age of 18; 9.1 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.1 % were from 25 to 44; 24.6 % were from 45 to 64; and 16.4 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.7 % male and 49.3 % female.
At the 2000 census, there were 12,925 people, 5,638 households and 3,247 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,191.2 per square mile (459.9 / km). There were 5,905 housing units at an average density of 544.2 per square mile (210.1 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 97.62 % White, 0.30 % African American, 0.46 % Native American, 0.67 % Asian, 0.01 % Pacific Islander, 0.16 % from other races, and 0.77 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.63 % of the population.
There were 5,638 households of which 28.8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.4 % were married couples living together, 11.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.4 % were non-families. 36.5 % of all households were made up of individuals and 16.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.89.
Age distribution was 24.2 % under the age of 18, 9.4 % from 18 to 24, 28.2 % from 25 to 44, 20.3 % from 45 to 64, and 17.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males.
The median household income was $32,744, and the median family income was $43,519. Males had a median income of $32,016 versus $22,655 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,366. About 8.7 % of families and 10.3 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.5 % of those under age 18 and 5.8 % of those age 65 or over.
As of 2011, the largest employers in the city were:
Chippewa Falls is along U.S. Highway 53, Wisconsin Highways 124 and 178, and Bus. WIS 29. Other routes include Wisconsin Highway 29; and County Highways J, Q, S, and X.
The Chippewa Falls Area School District (CFSD) serves the city of Chippewa Falls. It has two high schools: Chippewa Falls Senior High and Chippewa Falls Alternate High School; two middle schools: Chippewa Falls Middle School, and Chippewa Falls Alternate Middle School; and six elementary schools: Parkview, Hillcrest, Southview, Stillson, Halmstad, and Jim Falls Elementary.
In addition there are several parochial schools: McDonell Central Catholic High School, Notre Dame Middle School, Holy Ghost, St. Charles, and St. Peter Elementary Schools, all of which are part of the McDonell Area Catholic Schools (MACS).
The original McDonell High School building, sitting at a prominent location above downtown Chippewa Falls, is listed on the State and National Register of Historic Places. The structure was built in 1907 and, after the school moved to a more suburban location, it sat abandoned for a number of years until it was taken over by the Chippewa Valley Cultural Association and converted into the Heyde Center for the Arts in 2000.
The Cook - Rutledge House is on the National Register of Historic Places.
Hotel Chippewa is on the National Register of Historic Places.
Municipal Building
Spring Street Bridge Chippewa Falls, WI
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what is the area code for midland tx | Area code 432 - wikipedia
North American area code 432 is a state of Texas telephone area code in the Permian Basin area of the state including the cities of Midland and Odessa. It was created, along with area code 325, on April 5, 2003 in a split from area code 915.
Counties Served by this area code:
Towns and cities served by this area code:
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how many hours does it take for the earth to spin on its axis | Earth 's rotation - Wikipedia
Earth 's rotation is the rotation of Planet Earth around its own axis. Earth rotates eastward, in prograde motion. As viewed from the north pole star Polaris, Earth turns counter clockwise.
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where Earth 's axis of rotation meets its surface. This point is distinct from Earth 's North Magnetic Pole. The South Pole is the other point where Earth 's axis of rotation intersects its surface, in Antarctica.
Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, but once every 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds with respect to the stars (see below). Earth 's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth 's rotation. Atomic clocks show that a modern day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend of about 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BC E.
Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of the earth rather than the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470 -- 385 BCE), though his system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire.
A more conventional picture was that supported by Hicetas, Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who assumed that the earth rotated but did not suggest that the earth revolved about the sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos suggested the sun 's central place.
However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about the earth. This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought the earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated.
In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata wrote that the spherical earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth. He provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the fixed stars appear to be going westward. ''
In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis. According to al - Biruni, Abu Sa'id al - Sijzi (d. circa 1020) invented an astrolabe called al - zūraqī based on the idea believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth 's movement and not to that of the sky. '' The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers (or engineers) (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars. '' Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or expressing doubts about Ptolemy 's arguments against it. At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth 's rotation was discussed by Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus.
In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle 's view and so, reluctantly, did John Buridan and Nicole Oresme in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of earth 's rotation begin to be established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of the earth is violent, then the movement of the stars must be very much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples of relative motion. For Copernicus this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets circling a central sun.
Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws, used Copernicus 's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary earth. In 1600, William Gilbert strongly supported the earth 's rotation in his treatise on the earth 's magnetism and thereby influenced many of his contemporaries. Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of the earth about the sun are often called "semi-Copernicans ''. A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the model of a rotating earth due to the lack of then - observable eastward deflections in falling bodies; such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of the Earth.
The earth 's rotation implies that the equator bulges and the poles are flattened. In his Principia, Newton predicted this flattening would occur in the ratio of 1: 230, and pointed to the 1673 pendulum measurements by Richer as corroboration of the change in gravity, but initial measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the opposite. However measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s established the flattening, thus confirming both Newton and the Copernican position.
In the Earth 's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the northern hemisphere (and left in the southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the differing rotation direction of cyclones in the northern and southern hemispheres.
Hooke, following a 1679 suggestion from Newton, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of 8.2 meters, but definitive results were only obtained later, in the late 18th and early 19th century, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully released weights. A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m (520 ft) departed by 27.4 mm (1.08 in) from the vertical compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm (1.11 in).
The most celebrated test of Earth 's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead - filled brass sphere suspended 67 m from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of the Earth 's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum 's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about 11 degrees clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.
Earth 's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day. It depends on the Earth 's orbital motion and is thus affected by changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth 's orbit. Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter during another two. The true solar day tends to be longer near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about 10 seconds longer to do so. Conversely, it is about 10 seconds shorter near aphelion. It is about 20 seconds longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun 's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about 20 seconds. Currently, the perihelion and solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near 22 December by 30 mean solar seconds, but the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near 19 June when it is only 13 seconds longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near 26 March and 16 September by 18 seconds and 21 seconds, respectively.
The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth 's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds. Random fluctuations due to core - mantle coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms. The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables were used to calculate the world 's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second.
The apparent solar time is a measure of the Earth 's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time.
Earth 's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23 56 4.098 903 691, 0.997 269 663 237 16 mean solar days). Earth 's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, named sidereal day, is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23 56 4.090 530 832 88, 0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days). Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.
Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the mean solar day by about 3 minutes 56 seconds. The mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623 -- 2005 and 1962 -- 2005.
Recently (1999 -- 2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has varied between 0.25 ms and 1 ms, which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day).
The angular speed of Earth 's rotation in inertial space is (7.2921150 ± 0.0000001) × 10 radians per SI second (mean solar second). Multiplying by (180 ° / π radians) × (86,400 seconds / mean solar day) yields 360.9856 ° / mean solar day, indicating that Earth rotates more than 360 ° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth 's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360 °) relative to the mean Sun. Multiplying the value in rad / s by Earth 's equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of 465.1 m / s (1,526 ft / s), or 1,674.4 km / h (1,040.4 mph). Some sources state that Earth 's equatorial speed is slightly less, or 1,669.8 km / h. This is obtained by dividing Earth 's equatorial circumference by 24 hours. However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, 1.002 737 909 350 795, which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km / h.
The tangential speed of Earth 's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude. For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59 ° N, which yields a speed of: cos 28.59 ° × 1,674.4 km / h (1,040.4 mph; 465.1 m / s) = 1,470.23 km / h (913.56 mph; 408.40 m / s)
The Earth 's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to the Earth 's crust; this is called polar motion.
Precession is a rotation of the Earth 's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.
Over millions of years, the Earth 's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to r − 6 (\ displaystyle r ^ (- 6)), where r (\ displaystyle r) is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with the Earth.
This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented with estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements found the length of day to increase steadily from about 21 hours at 600Myr ago to the current 24 hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.
The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high, implying the Earth 's rotational velocity must have decreased more slowly in the past. Empirical data tentatively shows a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600Myr ago. Some models suggest that the Earth maintained a constant day length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian. This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant period of the thermally - driven atmospheric tide; at this day length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change in global temperature. Recent computational simulations support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600Myr ago, citing the resemblance of simulated results and existing paleorotational data.
Additionally, some large - scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the length of a day to shorten by 3 microseconds by affecting the Earth 's moment of inertia. Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last Ice age, is also changing the distribution of the Earth 's mass thus affecting the moment of inertia of the Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth 's rotation period.
The primary monitoring of the Earth 's rotation is performed with very - long - baseline interferometry coordinated with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite techniques. This provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession, and nutation.
There are recorded observations of solar and lunar eclipses by Babylonian and Chinese astronomers beginning in the 8th century BCE, as well as from the medieval Islamic world and elsewhere. These observations can be used to determine changes in the Earth 's rotation over the last 27 centuries, since the length of the day is a critical parameter in the calculation of the place and time of eclipses. A change in day length of milliseconds per century shows up as a change of hours and thousands of kilometers in eclipse observations. The ancient data is consistent with a shorter day, meaning the Earth was turning faster throughout the past.
The Earth 's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks, and gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of the eventual planet.
However, if the giant - impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of the Earth 's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact. Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value.
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who played king robert in game of thrones | Mark Addy - wikipedia
Mark Ian Addy (born 14 January 1964) is an English actor. He is known for varied roles in British television, including Detective Constable Gary Boyle in the sitcom The Thin Blue Line (1995 -- 1996) and Hercules in the fantasy drama series Atlantis (2013 -- 2015). He made his film debut as Dave Horsefall in The Full Monty (1997), earning a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. Other notable roles include Fred Flintstone in The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000), Bill Miller in the CBS sitcom Still Standing (2002 -- 2006) and King Robert Baratheon in the HBO medieval fantasy series Game of Thrones (2011).
Addy was born in York. His family has lived in York since at least 1910, when his great - grandfather was living there. His father Ian spent his working life as a glazier at York Minster. Addy was educated at Nunthorpe Grammar School, and from 1982 to 1984 attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.
Addy made his first TV appearance in 1987 in The Ritz, followed in 1988 by A Very Peculiar Practice, followed by TV performances in shows such as Heartbeat, Band of Gold, Married... with Children, Peak Practice, The Thin Blue Line, Too Much Sun, Sunnyside Farm, Trollied and most recently The Syndicate for the BBC.
He played Bill Miller in Still Standing and played Detective Boyle in the second series of the British sitcom The Thin Blue Line. He also appeared on ITV1 's comedy drama series Bonkers, and another ITV comedy drama, Bike Squad, in early 2008 as Sergeant John Rook.
Since 2009, Addy has starred with Fay Ripley in a series of adverts for the relaunched Tesco Clubcard. He played Robert Baratheon in the HBO series Game of Thrones. He played Hercules, one of the main characters in the BBC One fantasy drama series Atlantis, which started airing on 28 September 2013 in the UK. In the BBC TV drama, New Blood (2016) featuring young detectives from the Serious Fraud Office and the London Police Service, Addy played D.S. Derek Sands.
In film, Addy had a leading role in The Full Monty, and played Fred Flintstone in the 2000 film The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas. In that role, as well as in Still Standing, he played a blue - collar American (or, more accurately, an American - accented Pangean in the case of Fred Flintstone). He played Mac McArthur in the 1998 film Jack Frost. In 2001, he played Roland in A Knight 's Tale and a butler to Chris Rock 's character in the film Down to Earth. In Down to Earth, his character was an American who was pretending to be British.
Addy played David Philby in The Time Machine and made an appearance as the Ship Captain in Around the World in 80 Days with Jackie Chan and Steve Coogan and made an appearance as Friar Tuck in Ridley Scott 's 2010 film Robin Hood.
Addy played Kevin Snell in the 2006 revival of Donkeys ' Years at the Comedy Theatre in London, and in 2007 -- 08 he has appeared at the National Theatre as Dogberry in Much Ado About Nothing and as Hjalmar Johansen in Fram. In 2011, he played Vladimir, an NKVD officer, in Collaborators at the National Theatre, which also featured in the National Theatre Live programme, where live performances are broadcast to cinemas around the world. In 2016, Addy appeared in Richard Bean 's The Nap at Sheffield Crucible with Jack O'Connell and Ralf Little, directed by Richard Wilson. his fathers ex wife, val, had 4 kids. Clare, Caroline, Jonathan and james. Clare has a son called olly who is also an actor. But now takes the surname ' glen '.
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who won america's next top model 21 | America 's Next Top Model (cycle 21) - wikipedia
The 21st cycle of America 's Next Top Model (subtitled as America 's Next Top Model: Guys & Girls) premiered on August 18, 2014 and it is the 15th season to air on The CW. It was the second season to feature male and female contestants. Tyra Banks and Kelly Cutrone retained their positions on the judging panel. Runway coach J. Alexander returned to the judging panel, replacing former judge Rob Evans while Johnny Wujek, creative director since Cycle 19, was succeeded by photographer Yu Tsai. In keeping with the last two cycles, social media was a factor in eliminations, with public voting taking place on the show 's official page. The fourteen finalists were revealed when voting began.
The international destination for this cycle was Seoul, South Korea. Five of the episodes were filmed in Seoul, one of which featured James of Royal Pirates, and the finale had guest appearances from K - pop girl group 2NE1, boy band BTOB, actor and model Lee Soo - hyuk and fashion designer Lie Sang Bong.
The winner of the competition was 26 - year - old Keith Carlos from Bridgeport, Connecticut. He was the show 's first male winner.
Eighth - placing finalist Mirjana Puhar was shot and killed on February 24, 2015 in her boyfriend 's home in Charlotte, North Carolina.
Returning prizes include: a modeling contract with NEXT Model Management, a spread in Nylon magazine, and a US $100,000 campaign with Guess
(Ages stated are at start of contest)
Original Airdate: August 18, 2014
Original Airdate: August 25, 2014
Original Airdate: September 1, 2014
Original Airdate: September 8, 2014
Original Airdate: September 15, 2014
Original Airdate: September 22, 2014
Original Airdate: October 3, 2014
Original Airdate: October 10, 2014
After Matthew 's elimination, Tyra finds out her DNA results from ancestry DNA to realize that she is 79 % African American, 6 % Native American and 14 % British.
Original Airdate: October 17, 2014 '
Original Airdate: October 24, 2014
Original Airdate: October 31, 2014
Original Airdate: November 7, 2014
Original Airdate: November 14, 2014
Original Airdate: November 21, 2014
Original Airdate: December 5, 2014 (8 / 7c)
Original Airdate: December 5, 2014 (9 / 8c)
The premiere of the twenty - first season was the CW 's most watched Monday night show since 2011. It was The CW 's highest rated Monday night show in ages 18 -- 49 (0.6 / 2) in almost two years (December 17, 2012, Gossip Girl finale) and its highest rated Monday in ages 18 -- 34 (0.6 / 2) since February 4, 2013.
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when did newfoundland start driving on the right | Left - and right - hand traffic - wikipedia
The terms right - hand traffic (RHT) and left - hand traffic (LHT) refer to the practice, in bidirectional traffic, to keep to the right side or to the left side of the road, respectively. This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road.
RHT is used in 163 countries and territories, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the world 's area and a quarter of its roads. In 1919, 104 of the world 's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT.
Many of the countries with LHT were formerly part of the British Empire. In addition, Cyprus, Japan, Indonesia and other countries have retained the LHT tradition. Conversely, many of the countries with RHT were formerly part of the French colonial empire or, in Europe, were subject to French rule during the Napoleonic conquests.
For rail traffic, LHT predominates in Western Europe (except Spain and the Netherlands), Latin America, and in countries formerly in the British and French Empires, whereas North American and central and eastern European train services operate RHT.
According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations suggest RHT principles, both in the air and on water.
In healthy populations, traffic safety is thought to be the same regardless of handedness, although some researchers have speculated that LHT may be safer for ageing populations since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant.
Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching. In 1998, archaeologists found a well - preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty.
The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge.
Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right - handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left. In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.
In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters ' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver 's seat, so the (typically right - handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons.
In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others.
Meanwhile, LHT was introduced by the British in parts of Canada (Atlantic Canada and British Columbia), Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate (now Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), British India, Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, Portuguese Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Portuguese Angola.
The first keep - right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821.
In the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, mostly to conform with regional custom. Currently nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory. Most exceptions are due to historical considerations and / or involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong and Macau. The United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar and British Indian Ocean Territory are RHT.
Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right - hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left - hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro - Hungarian Empire; however, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938 -- 39.
Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967, despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left - hand drive (LHD) vehicles. A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change, but soon rose back to near its original level. The day was known as Dagen H ("H - Day ''), the ' H ' being for Högertrafik ("right traffic ''). When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H - dagurinn, again meaning "H - Day ''.
In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built - up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.
Today, four countries in Europe continue to use left - hand traffic, all island nations: the UK, Cyprus, Ireland, and Malta.
Nationalist China adopted RHT in 1946. This convention was preserved when the CCP took the mainland and the KMT retreated to Taiwan. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT.
Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japan which was defeated by the Allies, and surrendered.
Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970.
Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009, being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right - hand drive (RHD) vehicles -- which are better suited for left - hand traffic -- imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People 's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge, and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it. The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa 's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion. After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05: 50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6: 00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat - belt laws. That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three - day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.
The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as during the Commonwealth era. During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT, also because LHT had been required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945.
A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965.
Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54 % of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents. In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.
In one study, researchers concluded that left - hand traffic may be safer for elderly drivers, since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant. Comparing accident statistics between countries operating either LHT or RHT, Leeming concluded that LHT is superior. However, Watson has criticised the small sample size and dismisses the notion.
Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. Such borders are mostly located in Africa and southern Asia. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 74 countries that have ratified it.
LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbors: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.
There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one - way streets with a main road.
The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.
Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year, by rail, between the UK and France.
In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver 's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.
Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car '' and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger. '' By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford 's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.
In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or curbside. Examples include:
Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle 's offside.
Most low - beam headlamps produce an asymmetrical light suitable for use on only one side of the road. Low beam headlamps in LHT jurisdictions throw most of their light forward - leftward; those for RHT throw most of their light forward - rightward, thus illuminating obstacles and road signs while minimising glare for oncoming traffic.
In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road,. This may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded. Some varieties of the projector - type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LHT or RHT beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car 's GPS detects that the vehicle has moved from LHT to RHT and vice versa.
Because blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, most countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semi-permanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for the correct traffic - handedness.
Without sidecars attached, motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and bicycles are almost symmetric with their handlebars in the centre. However, motorcycles are often equipped with automotive - type asymmetrical - beam headlamps that likewise require adjustments or replacement when brought into a country with opposite traffic - handedness.
In the European Union, vehicles must be equipped with one or two red rear fog lamps. A single rear fog lamp must be located between the vehicle 's longitudinal centreline and the outer extent of the driver 's side of the vehicle.
An Australian news source reports that some RHD cars imported to that country did n't perform as well on crash tests as the LHD versions, although the cause is unknown, and may be due to differences in testing methodology.
Of the 194 countries currently recognised by the United Nations (and the unrecognised Palestine), 140 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once.
10 June
3 September
Several states in Europe have RHT for roads but LHT for trains. France has mainly LHT for trains, except in Alsace - Lorraine, an eastern French territory which belonged to Germany for much of its history.
Gibraltar has been RHT (since 1929)
A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia
Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge.
Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland
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who plays calvin's son in barbershop 3 | Barbershop: the Next Cut - Wikipedia
Barbershop: The Next Cut (also known as Barbershop 3 or Barbershop 3: The Next Cut) is a 2016 American comedy film directed by Malcolm D. Lee and written by Kenya Barris and Tracy Oliver. It is the sequel to 2004 's Barbershop 2: Back in Business and the third film in the Barbershop film series and stars an ensemble cast, including returning actors Ice Cube, Cedric the Entertainer, Anthony Anderson, Eve, Sean Patrick Thomas, Deon Cole and Troy Garity, and new cast members Regina Hall, Nicki Minaj, Common, Maryum Ali, J.B. Smoove, Tyga and Lamorne Morris. The film was released on April 15, 2016.
To survive harsh economic times, Calvin has merged the barbershop with the beauty salon next door into one business. The days of male bonding are gone as Eddie and the crew must now contend with sassy female co-workers and spirited clientele. As the battle of the sexes rages on, a different kind of conflict has taken over Chicago. Crime and gangs are on the rise, leaving Calvin worried about the fate of his only son, Jalen. Together, the friends come up with a bold plan to take back their beloved neighborhood by doing a ceasefire within the store to give away free haircuts. Through this Ceasefire they were able to reunite the community.
Anthony Davis and China Anne McClain make cameo appearances towards the end of the movie.
On March 26, 2014, Deadline Hollywood reported that MGM was in negotiations with Ice Cube to produce a third Barbershop film. On February 19, 2015, Malcolm D. Lee was set to direct the third film, while Ice Cube and Cedric the Entertainer were in talks to join the film. On March 25, 2015, New Line Cinema signed on with MGM to release the film, while MGM would handle the production. Principal photography began in Atlanta, Georgia on May 11, 2015. On November 14, 2015, director Malcolm D. Lee said in an interview at the 7th Annual Governors Award ceremony that the title of the film had been changed from Barbershop 3 to Barbershop: The Next Cut.
The film was originally scheduled for release on February 19, 2016, but was pushed back to April 15, 2016.
In the United States and Canada, pre-release tracking suggested the film would gross $26 -- 30 million from 2,661 theaters in its opening weekend, trailing fellow newcomer The Jungle Book ($67 -- 75 million projection) but besting Criminal ($9 -- 12 million projection). It made $735,000 from Thursday night previews and $7 million on its first day and went on to gross $20.2 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office behind The Jungle Book ($103.6 million).
The film went on to have a total worldwide gross of $55 million.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 90 % based on 92 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Heartfelt, thought - provoking, and above all funny, Barbershop: The Next Cut is the rare belated sequel that more than lives up to the standard set by its predecessors. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported a 63 % "definitely recommend ''.
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the bones in the wrist of a hand are called | Hand - wikipedia
A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates such as humans, chimpanzees, monkeys, and lemurs. A few other vertebrates such as the koala (which has two opposable thumbs on each "hand '' and fingerprints extremely similar to human fingerprints) are often described as having "hands '' instead of paws on their front limbs. The raccoon is usually described as having "hands '' though opposable thumbs are lacking.
Some evolutionary anatomists use the term hand to refer to the appendage of digits on the forelimb more generally -- for example, in the context of whether the three digits of the bird hand involved the same homologous loss of two digits as in the dinosaur hand.
The human hand normally has five digits: four fingers plus one thumb; these are often referred to collectively as five fingers, however, whereby the thumb is included as one of the fingers. It has 27 bones, not including the sesamoid bone, the number of which varies between people, 14 of which are the phalanges (proximal, intermediate and distal) of the fingers and thumb. The metacarpal bones connect the fingers and the carpal bones of the wrist. Each human hand has five metacarpals and eight carpal bones.
Fingers contain some of the densest areas of nerve endings in the body, and are the richest source of tactile feedback. They also have the greatest positioning capability of the body; thus, the sense of touch is intimately associated with hands. Like other paired organs (eyes, feet, legs) each hand is dominantly controlled by the opposing brain hemisphere, so that handedness -- the preferred hand choice for single - handed activities such as writing with a pencil, reflects individual brain functioning.
Among humans, the hands play an important function in body language and sign language. Likewise the ten digits of two hands, and the twelve phalanges of four fingers (touchable by the thumb) have given rise to number systems and calculation techniques.
Many mammals and other animals have grasping appendages similar in form to a hand such as paws, claws, and talons, but these are not scientifically considered to be grasping hands. The scientific use of the term hand in this sense to distinguish the terminations of the front paws from the hind ones is an example of anthropomorphism. The only true grasping hands appear in the mammalian order of primates. Hands must also have opposable thumbs, as described later in the text.
The hand is located at the distal end of each arm. Apes and monkeys are sometimes described as having four hands, because the toes are long and the hallux is opposable and looks more like a thumb, thus enabling the feet to be used as hands.
The word "hand '' is sometimes used by evolutionary anatomists to refer to the appendage of digits on the forelimb such as when researching the homology between the three digits of the bird hand and the dinosaur hand.
An adult male 's hand weighs about a pound.
Areas of the human hand include:
There are five digits attached to the hand, notably with a nail fixed to the end in place of the normal claw. The four fingers can be folded over the palm which allows the grasping of objects. Each finger, starting with the one closest to the thumb, has a colloquial name to distinguish it from the others:
The thumb (connected to the first metacarpal bone and trapezium) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm. A reliable way of identifying human hands is from the presence of opposable thumbs. Opposable thumbs are identified by the ability to be brought opposite to the fingers, a muscle action known as opposition.
The skeleton of the human hand consists of 27 bones: the eight short carpal bones of the wrist are organized into a proximal row (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral and pisiform) which articulates with the bones of the forearm, and a distal row (trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate), which articulates with the bases of the five metacarpal bones of the hand. The heads of the metacarpals will each in turn articulate with the bases of the proximal phalanx of the fingers and thumb. These articulations with the fingers are the metacarpophalangeal joints known as the knuckles. The fourteen phalanges make up the fingers and thumb, and are numbered I-V (thumb to little finger) when the hand is viewed from an anatomical position (palm up). The four fingers each consist of three phalanx bones: proximal, middle, and distal. The thumb only consists of a proximal and distal phalanx. Together with the phalanges of the fingers and thumb these metacarpal bones form five rays or poly - articulated chains.
Because supination and pronation (rotation about the axis of the forearm) are added to the two axes of movements of the wrist, the ulna and radius are sometimes considered part of the skeleton of the hand.
There are numerous sesamoid bones in the hand, small ossified nodes embedded in tendons; the exact number varies between people: whereas a pair of sesamoid bones are found at virtually all thumb metacarpophalangeal joints, sesamoid bones are also common at the interphalangeal joint of the thumb (72.9 %) and at the metacarpophalangeal joints of the little finger (82.5 %) and the index finger (48 %). In rare cases, sesamoid bones have been found in all the metacarpophalangeal joints and all distal interphalangeal joints except that of the long finger.
The articulations are:
The fixed and mobile parts of the hand adapt to various everyday tasks by forming bony arches: longitudinal arches (the rays formed by the finger bones and their associated metacarpal bones), transverse arches (formed by the carpal bones and distal ends of the metacarpal bones), and oblique arches (between the thumb and four fingers):
Of the longitudinal arches or rays of the hand, that of the thumb is the most mobile (and the least longitudinal). While the ray formed by the little finger and its associated metacarpal bone still offers some mobility, the remaining rays are firmly rigid. The phalangeal joints of the index finger, however, offer some independence to its finger, due to the arrangement of its flexor and extension tendons.
The carpal bones form two transversal rows, each forming an arch concave on the palmar side. Because the proximal arch simultaneously has to adapt to the articular surface of the radius and to the distal carpal row, it is by necessity flexible. In contrast, the capitate, the "keystone '' of the distal arch, moves together with the metacarpal bones and the distal arch is therefore rigid. The stability of these arches is more dependent of the ligaments and capsules of the wrist than of the interlocking shapes of the carpal bones, and the wrist is therefore more stable in flexion than in extension. The distal carpal arch affects the function of the CMC joints and the hands, but not the function of the wrist or the proximal carpal arch. The ligaments that maintain the distal carpal arches are the transverse carpal ligament and the intercarpal ligaments (also oriented transversally). These ligaments also form the carpal tunnel and contribute to the deep and superficial palmar arches. Several muscle tendons attaching to the TCL and the distal carpals also contribute to maintaining the carpal arch.
Compared to the carpal arches, the arch formed by the distal ends of the metacarpal bones is flexible due to the mobility of the peripheral metacarpals (thumb and little finger). As these two metacarpals approach each other, the palmar gutter deepens. The central-most metacarpal (middle finger) is the most rigid. It and its two neighbors are tied to the carpus by the interlocking shapes of the metacarpal bones. The thumb metacarpal only articulates with the trapezium and is therefore completely independent, while the fifth metacarpal (little finger) is semi-independent with the fourth metacarpal (ring finger) which forms a transitional element to the fifth metacarpal.
Together with the thumb, the four fingers form four oblique arches, of which the arch of the index finger functionally is the most important, especially for precision grip, while the arch of the little finger contribute an important locking mechanism for power grip. The thumb is undoubtedly the "master digit '' of the hand, giving value to all the other fingers. Together with the index and middle finger, it forms the dynamic tridactyl configuration responsible for most grips not requiring force. The ring and little fingers are more static, a reserve ready to interact with the palm when great force is needed.
The muscles acting on the hand can be subdivided into two groups: the extrinsic and intrinsic muscle groups. The extrinsic muscle groups are the long flexors and extensors. They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm.
The intrinsic muscle groups are the thenar (thumb) and hypothenar (little finger) muscles; the interosseous muscles (four dorsally and three volarly) originating between the metacarpal bones; and the lumbrical muscles arising from the deep flexor (and are special because they have no bony origin) to insert on the dorsal extensor hood mechanism.
The fingers have two long flexors, located on the underside of the forearm. They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the fingers. The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx, and the superficial flexor attaches to the middle phalanx. The flexors allow for the actual bending of the fingers. The thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar muscle group. The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group (opponens and abductor brevis muscle), moving the thumb in opposition, making grasping possible.
The extensors are located on the back of the forearm and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the fingers. The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form the extensorhood mechanism. The primary function of the extensors is to straighten out the digits. The thumb has two extensors in the forearm; the tendons of these form the anatomical snuff box. Also, the index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor, used, for instance, pointing. The extensors are situated within 6 separate compartments.
The first four compartments are located in the grooves present on the dorsum of inferior side of radius while the 5th compartment is in between radius and ulna. The 6th compartment is in the groove on the dorsum of inferior side of ulna.
The hand is innervated by the radial, median, and ulnar nerves.
The radial nerve supplies the finger extensors and the thumb abductor, thus the muscles that extends at the wrist and metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles); and that abducts and extends the thumb. The median nerve supplies the flexors of the wrist and digits, the abductors and opponens of the thumb, the first and second lumbrical. The ulnar nerve supplies the remaining intrinsic muscles of the hand.
All muscles of the hand are innervated by the brachial plexus (C5 -- T1) and can be classified by innervation:
The radial nerve supplies the skin on the back of the hand from the thumb to the ring finger and the dorsal aspects of the index, middle, and half ring fingers as far as the proximal interphalangeal joints. The median nerve supplies the palmar side of the thumb, index, middle, and half ring fingers. Dorsal branches innervates the distal phalanges of the index, middle, and half ring fingers. The ulnar nerve supplies the ulnar third of the hand, both at the palm and the back of the hand, and the little and half ring fingers.
There is a considerable variation to this general pattern, except for the little finger and volar surface of the index finger. For example, in some individuals, the ulnar nerve supplies the entire ring finger and the ulnar side of the middle finger, whilst, in others, the median nerve supplies the entire ring finger.
The glabrous (hairless) skin on the front of the hand, the palm, is relatively thick and can be bent along the hand 's flexure lines where the skin is tightly bound to the underlying tissue and bones. Compared to the rest of the body 's skin, the hands ' palms (as well as the soles of the feet) are usually lighter -- and even much lighter in dark - skinned individuals, compared to the other side of the hand. Indeed, genes specifically expressed in the dermis of palmoplantar skin inhibit melanin production and thus the ability to tan, and promote the thickening of the stratum lucidum and stratum corneum layers of the epidermis. All parts of the skin involved in grasping are covered by papillary ridges (fingerprints) acting as friction pads. In contrast, the hairy skin on the dorsal side is thin, soft, and pliable, so that the skin can recoil when the fingers are stretched. On the dorsal side, the skin can be moved across the hand up to 3 cm (1.2 in); an important input the cutaneous mechanoreceptors.
The web of the hand is a "fold of skin which connects the digits ''. These webs, located between each set of digits, are known as skin folds (interdigital folds or plica interdigitalis). They are defined as "one of the folds of skin, or rudimentary web, between the fingers and toes ''.
The ratio of the length of the index finger to the length of the ring finger in adults is affected by the level of exposure to male sex hormones of the embryo in utero. This digit ratio is below 1 for both sexes but it is lower in males than in females on average.
A number of genetic disorders affect the hand. Polydactyly is the presence of more than the usual number of fingers. One of the disorders that can cause this is Catel - Manzke syndrome. The fingers may be fused in a disorder known as syndactyly. Or there may be an absence of one or more central fingers -- a condition known as ectrodactyly. Additionally, some people are born without one or both hands (amelia).
There are several cutaneous conditions that can affect the hand including the nails.
The autoimmune disease rheumatoid arthritis can affect the hand, particularly the joints of the fingers.
Some conditions can be treated by hand surgery. These include carpal tunnel syndrome, a painful condition of the hand and fingers caused by compression of the median nerve, and Dupuytren 's contracture, a condition in which fingers bend towards the palm and can not be straightened. A similar condition to this is where some of the fingers can not be flexed due to injury to the ulnar nerve.
A common fracture of the hand is a scaphoid fracture -- a fracture of the scaphoid bone, one of the carpal bones. This is the commonest carpal bone fracture and can be slow to heal due to a limited blood flow to the bone. There are various types of fracture to the base of the thumb; these are known as Rolando fractures, Bennet 's fracture, and Gamekeeper 's thumb. Another common fracture, known as Boxer 's fracture, is to the neck of a metacarpal.
The prehensile hands and feet of primates evolved from the mobile hands of semi-arboreal tree shrews that lived about 60 million years ago. This development has been accompanied by important changes in the brain and the relocation of the eyes to the front of the face, together allowing the muscle control and stereoscopic vision necessary for controlled grasping. This grasping, also known as power grip, is supplemented by the precision grip between the thumb and the distal finger pads made possible by the opposable thumbs. Hominidae (great apes including humans) acquired an erect bipedal posture about 3.6 million years ago, which freed the hands from the task of locomotion and paved the way for the precision and range of motion in human hands. Functional analyses of the features unique to the hand of modern humans have shown that they are consistent with the stresses and requirements associated with the effective use of paleolithic stone tools. It is possible that the refinement of the bipedal posture in the earliest hominids evolved to facilitate the use of the trunk as leverage in accelerating the hand.
While the human hand has unique anatomical features, including a longer thumb and fingers that can be controlled individually to a higher degree, the hands of other primates are anatomically similar and the dexterity of the human hand can not be explained solely on anatomical factors. The neural machinery underlying hand movements is a major contributing factor; primates have evolved direct connections between neurons in cortical motor areas and spinal motoneurons, giving the cerebral cortex monosynaptic control over the motoneurons of the hand muscles; placing the hands "closer '' to the brain. The recent evolution of the human hand is thus a direct result of the development of the central nervous system, and the hand, therefore, is a direct tool of our consciousness -- the main source of differentiated tactile sensations -- and a precise working organ enabling gestures -- the expressions of our personalities.
There are nevertheless several primitive features left in the human hand, including pentadactyly (having five fingers), the hairless skin of the palm and fingers, and the os centrale found in human embryos, prosimians, and apes. Furthermore, the precursors of the intrinsic muscles of the hand are present in the earliest fishes, reflecting that the hand evolved from the pectoral fin and thus is much older than the arm in evolutionary terms.
The proportions of the human hand are plesiomorphic (shared by both ancestors and extant primate species); the elongated thumbs and short hands more closely resemble the hand proportions of Miocene apes than those of extant primates. Humans did not evolve from knuckle - walking apes, and chimpanzees and gorillas independently acquired elongated metacarpals as part of their adaptation to their modes of locomotion. Several of primitive hand features most likely present in the chimpanzee - human last common ancestor (CHLCA) and absent in modern humans are still present in the hands of Australopithecus, Paranthropus, and Homo floresiensis. This suggests that the derived changes in modern humans and Neanderthals did not evolve until 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago or after the appearance of the earliest Acheulian stone tools, and that these changes are associated with tool - related tasks beyond those observed in other hominins. The thumbs of Ardipithecus ramidus, an early hominin, are almost as robust as in humans, so this may be a primitive trait, while the palms of other extant higher primates are elongated to the extent that some of the thumb 's original function has been lost (most notably in highly arboreal primates such as the spider monkey). In humans, the big toe is thus more derived than the thumb.
There is a hypothesis suggesting the form of the modern human hand is especially conducive to the formation of a compact fist, presumably for fighting purposes. The fist is compact and thus effective as a weapon. It also provides protection for the fingers. However, this is not widely accepted to be one of the primary selective pressures acting on hand morphology throughout human evolution, with tool use and production being thought to be far more influential.
Illustration of Hand and Wrist Bones.
Bones of the left hand. Volar surface.
Bones of the left hand. Dorsal surface.
Static adult human physical characteristics of the hand.
Cuban doctor checks the hand of a patient. Sara, Guinea - Bissau, liberated zones, 1974
Hard hands of a young girl in Algeria.
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when does episode 4 game of thrones come out | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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what is the meaning of tethering in android | Tethering - Wikipedia
Tethering, or phone - as - modem (PAM), is the sharing of a mobile device 's internet connection with other connected computers. Connection of a mobile device with other devices can be done over wireless LAN (Wi - Fi), over Bluetooth or by physical connection using a cable, for example through USB.
If tethering is done over WLAN, the feature may be branded as a personal or mobile hotspot, which allows the device to serve as a portable router. Mobile hotspots may be protected by a PIN or password. The Internet - connected mobile device can act as a portable wireless access point and router for devices connected to it.
Many mobile devices are equipped with software to offer tethered Internet access. Windows Mobile 6.5, Windows Phone 7, Android (starting from version 2.2), and iOS 3.0 (or later) offer tethering over a Bluetooth PAN or a USB connection. Tethering over Wi - Fi, also known as Personal Hotspot, is available on iOS starting with iOS 4.2. 5 (or later) on iPhone 4, 4S (2010), 5, iPad (3rd generation), certain Windows Mobile 6.5 devices like the HTC HD2, Windows Phone 7, 8 and 8.1 devices (varies by manufacturer and model), and certain Android phones (varies widely depending on carrier, manufacturer, and software version).
For IPv4 networks, the tethering normally works via NAT on the handset 's existing data connection, so from the network point of view, there is just one device with a single IPv4 network address, though it is technically possible to attempt to identify multiple machines.
On some mobile network operators, this feature is contractually unavailable by default, and may only be activated by paying to add a tethering package to a data plan or choosing a data plan that includes tethering, such as Lycamobile MVNO. This is done primarily because with a computer sharing the network connection, there may well be a substantial increase in the customer 's mobile data use, for which the network may not have budgeted in their network design and pricing structures.
Some network - provided devices have carrier - specific software that may deny the inbuilt tethering ability normally available on the device, or only enable it if the subscriber pays an additional fee. Some operators have asked Google or any mobile device producer using Android to completely remove tethering support from the operating system on certain devices. Handsets purchased SIM - free, without a network provider subsidy, are often unhindered with regards to tethering.
There are, however, several ways to enable tethering on restricted devices without paying the carrier for it, including 3rd party USB Tethering apps such as PDAnet, rooting Android devices or jailbreaking iOS devices and installing a tethering application on the device. Tethering is also available as a downloadable third - party application on most Symbian mobile phones as well as on the MeeGo platform and on WebOS mobiles phones.
Depending on the wireless carrier, a user 's cellular device may have restricted functionality. While tethering may be allowed at no extra cost, some carriers impose a one - time charge to enable tethering and others forbid tethering or impose added data charges. Contracts that advertise "unlimited '' data usage often have limits detailed in a Fair usage policy.
In the UK, two tethering - permitted mobile plans offered unlimited data: The Full Monty on T - Mobile, and The One Plan on Three. Three offered tethering as a standard feature until early 2012, retaining it on selected plans. T - Mobile dropped tethering on its unlimited data plans in late 2012.
As cited in Sprint Nextel 's "Terms of Service '':
Except with Phone - as - Modem plans, you may not use a mobile device (including a Bluetooth device) as a modem in connection with any computer. We reserve the right to deny or terminate service without notice for any misuse or any use that adversely affects network performance.
T - Mobile USA has a similar clause in its "Terms & Conditions '':
Unless explicitly permitted by your Data Plan, other uses, including for example, using your Device as a modem or tethering your Device to a personal computer or other hardware, are not permitted.
T - Mobile 's Simple Family or Simple Business plans offer "Hotspot '' from devices that offer that function (such as Apple iPhone) to up to 5 devices. Since 2014 - 03 - 27, 1000 MB / month is free in the USA with cellular service. The host device has unlimited slow internet for the rest of the month, and all month while roaming in 100 countries, but with no tethering. For $10 or $20 / month more per host device, the amount of data available for tethering can be increased markedly. The host device cellular services can be canceled, added, or changed at any time, pro-rated, data tethering levels can be changed month - to - month, and T - Mobile no longer requires any long - term service contracts, allowing users to bring their own devices or buy devices from them, independent of whether they continue service with them.
As of 2013 Verizon Wireless and AT&T Mobility offer wired tethering to their plans for a fee, while Sprint Nextel offers a Wi - Fi connected "mobile hotspot '' tethering feature at an added charge. However, actions by the FCC and a small claims court in California may make it easier for consumers to tether. On July 31, 2012, the FCC released an unofficial announcement of Commission action, decreeing Verizon Wireless must pay US $1.25 million to resolve the investigation regarding compliance of the C Block Spectrum (see US Wireless Spectrum Auction of 2008). The announcement also stated that "(Verizon) recently revised its service offerings such that consumers on usage - based pricing plans may tether, using any application, without paying an additional fee. '' After that judgement Verizon release "Share Everything '' plans that enable tethering, however users must drop old plans they were grandfathered under (such as the Unlimited Data plans) and switch, or pay a tethering fee.
In another instance, Judge Russell Nadel awarded AT&T customer Matt Spaccarelli US $850 via the Ventura Superior Court, despite the fact that Spaccarelli had violated his terms of service by jailbreaking his iPhone in order to fully utilize his iPhone 's hardware. Spaccarelli demonstrated that AT&T had unfairly throttled his data connection. His data shows that AT&T had been throttling his connection after approximately 2GB of data was used. Spaccarelli responded by creating a personal web page in order to provide information that allows others to file a similar lawsuit, commenting:
Hopefully with all this concrete data and the courts on our side, AT&T will be forced to change something. Let 's just hope it chooses to go the way of Sprint, not T - Mobile.
While T - Mobile did eventually allow tethering, on August 31, 2015 the company announced it will punish users who abuse its unlimited data by violating T - Mobile 's rules on tethering (which unlike standard data does carry a 7 GB cap before throttling takes effect) by permanently kicking them off the unlimited plans and making users sign up for tiered data plans. T - Mobile mentioned that it was only a small handful of users who abused the tethering rules by using an Android app that masks T - Mobile 's tethering monitoring and uses as much as 2 TB 's per month, causing speed issues for most customers who do n't abuse the rules.
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who was the colonial leader in rhode island that welcomed a jewish community to newport | Newport, Rhode Island - wikipedia
Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. It is located approximately 37 miles (60 km) southeast of Providence, 21 miles (34 km) south of Fall River, and 74 miles (119 km) south of Boston. It is known as a New England summer resort and is famous for its historic mansions. It is also the home of Salve Regina University and Naval Station Newport, which houses the United States Naval War College, the Naval Undersea Warfare Center, and an important United States Navy training center. It was a major 18th - century port city and also contains a high number of surviving buildings from the Colonial era of the United States.
The city is the county seat of Newport County, which has no governmental functions other than court administrative and sheriff corrections boundaries. It was known for being the location of the "Summer White Houses '' during the administrations of Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The population was 24,027 as of 2013.
Newport was founded in 1639 on Aquidneck Island, which was called Rhode Island at the time. Its eight founders and first officers were Nicholas Easton, William Coddington, John Clarke, John Coggeshall, William Brenton, Jeremy Clark, Thomas Hazard, and Henry Bull. Many of these people had been part of the settlement at Portsmouth, along with Anne Hutchinson and her followers. They separated within a year of that settlement, however, and Coddington and others began the settlement of Newport on the southern side of the island.
Newport grew to be the largest of the four original settlements which became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which also included Providence Plantations and Shawomett. Many of the first colonists in Newport became Baptists, and the second Baptist congregation in Rhode Island was formed in 1640 under the leadership of John Clarke. In 1658, a group of Jews were welcomed to settle in Newport; they were fleeing the Inquisition in Spain and Portugal but had not been permitted to settle elsewhere. The Newport congregation is now referred to as Congregation Jeshuat Israel and is the second - oldest Jewish congregation in the United States. It meets in Touro Synagogue, the oldest synagogue in the United States.
The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations received its royal charter in 1663, and Benedict Arnold was elected as its first governor at Newport. The Old Colony House served as a seat of Rhode Island 's government upon its completion in 1741 at the head of Washington Square, until the current Rhode Island State House in Providence was completed in 1904 and Providence became the state 's sole capital city. Newport became the most important port in colonial Rhode Island, and a public school was established in 1640.
The commercial activity which raised Newport to its fame as a rich port was begun by a second wave of Portuguese Jews who settled there around the middle of the 18th century. They had been practicing Judaism in secret for 300 years in Portugal, and they were attracted to Rhode Island because of the freedom of worship there. They brought with them commercial experience and connections, capital, and a spirit of enterprise. Most prominent among those were Jacob Rodrigues Rivera, who arrived in 1745 (died 1789) and Aaron Lopez, who came in 1752 (died May 28, 1782). Rivera introduced the manufacture of sperm oil which became one of Newport 's leading industries and made the town rich. Newport developed 17 manufactories of oil and candles and enjoyed a practical monopoly of this trade until the American Revolution.
Aaron Lopez is credited with making Newport an important center of trade. He encouraged 40 Portuguese Jewish families to settle there, and Newport had 150 vessels engaged in trade within 14 years of his activity. He was involved in the slave trade and manufactured spermaceti candles, ships, barrels, rum, chocolate, textiles, clothes, shoes, hats, and bottles. He became the wealthiest man in Newport but was denied citizenship on religious grounds, even though British law protected the rights of Jews to become citizens. He appealed to the Rhode Island legislature for redress and was refused with this ruling: "Inasmuch as the said Aaron Lopez hath declared himself by religion a Jew, this Assembly doth not admit himself nor any other of that religion to the full freedom of this Colony. So that the said Aaron Lopez nor any other of said religion is not liable to be chosen into any office in this colony nor allowed to give vote as a free man in choosing others. '' Lopez persisted by applying for citizenship in Massachusetts, where it was granted.
From the mid 17th century, the religious tolerance in Newport attracted numbers of Quakers, known also as the Society of Friends. The Great Friends Meeting House in Newport (1699) is the oldest existing structure of worship in Rhode Island.
In 1727, James Franklin (brother of Benjamin) printed the Rhode - Island Almanack in Newport. In 1732, he published the first newspaper, the Rhode Island Gazette. In 1758, his son James founded the weekly newspaper Mercury. The famous 18th century Goddard and Townsend furniture was also made in Newport.
Throughout the 18th century, Newport suffered from an imbalance of trade with the largest colonial ports. As a result, Newport merchants were forced to develop alternatives to conventional exports. In the 1720s, Colonial leaders arrested many pirates, acting under pressure from the British government. Many were hanged in Newport and were buried on Goat Island.
Newport was a major center of the slave trade in colonial and early America, active in the "triangle trade '' in which slave - produced sugar and molasses from the Caribbean were carried to Rhode Island and distilled into rum, which was then carried to West Africa and exchanged for captives. In 1764, Rhode Island had about 30 rum distilleries, 22 in Newport alone. The Common Burial Ground on Farewell Street was where most of the slaves were buried.
Sixty percent of slave - trading voyages launched from North America issued from tiny Rhode Island, in some years more than 90 %, and many from Newport. Almost half were trafficked illegally, breaking a 1787 state law prohibiting residents of the state from trading in slaves. Slave traders were also breaking federal statutes of 1794 and 1800 barring Americans from carrying slaves to ports outside the United States, as well as the 1807 Congressional act abolishing the transatlantic slave trade. A few Rhode Island families made substantial fortunes in the trade. William and Samuel Vernon were Newport merchants who later played an important role in financing the creation of the United States Navy; they sponsored 30 African slaving ventures. However, it was the DeWolfs of Bristol, Rhode Island, and most notably James De Wolf, who were the largest slave - trading family in all of North America, mounting more than 80 transatlantic voyages, most of them illegal. The Rhode Island slave trade was broadly based. Seven hundred Rhode Islanders owned or captained slave ships, including most substantial merchants, and many ordinary shopkeepers and tradesmen who purchased shares in slaving voyages.
In addition to being one of America 's most active slave ports, Newport was also home to a small community of abolitionists and free blacks. Reverend Samuel Hopkins, minister at Newport 's First Congregational Church, has been called "America 's first abolitionist. '' Among subscribers to Hopkins ' writings were 17 free black subscribers, most of whom lived in Newport. This community of free blacks, including Newport Gardner, founded the Free African Union Society in 1780, the first African mutual aid society in America.
Touro Synagogue, America 's oldest existing synagogue
Some of the historic buildings in Newport, near the coast
Oliver Perry Monument in Eisenhower Park
Newport was the scene of much activity during the American Revolution. William Ellery came from Newport, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He later served on the Naval Committee.
In the winter of 1775 and 1776, the Rhode Island Legislature put militia General William West in charge of rooting out loyalists in Newport, and several notable individuals were exiled to the northern part of the state, such as Joseph Wanton and Thomas Vernon. In the fall of 1776, the British saw that Newport could be used as a naval base to attack New York (which they had recently occupied), so they took over the city. The population of Newport had divided loyalties; many pro -- independence Patriots left town, while loyalist Tories remained. Newport was a British stronghold for the next three years.
In the summer of 1778, the Americans began the campaign known as the Battle of Rhode Island. This was the first joint operation between the Americans and the French after the signing of the Treaty of Alliance. The Americans based in Tiverton planned a formal siege of the town. However, the French refused to take part in it, wanting a frontal assault. This weakened the American position, and the British were able to expel the Americans from the island. The following year, the British abandoned Newport, wanting to concentrate their forces in New York.
On July 10, 1780, a French expedition arrived in Narragansett Bay off Newport with an army of 450 officers and 5,300 men, sent by King Louis XVI and commanded by Rochambeau. For the rest of the war, Newport was the base of the French forces in the United States. In July 1781, Rochambeau was finally able to leave Newport for Providence to begin the decisive march to Yorktown, Virginia, along with General George Washington. The first Catholic mass in Rhode Island was said in Newport during this time. The Rochambeau Monument in Kings Park on Wellington Avenue along Newport Harbor commemorates Rochambeau 's contributions to the Revolutionary War and to Newport 's history.
Newport 's population had fallen from over 9,000 (according to the census of 1774) to fewer than 4,000 by the time that the war ended (1783). Over 200 abandoned buildings were torn down in the 1780s. Also, the war destroyed Newport 's economic wealth, as years of military occupation closed the city to any form of trade. The Newport merchants moved away, some to Providence, others to Boston and New York.
It was in Newport that the Rhode Island General Assembly voted to ratify the Constitution in 1791 and become the 13th state, acting under pressure from the merchant community of Providence.
The city was the last residence of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry and the birthplace of Commodore Matthew C. Perry and the Reverend William Ellery Channing.
Rochambeau statue in Kings park
Newport 's City Hall
Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, wealthy southern planters seeking to escape the heat began to build summer cottages on Bellevue Avenue, such as Kingscote (1839). Around the middle of the century, wealthy Yankees, such as the Wetmore family, also began constructing larger mansions, such as Chateau - sur - Mer (1852) nearby. Most of these early families made a substantial part of their fortunes in the Old China Trade.
By the turn of the 20th century, many of the nation 's wealthiest families were summering in Newport, including the Vanderbilts, Astors, and the Widener family, who constructed the largest "cottages '', such as The Breakers (1895) and Miramar. They resided for a brief summer social season in grand, gilded mansions with elaborate receiving rooms, dining rooms, music rooms, and ballrooms -- but with few bedrooms, since the guests were expected to have "cottages '' of their own. Many of the homes were designed by New York architect Richard Morris Hunt, who kept a house in Newport himself.
The social scene at Newport is described in Edith Wharton 's novel The Age of Innocence. Wharton 's own Newport "cottage '' was called Land 's End. Today, many mansions continue in private use. Hammersmith Farm is the mansion where John F. Kennedy and Jackie Kennedy held their wedding reception; it was open to tourists as a "house museum '', but has since been purchased and reconverted into a private residence. Many other mansions are open to tourists; still others were converted into academic buildings for Salve Regina College in the 1930s, when the owners could no longer afford their tax bills.
In the mid-19th century, a large number of Irish immigrants settled in Newport. The Fifth Ward of Newport in the southern part of the city became a staunch Irish neighborhood for many generations. To this day, St. Patrick 's Day is an important day of pride and celebration in Newport, with a large parade going down Thames Street.
The oldest Catholic parish in Rhode Island is St. Mary 's, located on Spring Street -- though the current building is not the original one.
The Breakers, 2009
"Hypotenuse '', Newport home of architect Richard Morris Hunt
Rhode Island did not have a fixed capital during and after the colonial era but rotated its legislative sessions among Providence, Newport, Bristol, East Greenwich, and South Kingstown. In 1854, the sessions were eliminated in the cities other than Providence and Newport, and Newport was finally dropped in 1900. A constitutional amendment that year restricted the meetings of the legislature to Providence.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy and Jacqueline Bouvier were married in St. Mary 's Church in Newport on September 12, 1953. Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower both made Newport the sites of their "Summer White Houses '' during their years in office. Eisenhower stayed at Quarters A at the Naval War College and at what became known as the Eisenhower House, while Kennedy used Hammersmith Farm next door.
The city has long been entwined with the United States Navy. It held the campus of the U.S. Naval Academy during the American Civil War (1861 -- 65) when the undergraduate officer training school was temporarily moved north from Annapolis, Maryland. From 1952 to 1973, it hosted the Cruiser - Destroyer Force of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet, and subsequently it has hosted smaller numbers of warships from time to time. Today it hosts the Naval Station Newport (NAVSTA Newport) and remains home to the U.S. Naval War College and the Naval Education and Training Command (NETC), the center for Surface Warfare Officer training, numerous other schools, and the headquarters of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center. The decommissioned aircraft carrier USS Saratoga (CV - 60) was moored in an inactive status at the docks previously used by the Cruiser - Destroyer Force, until it was towed to Brownsville, Texas in August -- September 2014 to be dismantled. The USS Forrestal (CV - 59) shared the pier until June 2010.
The departure of the Cruiser - Destroyer fleet from Newport and the closure of nearby Naval Air Station Quonset Point in 1973 were devastating to the local economy. The population of Newport decreased, businesses closed, and property values plummeted. However, in the late 1960s, the city began revitalizing the downtown area with the construction of America 's Cup Avenue, malls of stores and condominiums, and upscale hotels. Construction was completed on the Newport Bridge. The Preservation Society of Newport County began opening Newport 's historic mansions to the public, and the tourist industry became Newport 's primary commercial enterprise over the subsequent years.
Newport is located at 41 ° 29 ′ 17 '' N 71 ° 18 ′ 45 '' W / 41.48806 ° N 71.31250 ° W / 41.48806; - 71.31250. It is the most populous municipality on Aquidneck Island in Narragansett Bay. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.4 square miles (29.5 km), of which 7.7 square miles (19.9 km) is land and 3.7 square miles (9.6 km), or 32.64 %, is water. The Newport Bridge, the longest suspension bridge in New England, connects Newport to neighboring Conanicut Island across the East Passage of the Narragansett.
As of 2013, there were 24,027 people, 10,616 households, and 4,933 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,204.2 people per square mile (1,239.8 / km2). There were 13,069 housing units at an average density of 1,697.3 per square mile (656.7 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 82.5 % White, 6.9 % African American, 0.8 % Native American, 1.4 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 3.1 % some other race, and 5.2 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.4 % of the population (3.3 % Puerto Rican, 1.2 % Guatemalan, 1.1 % Mexican).
There were 10,616 households, out of which 21.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.9 % were headed by married couples living together, 12.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 53.5 % were non-families. 41.4 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.7 % were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.05, and the average family size was 2.82.
The age distribution was 16.5 % under the age of 18, 16.3 % from 18 to 24, 28.1 % from 25 to 44, 24.9 % from 45 to 64, and 14.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.4 years. For every 100 females there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.3 males.
For the period 2009 - 11, the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $59,388, and the median income for a family was $83,880. Male full - time workers had a median income of $52,221 versus $41,679 for females. The per capita income for the city was $35,644. About 10.7 % of the population were below the poverty line.
Newport has one of the highest concentrations of colonial homes in the nation in the downtown Newport Historic District, one of three National Historic Landmark Districts in the city, and Newport 's colonial heritage is well preserved and documented at the Newport Historical Society. In addition to the colonial architecture, the city is known for its Gilded Age mansions, summer "cottages '' built in varying styles copied from the royal palaces of Europe.
The White Horse Tavern was built prior to 1673 and is one of the oldest taverns in the US. Newport is also home to the Touro Synagogue, one of the oldest Jewish houses of worship in the Western hemisphere, and to the Newport Public Library and Redwood Library and Athenaeum, one of the nation 's oldest lending libraries.
Bellevue Avenue 's Belcourt is owned by Carolyn Rafaelian.
Redwood Library and Athenaeum
Marble House, owned and operated by the Preservation Society
Aquidneck Island is home to many beaches, public and private. In Newport, the largest public beach, Easton 's beach, or First Beach, has a view of the famed Cliff Walk. Sachuest Beach, or Second Beach, in Middletown is the second largest beach in the area. Gooseberry Beach is a private beach but is open to the public on certain days throughout the year, and is located on Ocean Drive, along with Newport 's two other private beaches, Bailey 's Beach (Spouting Rock Beach Association), and Hazard 's Beach.
The Newport Cliff Walk is considered one of the most popular attractions in the city. It is a 3.5 - mile (5.6 km) public access walkway bordering the shoreline, and has been designated a National Recreation Trail.
Brenton Point State Park is home to the annual Brenton Point Kite Festival. Newport is also home to the Newport Country Club. The historical club has played host to the 2007 Women 's US Open and the 1995 Men 's US Amateurs. Fort Adams, an historical fort dating back to the War of 1812, houses the Museum of Yachting and hosts both the Newport Folk Festival and the Newport Jazz Festival annually.
For many years Newport was home to the series of yacht races for the America 's Cup.
As of Fall 2013, Newport has been designated a nationally recognized Bronze Bicycle Friendly Community by the League of American Bicyclists. It is the first official Bicycle Friendly Community in the state of Rhode Island.
The International Tennis Hall of Fame is also located in Newport. The Campbell 's Hall of Fame Tennis Championships, a men 's ATP Tour event, is held every year in early July, the week following Wimbledon. The week also includes annual enshrinements into the Hall of Fame.
The annual Citizens Bank Pell Bridge Run is held every fall helping raise hundreds of thousands of dollars for local charities.
According to Newport 's 2016 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the principal employers in the city are:
Newport was a filming location for The Great Gatsby (1974), Mr. North (1988), High Society (1956) and Moonrise Kingdom (2012).
Coordinates: 41 ° 29 ′ 17 '' N 71 ° 18 ′ 45 '' W / 41.488002 ° N 71.312622 ° W / 41.488002; - 71.312622
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who played the son on father knows best | Billy Gray (actor) - wikipedia
William Thomas "Billy '' Gray (born January 13, 1938) is an American former actor known primarily for his role as James "Bud '' Anderson, Jr., in 193 episodes of the situation comedy Father Knows Best, which aired between 1954 and 1960 on both NBC and CBS. A motorcycle aficionado, Gray maintains a large collection of the vehicles.
Gray was born in Los Angeles to actress Beatrice Gray (March 3, 1911 -- November 25, 2009), and her husband, William H. Gray. His mother was mostly uncredited in the 1930s and 1940s, having appeared in Otto Preminger 's Laura, with Gene Tierney and Dana Andrews. In 1949, Billy Gray appeared with his mother in separate scenes in the film Abbott and Costello Meet the Killer, Boris Karloff.
In 1951, at age 13, he appeared in the film Jim Thorpe -- All - American, with Burt Lancaster in the lead role. Gray portrayed the Indian athlete Jim Thorpe as a child. Later that year, he was chosen to appear in the science fiction picture The Day the Earth Stood Still. Michael Rennie played the part of the alien who befriends a boy played by Gray. In 1952 he appeared in an uncredited role as one of the many children in Ma and Pa Kettle at the Fair. That same year he played George Murphy 's son in MGM 's Talk About a Stranger, portraying a boy who saves his money to buy a dog, only to have it killed by a strange reclusive new neighbor played by Kurt Kasznar. Gray in 1952 was also slated to play the part of Tagg Oakley in the syndicated western television series Annie Oakley, starring Gail Davis and Brad Johnson. Billy did perform as Tagg in the first of two pilots produced for that series, in the 1952 episode titled "Bull 's Eye '', which potential sponsors opted not to purchase and underwrite the series. Oddly, the Bull 's Eye episode was aired as Season 1, Episode 21. This makes watching the series a bit confusing when Annie 's appearance is somewhat different and Tagg is played by a completely different actor for a single mid season episode. The role of Tagg later went to 12 - year - old Jimmy Hawkins for the series ' second pilot, "Annie Gets Her Man '' (aired as Season 1, Episode 14), and for the full run of Annie Oakley after sponsors bought the series. Gray instead joined the cast of Father Knows Best, which would premiere nine months after the first broadcast of Annie Oakley in January 1954.
After Gray 's brief work on the Annie Oakley series, Warner Bros. in 1953 cast Gray as Wesley Winfield in By the Light of the Silvery Moon, a sequel to On Moonlight Bay (1951) in which Gray had played the role of the same Wesley Winfield. He appeared as Alan in the 1953 episode "Shot in the Dark '' of the Adventures of Superman, starring George Reeves. In that episode 's plot, the character Alan takes a photograph of Superman that could expose the hero 's secret identity. Also in 1953 Billy Gray appeared in "The Girl Next Door '' as Dan Dailey 's son Joe Carter. In 1953 Billy Gray appeared in "All I Desire '' as Barbara Stanwyck 's son Ted Murdoch.
In 1955, Gray appeared in The Seven Little Foys, which starred Bob Hope as famed vaudeville entertainer Eddie Foy, in the teen role of Bryan Lincoln Foy. In 1957, while still on Father Knows Best, Gray appeared as Mike Edwards in the episode "Come Back Darling Asta '' of Peter Lawford 's NBC crime series The Thin Man, based on the work of Dashiell Hammett.
After Father Knows Best, Gray appeared in several dozen single - appearance television roles. In 1960, he guest - starred as Frankie Niles in the episode "Dark Return '' of the ABC western series Stagecoach West, a program similar to the longer - running Wagon Train. That same year he portrayed David Ross in the episode "Ginger 's Big Romance '' on Bachelor Father.
In 1961, he played Johnny Blatner in the episode "Two - Way Deal '' of the Henry Fonda / Allen Case NBC western The Deputy. He appeared twice in 1961 on the anthology series General Electric Theater, hosted by Ronald Reagan. That same year he was Perry Hatch in "The Hatbox '' of CBS 's Alfred Hitchcock Presents. In 1962, he appeared on CBS 's The Red Skelton Show. His other roles included appearances on The Greatest Show on Earth and Combat!. He guest - starred in such series as Rawhide, Arrest and Trial, and Custer.
In 1962, at age 24, Gray was arrested for possession of marijuana. The arrest was blamed for later costing him film and television roles. He appeared as a heroin dealer, "City Life '', in the 1971 film Dusty and Sweets McGee. Critic Leonard Maltin claimed incorrectly that Gray had been recruited for the role of "City Life '' from actual addicts and narcotics dealers. Maltin did not remove the false information from his guide for another two decades, and only after Gray filed suit for libel.
In 1977, Gray appeared on both Father Knows Best television movie reunion specials that aired on NBC: the Father Knows Best Family Reunion special on May 15, 1977, and the Father Knows Best: Home for Christmas special on December 18, 1977. Both specials were reunions of the entire cast from the former series that had left the air 17 years earlier.
In a 1983 interview, Gray spoke disparagingly of Father Knows Best:
"I wish there was some way I could tell the kids not to believe it. The dialogue, the situations, the characters they were all totally false. The show did everyone a disservice. The girls were always trained to use their feminine wiles, to pretend to be helpless to attract men. The show contributed to a lot of the problems between men and women that we see today... I think we were all well motivated, but what we did was run a hoax. ' Father Knows Best ' purported to be a reasonable facsimile of life. And the bad thing is, the model is so deceitful. It usually revolved around not wanting to tell the truth, either out of embarrassment or not wanting to hurt someone. If I could say anything to make up for all the years I lent myself to (that), it would be, ' You Know Best. ''
As the co-owner of a company called BigRock Engineering, Gray markets several products that he has invented, including a self - massager, high - technology guitar picks, and a candleholder for jack - o - lanterns. He raced competitively at dirt tracks in southern California from 1970 to 1995. He has since been a spectator and finds the sport is shrinking in availability.
Gray still resides at the house in Topanga, California, which he purchased in 1957 at the height of his Father Knows Best popularity. The house has over the years become something of a "motorcycle museum ''.
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the last battle the chronicles of narnia summary | The last battle - wikipedia
The Last Battle is a high fantasy novel for children by C.S. Lewis, published by The Bodley Head in 1956. It was the seventh and final novel in The Chronicles of Narnia (1950 -- 1956). Like the others it was illustrated by Pauline Baynes and her work has been retained in many later editions.
The Last Battle is set almost entirely in the Narnia world and the English children who participate arrive only in the middle of the narrative. The novel is set some 200 Narnian years after The Silver Chair and about 2500 years (and 49 Earth years) since the creation of the world narrated in The Magician 's Nephew. A false Aslan is set up in the north - western borderlands and conflict between true and false Narnians merges with that between Narnia and Calormen, whose people worship Tash. It concludes with termination of the world by Aslan, after a "last battle '' that is practically lost.
Macmillan US published an American edition within the calendar year.
Lewis and The Last Battle won the annual Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year 's best children 's book by a British subject. The author wrote to illustrator Baynes, "is it not rather ' our ' medal? I 'm sure the illustrations were taken into account as well as the text. ''
In the north of Narnia, an ape named Shift persuades a well - meaning but simple - minded donkey called Puzzle to dress in a lion 's skin (an echo from Aesop 's story of The Ass in the Lion 's Skin) and pretend to be the Great Lion Aslan. Using Puzzle as his pawn, Shift deceives many of the Narnians into serving the Calormenes and cutting down Talking Trees for lumber. The money will be paid into "Aslan 's '' treasury, held by Shift, on the pretext that it will be used for the good of the Narnians.
Narnia has had peace and prosperity since the reign of King Caspian X, but Roonwit the Centaur warns Tirian, the latest king of Narnia, that strange and evil things are happening to Narnia and that the stars portend ominous developments. Tirian and his friend Jewel the Unicorn hear word of the death of the Talking Trees and rashly set out to confront the danger. Finding two Calormenes abusing a Narnian Talking Horse, they kill them; ashamed, they give themselves up to "Aslan ''. Awaiting judgement, Tirian recognises the farce that Shift has fabricated in league with the talking cat Ginger and the Calormene warlord Rishda Tarkaan: the lie that Aslan and the Calormene god Tash are one and the same. When he accuses the ape of lying, Tirian is tied to a tree.
Tirian calls on Aslan for help and receives a vision of the "Friends of Narnia '' gathered in our world -- Professor Kirke, Polly Plummer, Peter Pevensie, Edmund Pevensie, Lucy Pevensie, Eustace Scrubb, and Jill Pole, though he does not know who they are. They also see Tirian and, though Tirian ca n't speak to them, they guess he is a messenger from Narnia. A few minutes later by Narnian time -- but a week later from their perspective -- Jill and Eustace arrive in Narnia. They release the King and rescue Jewel. Puzzle, realising his folly, joins them.
A band of Dwarfs are also rescued, but because their faith in Aslan has been shattered, they refuse to help, claiming "the dwarfs are for the dwarfs ''. Only one Dwarf, Poggin, is faithful to Aslan. Tirian learns that Shift and Rishda have unintentionally summoned the actual Tash to Narnia when he and the others see him travelling north. Farsight the eagle arrives to help, bearing news that Roonwit and the Narnian army have all been killed in battle.
Tirian and his small force advance on the stable to expose the truth of Shift 's deception. Shift and Rishda plan to weed out the troublemakers by forcing them into the stable to "meet Tashlan. '' But Ginger, sent in to aid in the deception, runs out in terror, having lost his ability to speak. Emeth, one of Rishda 's men and a devout follower of Tash, insists on seeing his god. Rishda tries to dissuade him, but Emeth enters the stable. Angry at the deception in the name of Tash, he kills another soldier who was stationed in the stable to murder the rebellious Narnians, but then disappears.
Outside the stable, Tirian 's group engages Shift and the Calormenes, but most of the remaining Narnians are all either killed or captured and sacrificed to Tash, by being thrown into the stable. Tirian throws Shift into the stable, and Tash, who has haunted the stable since Ginger briefly entered it, swallows the ape whole. This event frightens Rishda, who offers the remaining Narnians as sacrifices to Tash to avoid his god 's wrath. But Tirian, left alone and fighting for his life, drags Rishda into the stable and finds himself in a vast and beautiful land. Tash appears, seizing Rishda, and advances on Tirian just as the Friends of Narnia appear, all dressed as kings and queens. (Susan does not appear, they explain, because she has stopped believing in Narnia, thinking it only a silly childhood game.) Peter in the name of Aslan orders Tash to return to his realm, and Tash vanishes with Rishda in his clutches. The faithless Dwarfs are present but can not see they are in Aslan 's country; they perceive themselves to be locked in a stable. Aslan demonstrates that, without faith, even he can not help them.
The kings and queens bear witness to the end of the Narnian world. All the inhabitants, living and dead, gather outside the barn to be judged by Aslan; the faithful enter Aslan 's Country while those who have opposed or deserted him become ordinary animals and vanish. The vegetation is eaten by dragons and giant lizards, and Father Time calls the stars down from the skies into the sea as it rises to cover Narnia. The land freezes when Father Time puts out the sun and the moon. Peter closes the door, and Aslan leads them to his country, telling them to go further in. Soon they encounter Emeth; Aslan has accepted his faithful service to Tash because it was good and therefore truly done to Aslan, whereas Tash is only served by evil.
They find they are in a new, "real '' version of Narnia. (Digory mentions Plato, whose Allegory of the Cave describes multiple levels of reality.) They move up a waterfall to gates where they are greeted by Reepicheep and meet other characters from the earlier novels. They find they can see a real England, including the Pevensies ' parents, parallelling the real Narnia. Aslan tells them that the English friends of Narnia and the Pevensies ' parents have all died in a train crash. (Susan, who was not on the train, is the only surviving member of the family). The series ends with the revelation that it was only the beginning of the true story, "which goes on for ever, and in which every chapter is better than the one before ''.
Floyd C. Gale wrote in Galaxy Science Fiction that the book "is a delightful fantastic fable of the type which the English have excelled since -- or perhaps because of -- Lewis Carroll ''.
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what is it called when you don't like small holes | Trypophobia - wikipedia
Trypophobia is a proposed phobia (intense, irrational fear, or anxiety) of irregular patterns or clusters of small holes or bumps. The condition is not officially recognized as a mental disorder, and is rarely referenced in scientific literature.
Although few studies have been done on trypophobia, researchers hypothesize that it is the result of a biological revulsion that associates trypophobic shapes with danger or disease, and may therefore have an evolutionary basis.
The term trypophobia is believed to have been coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005. Since then, the concept of trypophobia has become popular on social media.
Although on blogs and in Internet forums, thousands of people say they have trypophobia, it is not recognized by name as a mental disorder, and subsequently is not a specific diagnosis in the American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition (DSM - 5). Jennifer Abbasi of Popular Science said that it is rarely referenced in scientific literature, but also that "professionals who study and treat phobias tend not to use all the Latin and Greek names that get tossed around on message boards and in the press. '' If the fear is excessive, persistent, and associated with significant distress or impairment, trypophobia could fall under the broad category of specific phobia.
Author Kathleen McAuliffe suggested that trypophobia is yet to be extensively studied because researchers have not given as much attention to topics of disgust as they have to other areas of research, and because of the revulsion viewing the images could incite in researchers. Psychiatrist Carol Mathews said, "There might really be people out there with phobias to holes, because people can really have a phobia to anything, but just reading what 's on the Internet, that does n't seem to be what people actually have. '' Mathews felt that most people writing online are likely disgusted by these types of images without meeting criteria for a real phobia. By contrast, researcher Tom Kupfer said, "I would n't be surprised if this is actually a disorder based on disgust and disease avoidance. ''
Shapes that elicit a trypophobic reaction include clustered holes in innocuous contexts, such as fruit and bubbles, and in contexts associated with danger, such as holes made by insects and holes in wounds and diseased tissue such as those caused by mango worms in animals, especially dogs. Upon seeing these shapes, some people said they shuddered, felt their skin crawl, experienced panic attacks, sweated, palpitated, and felt nauseated or itchy. Some said the holes seemed "disgusting and gross '' or that "something might be living inside those holes ''. Other reported symptoms include goose bumps, body shakes, feeling uncomfortable, and visual discomfort such as eyestrain, distortions, or illusions.
Geoff Cole and Arnold Wilkins of the University of Essex 's Centre for Brain Science were the first scientists to publish on the phenomenon. They believe the reaction is based on a biological revulsion, rather than a learned cultural fear. In a 2013 article in Psychological Science, Cole and Wilkins write that the reaction is based on "the primitive portion of the brain '' that associates the shapes with danger, and that it is an "unconscious reflex reaction ''. Imagery of various poisonous animals (for example, certain types of snakes, insects, and spiders) have the same visual characteristics. Because of this, Cole and Wilkins hypothesized that trypophobia has an evolutionary basis meant to alert humans of dangerous organisms. They believed this to be an evolutionary advantage, although it also causes people to fear harmless objects.
Cole and Wilkins analyzed videos and images containing clusters of holes, with the images presented in an arrangement that was considered to rank the likelihood they will induce fear. Early images in the series include fruits such as oranges and pomegranates. Then, clusters of holes with a possible association with danger are presented, such as honeycombs, frogs, and insects and arachnids. Finally, images feature wounds and diseases. Using this data, Cole and Wilkins analyzed example images and believe that the images had "unique characteristics ''. In another research article, An Trong Dinh Le, Cole and Wilkins developed a symptom questionnaire that they say can be used to identify trypophobia.
Cole and Wilkins also stated that "given the large number of images associated with trypophobia, some of which do not contain clusters of holes but clusters of other objects, these results suggest that holes alone are unlikely to be the only cause for this condition '' and they "consider that the fear of holes does not accurately reflect the condition. ''
Other researches have speculated that the images could be perceived as cues to infectious disease (similar to reactions to images of leprosy, smallpox and measles, which manifest as small bumps and clusters on the skin) or parasites, which could be alerts that give one a survival advantage. That the images invoke thoughts of decay, which is why mold on bread or vegetables have certain visual cues and characteristics similar to trypophobic stimuli, has also been theorized. Conversely, psychiatrist Carol Mathews believes that trypophobic responses are more likely from priming and conditioning.
Wilkins and Le also considered that the discomfort from trypophobic images is due to the geometry of the holes making excessive demands on the brain; they stated that these excessive demands may cause visual discomfort, eyestrain or headache, adding that these images have mathematical properties that can not be processed efficiently by the brain and therefore require more brain oxygenation. Wilkins and researcher Paul Hibbard proposed that the discomfort occurs when people avoid looking at the images because they require excessive brain oxygenation, adding that the brain uses about 20 per cent of the body 's energy, and its energy usage needs to be kept to a minimum. They stated that mold and skin diseases can provoke disgust in most people, regardless of whether or not the people have trypophobia, and that they are investigating why some people and not others experience an emotional response in these cases.
There are no documented treatments for trypophobia, but exposure therapy, which has been used to treat phobias, is likely to be effective for treating trypophobia.
To what extent trypophobia exists is unknown, but the available data suggests that having an aversion to trypophobic imagery is relatively common. 16 % of a sample of 286 participants in Cole and Wilkins 's study reported discomfort or repulsion when presented with an image of a lotus seed pod. They found that non-trypophobic individuals also reported higher discomfort ratings when viewing images with visual characteristics associated with trypophobic patterns than when viewing neutral images.
The term trypophobia is believed to have been coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005. The word is from the Greek: τρύπα, trýpa, meaning "hole '' and φόβος, phóbos, meaning "fear ''.
Because trypophobia is not well known to the general public, many people with the condition do not know the name for it and believe that they are alone in their trypophobic reactions and thoughts until they find an online community to share them with. This has led to an increase in trypophobic images on social media; in some cases, people seek to intentionally trigger those with trypophobia by showing them trypophobic images, with the most triggering images being holes and clusters (especially the lotus seedhead) photoshopped onto human skin. Cole and Wilkins also stated that the level of disgust with trypophobia increases if the holes are on human skin.
In 2017, trypophobia received significant media attention when American Horror Story featured a trypophobic character and trypophobic advertisements promoting the storyline; some people were disturbed by the imagery, and criticized the show for "insensitivity towards sufferers of trypophobia. '' Although there was sentiment that the increased media attention could lead to people trying to trigger those with trypophobia, there were also opinions that it might help people understand trypophobia and encourage more research on the matter.
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how often do they play for the world cup | FIFA World Cup - Wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup, often simply called the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the senior men 's national teams of the members of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport 's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946 when it was not held because of the Second World War. The current champion is France, which won its second title at the 2018 tournament in Russia.
The current format of the competition involves a qualification phase, which currently takes place over the preceding three years, to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase, which is often called the World Cup Finals. After this, 32 teams, including the automatically qualifying host nation (s), compete in the tournament phase for the title at venues within the host nation (s) over a period of about a month.
The 21 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight national teams. Brazil have won five times, and they are the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy, with four titles each; Argentina, France and inaugural winner Uruguay, with two titles each; and England and Spain with one title each.
The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games; the cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the final match, a ninth of the entire population of the planet.
17 countries have hosted the World Cup. Brazil, France, Italy, Germany and Mexico have each hosted twice, while Uruguay, Switzerland, Sweden, Chile, England, Argentina, Spain, the United States, Japan and South Korea (jointly), South Africa and Russia have each hosted once. Qatar are planned as hosts of the 2022 finals, and 2026 will be a joint hosted finals between Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to have hosted games in three different finals.
The world 's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England, which ended in a 0 -- 0 draw. The first international tournament, the inaugural British Home Championship, took place in 1884. As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics (however, the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events), and at the 1906 Intercalated Games.
After FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure.
At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official competition. Planned by The Football Association (FA), England 's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm.
With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each one of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup, and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from County Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.
In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a "world football championship for amateurs '', and took responsibility for managing the event. This paved the way for the world 's first intercontinental football competition, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and 13 European teams, and won by Belgium. Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA 's professional era.
Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet as the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship itself. With Uruguay now two - time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament.
The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides. Indeed, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America.
The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and the USA, who defeated Mexico 4 -- 1 and Belgium 3 -- 0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4 -- 2 in front of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup. After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and the IOC disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the 1932 Summer Olympics. Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup.
The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 World Cup and all North and South American nations except Brazil and Cuba boycotted the 1938 tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, which Germany and Brazil sought to host, were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath.
The 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British participants. British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football, but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA 's invitation. The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called "Maracanazo '' (Portuguese: Maracanaço).
In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland, and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams. Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: USA, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter - finalists in 1938; North Korea, quarter - finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter - finalists in 1970.
The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982, and then to 32 in 1998, also allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter - finals: Mexico, quarter - finalists in 1986; Cameroon, quarter - finalists in 1990; South Korea, finishing in fourth place in 2002; Senegal, along with USA, both quarter - finalists in 2002; Ghana, quarter - finalists in 2010; and Costa Rica, quarter - finalists in 2014. Nevertheless, European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter - finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far.
Two hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds; 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, while a record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union 's region a position in the World Cup. In the edition of 25 October 2013 of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that: "From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It can not be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup. '' Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency.
Following the magazine 's publication, Blatter 's would - be opponent for the FIFA Presidency, UEFA President Michel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA, two to the Asian Football Confederation and the Confederation of African Football, two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation. Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: "(The World Cup is) not based on the quality of the teams because you do n't have the best 32 at the World Cup... but it 's a good compromise... It 's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you do n't give the possibility to participate, they do n't improve. ''
In October 2016 FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 48 - team World Cup in 2026. On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams.
By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games, with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Justice Department announced a 47 - count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December. By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016.
On 4 June 2015 Chuck Blazer while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA 's then - executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups. On 10 June 2015 Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter. The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then - secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated, "Due to the situation, I think it 's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being. '' On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media.
On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May. An additional 16 indictments by the U.S. Department of Justice were announced on the same day.
An equivalent tournament for women 's football, the FIFA Women 's World Cup, was first held in 1991 in China. The women 's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men 's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991.
Men 's football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men 's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top - level tournament, and since 1992, an under - 23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players. Women 's football made its Olympic debut in 1996.
The FIFA Confederations Cup is a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation (s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.
FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup, FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such as futsal (FIFA Futsal World Cup) and beach soccer (FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women 's version, although a FIFA Women 's Club World Cup has been proposed.
The FIFA U-20 Women 's World Cup is held the year before each Women 's World Cup and both tournaments are awarded in a single bidding process. The U-20 tournament serves as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition.
From 1930 to 1970, the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament. In 1970, Brazil 's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves.
After 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18 carat (75 %) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974. The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: "The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory. ''
This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold - plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards.
Currently, all members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy; winners ' (gold), runners - up ' (silver), and third - place (bronze). In the 2002 edition, fourth - place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third - place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup - winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals.
Since the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations ' teams.
The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two - year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play - offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth - placed team from the Asian zone entered a play - off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup. From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify. Brazil, winners in 2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches.
The current final tournament has been used since 1998 and features 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nation (s). There are two stages: the group stage followed by the knockout stage.
In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings and / or performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups. The other teams are assigned to different "pots '', usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation.
Each group plays a round - robin tournament, in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points).
If one considers all possible outcomes (win, draw, loss) for all six matches in a group, there are 729 (= 3) outcome combinations possible. However, 207 of these combinations lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined as follows:
The knockout stage is a single - elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one - off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner - up of another group. This is followed by the quarter - finals, the semi-finals, the third - place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final.
On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48 - team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which consists of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.
Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA 's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup.
Since the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts. South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010. The 2014 FIFA World Cup was hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since Argentina 1978, and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe.
The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA 's Council. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a "Hosting Agreement '' from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. However, there have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded to Russia and Qatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament.
For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament is rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany 's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation will not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018. This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder.
The 2026 FIFA World Cup was chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations. The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 80 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter - finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each.
Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions being Brazil, who finished as runners - up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semi-final against Germany in 2014, and Spain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982. England (1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation. Uruguay (1930), Italy (1934), Argentina (1978) and France (1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, while Germany (1974) won their second title on home soil.
Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament. Switzerland (quarter - finals 1954), Sweden (runners - up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), South Korea (fourth place in 2002), and Mexico (quarter - finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts. So far, South Africa (2010) has been the only host nation to fail to advance beyond the first round.
The best - attended single match, shown in the last three columns, has been the final in half of the 20 World Cups as of 2014. Another match or matches drew more attendance than the final in 1930, 1938, 1958, 1962, 1970 -- 1982, 1990 and 2006.
The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26.29 billion. 715.1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament (a ninth of the entire population of the planet). The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers. The World Cup attracts many sponsors such as Coca - Cola, McDonald 's and Adidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion - dollar revenue increase from the month - long event. The governing body of the sport, FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament.
Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo. World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot. World Cups have also featured official match balls specially designed for each tournament.
The World Cup even has a statistically significant effect on birth rates, the male / female sex ratio of newborns, and heart attacks in nations whose national teams are competing.
In all, 79 nations have played in at least one World Cup. Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup, and they have added stars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. (Uruguay, however, choose to display four stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950).
With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup (21) to date. Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982 -- 1990) and Brazil (1994 -- 2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top - four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8).
To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA (Europe) and CONMEBOL (South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American have won nine. Only two teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: United States (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930 and South Korea (Asia) in 2002. The best result of an African team is reaching the quarter - finals: Cameroon in 1990, Senegal in 2002 and Ghana in 2010. Only one Oceanian qualifier, Australia in 2006, has advanced to the second round.
Brazil, Argentina, Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious in Europe (1958), North America (1970 and 1994) and Asia (2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in 1986, while Spain won in Africa in 2010. In 2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent, and currently it is the first time with four champions in a row from the same continental confederation. Italy and Brazil successfully defended their titles in 1938 and 1962 respectively, while Italy 's triumph in 2006 has been followed by wins for Spain in 2010, Germany in 2014 and France in 2018. Currently, it is also the first time that one of the currently winning continents (Europe) is ahead of the other (South America) by more than one championship.
At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. There are currently six awards:
An All - Star Team consisting of the best players of the tournament has also been announced for each tournament since 1998.
Three players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico 's Antonio Carbajal (1950 -- 1966) and Rafael Márquez (2002 - 2018); and Germany 's Lothar Matthäus (1982 -- 1998) all played in five tournaments. Matthäus has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 25 appearances. Brazil 's Djalma Santos (1954 -- 1962), West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer (1966 -- 1974) and Germany 's Philipp Lahm (2006 -- 2014) are the only players to be named to three Finals All - Star Teams.
Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002 -- 2014) is the all - time top scorer at the finals, with 16 goals. He broke Ronaldo of Brazil 's record of 15 goals (1998 -- 2006) during the 2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany 's Gerd Müller (1970 -- 1974) is third, with 14 goals. The fourth placed goalscorer, France 's Just Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament.
In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup - winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners ' medals. This made Brazil 's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners ' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury), with 20 other players who have won two winners ' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners ', runner - ups ', and third - place); five players were from West Germany 's squad of 1966 -- 1974 including Franz Beckenbauer, Jürgen Grabowski, Horst - Dieter Höttges, Sepp Maier and Wolfgang Overath (1966 -- 1974), Italy 's Franco Baresi (1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002 -- 2014) with four consecutive medals.
Brazil 's Mário Zagallo, West Germany 's Franz Beckenbauer and France 's Didier Deschamps are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach. Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach, and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain. Italy 's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938). All World Cup - winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory.
Among the national teams, Germany and Brazil have played the most World Cup matches (109), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), quarter - finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (21), has the most wins (73) and has scored the most goals (229). The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi-final.
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first woman chief justice of a high court in india | Leila Seth - wikipedia
Leila Seth (20 October 1930 -- 5 May 2017) was the first woman judge on the Delhi High Court and she became the first woman to become Chief Justice of a state High Court on 5 August 1991. She sat on a number of enquiry commissions, including one into the death of ' Biscuit Baron ' Rajan Pillai, and was also a part of the three - member bench of the Justice Verma Committee that was established to overhaul India 's rape laws in the aftermath of the infamous 2012 Delhi gang - rape case. She was a member of the 15th Law Commission of India from 1997 to 2000, and was responsible for the amendments to the Hindu Succession Act that gave equal rights to daughters in joint family property.
Leila Seth was born on 20 October 1930 in Lucknow, the first daughter after two sons in her family. She is said to have been very close to her father, who worked in the Imperial Railway Service and was devastated when he died when she was only 11 years old.
After her father 's death, the family struggled financially, but Leila 's mother managed to educate her in Loreto Convent, Darjeeling. After finishing her schooling, she began to work as a stenographer in Kolkata. It was here that she was introduced to her husband Prem Seth, and had what she called a ' semi-arranged ' marriage.
After marriage, she moved to London with her husband who was working at Bata. Her move to London gave her the opportunity to start studying law. In an interview, she said that she picked law for the simple reason that it did not require attending classes, which was a priority since she had an infant at the time.
In 1958, Leila Seth wrote the London Bar exam and topped it at the age of 27, becoming the first woman to do so. She joined the bar in 1959. In the same year she also cleared the civil services examination as an IAS officer. Upon topping the Bar in England, Seth was referred to as "Mother - in - Law '' by a London newspaper, which carried a photograph of a young Leila Seth with her infant son, born only a few months before the exams. At the same time, other newspapers expressed their grief about how out of 580 students who took the Bar Exam, a married woman topped it.
Immediately after the London Bar, Leila and Prem Seth moved back to India, where Leila began to practice law in Patna. She initially worked under a senior lawyer named Mr Sachin Chaudhary. She also worked as a junior to Ashoke Kumar Sen. She worked at the Patna High Court for 10 years. She has spoken about the discriminatory attitudes she had to face for being a woman in the male - dominated field of law. She recounted how she would initially not get a lot of work, as people did not think a woman lawyer would be capable of handling it.
Leila Seth handled diverse cases, from Tax matters (Income Tax, Sales Tax, Excise and Customs), to Company Law, Constitutional Law, Civil, Criminal cases and also Matrimonial suits and public interest litigations.
After practicing at the Patna High Court for 10 years, Leila Seth moved to the Delhi High Court in 1972 and worked with original civil petitions, criminal matters, company petitions, revisions and appeals. In the same year, she launched her Supreme Court practice, handling tax matters, writ petitions and constitutional civil and criminal appeals.
Leila was also on the panel of lawyers for the West Bengal government in the Supreme Court from June 1974. On January 10, 1977, she was designated as a senior advocate by the Supreme Court.
In 1978, Leila Seth became the Judge of the Delhi High Court, breaking the glass ceiling by becoming the first woman to do so. Her career continued to rise as she became the Chief Justice of Himachal Pradesh High Court, again the first woman to be the Chief Justice of a State High Court.
Leila Seth chaired various judicial and humanitarian institutions. She was a member of the 15th Law Commission of India from 1997 to 2000, during which time she spearheaded the campaign to give daughters inheritance rights over ancestral property in the Hindu Succession Act (1956). She was also served as the Chair of the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) for several years.
Justice Seth was also a part of various enquiry commissions, one of which was responsible for studying the effects of the television serial, Shaktiman (about a popular superhero) on children. Shaktiman was a popular TV series for children and it was the center of controversy because many children set themselves on fire or threw themselves off buildings hoping that Shaktiman would come and rescue them. She was also the single - member of the Justice Leila Seth Commission which enquired into the custodial death of businessman Rajan Pillai, or popularly known as "Biscuit Baron ''.
Significantly, Justice Leila Seth was a part of the three member Justice Verma Commission instituted after the 2012 Delhi gang rape case to look into an overhaul of rape laws in India.
Justice Leila Seth married Prem Seth when she was 24 years old. They had three children together -- Vikram Seth, Shantum and Aradhana. Vikram Seth went on to be an acclaimed poet and author, Shantum is a Buddhist teacher, and Aradhana is a filmmaker.
Leila Seth was vocal about supporting her son Vikram Seth when he came out as gay, and wrote extensively decrying Section 377 and in favour of LGBTQIA rights, including an op - ed in The Times Of India after the Koushal judgment in 2013 reinstated Section 377.
Justice Leila Seth died after suffering a cardio - respiratory attack on the night of 5 May 2017 at her residence in Noida, aged 86. She is survived by her husband, two sons and a daughter. As per her wishes no funeral was held since she donated her eyes and other organs for transplant or medical research purposes.
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sam smith thrill of it all tour support act | The Thrill of It All tour - wikipedia
The Thrill of It All Tour is the second concert tour by English singer Sam Smith, in support of his second album The Thrill of It All (2017). The tour began on 20 March 2018 in Sheffield, and is set to conclude on 20 November 2018 in Perth.
On October 6 2017, Smith announced he is releasing his second album The Thrill of It All on 3 November 2017, and plans to embark on a tour in support of it.
This set list is representative of the performance on 20 March 2018. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour.
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when does the next season of switched at birth come out on netflix | Switched at Birth (season 5) - wikipedia
Switched at Birth was renewed for a fifth season by Freeform on October 21, 2015. The fifth season premiered on January 31, 2017, and on March 11, 2016, it was confirmed that this ten - episode season would be its last.
The one - hour scripted drama revolves around two young women who discover they were switched at birth and grew up in very different environments. While balancing school, jobs, and their unconventional family, the girls, along with their friends and family, experience Deaf culture, relationships, class differences, racism, audism, and other social issues.
Early during her trip to China, Bay becomes seriously ill and spends weeks recovering. When she does, the summer is almost over and she has not seen much of the country so she convinces Daphne to stay the whole school year. Travis then comes to China and begins a relationship with Bay. 10 months later, the three are called home when Emmett overdoses on a mix of medications. He claims that he is not suicidal and that the overdose was accidental. Bay, Daphne, and Travis decide to stay in Kansas City and Daphne is upset to learn how behind she is in her studies; she also learns Mingo has a new girlfriend and that there is no housing for her at the university. Regina allows Bay to stay in the empty apartment above the Cracked Mug with Travis, but Bay tells Travis she wants Daphne to move in with her instead. Regina ends her relationship with her much younger secret boyfriend, Luca. Mingo invites Daphne to a karaoke costume party. His costume is of Lil Wayne and he takes a selfie with Daphne, causing outrage from some who view it as blackface.
Toby and Lily come for a visit with the baby. They are fighting because Lily misses work, while Toby is working too much and not helping with the baby. Toby reveals his gambling problem has returned. They decide to move back to the States. Lily gets her job back at the university, and Kathryn will help with the baby. When Bay tries to rekindle her friendship with Mary Beth, she is upset to learn Mary Beth is now dating Tank. Regina decides to go public about her relationship with Luca. John teases her about the age difference, but relents after she scolds him for applying a sexist double standard. Kathryn and Daphne are both supportive and happy for Regina. Daphne is having nightmares about Bay 's illness in China. Luca recognizes it as PTSD. Luca accidentally spills the secret about Bay 's illness to Regina and Bay and Daphne have to tell everyone about it.
Daphne finds out from Iris that three boys put cotton balls in front of the Black Student Union building and they got tickets for littering and a three day suspension instead of being expelled from campus which is the reason Iris is hunger striking. Bay does an art project with Emmett and tries to do so without making Travis jealous.
Bay and Daphne meet a girl named Ally who has Angelo 's heart through heart surgery, but they find out she 's not who she seems she is. Regina refuses to see her because it will bring up memories about Angelo 's death. Toby is deciding whether or not to baptize Carlton. Emmett and Travis try to make amends during Melody 's birthday.
Bay meets the man who molested Travis when he was twelve: his uncle. She tries to make him tell his mother about what happened and reconnect. Chris tries to make Daphne cheat on his drug test so he wo n't get kicked out of the baseball team for using steroids. Regina finds out her coffeehouse is being robbed, so she put security cameras all over the place. She finds out the culprit is Eric, who has returned to get back a secret stash he hid in the coffeehouse so he and his son, Will, can start a new life. He asks her to come with him, but she refuses.
90 - minute series finale. The Kennishes and Vasquezes reminisce about the five years they had together since the switch was discovered.
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paralysis of the serratus anterior would result in the inability to | Winged scapula - wikipedia
A winged scapula (scapula alta) is a skeletal medical condition in which the shoulder blade, or shoulder bone, protrudes from a person 's back in an abnormal position. In rare conditions it has the potential to lead to limited functional activity in the upper extremity to which it is adjacent. It can affect a person 's ability to lift, pull, and push weighty objects. In some serious cases, the ability to perform activities of daily living such as changing one 's clothes and washing one 's hair may be hindered. The name of this condition comes from its appearance, a wing - like resemblance, due to the medial border of the scapula sticking straight out from the back. Scapular winging has been observed to disrupt scapulohumeral rhythm, contributing to decreased flexion and abduction of the upper extremity, as well as a loss in power and the source of considerable pain. A winged scapula is considered normal posture in young children, but not older children and adults.
The severity and appearance of the winged scapula varies by individuals as well as the muscles and / or nerves that were affected. Pain is not seen in every case. In a study of 13 individuals with facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSH), none of the individuals complained of pain. Fatigue, however, was a common characteristic and all had noted that there were limitations in their activities of daily life.
In most cases of winged scapula, damage to the serratus anterior muscle causes the deformation of the back. The serratus anterior muscle attaches to the medial anterior aspect of the scapula (i.e. it attaches on the side closest to the spine and runs along the side of the scapula that faces the ribcage) and normally anchors the scapula against the rib cage. When the serratus anterior contracts, upward rotation, abduction, and weak elevation of the scapula occurs, allowing the arm to be raised above the head. The long thoracic nerve innervates the serratus anterior; therefore, damage to or impingement of this nerve can result in weakening or paralysis of the muscle. If this occurs, the scapula may slip away from the rib cage, giving it the wing - like appearance on the upper back. This characteristic may particularly be seen when the affected person pushes against resistance. The person may also have limited ability to lift their arm above their head.
In facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSH), the winged scapula is detected during contraction of the glenohumeral joint. In this movement, the glenohumeral joint atypically and concurrently abducts and the scapula internally rotates.
The most common cause of scapular winging is serratus anterior paralysis. This is typically caused by damage (i.e. lesions) to the long thoracic nerve. This nerve supplies the serratus anterior, which is located on the side of the thorax and acts to pull the scapula forward. Serratus anterior palsy is a dysfunction that is characteristic of traumatic, non-traumatic, and idiopathic injury to the long thoracic nerve. Severe atrophy of the trapezius is seen with accidental damage to the spinal accessory nerve during lymph node biopsy of the neck. There are numerous ways in which the long thoracic nerve can sustain trauma - induced injury. These include, but are not limited to, blunt trauma (e.g. blow to the neck or shoulder, sudden depression of the shoulder girdle, unusual twisting of the neck and shoulder), repetitive movements (as observed in athletic activities such as weight lifting or sports that involve throwing), excessive compression of the shoulder area by straps (see backpack palsy), and various household activities (e.g. gardening, digging, car washing, prolonged abduction of the arms when sleeping, propping up the head to read, etc.). Sometimes, other structures in the body such as inflamed and enlarged subcorocoid or subscapular bursa press on the nerve. Clinical treatments may also cause injury to the long thoracic nerve (iatrogenesis from forceful manipulation, mastectomies with axillary node dissection, surgical treatment of spontaneous pneumothorax, post-general anesthesia for various clinical reasons, and electrical shock, amongst others).
Non-traumatic induced injury to the long thoracic nerve includes, but is not limited to, causes such as viral illness (e.g. influenza, tonsillitis - bronchitis, polio), allergic - drug reactions, drug overdose, toxic exposure (e.g. herbicides, tetanus), C7 radiculopathy, and coarctation of the aorta.
Secondary to serratus anterior palsy, a winged scapula is also caused by trapezius and rhomboid palsy involving the accessory nerve and the dorsal scapular nerve, respectively.
Though the most common causes of a winged scapula is due to serratus anterior palsy, and less commonly trapezius and rhomboid palsy, there are still other circumstances that present the ailment. These incidences include direct injuries to the scapulothoracic muscles (i.e. trapezius and rhomboid muscles), and structural abnormalities (e.g. rotator cuff pathology, shoulder instability, etc.).
In addition to history and exam, it has been recommended to perform projectional radiography of the neck, chest, shoulder, and thoracic inlet to rule out structural abnormalities such as malunited or greenstick fractures. Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are rarely indicated, but may be useful to rule out certain diagnoses if suspected, such as neurofibromatosis - related injury, intervertebral disc disorder, radiculopathy, and tumors.
Since there is a variety of classifications of winged scapula, there is also more than one type of treatment. Massage Therapy is an effective initial approach to relax the damaged muscles. In more severe cases, Physical Therapy can help by strengthening affected and surrounding muscles. Physical therapy constitutes treatment options if there is weakness of the glenohumeral joint muscles, but if the muscles do not contract clinically and symptoms continue to be severe for more than 3 -- 6 months, surgery may be the next choice. Surgery by fixation of the scapula to the rib cage can be done for those with isolated scapular winging. Some options are neurolysis (chordotomy), intercostal nerve transfer, scapulothoracic fusion, arthrodesis (scapulodesis), or scapulothoracis fixation without arthrodesis (scapulopexy).
A winged scapula due to serratus anterior palsy is rare. In one report (Fardin et al.), there was an incidence of 15 cases out of 7,000 patients seen in the electromyographical laboratory. In another report (Overpeck and Ghormley), there was only one case out of 38,500 patients observed at the Mayo Clinic. In yet another report (Remak), there were three diagnoses of serratus anterior paralysis throughout a series of 12,000 neurological examinations.
Winged scapula from a neuroanatomy textbook
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what countries can you visit with a mexican passport | Mexican passport - wikipedia
Mexican passports are issued to Mexican citizens for the purpose of traveling abroad. The Mexican passport is also an official ID and proof of Mexican citizenship. According to the 2017 Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a Mexican passport can visit 142 countries without a visa, placing Mexico in the 26th rank in terms of global travel freedom.
Mexican passports are dark green, with the Mexican Coat of Arms in the center of the front cover and the official name of the country "Estados Unidos Mexicanos '' (United Mexican States) around the coat of arms. The word "Pasaporte '' is inscribed below the coat of arms, and "Mexico '' (as the country is known) above. The Mexican passport contains many different security features, some of them visible only under a black light.
Since 2010, all Mexican passports are biometric. All passport applicants must have their pictures taken digitally; all ten fingerprints are taken and an iris scan is done: Although Mexican passports are biometric, they do not contain a data chip.
Mexican passports include the following data:
Each passport has a biographical information page and a signature page. Illustration: biographical information page and signature page -- right. Mexico is currently on the ' G ' series passport.
The biographical information page ends with the Machine Readable Zone. Also, each visa page has a different coat of arms (One for each of the 31 states and the Federal District).
Requirements for first time applicants that are over the age of eighteen.
4. Prove identity with an original and a photocopy of any of the following official documents with photograph and signature of the holder, the data should agree closely with those of the document that is proving nationality:
In Mexican territory, fees are paid either online or at an affiliated Mexican bank that receives payments for passports. Citizens that live abroad pay at the consulate or embassy in which they are applying. There is a 50 % discount for people that are over the age of sixty, people with disabilities, and agriculture workers. In order to be able to receive a discount, the person must show proof at the time of payment. All fees below are current as of January 2017.
The textual portions of the Mexican passports are printed in Spanish, English and French.
The passports contain a note from the issuing state that is addressed to the authorities of all other states, identifying the bearer as a citizen of that state and requesting that he or she be allowed to pass and be treated according to international norms. The note inside the Mexican passports state:
In Spanish,
in English,
and in French.
In 2016, Mexican citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 139 countries and territories, ranking the Mexican passport 28th in the world according to the Visa Restrictions Index.
Mexican passport issued in 1962
Mexican passport issued in 1981
B) The Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey are not part of the European Union, but Manxmen and Channel Islanders are citizens of the European Union; the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey, and Manxmen and Channel Islanders themselves (unless they qualify and apply for recognition of a change in status), are however excluded from the benefits of the Four Freedoms of the European Union.
C) The Government of the United Kingdom also issue passports to British nationals who are not British citizens with the right of abode in the United Kingdom and who are also not otherwise citizens of the European Union.
Non-EU country that has open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Turkey has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Kazakhstan has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Nagorno - Karabakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and Western Asia. Egypt has a small part of its territory in Western Asia called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
Not recognized by any other state.
Special administrative regions of China
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who wrote long cool woman in a black dress | Long Cool Woman in a Black Dress - wikipedia
"Long Cool Woman in a Black Dress '' (also titled "Long Cool Woman '' or "Long Cool Woman (in a Black Dress) '') is a song written by Allan Clarke, Roger Cook, and Roger Greenaway and performed by the British rock group The Hollies. Originally appearing on the album Distant Light, it was released as a single on 17 April 1972 (on Parlophone in the United Kingdom), selling 1.5 million copies in the United States and two million worldwide. It reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 in September 1972. Billboard ranked it as the No. 24 song for 1972.
On the day "Long Cool Woman '' was recorded at AIR Studios, the group 's producer, Ron Richards, was ill and, as a result, the song was produced by the group. The song is different from most other Hollies songs in that there are no three - part vocal harmonies, and the song features lead guitar and lead vocal work by Allan Clarke. Upon his return, Ron Richards mixed the recording.
The song was written in the swamp rock style of Creedence Clearwater Revival, in terms of the vocal, rhythm, and melodic style. It came out in the spring of 1972 (the same year Creedence split up). Clarke imitated John Fogerty 's vocal style, which was based on the Creedence song "Green River ''. According to Clarke, the song was written "in about five minutes ''.
In the Hollies ' native United Kingdom, the song was only a modest success for the band, peaking at number 32 on the charts. However, it became a surprising smash hit in the United States, peaking at number 2 for two weeks behind Gilbert O'Sullivan 's "Alone Again (Naturally) ''. It was their highest charting single in America. It also got to number 2 in Australia. By this time, Clarke had already left the band, but he feels that "it was n't unfortunate '', since he had co-written the song. Clarke rejoined the Hollies in the summer of 1973, partly due to the success of this song.
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what is the desertification of the sahara (points 3) | Desertification - wikipedia
Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry area of land becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of factors, such as through climate change (particularly the current global warming) and through the overexploitation of soil through human activity. When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of a planet 's life cycle, then it can be called a natural phenomenon; however, when deserts emerge due to the rampant and unchecked depletion of nutrients in soil that are essential for it to remain arable, then a virtual "soil death '' can be spoken of, which traces its cause back to human overexploitation. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem.
Considerable controversy exists over the proper definition of the term "desertification '' for which Helmut Geist (2005) has identified more than 100 formal definitions. The most widely accepted of these is that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defines it as "the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper / inappropriate agriculture ''. Desertification has been neatly defined in the text of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) as "land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. ''
Another major contribution to the controversy comes from the sub-grouping of types of desertification. Spanning from the very vague yet shortsighted view as the "man - made - desert '' to the more broad yet less focused type as the "Non-pattern - Desert ''
The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on desséchement progressif to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.
The world 's most noted deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert.
Desertification has played a significant role in human history, contributing to the collapse of several large empires, such as Carthage, Greece, and the Roman Empire, as well as causing displacement of local populations. Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three epicenters: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the Loess Plateau of China, where population was dense.
Drylands occupy approximately 40 -- 41 % of Earth 's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people. It has been estimated that some 10 -- 20 % of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometres, that about 1 -- 6 % of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification.
As of 1998, the then - current degree of southward expansion of the Sahara was not well known, due to a lack of recent, measurable expansion of the desert into the Sahel at the time.
The impact of global warming and human activities are presented in the Sahel. In this area, the level of desertification is very high compared to other areas in the world. All areas situated in the eastern part of Africa (i.e. in the Sahel region) are characterized by a dry climate, hot temperatures, and low rainfall (300 -- 750 mm rainfall per year). So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region. Some studies have shown that Africa has lost approximately 650,000 km2 of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years. The propagation of desertification in this area is considerable.
Some statistics have shown that since 1900 the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long. The survey, done by the research institute for development, had demonstrated that this means dryness is spreading fast in the Sahelian countries. 70 % of the arid area has deteriorated and water resources have disappeared, leading to soil degradation. The loss of topsoil means that plants can not take root firmly and can be uprooted by torrential water or strong winds.
The United Nations Convention (UNC) says that about six million Sahelian citizens would have to give up the desertified zones of sub-Saharan Africa for North Africa and Europe between 1997 and 2020.
Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the Gobi Desert. Currently, the Gobi desert is the fastest moving desert on Earth; according to some researchers, the Gobi Desert swallows up over 1,300 square miles (3,370 km2) of land annually. This has destroyed many villages in its path. Currently, photos show that the Gobi Desert has expanded to the point the entire nation of Croatia could fit inside its area. This is causing a major problem for the people of China. They will soon have to deal with the desert as it creeps closer. Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from Beijing, reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city.
As the desertification takes place, the landscape may progress through different stages and continuously transform in appearance. On gradually sloped terrain, desertification can create increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as "Brousse tigrée ''. A mathematical model of this phenomenon proposed by C. Klausmeier attributes this patterning to dynamics in plant - water interaction. One outcome of this observation suggests an optimal planting strategy for agriculture in arid environments.
The immediate cause is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil. Studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan. Controversially, Allan Savory has claimed that the controlled movement of herds of livestock, mimicking herds of grazing wildlife, can reverse desertification.
At least 90 % of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.
A downward spiral is created in many underdeveloped countries by overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater in many of the marginally productive world regions due to overpopulation pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision - makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalisation of these zones. When unfavourable agro-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development.
Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas, particularly in Africa. These migrations into the cities often cause large numbers of unemployed people, who end up living in slums.
Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in theses regions has degraded the land enough where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates.
Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, and some possess varying levels of difficulty. For some, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason.
One less difficult solution that has been proposed, however controversial it may be, is to bring about a cap on the population growth, and in fact to turn this into a population decay, so that each year there will gradually exist fewer and fewer humans who require the land to be depleted even further in order to grow their food.
One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial. Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs.
Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have developed Biodiversity Action Plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna.
Reforestation gets at one of the root causes of desertification and is not just a treatment of the symptoms. Environmental organizations work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme poverty. There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration. In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency.
Currently, one of the major methods that has been finding success in this battle with desertification. This is known as the Green Wall of China. This wall is a much larger scaled version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66,000,000,000 trees planted in China 's great green wall. Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently be made in Africa to start a "wall '' along the borders of the Sahara desert as well.
Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper - fertilizing soil.
Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration. They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the Sahel area of Africa.
Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops.
Another technique that is useful is contour trenching. This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. The method was invented by Peter Westerveld.
Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often done by plants. Of these, leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, and food crops / trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important. Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.
Some research centra (such as Bel - Air Research Center IRD / ISRA / UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with mycorrhiza in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree 's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrients from the soil).
As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt - flats in the Rub ' al Khali desert in Saudi - Arabia. These salt - flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.
Farmer - managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low - cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank 's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.
Restoring grasslands store CO from the air into plant material. Grazing livestock, usually not left to wander, would eat the grass and would minimize any grass growth while grass left alone would eventually grow to cover its own growing buds, preventing them from photosynthesizing and killing the plant. A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks and moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally. It is estimated that increasing the carbon content of the soils in the world 's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland would offset nearly 12 years of CO emissions. Allan Savory, as part of holistic management, claims that while large herds are often blamed for desertification, prehistoric lands used to support large or larger herds and areas where herds were removed in the United States are still desertifying.
Mitigation:
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who is morgan freeman in the lego movie | The Lego Movie - Wikipedia
The Lego Movie is a 2014 3D computer - animated adventure comedy film written for the screen and directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller from a story by Lord, Miller, and Dan and Kevin Hageman, and starring the voices of Chris Pratt, Will Ferrell, Elizabeth Banks, Will Arnett, Nick Offerman, Alison Brie, Charlie Day, Liam Neeson, and Morgan Freeman; although the film features few live - action scenes, it is primarily an animated film. Based on the Lego line of construction toys, the story focuses on an ordinary Lego minifigure who finds himself being the only one to help a resistance group stop a tyrannical businessman from gluing everything in the Lego worlds into his vision of perfection. The Lego Movie was the first film produced by Warner Animation Group since the release of Looney Tunes: Back in Action in 2003, and was an international co-production between the United States, Australia and Denmark.
The film was released on February 7, 2014 by Warner Bros. Pictures to near - unanimous acclaim; critics praised its visual style, humor, voice cast and heartwarming message. It earned more than $257 million in the U.S. and Canada and $210 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of over $469 million. The film won the BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film, the Critics ' Choice Movie Award for Best Animated Feature, and the Saturn Award for Best Animated Film; it was also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film and an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for "Everything Is Awesome ''.
The film has since expanded into a major franchise which ties into the Lego brand, with a sequel to the film, entitled The Lego Movie Sequel, scheduled for release on February 8, 2019. A spin - off film, The Lego Batman Movie, was released to theaters on February 10, 2017, with a second spin - off, The Lego Ninjago Movie, set to be released later in the year, and a third spin - off, The Billion Brick Race, planned for development. The film was dedicated to the memory of Kathleen Fleming, the former director of entertainment development of the Lego company, following her death in Cancun, Mexico in April 2013.
In a Lego world populated by anthropomorphic minifigures, the evil Lord Business finds a super weapon called the "Kragle ''. The wizard Vitruvius attempts to stop him, but is blinded by Business ' robots. Before Business leaves with the weapon, Vitruvius prophesies that a person called "the Special '' will find the Piece of Resistance, a brick capable of stopping the Kragle.
Eight and a half years later, construction worker Emmet Brickowski finds a woman called Wyldstyle searching for something at his construction site after hours. When he investigates, Emmet falls into a hole and finds the Piece of Resistance. Compelled to touch it, Emmet experiences vivid visions and passes out. He awakens with the Piece of Resistance attached to his back, in the custody of Bad Cop, Lord Business 's lieutenant. Wyldstyle rescues Emmett, believing him to be the Special, and takes him to meet Vitruvius in the Old West. Emmet learns that Wyldstyle and Vitruvius are "Master Builders '' -- people capable of building anything from their imagination without the need of instructions -- who oppose Business. Wyldstyle explains Business wants to use the Kragle, a tube of Krazy Glue with a weathered label, to freeze the world into perfection. Though disappointed to find Emmet is not a Master Builder, Wyldstyle and Vitruvius are convinced of his potential when he recalls visions of a seemingly human deity referred to as "the Man Upstairs ''.
Emmet, Wyldstyle, and Vitruvius evade Bad Cop 's forces with the aid of Batman, Wyldstyle 's boyfriend. They go to the hidden Cloud Cuckoo Land, a realm where minifigures can create whatever they desire, to attend a council of Master Builders, all of whom are unimpressed with Emmet and refuse to fight Business. Bad Cop 's forces attack, having placed a tracking device on Emmett, and capture everyone except Emmet and a small team of Master Builders. Escaping, Emmet devises a plan to infiltrate Business 's office tower and disarm the Kragle, but the group is captured and imprisoned in the Think Tank, where all the Master Builders are forced to make instructions. Trying to retaliate, Vitruvius is decapitated by Business, who sets a self - destruct protocol and leaves everyone to die, including Bad Cop. As he dies, Vitruvius reveals he made up the prophecy. He soon reappears to Emmet as a ghost and tells him that his belief makes him the Special. Strapped to the self - destruct mechanism 's battery, Emmet jumps into the abyss outside the tower and severs the connection, saving his friends. Inspired by Emmet 's sacrifice, Wyldstyle rallies the Lego people across the universe to use whatever creativity they have to build machines and weapons to fight against Lord Business 's forces.
Emmet finds himself in the human world as a Lego minifigure unable to move. The events of the story are being played out by a little boy named Finn on his father 's expansive Lego set in their basement. His father -- "the Man Upstairs '' -- comes home from work and chastises his son for ruining the set by creating variations of different playsets, and proceeds to permanently rebuild and glue his perceived perfect creations together. Realizing the danger his friends are in, Emmet wills himself to move and gains Finn 's attention. Finn returns Emmet and the Piece of Resistance to the set, where Emmet now possesses the powers of a Master Builder and confronts Business. Meanwhile, Finn 's father looks at his son 's creations and realizes that Finn had based the villainous Business on him and his perfectionism. Through a speech Emmet gives Business, Finn tells his father that he is special and has the power to change everything. Finn reconciles with his father, which plays out as Business having a change of heart, capping the Kragle, and ungluing his victims with mineral spirits. Emmet is hailed as a hero, and begins a relationship with Wyldstyle with Batman 's blessing.
As a result of Finn 's father allowing Finn 's younger sister to join them in playing with his Lego sets, aliens from the planet Duplon beam down and announce their plans to destroy them.
In addition, Anthony Daniels and Billy Dee Williams reprise their Star Wars roles as C - 3PO and Lando Calrissian respectively, with Keith Ferguson voicing Han Solo (whom he previously voiced in Robot Chicken and Mad). Shaquille O'Neal voices a Lego version of himself who is a Master Builder alongside two generic members of the 2002 NBA All - Stars.
Will Forte, Dave Franco, Jake Johnson, Keegan - Michael Key, Chris McKay, and Jorma Taccone provide voice cameos in the film.
Co-director Christopher Miller cameos as a TV presenter in the studio that films the Where Are My Pants? TV series.
Dan Lin conceived of the idea for the film and began discussing it with Roy Lee before leaving Warner Bros. to form his own production company, Lin Pictures, in 2008. Meanwhile, Warner Bros. home entertainment executive Kevin Tsujihara had recognized the value of the Lego franchise by engineering the studio 's purchase of Lego video game licensee Traveller 's Tales in 2007, thought the success of the Lego - based video games indicated a Lego - based film was a good idea, and reportedly "championed '' the development of the film. By August 2009, Dan and Kevin Hageman were writing the script described as "action adventure set in a Lego world. '' Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs directors Phil Lord and Christopher Miller were in talks in June 2010 to write and direct the film. Warner Bros. green - lit the film by November 2011, with a planned 2014 release date. The Australian studio Animal Logic was contracted to provide the animation, which was expected to comprise 80 % of the film. By this time Chris McKay, the director of Robot Chicken, had also joined Lord and Miller to co-direct. McKay explained that his role was to supervise the production in Australia once Lord and Miller left to work on 22 Jump Street. In March 2012, Lord and Miller revealed the film 's working title, Lego: The Piece of Resistance, and a storyline. In April 2012, Warner Bros. scheduled the film for release on February 28, 2014, a date that subsequently changed.
By June 2012, Chris Pratt had been cast as the voice of Emmet, the lead Lego character, and Will Arnett voicing Lego Batman; the role of Lego Superman was offered to Channing Tatum. By August 2012, Elizabeth Banks was hired to voice Lucy (later getting the alias "Wyldstyle '') and Morgan Freeman to voice Vitruvius, an old mystic. In October 2012, Warner Bros. shifted the release date for the film, simply titled Lego, to February 7, 2014. In November 2012, Alison Brie, Will Ferrell, Liam Neeson, and Nick Offerman signed on for roles. Brie voices Unikitty, a member of Emmet 's team; Ferrell voices the antagonist President / Lord Business; Neeson voices Bad Cop; and Offerman voices Metal Beard, a pirate seeking revenge on Business.
In July 2012, a Lego - user contest announced on the film 's Facebook page would choose a winning Lego vehicle to appear in the film. Miller 's childhood Space Village playset is utilized in the film.
Animal Logic tried to make the film 's animation replicate a stop motion film even if everything was done through computer graphics, with the animation rigs following the same articulation limits actual Lego figures have. The camera systems also tried to replicate live action cinematography, including different lenses and a Steadicam simulator. The scenery was projected through The Lego Group 's own Lego Digital Designer, which as CG supervisor Aidan Sarsfield detailed, "uses the official LEGO Brick Library and effectively simulates the connectivity of each of the bricks. '' The saved files were then converted to design and animate in Maya and XSI. At times the minifigures were even placed under microscopes to capture the seam lines, dirt and grime into the digital textures. Benny the spaceman was based on the line of Lego space sets sold in the 1980s, and his design includes the broken helmet chin strap, a common defect of the space sets at that time.
The film 's total cost, including production, promotion and advertising (P&A), was $100 million. Half of the film 's cost was financed by Village Roadshow Pictures. The rest was covered by Warner Bros., with RatPac - Dune Entertainment providing a smaller share as part of its multi-year financing agreement with Warner Bros. Initially Warner Bros. turned down Village Roadshow Pictures when it asked to invest in the film. However, Warner Bros. later changed its mind, reportedly due to lack of confidence in the film, initially offering Village Roadshow Pictures the opportunity to finance 25 % of the film, and later, an additional 25 %.
The Lego Movie premiered at the Regency Village Theatre in Los Angeles, California on February 1, 2014, and was released in theaters on February 7, 2014. The film was released in Australia by the film 's co-producer, Roadshow Films.
Over twenty Lego sets inspired by scenes from the film were released for the film including a set of Collectible Minifigures. A website was opened up so fans could make minifigure versions of themselves, and later, put that in the film 's official trailer. The company recruited a roster of global partners to a broad, multi-category licensing program to support the film. Official Lego Brand Stores also scheduled events. Each week of January 2014, a new character poster (Wyldstyle, Batman, Emmet, Lord Business) came with every purchase. By building a creative model in - store, people received a free accessory pack. Barnes & Noble hosted a themed event in January, February, and March. On February 7, 2014, McDonald 's released eight collectible holographic / 3D cups in Happy Meals to promote the film. A video game based on the film, The Lego Movie Videogame, by TT Fusion for Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Vita, and Windows, was released on February 4, 2014. An exclusive "Wild West Emmet '' minifigure was released with preorders of the game at GameStop.
The Lego Movie was released on Digital HD on May 20, 2014. It was released by Warner Home Video on DVD and Blu - ray (2D and 3D) on June 17, 2014. A special Blu - ray 3D "Everything is Awesome Edition '' also includes an exclusive Vitruvius minifigure and a collectible 3D Emmett photo.
The Lego Movie was met with "nearly unanimous positive reviews. '' Review - aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 96 % approval rating with an average rating of 8.2 / 10 based on 226 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Boasting beautiful animation, a charming voice cast, laugh - a-minute gags, and a surprisingly thoughtful story, The Lego Movie is colorful fun for all ages. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics, the film has a score of 83 (indicating "universal acclaim '') based on 43 reviews. According to CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, the average grade cinemagoers gave The Lego Movie was A on an A+ to F scale. Filmmaker Edgar Wright, and TIME Magazine film critic Richard Corliss, each named The Lego Movie as one of their favorite films of 2014.
Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Arriving at a time when feature animation was looking and feeling mighty anemic... The LEGO Movie shows ' em how it 's done, '' with Peter Debruge of Variety adding that Lord and Miller "irreverently deconstruct the state of the modern blockbuster and deliver a smarter, more satisfying experience in its place, emerging with a fresh franchise for others to build upon. '' Tom Huddleston of Time Out said, "The script is witty, the satire surprisingly pointed, and the animation tactile and imaginative. '' Drew Hunt of the Chicago Reader said the filmmakers "fill the script with delightfully absurd one - liners and sharp pop culture references '', with A.O. Scott of The New York Times noting that, "Pop - culture jokes ricochet off the heads of younger viewers to tickle the world - weary adults in the audience, with just enough sentimental goo applied at the end to unite the generations. Parents will dab their eyes while the kids roll theirs. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News said the filmmakers "do n't sink into cynicism. Their computer animation embraces the retro look and feel of the toys to both ingenious and adorable effect. ''
Claudia Puig of USA Today called the film "a spirited romp through a world that looks distinctively familiar, and yet freshly inventive. '' Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail asked, "Can a feature - length toy commercial also work as a decent kids ' movie? The bombast of the G.I. Joe and Transformers franchises might suggest no, but after an uninspired year for animated movies, The Lego Movie is a 3 - D animated film that connects. '' Joel Arnold of NPR acknowledged that the film "may be one giant advertisement, but all the way to its plastic - mat foundation, it 's an earnest piece of work -- a cash grab with a heart. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "sassy enough to shoot well - aimed darts at corporate branding. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post said that, "While clearly filled with affection for -- and marketing tie - ins to -- the titular product that 's front and center, it 's also something of a sharp plastic brick flung in the eye of its corporate sponsor. ''
On the negative side, Kyle Smith of the New York Post called the film "more exhausting than fun, too unsure of itself to stick with any story thread for too long. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times, while generally positive, found "it falls apart a bit near the end. '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap said the film "will doubtless tickle young fans of the toys. It 's just too bad that a movie that encourages you to think for yourself does n't follow its own advice. ''
Television personality, author, filmmaker, radio host and conservative political commentator Glenn Beck praised the film for avoiding "the double meanings and adult humor I just hate. ''
Oscar host Neil Patrick Harris referenced The Lego Movie not being nominated Best Animated Feature, which many critics considered a major snub, saying prior to the award 's presentation "If you 're at the Oscar party with the guys who directed ' The Lego Movie, ' now would be a great time to distract them. ''
U.S. Senator Ron Johnson criticized the film 's anti-corporate message, saying that it taught children that "government is good and business is bad '', citing the villain 's name of Lord Business. "That 's done for a reason '', Johnson told WisPolitics.com. "They 're starting that propaganda, and it 's insidious ''. The comments were criticized by many, and Russ Feingold brought up the comments on the campaign trail during his 2016 Senate bid against Johnson.
The Lego Movie grossed $257.8 million in the U.S. and Canada, and $210.3 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $469.2 million. Calculating in all expenses, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $229 million.
In the U.S. and Canada, the film opened at number one in its first weekend with over $69 million, which was the second highest weekend debut in February, at the time, behind The Passion of the Christ ($83.8 million). The movie retained the top spot at box office in its second weekend by declining only 28 % and grossing $49.8 million. The Lego Movie was number one again in its third weekend while declining 37 % and grossing $31.3 million. In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number three grossing $20.8 million.
Elsewhere, The Lego Movie was released in 34 markets in February 7, 2014 -- the same weekend as its U.S. release. It made $18.7 million on its opening weekend from 5,695 screens from 34 countries. On its opening weekend, which varies depending on the country, it earned $3.8 million in Mexico, $2 million in Spain, $1.8 million in Brazil. With a total gross of £ 34.3 million, it was the second highest - grossing film in the UK and Ireland in 2014.
The popularity of the film led to a shortage of Lego products by September 2014.
The film 's original score was composed by Mark Mothersbaugh, who had previously worked with Lord and Miller on Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs and 21 Jump Street. The Lego Movie soundtrack contains the score as the majority of its tracks. Also included is the song "Everything Is Awesome!!! '' written by Shawn Patterson (El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera and Robot Chicken), Joshua Bartholomew and Lisa Harriton, who also perform the song in the movie under the name, Jo Li. The single, released on January 27, 2014, is performed by Tegan and Sara featuring The Lonely Island (Andy Samberg, Akiva Schaffer and Jorma Taccone) who wrote the rap lyrics, and is the first song played in the end credits of the movie. The soundtrack was released on February 4, 2014 by WaterTower Music.
The film 's theme song, "Everything is Awesome!!! '', has been critically praised and has undergone some close analysis. Eric Brown, writing in the International Business Times, describes the song as a parody of fascism, saying that the song "seems little more than an infectiously catchy parody of watered - down radio pop, right down to the faux - dubstep breakdown. There 's a lot more happening under the surface, however. '' In an interview with Fox News, producer Mark Mothersbaugh says the song "was supposed to be like mind control early in the film. It 's totally irritating, this kind of mindless mantra to get people up and working. ''
Because of its critical and commercial success, The Lego Movie has been turned into a franchise and a shared fictional universe. It consists of two spin - off films, The Lego Batman Movie and The Lego Ninjago Movie, both with 2017 release dates, a sequel scheduled for release in 2019, and a third spin - off titled The Billion Brick Race. A 4 - D ride attraction, based on the film itself, titled The Lego Movie: 4D - A New Adventure, opened at select Legoland theme parks across the globe in the summer of 2016.
On May 10, 2017, Warner Bros. and Lego announced that the character Unikitty would receive a spin - off television series on Cartoon Network, with Tara Strong voicing the character. The premiere date is yet to be announced.
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when is the new planet of the apes movie released | Planet of the Apes - wikipedia
Original series
Remake
Reboot series
Planet of the Apes is an American science fiction media franchise consisting of films, books, television series, comics, and other media about a world in which humans and intelligent apes clash for control. The series began with French author Pierre Boulle 's 1963 novel La Planète des Singes, translated into English as Planet of the Apes or Monkey Planet. The 1968 film adaptation, Planet of the Apes, was a critical and commercial hit, initiating a series of sequels, tie - ins, and derivative works. Arthur P. Jacobs produced the series under APJAC Productions until his death in 1973; since then 20th Century Fox has owned the franchise.
Four sequels followed the original film between 1970 and 1973: Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, and Battle for the Planet of the Apes. They did not approach the critical acclaim of the original, but were commercially successful. The series also spawned two television series in 1974 and 1975. Plans for a film remake stalled in "development hell '' for over ten years before Tim Burton 's Planet of the Apes was released in 2001. A new reboot film series commenced in 2011 with Rise of the Planet of the Apes, which was followed by Dawn of the Planet of the Apes in 2014 and War for the Planet of the Apes in 2017. The films have grossed a total of over $2 billion worldwide, against a combined budget of $567.5 million. Other media and merchandising tie - ins include books, comics, video games, and toys.
Planet of the Apes has received particular attention for its treatment of race, which critics consider its primary theme. Critics have also written on its Cold War and animal rights themes. The series has had a wide influence on subsequent films, media, and art, as well as popular culture and political discourse.
The series began with French author Pierre Boulle 's 1963 novel La Planète des Singes. Boulle wrote the novel in six months after the "humanlike expressions '' of gorillas at the zoo inspired him to contemplate the relationship between man and ape. La Planète des Singes was heavily influenced by 18th - and 19th - century fantastical travel narratives, especially Jonathan Swift 's satirical Gulliver 's Travels. It is one of several of Boulle 's works to use science fiction tropes and plot devices to comment on the failings of human nature and mankind 's overreliance on technology. However, Boulle rejected the science fiction label for his work, instead terming it "social fantasy ''.
The novel is a social satire following French journalist Ulysse Mérou, who participates in a voyage to a distant planet where speechless, animalistic humans are hunted and enslaved by an advanced society of apes. Eventually Mérou discovers that humans once dominated the planet until their complacency allowed the more industrious apes to overthrow them. The novel 's central message is that human intelligence is not a fixed quality and could atrophy if taken for granted. Boulle considered the novel one of his minor works, though it proved to be a hit. Xan Fielding translated it into English; it was published in the United Kingdom as Monkey Planet and in the United States as Planet of the Apes.
Boulle 's literary agent Allain Bernheim brought the novel to the attention of American film producer Arthur P. Jacobs, who had come to Paris looking for new properties to adapt with his new company, APJAC Productions. To explain his interests, Jacobs had mentioned to agents, "I wish King Kong had n't been made so I could make it. '' Bernheim initially approached Jacobs about a Françoise Sagan novel, which Jacobs turned down. Remembering Jacobs ' earlier comment about King Kong, Bernheim mentioned La Planète des Singes, not expecting Jacobs would be interested. However, the story intrigued Jacobs, who bought the film rights immediately.
After optioning the novel 's film rights, Arthur P. Jacobs spent over three years trying to convince filmmakers to take on the project. He hired a succession of artists to create test sketches, and hired veteran television writer Rod Serling, creator of The Twilight Zone, to pen the script. Serling 's script changed elements of Boulle 's novel, introducing Cold War themes; notably he wrote a new twist ending that revealed the planet to be a future Earth where humans had destroyed themselves through nuclear warfare. As production costs were estimated at over $10 million, no studio in either Hollywood or Europe would assume the risk. Jacobs and associate producer Mort Abrahams persevered, and eventually persuaded Charlton Heston to star; Heston in turn recommended director Franklin J. Schaffner. The team recorded a brief screen test featuring Heston, which ultimately convinced 20th Century Fox the film could succeed.
Fox insisted on changes to reduce the budget to a more manageable $5.8 million. The producers hired veteran writer Michael Wilson, who had previously adapted Boulle 's novel The Bridge over the River Kwai, to rewrite Serling 's script. To save on special effects costs, Wilson 's script described an ape society more primitive than that which appeared in the novel. The new script changed much of the plot and dialogue, but retained the Cold War themes and Serling 's ending. John Chambers created the innovative makeup effects.
Heston played 20th - century American astronaut George Taylor, who travels to a strange planet where intelligent apes dominate mute, primitive humans. Kim Hunter and Roddy McDowall played the sympathetic chimpanzees Zira and Cornelius, and Linda Harrison portrayed Taylor 's love interest Nova. Maurice Evans played the villain, orangutan science minister Dr. Zaius. The finale, in which Taylor comes upon a ruined Statue of Liberty and realizes he has been on Earth all along, became the series ' defining scene and one of the most iconic images in 1960s film. The film was released on February 8, 1968, and was a smash success with both critics and audiences, breaking contemporary box office records and earning rave reviews. John Chambers received an honorary Oscar at the 41st Academy Awards for his make - up effects, the first ever given to a make - up artist. Jerry Goldsmith 's score and Morton Haack 's costume design also earned Oscar nominations. Fox approached Jacobs and Abrahams about filming a sequel. Though they had not made the film with sequels in mind, its success led them to consider the prospect.
Planning for the sequel, eventually titled Beneath the Planet of the Apes, began two months after the original film 's release. Jacobs and Abrahams initially considered several treatments by Rod Serling and Pierre Boulle, but ultimately turned them down. In fall 1968 the producers hired Paul Dehn to write the script; he would become the primary writer for the franchise. Charlton Heston was uninterested in a sequel, but agreed to shoot a few scenes if his character were killed off and his salary donated to charity. In one of many major rewrites, Dehn altered the script to center on a new character, Brent, played by James Franciscus. With director Franklin J. Shaffner unavailable, owing to his work on Patton, the producers hired Ted Post on January 8, 1969. Post struggled with the material, especially after the studio cut the budget to $3.4 million.
The story follows Franciscus ' character Brent, an astronaut who inadvertently follows Taylor into the future while searching for him. After encountering the apes from the first film, Brent finds Taylor imprisoned by a colony of subterranean human mutants who worship an ancient nuclear bomb. Kim Hunter, Maurice Evans, and Linda Harrison returned as Zira, Zaius, and Nova. David Watson replaced Roddy McDowall as Cornelius, as McDowall was unavailable due to a scheduling conflict. James Gregory played gorilla General Ursus and Paul Richards played mutant leader Méndez. The film opened on May 26, 1970. Unlike the first film, Beneath was poorly reviewed; critics typically regard it as the worst of the Apes sequels other than the fifth film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes. However, it was a major box office hit, nearing the original 's numbers. Despite a conclusion depicting the planet 's nuclear destruction, Fox requested another sequel, creating a series.
Following the financial success of Beneath, Arthur P. Jacobs recruited Paul Dehn to write a new script with a brief telegram: "Apes exist, Sequel required. '' Dehn immediately started work on what became Escape from the Planet of the Apes. The producers hired a new director, Don Taylor. Fox gave the production a greatly diminished budget ($2.5 million), which required a tight production schedule.
To work around the budget, as well as Beneath 's seemingly definitive ending, the film took the series in a new direction by transporting Zira (Kim Hunter) and Cornelius (Roddy McDowall, returning to the role after being absent from Beneath) back in time to the contemporary United States, reducing the need for expensive sets and ape make - up effects. In the film, Zira and Cornelius are initially accepted by American society, but fears that their child will bring about the domination of the human race by evolved apes leads to conflict. Jacob 's wife Natalie Trundy, who appeared as a mutant in Beneath and later played the ape Lisa in the next two sequels, was cast as Dr. Stephanie Branton. Bradford Dillman played Dr. Lewis Dixon, Ricardo Montalbán played Armando, and Eric Braeden portrayed the villain, the President 's Science Advisor Otto Hasslein.
Compared to its predecessors, Escape dwelt more heavily on themes of racial conflict, which became a primary focus through the rest of the series. The film opened on May 21, 1971, less than a year after Beneath. It was well received by critics. From this point critics began seeing the films less as independent units and more as installments in a greater work; Frederick S. Clarke wrote that the burgeoning series had "the promise of being the first epic of filmed science fiction. '' It also performed well at the box office, though not as strongly as its predecessors. Fox ordered a third sequel.
Based on the strong positive response to Escape, Fox ordered Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, though it provided a comparatively low budget of $1.7 million. Paul Dehn returned as the scriptwriter, and producer Jacobs hired J. Lee Thompson to direct. Thompson had worked with Jacobs on two earlier films as well as during the initial stages of Planet, but scheduling conflicts had made him unavailable during its long development process. For Conquest, Thompson and Dehn focused heavily on the racial conflict theme, an ancillary concern in the early films that became a major theme in Escape. In particular, Dehn associated the apes with African - Americans and modeled the plot after the 1966 Watts Riots and other episodes from the Civil Rights Movement. Roddy McDowall signed on to play Caesar, the son of his previous character Cornelius. Ricardo Montalban returned as Armando, while Don Murray played Governor Breck, Severn Darden played Kolp, and Hari Rhodes played MacDonald.
Following Escape, Conquest is set in a near future where humans have turned apes into slaves; Caesar rises from bondage to lead an ape rebellion. The film opened June 30, 1972. Reviews were mixed. However, the ending left the series open to another sequel, and Conquest was successful enough at the box office that Fox greenlit another film.
Fox approved Battle for the Planet of the Apes with a $1.2 million budget, the lowest of the series. The filmmakers went into the project knowing it would be the last of the series. J. Lee Thompson returned as director. Series writer Paul Dehn submitted a treatment, but illness forced him to leave the film before completing the script. The producers subsequently hired John William Corrington and Joyce Hooper Corrington to write the screenplay. Battle continued Conquest 's focus on racial conflict and domination. However, likely based in part on the studio 's wishes, the Corringtons discarded Dehn 's pessimistic treatment in favor of a story with a more hopeful, though ambiguous, resolution.
Battle follows Caesar as he leads the apes and their human subjects after a devastating war that destroyed much of the planet. He contends with both an attack by radiation - scarred human mutants and a coup attempt as he attempts to build a better society for both apes and humans. McDowall returned as Caesar, and Severn Darden returned as Kolp. Paul Williams played the orangutan Virgil, Austin Stoker played MacDonald (the brother of Hari Rhodes ' character), and Claude Akins played the evil gorilla general Aldo. John Huston played the orangutan Lawgiver in a frame narrative. The film opened May 2, 1973. It made a profit over production costs, but received poor reviews from critics, who regard it as the weakest of the five films.
Critics have offered various interpretations of the film 's message and its significance for the series. Particular attention has been paid to the ambiguous imagery in the ending: set 700 years after the main events, the last scene depicts a statue of Caesar shedding a single tear as the Lawgiver recounts Caesar 's story to an integrated audience of ape and human children. By one interpretation, the statue cries tears of joy because the species have broken the cycle of oppression, giving the series an optimistic finale. By another, the statue weeps because racial strife still exists, implying the dystopian future of Planet and Beneath is unavoidable.
In addition to their box office grosses, the films earned very high ratings when broadcast on television after their theatrical run. To capitalize on this success, Arthur P. Jacobs conceived of an hour - long live action television series to follow the films. He originally thought of the idea in 1971 during the production of Conquest, which he then anticipated would be the final film. However, he shelved the project once Fox ordered a fifth film. Jacobs died on June 27, 1973, bringing an end to the APJAC Productions era of the Planet of the Apes franchise. Former Fox executive Stan Hough took over as producer for the television project, titled Planet of the Apes. CBS picked up the series for its 1974 fall lineup.
Ron Harper and James Naughton played Alan Virdon and Peter Burke, two 20th - century American astronauts who pass through a time warp to a future where apes subjugate humans (unlike the original film, the humans can speak). Roddy McDowall returned to the franchise as Galen, a chimpanzee who joins the astronauts. Booth Coleman played orangutan Councillor Zaius and Mark Lenard played gorilla General Urko. The episodes portray Virdon, Burke, and Galen as they look for answers, aid downtrodden humans and apes, and avoid the authorities. The show premiered on September 13, 1974, filling CBS ' 8 -- 9 p.m. time slot on Fridays. It earned low ratings during its run, a fact the production team attributed to repetitive storytelling and too little screen time for the apes who made the series famous. Given the considerable production costs, CBS cancelled the show after 14 episodes, the last airing on December 20, 1974.
In 1981, Fox reedited ten of the episodes into five television films. Each film combined two episodes and (in some markets) added new introductory and concluding segments starring Roddy McDowall as an aged Galen. The films were given what scholar Eric Greene called "the most outlandish titles of the Apes corpus '': Back to the Planet of the Apes; Forgotten City of the Planet of the Apes; Treachery and Greed on the Planet of the Apes; Life, Liberty and Pursuit on the Planet of the Apes; and Farewell to the Planet of the Apes.
Greene finds the show 's timeline significant: set in 3085, it occurs about 900 years before Taylor 's crash in the original film, and 400 years after the Lawgiver 's sermon in Battle. By depicting a future where apes dominate humans, it implies the Lawgiver 's message of equality between man and ape has failed, giving weight to the more pessimistic interpretation of Battle 's ending. Greene writes that the show emphasized the theme of racial conflict less than the films had, though the episodes "The Trap '' and "The Liberator '' made it the central focus. However, the show is actually set in the original timeline, before Caesar came to exist.
In 1975, after the failure of the live - action series, NBC decided to adapt Planet of the Apes for an animated series. The network contracted DePatie - Freleng Enterprises to produce a half - hour Saturday morning cartoon titled Return to the Planet of the Apes. Doug Wildey, co-creator of Jonny Quest, took on most creative control as associate producer, storyboard director, and supervising director. Wildey had only watched the original film and Beneath, and thus based his interpretation on them. As such, the show relied less on the themes and plot developments from Escape, Conquest, and Battle and instead returned to the Vietnam War and Cold War themes prominent in the first two films.
The plot concerns three American astronauts, Bill Hudson (Tom Williams), Jeff Allen (Austin Stoker, who played MacDonald in Battle), and Judy Franklin (Claudette Nevins), who inadvertently journey to Earth 's far future. They find the world populated by three groups: mute humans who inhabit desert caves, subterranean human "Underdwellers '' fashioned after the mutants of Beneath, and civilized apes who subjugate the humans. Through the show, the astronauts become increasingly involved in the planet 's affairs and in defending the humans against an ape invasion. The cast featured characters based on those from the previous films and TV series, including Nova (Claudette Nevis), General Urko (Henry Cordin), Zira (Philippa Harris), Cornelius (Edwin Mills), and Dr. Zaius (Richard Blackburn). NBC broadcast thirteen episodes between September 6 and November 21, 1975. The show did not achieve particularly strong ratings. The network considered producing a second three - episode season to complete the story, but this never materialized.
Fox initiated plans to relaunch the Planet of the Apes series in the 1980s, but the project fell into "development hell '' for over ten years, experiencing one of the most protracted development periods in film history. It began in 1988, when Fox announced Adam Rifkin, then a 21 - year - old independent film director, would develop a new Apes film. At a Fox executive 's invitation, Rifkin pitched a concept for Return to the Planet of the Apes, an alternative sequel to Planet that ignored the other four films. In Rifkin 's initial concept, Taylor 's descendant Duke launches a Spartacus - like uprising against Roman - inspired ape oppressors led by General Izan. The project nearly entered pre-production, but days before, Fox brought in new studio executives who sent the project back to development. They commissioned Rifkin to rewrite the script through several drafts, but found them unsatisfactory and ultimately scrapped the project.
After several years in limbo, Fox returned to the Apes concept, this time with Oliver Stone as a producer. Stone brought in Terry Hayes as screenwriter, and they developed a script titled Return of the Apes. In their script, humanity is threatened by an ailment encoded in their DNA, so two scientists go back in time thousands of years to stop it at its origin. They discover the disease was engineered by advanced apes to ensure humanity 's eventual destruction. Arnold Schwarzenegger committed to star as scientist Will Robinson, while Philip Noyce agreed to direct. The draft impressed Fox president Peter Chernin, but other executives were ambivalent about the action script, believing it should be lighter. Notably, executive Dylan Sellers insisted the script include a comic scene involving apes playing baseball as his "stamp '' on the film, and fired Hayes when he left it out. This move caused Noyce to quit as well, and subsequently almost everyone involved in the project left for one reason or another.
After the collapse of the Stone - Hayes project, Fox brought on Chris Columbus to develop a new Apes concept. Columbus hired Sam Hamm to write a new draft taking elements from Boulle 's novel and various unused scripts. In Hamm 's script, an ape astronaut from a distant planet unleashes a devastating virus on Earth. Scientists go to the astronaut 's planet, where apes hunt humans; they locate a cure, but return to find Earth overrun by simians. Schwarzenegger remained attached, but Fox found the script underwhelming. Columbus left the project in 1995 after his mother 's death, and James Cameron stepped in to produce. Cameron intended to go in a "very different direction '' with the script, but following the critical and financial success of his film Titanic, he dropped out of the project. Fox approached a series of directors to take over, without success. By 1999 the studio decided once again to go in a new direction.
In 1999, Fox hired William Broyles, Jr. to write a new script. Fox insisted on a July 2001 release date, but otherwise offered considerable creative control. This prospect attracted director Tim Burton, who hoped to do a "re-imagining '' of Planet of the Apes. However, Burton found the production arduous, largely due to Fox 's strict release schedule. The studio budgeted the film at $100 million, meaning Broyles ' ambitious script had to be rewritten to reduce costs; Lawrence Konner and Mark Rosenthal worked on rewrites even as the film entered production. The tight schedule meant all stages of production were rushed.
The film stars Mark Wahlberg as astronaut Leo Davidson, who accidentally travels through a wormhole to a distant planet where talking apes enslave humans. He leads a human revolt and upends ape civilization by discovering that the apes evolved from the normal earth primates who had accompanied his mission, and arrived years before. Helena Bonham Carter played chimpanzee Ari, while Tim Roth played the human - hating chimpanzee General Thade. The film received mixed reviews, with critics generally believing it failed to compare to the original. Much criticism focused on the confusing plot and twist ending, though many reviewers praised the special effects. The film succeeded in the box office, taking in a total of $362,211,740. Fox had initially hoped for a second film, but the difficult production made Burton disinclined to participate, and the film failed to generate enough interest for Fox to pursue a sequel.
In 2005, screenwriters Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver developed a concept for a new Planet of the Apes film, eventually titled Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Inspired by news articles on apes raised as humans and advances in genetics, Jaffa conceived an idea for a film about a genetically enhanced chimp raised in a human household. He and Silver pitched the concept to Fox as a way to reboot the Apes franchise by reinventing the story of the chimpanzee Caesar, the lead character of Conquest. Fox was impressed and bought the pitch, but development struggled for five years as the production cycled through scripts, writers, directors, and producers. In 2010, producers Peter Chernin and Dylan Clark of Chernin Entertainment stepped in to move the film forward, retaining Jaffa and Silver as writers.
In the final script, Caesar receives enhanced cognition from a viral drug created by Will Rodman, who raises him. After being imprisoned in a primate sanctuary, Caesar uses his ingenuity to launch an uprising. The screenplay contains numerous complex connections to other entries in the series, causing some confusion as to its exact relation to them. Oliver Lindler writes that while the film 's premise might identify it as a remake of Conquest, official dispatches and professional reviewers typically avoided the term, instead calling the film a prequel or "origin story '' to the original Planet of the Apes film, and / or a reboot of the series, although fans and bloggers were more apt to make the "remake '' connection. The completed script attracted director Rupert Wyatt. To portray ape characters realistically, the production avoided practical effects and animal actors in favor of performance capture acting, partnering with New Zealand visual effects company Weta Digital. Wyatt cast James Franco as Will Rodman, while veteran performance capture actor Andy Serkis signed on to star as Caesar.
Rise debuted on August 5, 2011. Critics reviewed it positively, especially praising the visual effects and Serkis ' performance. It was a major box office hit, taking in $481,801,049 over its $93 million budget. Weta 's special effects earned the film two Visual Effects Society Awards and an Oscar nomination at the 84th Academy Awards, among other accolades. The strength of Serkis 's performance also inspired Fox to promote him for Oscar consideration, though the Academy did not nominate him. Following this success, Fox immediately planned for a sequel.
Producers Peter Chernin and Dylan Clark started planning the film eventually titled Dawn of the Planet of the Apes just after Rise 's release in 2011. Fox gave the film a budget of $170 million and a release date of July 11, 2014. Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver returned to pen the script and produce, and the studio quickly signed Andy Serkis to reprise his role as Caesar. Director Rupert Wyatt withdrew from the project due to production and scheduling issues, and was replaced by Matt Reeves.
Set ten years after Rise, the film establishes that the "Simian Flu '' that increased the intelligence of the apes has killed most humans. Caesar struggles to maintain peace as his ape community is drawn into a war with nearby human survivors. Weta Digital again provided special effects work, which combined practical sets, digitally manipulated backgrounds, and performance capture ape characters. The human cast included Jason Clarke as Malcolm, Keri Russell as Ellie, and Gary Oldman as Dreyfus. The film debuted on July 11, 2014. It was met with critical acclaim; reviewers found it a strong followup to Rise and lauded the combination of an engaging script with impressive special effects. It also performed very strongly at the box office, taking in $707,498,744 in worldwide grosses. Its special effects received several accolades, including three Visual Effects Society Awards and an Oscar nomination at the 87th Academy Awards.
The producers were confident enough in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes that they started planning for the next installment before production had completed. They contracted Matt Reeves to return as director after seeing his cut of Dawn; he also wrote the script with Mark Bomback. Peter Chernin, Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver serve as producers. The film, War for the Planet of the Apes, was released on July 14, 2017. Woody Harrelson and Gabriel Chavarria played human characters, while Steve Zahn played Bad Ape. The film received overwhelmingly positive reviews.
In October 2016, it was announced that a fourth Planet of the Apes film is already being planned.
Pierre Boulle 's novel La Planète des Singes was translated and reprinted several times after its original publication in 1963. In addition, all of the original sequels spawned novelizations by established science fiction writers of the day, each of which went through multiple reprintings of their own. Michael Avallone wrote the novelization for Beneath the Planet of the Apes in 1970. Jerry Pournelle, who later co-authored Lucifer 's Hammer and The Mote in God 's Eye, wrote the Escape from the Planet of the Apes novelization. John Jakes, former Science Fiction Writers of America president, wrote Conquest of the Planet of the Apes. David Gerrold, scriptwriter for the Star Trek episode "The Trouble with Tribbles '', novelized Battle for the Planet of the Apes. Novelizations of the live action and animated television series were also produced. William T. Quick novelized the 2001 Planet of the Apes; he also wrote two prequel novels, and several other book tie - ins were published.
Planet of the Apes - based comics have been published regularly since 1968. Among the most notable is Marvel Comics ' Planet of the Apes magazine, published from 1974 to 1977. The black - and - white series featured comics adaptations of each of the films, new Apes stories by Doug Moench, series news, essays, interviews and other material. It became one of Marvel 's most successful titles, attracting 300 to 400 fan letters with every issue, so many that the studio had to suspend its practice of writing personal responses. Marvel also published the monthly title Adventures on the Planet of the Apes from 1975 to 1976, comprising color reprints of the Planet and Beneath adaptations.
In 1990, during a resurgence of interest in the series, Malibu Comics launched a new monthly black - and - white Planet of the Apes comic through its Adventure Comics studio. The debut issue sold 40,000, a record for black - and - white comics, leading to a successful run of 24 issues over two years. The series follows Caesar 's grandson and heir Alexander as he struggles to govern ape civilization. The comic 's success led Malibu to publish five four - issue spin - off miniseries: Ape City, Planet of the Apes: Urchak 's Folly, the Alien Nation crossover Ape Nation, Planet of the Apes: Blood of the Apes, and Planet of the Apes: The Forbidden Zone. Malibu also published two one - shots: A Day on the Planet of the Apes and Planet prequel Planet of the Apes: Sins of the Fathers; a trade paperback collecting the first four issues of the main series, titled Monkey Planet; and reissues of stories from Marvel 's earlier Apes series.
Other companies producing Planet of the Apes comics include Gold Key Comics, Dark Horse Comics, and Boom! Studios. In 2014, Boom! collaborated with IDW Publishing on the Star Trek crossover Star Trek / Planet of the Apes: The Primate Directive.
The series, and particularly the live - action Apes television show and the Return to the Planet of the Apes cartoon, generated numerous toy and merchandising tie - ins. During the 1970s, Fox licensed around 60 companies to produce about 300 different Apes products, including action figures and playsets, model building kits, coloring books, book - and - record sets, trading cards, toy weapons, costumes, apparel, branded tableware, and lunch boxes. This level of merchandising was unusual for the time, and the success of Apes merchandise may have inspired the campaigns that later became commonplace for films and television series. The action figures, sold by Mego beginning in 1973, were the first such toys sold as film tie - ins; they proved popular and inspired the rise of action figure series based on popular culture franchises. Eric Greene writes that Apes toys were popular enough to lead some contemporary children to engage in apes - vs. - humans role - playing make believe games that simulated the series ' conflicts in a manner similar to "Cowboys and Indians ''. With the release of the 21st - century films, Fox licensed several companies to manufacture new Apes toys, including detailed action figures of new and "classic '' characters sold as collectibles.
A Planet of the Apes ride is planned for the 20th Century Fox World theme park under construction in Malaysia.
In 1983, 20th Century Fox Videogames developed a Planet of the Apes game for the Atari 2600, which was to be the first computer game based on the series. However, the game was still in the prototype phase when Fox shuttered its game division during the video game crash of 1983, and never saw release. It was assumed lost until 2002, when collectors identified a prototype, found earlier in a case labeled Alligator People, as the missing Apes game. Independent designers Retrodesign completed and released the game as Revenge of the Apes in 2003. In the game, the player controls Taylor as he fights apes across several levels inspired by the film to reach the Statue of Liberty.
A video game based on the series did not appear until 2001. Fox Interactive began developing the Planet of the Apes game in 1998 for PC and PlayStation as a tie - in to the long - gestating remake film. Fox and developer Visiware proceeded with the game when the film went into limbo, creating their own story based on Boulle 's novel and the original films. The game is an action - adventure in which players control astronaut Ulysses as he explores an ape - ruled future Earth. Setbacks with the film project and Fox Interactive 's decision to co-publish with another company (Ubisoft) delayed the game three years. Despite its long development, the game missed the debut of Tim Burton 's Planet of the Apes film by two months; it finally appeared on September 20, 2001, to mostly negative reviews. Additionally, Ubisoft produced a substantially different Planet of the Apes game for Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Color, a side - scroller following the first two films.
In 2014, Fox partnered with Ndemic Creations on a substantial Dawn of the Planet of the Apes - themed update to the mobile game Plague Inc. Players create and spread a "Simian Flu '' virus to eradicate humans while helping apes survive.
Andy Serkis has mentioned that War for the Planet of the Apes would be accompanied by a video game, for which he performed motion capture. Titled Planet of the Apes: Last Frontier, the game is set for release for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One and PC in fall 2017.
Critics consider race to be the Planet of the Apes series ' primary theme. Eric Greene, author of a book on the role of race in the original films and spinoff material, writes that "when seen as one epic work, the Apes saga emerges as a liberal allegory of racial conflict. '' In Greene 's interpretation, the franchise 's plot arc is founded in the conflict between humans and apes, who alternately subjugate one another in a destructive cycle. Difference between human and ape manifests primarily in physical appearance, and dominance derives from social power rather than innate superiority. Each film shifts the power balance so that the audience identifies sometimes with the humans, and other times with the apes. According to Greene, this arc 's central message is that unresolved racial discord inevitably leads to cataclysm. Other critics have followed Greene 's interpretations. Producers Abrahams and Jacobs did not consciously intend the first film 's racial undertones, and did not appreciate them until Sammy Davis Jr. pointed them out in 1968. Subsequently, the filmmakers incorporated the theme more overtly in later installments; as a result, race moves from being a secondary theme in the first two films, to becoming the major concern of the last three.
Several critics have written that the reboot films downplay the original series ' theme of race, generally arguing that this is to their detriment. Others, however, write that the films incorporate racial themes in subtler ways.
The Cold War and the threat of nuclear holocaust are major themes introduced in Rod Serling 's original Planet of the Apes script. The films are apocalyptic and dystopian, and portray the era 's tensions leading to world destruction. The films critique both sides of the war, with the oppressive ape society and the mutant city featuring traits of both Western culture and the Soviet bloc. According to Greene, Cold War themes were central to the first two films and some spinoff media, but were less significant in the later sequels, which foregrounded racial conflict instead.
Questions of animal rights also figure heavily in the series; Greene considers this related to the racial themes. The first film portrays Taylor treated cruelly by apes who consider him an animal; in later films humans abuse apes for the same reason. The primate rights theme is much more dominant in the reboot films, which directly invoke the question of great ape personhood in portraying Caesar and his friends struggling for their rights in a society that does not consider them legal persons.
Planet of the Apes received popular and critical attention well after production ended on the original films and television series. Fans ' interest in the franchise continued through publications like Marvel Comics ' Planet of the Apes magazine and science fiction conventions, where the series was sufficiently popular to inspire "apecons '' -- conventions devoted entirely to films involving apes -- in the 1970s. The series ' distinctive ape costumes were employed in live appearances, including by musician Paul Williams (Virgil from Battle) on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and by Mike Douglas on The Mike Douglas Show. In the 1970s, fans Bill Blake and Paula Crist created Cornelius and Zira costumes; their routine was convincing enough that Fox licensed them to portray the characters at events. The films earned strong ratings when they aired on television after their releases, and various stations rebroadcast them together in marathons in later years. The live - action television series was re-formatted into five TV movies for further broadcast in 1981, and the Sci - Fi Channel ran both it and the cartoon in the 1990s.
Planet of the Apes had a wide impact on subsequent popular media. In terms of production, the series ' success with sequelization, spinoffs, and merchandising established a new model of media franchising in Hollywood filmmaking, in which studios develop films specifically to generate multi-media franchises. In terms of content, the series influenced various films and television productions during the 1970s and ' 80s that used science fiction settings and characters to explore race relations, including Alien Nation, Enemy Mine, and V. More direct influence can be seen in DC Comics ' 1972 -- 1978 series Kamandi: The Last Boy on Earth and the Japanese franchise Time of the Apes, which concern human protagonists in post-apocalyptic worlds ruled by talking animals. Mel Brooks ' 1987 science fiction spoof Spaceballs lampooned the Statue of Liberty ending from the original Planet.
Interest in the series resurged in the 1990s, as plans for a new film and other media circulated. Greene attributes this renewed interest to a combination of "pop culture nostalgia and baby boomer economics '', as well as a "political ferment '' rising at the time that hearkened back to the period when the films were first released. Inspired particularly by the publication of the Malibu Comics series, during this period fans founded new clubs, websites, and fanzines active in the U.S., Canada, Brazil, and other countries. Companies began producing new branded merchandise, including clothing, toys, and costumes.
Especially after the 1990s, artists in diverse media referenced, incorporated, or were otherwise influenced by the series. Planet of the Apes turned up in songs by various musicians, references in films, comedy bits by Dennis Miller and Paul Mooney, and an episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Charlton Heston. The Simpsons parodied the series several times. Notably, the episode "A Fish Called Selma '' features the washed - up actor Troy McClure starring in a Broadway musical adaptation called Stop the Planet of the Apes, I Want to Get Off! Artist Martha Rosler incorporated footage of Cornelius and Zira 's interrogation from Escape in her installation "Global Taste: A Meal in Three Courses '', while Guillermo Gómez - Peña and Coco Fusco employed video from Planet in a 1993 performance art piece at the Whitney Museum of American Art.
The series ' impact has also extended to the political sphere, and groups of various leanings have employed its themes and imagery in their discourse. The phrase "planet of the apes '' has been used for an overturning of the political or racial status quo. Eric Greene writes that it is especially popular among racial nationalists and reactionaries of different stripes, who use it in reference to race conflict. According to Greene, white supremacists liken minority advancement to the films ' world in which supposed "inferiors '' seize control, while black nationalists subvert the reference to celebrate the "racial apocalypse ''; in this spirit, gangsta rap group Da Lench Mob titled their 1994 album Planet of da Apes. Greene writes that these uses invert the anti-racist message of the films. Planet 's final image of the ruined Statue of Liberty has become a common political reference; for example, Greenpeace used it in an advertising campaign against nuclear testing. The series ' themes and imagery have been invoked in political discussions on topics as varied as Sixties culture, urban decay, contemporary wars, and gun violence.
The following table shows the cast members who played the primary characters in the film series.
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which area of russia has the greatest population | European Russia - wikipedia
European Russia is the part of Russia situated in the far West of the country that is considered to be part of Europe. The other, much larger part of the country, situated to the East, is considered to be part of Asia. The specific boundaries between continents are largely a matter of geographical convention and different boundaries have been in use, however the eastern boundary of Europe is generally considered to be along the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caucasus Mountains and the Turkish Straits. Europe is also a subcontinent within Eurasia in geological terms, making the whole of Russia a part of the Eurasian continent.
European Russia makes up 80 % of Europe 's total area. Its eastern border is defined by the Ural Mountains and the border with Kazakhstan. European Russia includes Moscow and Saint Petersburg, the two largest cities in Russia.
Russia is not proportionately populated between its larger Asian portion, which contains about 23 % of the country 's population, and its smaller European portion, which contains about 77 %. The European portion contains about 110 million people out of Russia 's total population of about 144 million in an area covering nearly 4,000,000 km (1,500,000 sq mi); an average of 27.5 persons per km (70 per sq mi).
The eastern portion of Russia, mostly encompassing Siberia, is part of Asia and makes up more than 75 % of the territory with 22 % of the country 's population at 2.5 people per km (6.5 per sq mi).
The term "European Russia '' was used in the Russian Empire to refer to traditional East Slavic territories under Russian control, including what is now Belarus and most of Ukraine (Dnieper Ukraine).
The administrative districts (on a large scale called federal districts) of the Russian Federation do not exactly line up with European Russia, but they are decent approximations, depending on exactly how Europe is defined. There are two major trends, one to use administrative divisions north of the mouth of the Ural River and one to draw an imaginary line from the Ural River, through the city of Yekaterinburg.
The following administrative districts are overwhelmingly European:
Coordinates: 55 ° N 40 ° E / 55 ° N 40 ° E / 55; 40
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lil boosie this is the way i live | The Way I Live - Wikipedia
"The Way I Live '' is a 2006 single from New Orleans, Louisiana rapper Baby Boy Da Prince, from his debut album Across the Water. It features Lil Boosie and was produced by D - Weezy. It peaked number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming a big commercial success. There are two versions, one featuring only Lil Boosie and one featuring only P. Town Moe.
There was also a remix released entitled "The Way We Live '' containing lyrics about the New Orleans Saints, making references towards various players. It received moderate airplay in the New Orleans and Mississippi regions. In addition, Alex Rodriguez uses the song as his entrance music.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what car did dominic toretto drive in the fate of the furious | Dominic Toretto - wikipedia
Crew members / his "family '':
Dominic "Dom '' Toretto is a fictional character and one of the three main protagonists of The Fast and the Furious franchise, the other being Brian O'Conner and Sean Boswell. He is portrayed by Vin Diesel and was created by screenwriter Gary Scott Thompson. Dom is introduced in the first film of the series The Fast and the Furious (2001). He later appears in Fast & Furious (2009), Fast Five (2011), Fast & Furious 6 (2013), Furious 7 (2015), and The Fate of the Furious (2017), as well as the short film, Los Bandoleros (2009) and a cameo appearance at the end of The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006). 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) is the only film in the franchise not to feature the character.
The role put Diesel on Hollywood 's A-list, and won him the 2002 and 2014 MTV Movie Awards for Best On - Screen Team with Paul Walker. Diesel 's portrayal of the character has been given much of the credit for the longevity of the film series, and the actor has become strongly identified with the character.
The Fast and the Furious film series was inspired by an article on street racing, "Racer X '', that appeared in the May 1998 issue of Vibe magazine. Having witnessed his father 's death in a stock car race, Dominic is left with the responsibility of watching his younger sister, Mia Toretto, and leading the racers dependent on him. Vin Diesel was reportedly paid $2.5 million to star as Dominic Toretto in The Fast and the Furious and $15 million to star in and produce Fast Five.
Dominic Toretto is a fearless street racer, auto mechanic, and ex-convict. The character is the older brother of Mia Toretto and love interest of Letty Ortiz. Throughout the series, Dominic 's crew has perpetrated many high - speed semi hijackings, stealing millions of dollars in merchandise. He has spent most of his life running from the law.
In The Fast and the Furious, Dominic runs his own automotive garage while Mia takes care of the family 's grocery store in Echo Park. He also runs his own street race team, which consists of Letty, Vince, Leon, and Jesse. Dominic has a feud with Vietnamese - American rival Johnny Tran due to a business deal that went sour and Tran catching Dominic sleeping with his sister. Unknown to the public, he and his team drive black Honda Civic coupes and stage daring semi hijackings on the freeways, taking home millions of dollars in electronic appliances. He forms a friendship with rookie racer Brian Earl Spilner, who saves him from arrest when the LAPD raid a street race gathering. During the Race Wars, Johnny Tran blames Dominic for a raid by SWAT forces. The SWAT team came into his house, causing disrespect to his family. Dominic then attacks him and is promptly led away by Vince who then tells him to "chill out ''. During a hijacking job gone wrong, Dominic discovers Brian 's true identity as undercover LAPD officer named Brian O'Conner. Following a drag race that ends with Dominic 's 1970 Dodge Charger getting totalled, Brian hands him the keys to his Toyota Supra, as law enforcement have found out that Torretto has stolen millions in electronics with his crew. Dominic ends up escaping and fleeing to Mexico. Brian then is wanted for aiding in the escape of a wanted felon. Brian flees the state himself.
In The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift, Dominic makes a cameo appearance at the end of the film by challenging Sean Boswell in a drift race with his gun metal silver 1970 Plymouth Road Runner, which he won from his late friend Han.
In Los Bandoleros, Dominic recruits Han, Rico Santos, and Tego Leo to help him complete a job that is seen in the beginning of Fast & Furious.
In Fast & Furious, Dominic, Letty, and their gang lead a successful hijacking of a gasoline tanker in the Dominican Republic, but he shortly abandons them to keep the authorities away from them. Dominic returns to L.A. upon hearing of the death of Letty at the hands of Fenix Calderon. He and Brian once again team up to take down Mexican drug dealer Arturo Braga, who had ordered Letty 's execution following a drug run. He later finds out Brian was the last person who had contact with Letty; this enrages him as he attacks Brian before the latter could explain to him that Letty came to him for help in clearing his name so Dominic could return to Los Angeles. After successfully extraditing Braga back to the U.S., Dominic turns himself in to the authorities and is sentenced to 25 years to life in prison without the possibility of early parole. However, the bus carrying Dominic is ambushed by Brian, Mia, Rico and Tego; once Dominic is sprung out of the bus wreckage, the group flees out of the U.S. as fugitives.
In Fast Five, Dominic reunites with Brian, Mia and Vince in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. They get involved in a dangerous crossfire with drug lord Hernan Reyes, who has them framed for the murder of three DEA agents during a drug run on a train. As a means to get even on Reyes, Dominic and Brian form a team with Roman Pearce, Tej Parker, Han, Gisele Yashar, Rico and Tego to stage a bank heist and steal Reyes ' stash of US $100 million in cash. Elite bounty hunter and DSS federal agent Luke Hobbs is sent to Brazil to hunt down and capture Dominic and his gang, but when he is ambushed by Reyes ' men, he forms an unlikely alliance with Dominic and helps the gang execute their heist. After killing Reyes, Hobbs allows Dominic and his gang to leave Brazil with their stash by giving them a 24 - hour window. Hobbs ' partner Elena Neves also leaves the force and becomes Dominic 's new love interest.
In Fast & Furious 6, Dominic once again encounters Hobbs, who offers him a job to help him hunt down mercenary Owen Shaw and his crime syndicate, revealing that Letty is alive meaning Fenix must have failed to kill her and is working for Shaw. Dominic and Brian reassemble their gang (minus Rico and Tego, whom both are in Monaco) in London for this mission in exchange for a full pardon on all parties and Letty 's safe return. During the chase, Dominic is shot by Letty, and later on discovers that she is suffering from amnesia as a result of the explosion that nearly killed her in Fast & Furious. He saves her from falling to her death while the gang stops Shaw aboard a military tank on a bridge in Spain. Shaw, however, reveals his backup plan of kidnapping Mia and using her as leverage for his release and the handing of the top - secret microchip that was removed from the tank. Despite the death of Gisele, Dominic and his gang defeat Shaw and kill his men while saving Mia and the microchip in a daring chase at a NATO military airfield. Hobbs grants their pardons, and Dominic and his gang move back to his home in L.A. Seeing Dominic and Letty back together for good, Elena bids him farewell and returns to working with Hobbs. In a post credit scene, Owen Shaw 's elder brother, Deckard Shaw, kills Han in Tokyo and calls Dom with a threatening message.
In Furious 7, it was revealed that Owen Shaw is still alive, and his older brother Deckard Shaw went rogue and hunts Dominic 's team, which resulted in Han 's death (this explains why he died in Tokyo Drift, bridging the story here) and his house being blown up. Determined to exact revenge on Shaw, Dominic decided to take him down alone, but was stopped by a Covert Ops leader and Hobbs ' friend Mr. Nobody. Mr. Nobody offers Dominic a way to hunt Shaw by obtaining a software named "God 's Eye '' and save its creator named Ramsey from Mose Jakande and his men. Agreeing to the deal, Dominic, Brian, Letty, Tej and Roman led a daring rescue to Ramsey at the mountains of Azerbaijan and succeeds in doing so. Afterwards they figured out that the device was lend to a friend of Ramsey who lives in Abu Dhabi named Zafar. After a successful retrieval of the God 's Eye (that also involved Dominic and Brian made a vehicle jump on three buildings), they found Shaw 's hideout but also got into a surprise ambush that killed Nobody 's men and him being injured. Afterwards, Dominic decided to take down the alliance of Shaw and Jakande on their home turf. This also led to Dominic and Shaw have an intense fight at the rooftop of a parking garage while Brian led the others to lure Jakande while Ramsey initiating a hack to shut down God 's Eye for good. They succeeded in doing so but also paid with a huge destruction in the city and the death of Jakande when Dominic let his car crash on Jakande 's chopper and hooking a bag of grenades on its skids before crashing his vehicle, thought that he died in the process. This prompts Letty 's memories of her and Dominic restored (and also reveals that they were indeed married to each other somewhere in between the story of Los Bandoleros and Fast & Furious) and Dominic recovers from being unconscious. After this, Brian decides to retire from the crew in order to spend time with his family. Dominic leaves without saying goodbye, prompting Brian to catch up to him at an intersection and have one last drive before parting ways.
This also was done to give Brian 's role a clean retirement and a send - off after the actor who portrays him, Paul Walker, died in a single vehicle accident back in 2013.
In The Fate of the Furious, Dom has betrayed his family and friends at the behest of a mysterious, seductive woman known as Cipher. After betraying his team to steal an EMP device they were assigned to recover, it is revealed that Cipher -- the true mastermind behind both the attempted creation of the Nightshade device in Fast & Furious 6 and also the near - theft of the God 's Eye hacking device in Furious 7 -- has captured Elena and Dom 's previously - unknown son, using them as blackmail tools to ensure Dom 's cooperation. Despite Cipher 's dismissal of Dom 's views on family and her access to multiple surveillance systems, Dom manages to use his contacts to pass on a message to Magdalene Shaw, the mother of Deckard and Owen Shaw, allowing her to retrieve her sons and send them aboard Cipher 's plane via a tracking device slipped into Dom 's necklace. Once the Shaws retrieve his son -- as Elena having been killed earlier for Cipher to make a point to Dom -- Dom rejoins his team and destroys a Russian nuclear submarine Cipher was attempting to steal. Although Cipher escapes, Dom vows to protect his new son, naming the boy Brian after his brother - in - law and best friend.
Dominic has been described as "a gruff but affectionate father to his loyal pack of renegades, providing them with barbecue, protection, and a rough moral code to live by. '' Vin Diesel has described Dominic as "a character who is strong, who is a caretaker. '' In contrast to Brian 's estranged relationship with his father, Dominic is shown to "put family first '' and be very protective of Mia. He is also implied to be religious, insisting that all members in a dinner table say grace and that the first person to take a bite must bless the meal.
In The Fast and the Furious, Dominic 's volatile temper stems from a painful incident during his teenage years, when his father, a stock car racer, was killed in a race after a driver named Kenny Linder accidentally sent him to the wall at 120 mph. Distraught by his father 's death, Dominic assaulted Linder a week later with a torque wrench and left him hospitalized with severe head injuries. Dominic served time in juvenile hall and was banned from racing for the attack. He nearly replicates the action while fighting Hobbs in Fast Five, only to (purposely) miss Hobbs ' head by an inch when Mia begs him to stop.
In Fast Five, Dominic recalls the influence his father had on him. His father would help Mia with her homework everyday and sending her to bed, he would stay up late reading the next chapter, to make sure he could help her the next day. On Sundays, the family would attend church and host a barbecue for the neighborhood; those who did not attend church would not be allowed at the barbecue.
However, Dominic is also obsessed with racing. In the first film, he says: "I live my life a quarter mile at a time. Nothing else matters: not the mortgage, not the store, not my team and all their bullshit. For those ten seconds or less, I 'm free. '' In The Fate of the Furious, Cipher repeats a similar phrase to Dominic to question his loyalty to his family.
Dominic 's main love interest is Letty Ortiz who he grew up with. During Fast & Furious 6, she comes back with amnesia. Dominic was with Elena Neves during that time. However, they rekindled their relationship and it is revealed that they got married a few years ago, and also explaining the iconic necklace.
In four of the films, Dom drives his deceased father 's black 1970 Dodge Charger. In the first film, Dom tells Brian that he and his father built the 900 horsepower car, but that he had never driven it, because it "scares the shit out of (him). '' Dom uses it to help Brian by attacking one of Tran 's henchmen. He later races Brian 's Supra with it; however, he totals it when he collides with a truck.
In Fast & Furious he sees that Letty has rebuilt it for him, as she was hoping that he would return to the United States. Later in the film, Dom takes it to Mexico and shields Brian 's car with it, but destroys it by running into a stack of propane canisters in the tunnels. In the final scene of the film, Brian is shown to have rebuilt it, and Dom recognizes the sound of the engine while riding in a prison bus. In Fast Five, it is shown that Brian brakes in front of the bus, causing the bus to collide with it and flip. Dom uses it throughout the film to win cars to test for their vault heist. Meanwhile, Hobbs uses it to track the location of Dom 's gang by having his men check camera feeds for a 1970 Charger. When Hobbs comes to arrest Dom, he crashes his Gurkha F5 into his Charger, cutting it in half, which triggers a fight between the pair.
In Furious 7, near the end of the movie he goes to his home which was recently blown up by Deckard Shaw, and in the garage is his Charger covered up. He uncovers it revealing the slightly different new look. He takes the Charger to the top of a rooftop where he faces Shaw in a game of chicken. When the building is later collapsing due to missiles, Torretto ramps it off the building destroying it yet again.
The car goes through some changes. In the first film, it is chrome trimmed, while in the fourth film it is black trimmed, with an extra grill cover. In the fifth film it is matte black, with black wheels and the supercharger removed. In the seventh film, Torretto 's Charger has the supercharger again. The car still has black trim but is no longer matte black but metallic black. Also a different set of rims. The car has been in a series of promotions: Car Town offered the versions from both the first and fifth films, while Mafia Wars offered the first.
In Fast & Furious 6, Dom gives his nephew Jack a diecast replica of his black Charger, hoping to keep him away from Brian 's habits of favoring imports. Later in the film, Dom drives a maroon Dodge Charger Daytona, which is acquired by Tej Parker at a car auction in London. While it is not the same car as his signature black Charger, it is a direct nod to The Charger.
At the very end of Furious 7 Toretto is seen with the Project Maximus Ultra 1968 Dodge Charger.
In Fate of the Furious, Toretto drives an armoured version of his usual Charger in the film 's final confrontation.
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how old are you when you first go to college in france | Education in France - Wikipedia
The French educational system is highly centralized and organized, with many subdivisions. It is divided into the three stages of enseignement primaire (primary education), enseignement secondaire (secondary education), and enseignement supérieur (higher education). In French higher education, the following degrees are recognized by the Bologna Process (EU recognition): Licence and Licence Professionnelle (bachelor 's degrees), and the comparably named Master and Doctorat degrees.
While the French trace the development of their educational system to Napoléon, the modern era of French education begins at the end of the nineteenth century. Jules Ferry, a Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely credited for creating the modern school (l'école républicaine) by requiring all children between the ages of 6 and 12, both boys and girls, to attend. He also made public instruction mandatory, free of charge, and secular (laïque). With these laws, known as French Lubbers, Jules Ferry laws, and several others, the Third Republic repealed most of the Falloux Laws of 1850 -- 1851, which gave an important role to the clergy.
All educational programmes in France are regulated by the Ministry of National Education (officially called Ministère de l'Éducation nationale, de la Jeunesse et de la Vie associative). The head of the ministry is the Minister of National Education.
The teachers in public primary and secondary schools are all state civil servants, making the ministère the largest employer in the country. Professors and researchers in France 's universities are also employed by the state.
At the primary and secondary levels, the curriculum is the same for all French students in any given grade, which includes public, semi-public and subsidised institutions. However, there exist specialised sections and a variety of options that students can choose. The reference for all French educators is the Bulletin officiel de l'éducation nationale, de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche (B.O.) which lists all current programmes and teaching directives. It is amended many times every year.
In Metropolitan France, the school year runs from early September to early July. The school calendar is standardised throughout the country and is the sole domain of the ministry.
In May, schools need time to organise exams (for example, the baccalauréat). Outside Metropolitan France, the school calendar is set by the local recteur.
Major holiday breaks are as follows:
Schooling in France is mandatory from age 6. Most parents start sending their children at age 3, at kindergarten classes (maternelle), which are usually affiliated to a borough 's primary school. Some even start earlier at age 2 in pré - maternelle or très petite section classes, which are essentially daycare centres. The last year of kindergarten, grande section ("big form '') is an important step in the educational process, as it is the year in which pupils are introduced to reading.
After kindergarten, the young students move on to the école élémentaire (literally the "elementary school ''). It is in the first year that they will learn to write and develop their reading skills. Much akin to other educational systems, French primary school students usually have a single teacher (or perhaps two) who teaches the complete curriculum, such as French, mathematics, science and humanities to name a few. Note that the French word for a teacher at the primary school level is maître, or its feminine form maîtresse (previously called instituteur, or its feminine form institutrice).
Children stay in elementary school for 5 years until they are 10 -- 11 years - old. The classes are named: CP (cours préparatoire), CE1 (cours élémentaire 1), CE2 (cours élémentaire 2), CM1 (cours moyen 1) and CM2 (cours moyen 2).
After primary school, two educational stages follow:
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed France as having 105 international schools. ISC defines an ' international school ' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English - speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English - medium curriculum other than the country 's national curriculum and is international in its orientation. '' This definition is used by publications including The Economist.
France has its own international school regulator, the AEFE (Association de l'éducation Francaise a l'étranger).
Higher education in France is organized in three levels which correspond to those of other European countries, facilitating international mobility: the Licence and Licence Professionnelle (bachelor 's degrees), and the Master 's and Doctorat degrees. The Licence and the Master are organized in semesters: 6 for the Licence and 4 for the Master. These levels of study include various "parcours '' or paths based on UE (Unités d'Enseignement or Modules), each worth a defined number of European credits (ECTS); a student accumulates these credits, which are generally transferable between paths. A Licence is awarded once 180 ECTS have been obtained; a Master is awarded once 120 additional credits have been obtained.
Licence and master 's degrees are offered within specific domaines and carry a specific mention. Spécialités which are either research - oriented or professionally oriented during the second year of the Master. There are also Professional Licences whose objective is immediate job integration. It is possible to later return to school through continuing education or to validate professional experience (through VAE, Validation des Acquis de l'Expérience).
Higher education in France is divided between grandes écoles and public universities. The grandes écoles admit the graduates of the level Baccalauréat + 2 years of validated study (or sometimes directly after the Baccalauréat) whereas universities admit all graduates of the Baccalauréat.
A striking trait of French higher education, compared with other countries, is the small size and multiplicity of establishments, each specialised in a more - or-less broad spectrum of areas. A middle - sized French city, such as Grenoble or Nancy, may have 2 or 3 universities (focused on science or sociological studies) and also a number of engineering and other establishments specialised higher education. In Paris and its suburbs there are 13 universities, none of which is specialised in one area or another, and a large number of smaller institutions that are highly specialised.
It is not uncommon for graduate teaching programmes (master 's degrees, the course part of PhD programmes etc.) to be operated in common by several institutions, allowing the institutions to present a larger variety of courses.
In engineering schools and the professional degrees of universities, a large share of the teaching staff is often made up of non-permanent professors; instead, part - time professors are hired to teach one only specific subject. The part - time professors are generally hired from neighbouring universities, research institutes or industries.
Another original feature of the French higher education system is that a large share of the scientific research is carried out by research establishments such as CNRS or INSERM, which are not formally part of the universities. However, in most cases, the research units of those establishments are located inside universities (or other higher education establishments) and jointly operated by the research establishment and the university.
Since higher education is funded by the state, the fees are very low; the tuition varies from € 150 to € 700 depending on the university and the different levels of education. (licence, master, doctorate). One can therefore get a master 's degree (in 5 years) for about € 750 - 3,500. Additionally, students from low - income families can apply for scholarships, paying nominal sums for tuition or textbooks, and can receive a monthly stipend of up to € 450 per month.
The tuition in public engineering schools is comparable to universities, albeit a little higher (around € 700). However it can reach € 7000 a year for private engineering schools, and some business schools, which are all private or partially private, charge up to € 15000 a year.
Health insurance for students is free until the age of 20 so only the costs of living and books have to be added. After the age of 20, the health insurance for students costs € 200 a year and cover most of the medical expenses.
Some public schools have other ways of gaining money. Some do not receive sufficient funds from the government for class trips and other extra activities and so these schools may ask for a small (optional) entrance fee for new students.
The public universities in France are named after the major cities near which they are located, followed by a numeral if there are several. Paris, for example, has thirteen universities, labelled Paris I to XIII. Some of these are not in Paris itself, but in the suburbs. In addition, most of the universities have taken a more informal name which is usually that of a famous person or a particular place. Sometimes, it is also a way to honor a famous alumnus, for example the science university in Strasbourg is known as "Université Louis Pasteur '' while its official name is "Université Strasbourg I '' (however, since 2009, the three universities of Strasbourg have been merged).
The French system has undergone a reform, the Bologna process, which aims at creating European standards for university studies, most notably a similar time - frame everywhere, with three years devoted to the bachelor 's degree ("licence '' in French), two for the Master 's, and three for the doctorate. French universities have also adopted the ECTS credit system (for example, a licence is worth 180 credits). However the traditional curriculum based on end of semester examinations still remains in place in most universities. This double standard has added complexity to a system which also remains quite rigid. It is difficult to change a major during undergraduate studies without losing a semester or even a whole year. Students usually also have few course selection options once they enroll in a particular diploma.
France also hosts various branch colleges of foreign universities. These include Baruch College, the University of London Institute in Paris, Parsons Paris School of Art and Design and the American University of Paris.
The grandes écoles of France are elite higher - education establishments. They are generally focused on a single subject area (e.g., engineering or business), have a small size (typically between 100 and 300 graduates per year), and are highly selective. They are widely regarded as prestigious, and most of France 's scientists and executives have graduated from a grande école.
National rankings are published every year by various magazines. While these rankings slightly vary from year to year, the top grandes écoles have been very stable for decades:
The Preparatory classes (in French "classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles '' or CPGE), widely known as prépas, is a prep course with the main goal of training students for enrollment in a grande école. Admission to CPGEs is based on performance during the last two years of high school, called Première and Terminale. Only 5 % of a generation is admitted to a prépa. CPGEs are usually located within high schools but pertain to tertiary education, which means that each student must have successfully passed their Baccalauréat (or equivalent) to be admitted in a CPGE. Each CPGE receives applications from hundreds of applicants worldwide every year in April and May, and selects students based on its own criteria. A few CPGEs, mainly the private ones (which account for 10 % of CPGEs), also have an interview process or look at a student 's involvement in the community.
The ratio of CPGE students who fail to enter any grande école is lower in scientific and business CPGEs than in humanities CPGEs.
The oldest CPGEs are the scientific ones, which can only be accessed by scientific Bacheliers. Scientific CPGE are called TSI ("Technology and Engineering Science ''), MPSI ("Mathematics, Physics and Engineering Science ''), PCSI ("Physics, Chemistry, and Engineering Science '') or PTSI ("Physics, Technology, and Engineering Science '') in the first year, MP ("Mathematics and Physics ''), PSI ("Physics and Engineering Science ''), PC ("Physics and Chemistry '') or PT ("Physics and Technology '') in the second year and BCPST ("Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Life and Earth Sciences '').
First year CPGE students are called the "Math Sup '' -- or Hypotaupe -- (Sup for "Classe de Mathématiques Supérieures '', superior in French, meaning post-high school), and second years "Math Spé '' -- or Taupe -- (Spés standing for "Classe de Mathématiques Spéciales '', special in French). The students of these classes are called Taupins. Both the first and second year programmes include as much as sixteen hours of mathematics teaching per week, ten hours of physics, two hours of philosophy, two to four hours of (one or two) foreign languages teaching and two to three hours of minor options: either SI, Engineering Industrial Science or Theoretical Computer Science (including some programming using the Pascal or CaML programming languages, as a practical work). With this is added several hours of homework, which can rise as much as the official hours of class. A known joke among those students is that they are becoming moles for two years, sometimes three. This is actually the origin of the nicknames taupe and taupin (taupe being the French word for a mole).
There are also CPGE which are focused on economics (who prepare the admission in business schools). These are known as "Prépa EC '' (short for Economiques et Commerciales) and are divided into two parts ("prépa EC spe mathematics '', generally for those who graduated the scientific baccalaureat and "prépa EC spe éco '', for those who were in the economics section in high school).
The literary and humanities CPGEs have also their own nicknames, Hypokhâgne for the first year and Khâgne for the second year. The students are called the khâgneux. These classes prepare for schools such as the three Écoles Normales Supérieures, the Ecole des Chartes, and sometimes Sciences Po.
There are two kinds of Khâgnes. The Khâgne de Lettres is the most common, and focuses on philosophy, French literature, history and languages. The Khâgne de Lettres et Sciences Sociales (Literature and Social Sciences), otherwise called Khâgne B / L, also includes mathematics and socio - economic sciences in addition to those literary subjects.
The students of Hypokhâgne and Khâgne (the humanities CPGE) are simultaneously enrolled in universities, and can go back to university in case of failure or if they feel unable to pass the highly competitive entrance examinations for the Écoles Normales Supérieures.
The amount of work required of the students is exceptionally high. In addition to class time and homework, students spend several hours each week completing exams called colles (sometimes written ' khôlles ' to look like a Greek word, this way of writing being initially a khâgneux 's joke). The colles are unique to French academic education in CPGEs.
In scientific and business CPGEs, colles consist of oral examinations twice a week, in French, foreign languages (usually English, German, or Spanish), maths, physics, philosophy, or geopolitics -- depending on the type of CPGE. Students, usually in groups of three or four, spend an hour facing a professor alone in a room, answering questions and solving problems.
In humanities CPGEs, colles are usually taken every quarter in every subject. Students have one hour to prepare a short presentation that takes the form of a French - style dissertation (a methodologically codified essay, typically structured in 3 parts: thesis, counter-thesis, and synthesis) in history, philosophy, etc. on a given topic, or the form of a commentaire composé (a methodologically codified commentary) in literature and foreign languages. In Ancient Greek or Latin, they involve a translation and a commentary. The student then has 20 minutes to present his / her work to the teacher, who finally asks some questions on the presentation and on the corresponding topic.
Colles are regarded as very stressful, particularly due to the high standards expected by the teachers, and the subsequent harshness that may be directed at students who do not perform adequately. But they are important insofar as they prepare the students, from the very first year, for the oral part of the highly competitive examinations, which are reserved for the happy few who successfully pass the written part.
Decades ago, primary school teachers were educated in Ecoles Normales and secondary teachers recruited through the "Agrégation '' examination. The situation has been diversified by the introduction in the 1950s of the CAPES examination for secondary teachers and in the 1990s by the institution of "Instituts Universitaires de Formation des Maîtres '' (IUFM), which have recently been renamed Écoles Supérieures du Professorat et de l'Éducation (ESPE). University teachers are recruited by special commissions, and are divided between:
Religious instruction is not given by public schools (except for 6 - to 18 - year - old students in Alsace - Moselle under the Concordat of 1801). Laïcité (secularism) is one of the main precepts of the French republic.
In a March 2004 ruling, the French government banned all "conspicuous religious symbols '' from schools and other public institutions with the intent of preventing proselytisation and to foster a sense of tolerance among ethnic groups. Some religious groups showed their opposition, saying the law hindered the freedom of religion as protected by the French constitution.
The French Republic has 67 million inhabitants, living in the 13 regions of metropolitan France and four overseas departments (2.7 million). Despite the fact that the population is growing (up 0.4 % a year), the proportion of young people under 25 is falling. There are now fewer than 19 million young people in metropolitan France, or 32 % of the total population, compared with 40 % in the 1970s and 35 % at the time of the 190 census. France is seeing a slow aging of the population -- less marked however than in other neighbouring countries (such as Germany and Italy), especially as the annual number of births is currently increasing slightly.
Eighteen million pupils and students, i.e. a quarter of the population, are in the education system. Of these, over 2.4 million are in higher education. The French Education Minister reported in 2000 that 39 out of 75,000 state schools were "seriously violent '' and 300 were "somewhat violent ''.
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when do they light the new york christmas tree | Rockefeller Center Christmas tree - wikipedia
The Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree is a large Christmas tree placed annually in Rockefeller Center, in Midtown Manhattan. The tree is erected in mid November and lit in a public ceremony in late November or early December. Since 1997, the lighting has been broadcast live, to hundreds of millions, on NBC 's Christmas in Rockefeller Center telecast on a Wednesday after Thanksgiving. The tree lighting ceremony is aired at the end of every broadcast, following live entertainment and the tree is lit by the current Mayor of New York City and special guests. An estimated 125 million people visit the attraction each year.
The tree, usually a Norway spruce 69 to 100 feet (21 to 30 m) tall, has been a national tradition each year since 1933. The 2017 Christmas Tree Lighting took place on November 29, 2017; the tree remains on display until January 7, 2018.
Trees are traditionally donated to Rockefeller Center, which in turn donates the lumber after display. Until his death in 2009, the late David Murbach, Manager of the Gardens Division of Rockefeller Center, scouted for the desired tree in upstate New York and surrounding states, and even Ottawa, Canada.
The trees are now scouted by Erik Pauzé, Head Gardener at Rockefeller Center. Pauzé visits nurseries throughout the tri-state area while keeping his eye out for one - of - a-kind backyard trees. Trees may also be submitted for consideration through Rockefeller Center 's web site. Pauzé and his team choose each year 's tree based on its heartiness and "Christmas tree shape, '' as well as its ability to support the heavy ornaments.
Once a tree is selected, a crane supports the tree while it is cut, then moved to a custom telescoping trailer able to transport trees up to 125 feet (38 m) tall, although the width of city streets around Rockefeller Center limits the height of the tree to 100 feet (30 m). Local business Christmas Tree Brooklyn provides support in delivering the tree safely into the city. On its way to Manhattan, the tree is often dressed in giant red bows or banners extending holiday greetings to witnesses. Trucks, barges, and even a transport plane have all been used to help the tree make the trip.
Once at Rockefeller Center, the tree is supported by four guy - wires attached at its midpoint and by a steel spike at its base. Scaffolding is erected around the tree to assist workers in hanging about 50,000 multi-colored LED lights and the star top. The crystal star that has topped the tree since 2004 is 9.5 feet (2.9 m) in diameter and weighs 550 pounds (250 kg). This "Swarovski Star, '' containing 25,000 Swarovski crystals, 1 million facets, and LED lights, was created by German artist Michael Hammers.
Although the official Christmas tree tradition at Rockefeller Center began in 1933 (the year 30 Rockefeller Plaza opened), an unofficial tradition began during the Depression - era construction of the Center, when workers decorated a smaller 20 foot (6.1 m) balsam fir with "strings of cranberries, garlands of paper, and even a few tin cans '' on Christmas Eve (December 24, 1931), as recounted by Daniel Okrent in his history of Rockefeller Center. According to Rockefeller Center, workers pooled their money for that unlit tree, with the garlands made by workers ' families.
With the lighting of the 50 - foot - tall (15 m) first official tree two years later, the tree became what Rockefeller Center dubbed "a holiday beacon for New Yorkers and visitors alike. '' A skating rink was opened below the tree in the plaza in 1936. Rockefeller Center has observed the tree to be "from the beginning... a gathering place and reflection of what was happening in the world around it. ''
World War II ushered in simple, patriotic decorations, including red, white and blue unlit globes and painted wooden stars. In 1942, instead of one large tree, three more modest trees were raised, each decorated in one of the flag 's colors. From 1944 until the war 's end in 1945, the tree went unlit due to blackout regulations. After the war, the year of darkness was left behind, as six ultraviolet light projectors were employed to make it appear as though the tree 's 700 fluorescent globes were glowing in the dark.
By the 1950s, workers began using scaffolding to decorate the tree, as larger trees were accommodated. Before the decade was over, the decorating process called for 20 workers and nine days. 1951 marked the first time that NBC televised the tree lighting with a special on The Kate Smith Show.
In 1969, artist Valerie Clarebout 's towering wire herald angels were added to the Channel Gardens in front of the tree near Fifth Avenue. Clarebout created the 12 sculptures using 75 points of metal wire each.
The 1971 tree, a 65 - footer from East Montpelier, Vt., was the first to be mulched and recycled. It was turned into 30 three - bushel bags of mulch for the nature trails of upper Manhattan. Though the tree typically makes its journey on a truck bed, in 1998 it was flown in from Richfield, Ohio on the world 's largest transport plane.
1999 saw Rockefeller Center 's tallest tree, a 100 foot (30 m) spruce from Killingworth, Conn. In 2001, following the events of September 11, the tree was again decorated in hues of red, white and blue.
In 2007, the tree went "green '', converting to energy - efficient lighting with LEDs. The LEDs use 1,200 fewer kilowatts of electricity per day, enough to power a 2,000 - square - foot home for a month.
Also since 2007, each year after display, the tree has been milled into lumber and donated to Habitat for Humanity for use in house construction.
The 2016 tree, a Norway Spruce from Oneonta, N.Y., is at 94 feet high the second tallest ever erected at Rockefeller Center. At 56 feet wide and over 30,000 pounds, the tree is the widest and heaviest to date, according to construction crews.
Since 2011, the tree lighting ceremony has been followed by the singing of Joy to the World.
The decorated tree remains on display at Rockefeller Plaza, between West 48th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues, at least through January 6 of the new year.
More than a half million people pass by the tree each day while it is on display, according to Rockefeller Center.
Since 1997, the lighting ceremony has been broadcast live on NBC in the first hour of primetime, live in the Eastern and Central time zones, and on tape elsewhere. The ceremony is hosted by Today 's Al Roker (1997 - Present), Savannah Guthrie (2012 - Present), and Hoda Kotb (2017 - Present)
Coordinates: 40 ° 45 ′ 31 '' N 73 ° 58 ′ 42 '' W / 40.75861 ° N 73.97833 ° W / 40.75861; - 73.97833
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difference between roman dutch law and english law | Roman - Dutch law - wikipedia
Roman - Dutch law (Dutch: Rooms - Hollands recht, Afrikaans: Romeins - Hollandse reg) is an uncodified, scholarship - driven, judge - made legal system based on Roman law as applied in the Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries. As such, it is a variety of the European continental civil law or ius commune. While Roman - Dutch law was superseded by Napoleonic codal law in the Netherlands proper as early as the beginning of the 19th century, Roman - Dutch law is still applied by the courts of South Africa (and its neighbours Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe), Guyana, Indonesia, East Timor, and Sri Lanka. It was largely drawn upon by Scots law. It also had some minor impact on the laws of the American state of New York, especially in introducing the office of Prosecutor (schout - fiscaal).
Roman law was progressively abandoned during the early Middle Ages. The Theodosian Code and excerpts of latter - day imperial enactments (constitutiones) were well known in the successor Germanic states and vital to maintaining the commonplace principle of folk - right which applied pre-existing Roman law to Roman provincials and Germanic law to Germans. The Breviary of Alaric and the Lex Gundobada Romana are two of the several hybrid Romano - Germanic law codes that incorporated much Roman legal material. However, because the fall of the Western Roman Empire preceded the drafting of the Justinianic Code, early Byzantine law was never influential in Western Europe. Also, much of this early law was superseded by later feudal law. Only canon law successfully retained any substantial amount of Roman law to be influential.
Interest in the doctrines of Byzantine lawyers came when -- around the year a.d. 1070 -- a copy of the Digest of Emperor Justinian I found its way into northern Italy. Scholars in the emerging University of Bologna, who previously had access to only a limited portion of the Justinianic code, sparked an intellectual rediscovery of Roman law through the teaching of law based on Byzantine law texts. Courts gradually applied Byzantine law -- as taught in Bologna (and soon elsewhere) -- first as law in subsidium to be applied when there was no local statute or custom in point, and later because judicial officers (judges, magistrates, assessors) felt that its refined legal concepts were more apt to solve complex cases than the customary laws of western and central Europe. This process, referred to as reception, took place in the Holy Roman Empire and the Mediterranean in the 13th - 14th centuries, but was much slower to come to northern Europe (e.g., Saxony, Northern France, the Low Countries, Scandinavia).
In the 15th century, reception in complexu reached the Netherlands while it was associated with the Holy Roman Empire. While Italian lawyers (modus italicus) were the first to contribute to the new Byzantine - based jurisprudence, in the 16th century, French humanistic doctrinal scholars (modus gallicus) were most influential. In the 17th and 18th century, it was the Dutch who had the greatest influence. Members of the Hollandse Elegante School ("school of elegant jurisprudence ''; 1500 -- 1800) included Hugo Grotius, Johannes Voet, Ulrich Huber, Gerard Noodt, J. and F. van de Sande, and many others. These scholars managed to merge Roman law with legal concepts taken from traditional Dutch feudal customary law, especially from the province of Holland. The resulting mixture was predominantly Roman, but it contained some features which were characteristically Dutch: this hybrid is known as Roman - Dutch law. The Dutch applied their legal system in their colonial empire. In so doing, the distinctly Dutch branch of civil law (or ius commune) came to be applied in far - flung places, e.g., the Dutch East Indies, Dutch West Indies, Cape Colony, and Dutch Ceylon.
In the Netherlands, Roman - Dutch law abruptly ended when, in 1809, the Dutch puppet state -- the Kingdom of Holland -- adopted the French Napoleonic Code, a different system but nonetheless a branch of civil law. Yet, in the then - Dutch colonies, French law was never introduced during or after the Napoleonic era. As a result, Roman - Dutch law has managed to survive, usually in a hybrid form mixed with English law, otherwise known as "Anglo - Dutch law ''.
The Netherlands participated in international seminars and training programmes organized by international partner organisations, ranging from a two - day seminar to a two - week programme for different legal professionals around the world. Programmes have been developed for Surinam, Aruba, Sint Maarten and Indonesia.
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what type of dog is buddy in a dog's purpose | A Dog 's Purpose (film) - Wikipedia
A Dog 's Purpose is a 2017 American comedy - drama film directed by Lasse Hallström and written by W. Bruce Cameron, Cathryn Michon, Audrey Wells, Maya Forbes and Wally Wolodarsky, based on the 2010 novel of the same name by Cameron. The film stars Britt Robertson, KJ Apa, Juliet Rylance, John Ortiz, Kirby Howell - Baptiste, Peggy Lipton, Dennis Quaid and Josh Gad.
The film is a co-production between Amblin Entertainment, Reliance Entertainment, Walden Media and Pariah Entertainment Group. It was released by Universal Pictures on January 27, 2017, and grossed over $196 million worldwide.
A week prior to the film 's release, a video surfaced on TMZ showing footage taken from the set of the film, which showed a German Shepherd dragged and dipped into rushing water while visibly resisting. After initial backlash, it was determined the video had been deliberately edited to mislead viewers.
In the 1950s, a feral puppy named Toby is whisked away to the dog pound and quickly euthanized, wondering if "fun '' truly is life 's purpose.
His strong spirit is reborn and reincarnated as a newborn Retriever puppy in 1961. Toby leaves his cage at a puppy mill and is found by two garbage men who plan to sell him for their own profit. They leave to drink and Toby is spotted locked inside their pick - up truck by a young boy named Ethan and his mother, who rescue him from the brink of death by heatstroke. After they convince Ethan 's father, the dog is allowed to stay and renamed Bailey.
Bailey and Ethan bond quickly, especially over the summer when the family visits Ethan 's maternal grandparents ' farm, and Bailey now believes Ethan alone is his purpose. Years pass and after several attempts at advancing in his job failed, Ethan 's father has become a deadbeat alcoholic, though teenage Ethan still tries to respect him -- inviting him to a football game now that he has been named starting quarterback.
Over the summer, Ethan goes to a fair with Bailey and meets Hannah, who he quickly begins dating, with Bailey referring to her as "part of the pack ''. Ethan and Hannah spend their summer happy together though their senior years are upcoming, but they plan to go to the same school; popular Ethan getting a football scholarship and Hannah following him on an academic one. When he goes home one night though, Ethan 's father is drunk and shouting at Ethan 's mother. He turns on Ethan then and when his mother tries to keep them separated, he shoves her to the ground. Ethan orders his father to leave and never come back, and becomes "the leader of the pack ''.
Later, at a game watched by scouts, Ethan is offered a full 4 - year scholarship to Michigan State, but that night a vindictive classmate named Todd throws a lit firecracker into Ethan 's house as a prank, which unintentionally results in a house fire. Bailey alerts Ethan, who goes to save his mother. Unable to get out of the door, they head out through his mother 's bedroom window upstair. Ethan first lowers her with her sheets to the neighbors below, then Bailey, however he drops his rope and is left with no other way to exit but to jump. But when Ethan jumps out of the window, Ethan badly fractures his leg, ending his dreams of an athletic scholarship. Bailey attacks Todd, who is apprehended and arrested by the police when firecrackers fall out of his pocket. Now, Ethan must go to an agricultural school where he will learn to take over his grandparents ' farm. Falling into depression, self - pity and bitterness, Ethan grudgingly breaks off his romance with Hannah before leaving for college. Sometime afterwards, an aged Bailey slowly expires at the veterinarian 's office after sharing an eleventh - hour teary goodbye with Ethan.
Bailey reincarnates into another dog life, a female German Shepherd police dog named Ellie, sometime in the late 1970s / early 1980s, while possessing full memories and experiences of his past lives. Ellie is partnered with a widowed officer named Carlos from the Chicago Police Department, and works hard at "seeking '' and "finding '', now seeing the job as life 's purpose. The two form a close relationship which ends after Ellie jumps into a rushing river and saves a kidnapped girl from drowning, and is then fatally shot during a struggle with the armed kidnapper who was a moment away from killing an unsuspecting Carlos.
Reborn again in the mid-1980s as a Pembroke Welsh Corgi, he forms a bond with an Atlanta college student named Maya who names him Tino. Maya is lonely, which Tino, having bonded closely with the girl, realizes, and makes his purpose to find her some happiness. She starts a relationship with another classmate named Al who she begins seeing after Tino falls for Al 's dog, a black and white Landseer named Roxie, and allows her to open up to him. Maya and Al marry and have 3 children who all love the Corgi. In love with Roxie (though she does not seem to reciprocate the romance), Tino is permanently heartbroken when one day she does not return from the vet. As he lies dying of old age in the late 1990s, Tino thanks Maya for giving him one of his best lives.
Bailey is again reborn and reincarnated, this time, as a St. Bernard - Australian Shepherd mix, sometime during the next decade, only to be taken in by an abusive and neglectful urban couple who name him Waffles. Waffles is eventually dumped in an abandoned lot and reluctantly sets off in search of a new life. Walking past a dog park and remembering how long it had been since he played, Waffles meets a dog and her human who hold a familiar scent to him, though he knows neither of them. He gradually makes his way to the country area where he spent summers as Bailey without even realizing at first where he is headed. He joyfully reunites with his old master Ethan, who is now somewhere in his 50s, living a lonely life and apparently broken in spirit at his grandparents ' old farm, which he now owns and runs. Ethan, of course, initially has no idea who this wandering dog really is and hands him over to the local animal shelter. But he soon has a change of heart and reclaims him, naming him Buddy. Buddy, sensing that he has finally found the true purpose of life that has long evaded him, finds a way to reunite Ethan with a widowed Hannah, and they eventually get married.
Buddy finally convinces Ethan that he is his beloved childhood pet by performing some tricks and responding to key phrases that were known only to the two of them all those many, many long years ago. The dog in voiceover tells the viewer that life is about having fun; saving others; not getting caught in the past or regrets; finding someone to be with; and living for today.
In 2015, DreamWorks acquired the film rights for Cameron 's novel. On May 8, 2015, it was announced Lasse Hallström would direct the film. On August 5, 2015, Britt Robertson and Dennis Quaid joined the cast. On September 18, 2015, Pooch Hall was cast in the film. On October 15, 2015, Bradley Cooper joined the cast to play the dog 's inner voice. He was eventually replaced by Josh Gad. Principal photography began on August 17, 2015.
In December 2015, the film switched from a DreamWorks Pictures release to under the Amblin Entertainment banner as per Amblin Partners ' newly enacted branded strategy. The film was released by Universal Pictures on January 27, 2017. Universal also distributed it overseas, except for countries where Mister Smith Entertainment handled international sales.
A Dog 's Purpose has grossed $64.5 million in the United States and Canada and $131.9 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $196.4 million, against a production budget of $22 million.
In North America it was released alongside Resident Evil: The Final Chapter and Gold, and was projected to gross $18 -- 22 million from 3,050 theaters in its opening weekend, slightly lower than initial $27 million tracking had the film debuting to before boycotts against the film were called for. It made $466,000 from Thursday night previews and $5.3 million on its first day. It ended up debuting to $18.2 million, finishing second at the box office behind the second weekend of Universal 's own Split. The film dropped 40.6 % in its second weekend, grossing $10.8 million and finishing third at the box office.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 33 % based on 133 reviews, and an average rating of 4.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A Dog 's Purpose offers an awkward blend of sugary sentiment and canine suffering that tugs at animal - loving audiences ' heartstrings with shameless abandon. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 43 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
A Dog 's Purpose was released on digital HD on April 18, 2017, and was followed by a release on Blu - ray and DVD on May 2, 2017, from Universal Pictures Home Entertainment. The film topped the home video sales chart for the week ending on May 7, 2017.
On January 18, 2017, a video surfaced on TMZ showing footage taken from the set of the film, which shows a German Shepherd named Hercules being dragged and dipped into rushing water while visibly resisting. After a cut in the video, the next clip shows the dog being submerged in the water at the other end of the tank while a voice on set can be heard shouting "CUT IT! '', and various people are then seen rushing towards the dog. The American Humane Association, which ensures that animals are not harmed in entertainment productions, announced that its representative on set had been suspended over the incident, and that the incident was under further investigation. PETA called for a boycott of the film. Actor Josh Gad, who voices the dog in the movie, was not on set during the making of the film, but stated that he was "shaken and sad to see any animal put in a situation against its will ''. Director Lasse Hallström stated on Twitter that he "did not witness '' the actions in the video, and was "very disturbed '' by the footage. Due to the release of the video, Universal Pictures cancelled the film 's scheduled January 19 Los Angeles premiere.
Amblin Entertainment released a statement in regards to the incident, saying that "on the day of the shoot, Hercules did not want to perform the stunt portrayed on the tape so the Amblin production team did not proceed with filming that shot '', and that "Hercules is happy and healthy ''. On February 4, 2017, the American Humane Association reported that an independent third - party animal - cruelty expert had concluded that safety measures on the set of the film were in place and the video had been deliberately edited to mislead the public.
On June 21, 2017, CEO of Amblin Entertainment Michael Wright announced that a sequel was in development.
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where is area code 941 located in the united states | Area code 941 - Wikipedia
Area code 941 is an area code in Florida. Introduced on March 3, 1996, it includes the counties of Manatee, Sarasota, and Charlotte, areas along the Sun Coast of southwestern Florida, USA. It is the area code for North Port - Bradenton - Sarasota, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area. DeSoto County, Charlotte County, Hardee County, Polk County, Highlands County, Okeechobee County, Glades County, and Hendry County were part of this area code until 1999, and Lee County and Collier County were part of 941 until March 2003. Before the 941 area code, the region was originally 305, then area code 813.
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all provinces and territories in canada has joined medicare by what year | Medicare (Canada) - wikipedia
Medicare (French: assurance - maladie) is the national health care system of Canada. Canada has a publicly funded, single - payer health care system consisting of 13 provincial and territorial health insurance plans that provides universal health care coverage to Canadian citizens, permanent residents and certain temporary residents. It is administered on a provincial or territorial basis, within the guidelines set by the federal government. The formal terminology for the insurance system is provided by the Canada Health Act and the health insurance legislation of the individual provinces and territories.
The name is a contraction of medical and care, and was used in the United States for health care programs since at least 1953.
Under the terms of the Canada Health Act, all "insured persons '' are entitled to receive "insured services '' without copayment. Such services are defined as medically necessary services if provided in hospital, or by ' practitioners ' (usually physicians). Approximately 70 % of expenditures for health care in Canada come from public sources, with the rest paid privately (both through private insurance, and through out - of - pocket payments). The extent of public financing varies considerably across services. For example, approximately 99 % of physician services, and 90 % of hospital care, are paid by publicly funded sources, whereas almost all dental care is paid for privately. Most physicians are self - employed private entities which enjoy coverage under each province 's respective healthcare plans.
Services of non-physicians working within hospitals are covered; but provinces can, but are not forced to, cover services by non-physicians if provided outside hospitals. Changing the site of treatment may thus change coverage. For example, pharmaceuticals, nursing care, and physical therapy must be covered for inpatients, but there is considerable variation from province to province in the extent to which they are covered for patients discharged to the community (e.g., after day surgery). The need to modernize coverage was pointed out in 2002 by both the Romanow Commission and by the Kirby committee of the Canadian Senate (see External links below). Similarly, the extent to which non-physician providers of primary care are funded varies; Quebec offers primary health care teams through its CLSC system.
The first implementation of public hospital care in Canada came at the provincial level in Saskatchewan in 1947 and in Alberta in 1950, under provincial governments led by the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and the Social Credit party respectively. The first implementation of nationalized public health care - at the federal level - came about with the Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act (HIDS), which was passed by the Liberal majority government of Louis St. Laurent in 1957, and was adopted by all provinces by 1961. Lester B. Pearson 's government subsequently expanded this policy to universal health care with the Medical Care Act in 1966.
Some have argued that these developments towards public national health care came as a result of the adoption of a publicly funded health plan in 1961 - 1962 in Saskatchewan government. The fight for a publicly funded system was originally led by Premier Tommy Douglas and implemented by Woodrow Stanley Lloyd, who became premier of the province when Douglas resigned to become the leader of the new federal New Democratic Party. Although Saskatchewan is often credited with the birth of public health care funding in Canada, the federal legislation itself was actually drafted (and first proposed to parliament) by Allan MacEachen, a Liberal MP from Cape Breton.
In 1984, the Canada Health Act was passed, amalgamating the 1966 Medical Care Act and the 1957 Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act. The Canada Health Act affirmed and clarified five founding principles: (a) public administration on a non-profit basis by a public authority; (b) comprehensiveness -- provincial health plans must insure all services that are medically necessary; (c) universality -- a guarantee that all residents in Canada must have access to public healthcare and insured services on uniform terms and conditions; (d) portability -- residents must be covered while temporarily absent from their province of residence or from Canada; and (e) accessibility -- insured persons must have reasonable and uniform access to insured health services, free of financial or other barriers. These five conditions prevent provinces from radical innovation, but many small differences do exist between the provinces.
Although in theory all Canadians should qualify for coverage, each province or territory operates its own health insurance program, and provinces and territories have enacted qualification rules which effectively exclude many Canadians from coverage. For example, to qualify for enrollment in Ontario, one must, among other requirements, "be physically present in Ontario for 153 days in any 12 - month period; and be physically present in Ontario for at least 153 days of the first 183 days immediately after establishing residency in the province. '' While there are exceptions for students studying out of province, and for mobile workers, many Canadians who regularly travel from one province to another for other reasons, as well as those who often travel outside Canada, can not qualify for enrollment in any province. Proof - of - residency provisions requiring presentation of documents such as utility bills and bank statements also operate to exclude migrants.
According to Canada 's constitution, the provinces have responsibility for health care, education and welfare. However, the federal Canada Health Act sets standards for all the provinces. The Canada Health Act requires coverage for all medically necessary care provided in hospitals or by physicians; this explicitly includes diagnostic, treatment and preventive services. Coverage is universal for qualifying Canadian residents, regardless of income level.
Funding for the health care is transferred from the general revenues of the Canadian federal government to the 10 provinces and 3 territories through the Canada Health Transfer. Some provinces also charge annual health care premiums. These are, in effect, taxes (since they are not tied to service use, nor to provincial health expenditures). The system is accordingly classified by the OECD as a tax - supported system, as opposed to the social insurance approaches used in many European countries. Boards in each province regulate the cost, which is then reimbursed by the federal government. Currently, patients do not pay out of pocket costs to visit their doctor.
Canada uses a mix of public and private organizations to deliver health care in what is termed a publicly funded, privately delivered system. Hospitals and acute care facilities, including long term complex care, are typically directly funded. Health care organizations bill the provincial health authorities, with few exceptions. Hospitals are largely non-profit organizations, historically often linked to religious or charitable organizations. In some provinces, individual hospital boards have been eliminated and combined into quasi-private regional health authorities, subject to varying degrees of provincial control.
Private services are provided by diagnostic laboratories, occupational and physical therapy centres, and other allied professionals. Non-medically necessary services, such as optional plastic surgery, are also often delivered by for - profit investor - owned corporations. In some cases patients pay directly and are reimbursed by the health care system, and in other cases a hospital or physician may order services and seek reimbursement from the provincial government.
With rare exceptions, medical doctors are small for - profit independent businesses. Historically, they have practised in small solo or group practices and billed the government Canadian Health Care system on a fee for service basis. Unlike the practice in fully socialized countries, hospital - based physicians are not all hospital employees, and some directly bill the provincial insurance plans on a fee - for - service basis. Since 2000, physicians have been allowed to incorporate for tax reasons (dates of authorization vary province to province).
Efforts to achieve primary health care reform have increasingly encouraged physicians to work in multidisciplinary teams, and be paid through blended funding models, including elements of capitation and other ' alternative funding formulas '. Similarly, some hospitals (particularly teaching hospitals and rural / remote hospitals) have also experimented with alternatives to fee - for - service.
In summary, the system is known as a "public system '' due to its public financing, but is not a nationalized system such as the UK 's NHS: most health care services are provided privately.
An additional complexity is that, because health care is deemed to be under provincial jurisdiction, there is not a "Canadian health care system ''. Most providers are private, and may or may not coordinate their care. Publicly funded insurance is organized at the level of the province / territory; each manages its own insurance system, including issuing its own healthcare identification cards (a list of the provincial medical care insurance programs is given at the end of this entry). Once care moves beyond the services required by the Canada Health Act -- for which universal comprehensive coverage applies -- there is inconsistency from province to province in the extent of publicly funded coverage, particularly for such items as outpatient drug coverage and rehabilitation, as well as vision care, mental health, and long - term care, with a substantial portion of such services being paid for privately, either through private insurance, or out - of - pocket. Eligibility for these additional programs may be based on various combinations of such factors as age (e.g., children, seniors), income, enrollment in a home care program, or diagnosis (e.g., HIV / AIDS, cancer, cystic fibrosis).
Unlike a number of other countries with universal health insurance systems, Canada lacks a universal pharmaceutical subsidy scheme, with co-payment, cost ceilings, and special subsidy groups varying by private insurer and by province. Each province may provide its own prescription drug benefit plan, although the Canada Health Act requires only coverage for pharmaceuticals delivered to hospital inpatients. Provincial prescription drug benefit plans differ across provinces. Some provinces cover only those in particular age groups (usually, seniors) and / or those on social assistance. Others are more universal. Quebec achieves universal coverage through a combination of private and public plans. Co-payments also vary. Provinces maintain their own provincial formularies, although the Common Drug Review provides evidence - based formulary listing recommendations to the provincial ministries. Note that there is ongoing controversy in Canada, as in other countries, about inclusion of expensive drugs and discrepancies in their availability, as well as in what if any provisions are made for allowing medications not yet approved to be administered under "exceptional drug '' provisions. Drug costs are contentious. Their prices are controlled by the Patented Medicine Prices Review Board (PMPRB). The PMPRB 's pricing formula ensures that Canada pays prices based on the average of those charged to selected countries; they are neither the highest, nor the lowest.
Dental care is not required to be covered by the government insurance plans. In Quebec, children under the age of 10 receive almost full coverage, and many oral surgeries are covered for everyone. Canadians rely on their employers or individual private insurance, pay cash themselves for dental treatments, or receive no care. In some jurisdictions, public health units have been involved in providing targeted programs to address the need of the young, the elderly or those who are on welfare. The Canadian Association of Public Health Dentistry tracks programs, and has been advocating for extending coverage to those currently unable to receive dental care.
The range of services for vision care coverage also varies widely among the provinces. Generally, "medically required '' vision care is covered if provided by physicians (cataract surgery, diabetic vision care, some laser eye surgeries required as a result of disease, but not if the purpose is to replace the need for eyeglasses). Similarly, the standard vision test may or may not be covered. Some provinces allow a limited number of tests (e.g., no more than once within a two - year period). Others, including Ontario, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia, do not, although different provisions may apply to particular sub-groups (e.g., diabetics, children).
Naturopathic services are covered in some cases, but homeopathic services are generally not covered. Chiropractic is partially covered in some provinces. Cosmetic procedures are not typically covered. Psychiatric services (provided by physicians) are covered, fee - for - service psychology services outside of hospitals or community based mental health clinics are usually not. Physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, nursing, and chiropractic services are often not covered unless within hospitals. Some provinces, including Ontario include some rehabilitation services for those in the home care program, those recently discharged from hospitals (e.g., after a hip replacement), or those in particular age categories. Again, considerable variation exists, and provinces can (and do) alter their coverage decisions.
The fact that health insurance plans are administered by the provinces and territories in a country where large numbers of residents of certain provinces work in other provinces may lead to inequitable inter-provincial outcomes with respect to revenues and expenditures. For example, many residents of the Atlantic provinces work in the oil and gas industry in the western province of Alberta. For most of the year these workers may be contributing significant tax revenue to Alberta (e.g. through fuel, tobacco and alcohol taxes) while their health insurance costs are borne by their home province in Atlantic Canada.
Another considerable inter-provincial imbalance is a person who is insured by Quebec and obtains healthcare in another province or territory. Quebec does not have any physician payment agreements with any other provinces or territories of Canada. As a result, someone that sees a physician outside Quebec, even in another part of Canada, must either pay the cost themselves and submit a request to the Régie de l'Assurance Maladie du Québec (RAMQ Medicare) for reimbursement (even then, expenses are often denied), or take out a third party insurance plan. The same situation also applies to a resident of any other part of Canada visiting Quebec, only they submit any claims to their respective provincial healthplan. All provinces and territories of Canada, however, do have reciprocal hospital agreements, so hospital admissions, for example, are covered throughout Canada.
Polling data in the last few years have consistently cited Canadian Health Care as among the most important political issues in the minds of Canadian voters. Along with peacekeeping, Canadian Health Care was found, based on a CBC poll, to be among the foremost defining characteristics of Canada.
It has increasingly become a source of controversy in Canadian politics. As a recent report from the Health Council of Canada has noted "Herein lies one of the puzzles of Canadian health care: Canadians increasingly view the health care system as unsustainable and under threat, even as their own experiences with the system are mostly positive. ''
As analysts have noted, the root of the concern may be traced to successful cost control efforts in the mid 1990s, where public health expenditure per capita, in inflation - adjusted dollars, actually fell. These efforts arose from efforts by the federal government to deal with its deficit through various austerity measures, which led to cuts in their transfers to the provinces, and in turn to squeezing hospital budgets and physician reimbursements. The number of physicians being trained was reduced. The result was seen in increased wait times, particularly for elective procedures. More recently, government has been reinvesting in health care, but public confidence has been slow to recover.
A number of studies have compared Canada with other countries, and concluded that each system has its own strengths and weaknesses. The World Health Organization, ranked Canada in 2000 as 30th worldwide in performance. However, the basis for these rankings has been highly contentious. As Deber noted, "The measure of "overall healthsystem performance '' derives from adjusting "goal attainment '' for educational attainment. Although goal attainment is in theory based on five measures (level and distribution of health, level and distribution of "responsiveness '' and "fairness of financial contribution ''), the actual values assigned to most countries, including Canada, were never directly measured. The scores do not incorporate any information about the actual workings of the system, other than as reflected in life expectancy. The primary reason for Canada 's relatively low standing rests on the relatively high educational level of its population, particularly as compared to France, rather than on any features of its health system. '' Other countries had similar complaints, and the WHO has not repeated this ranking.
In 2003, the prime minister and the provincial premiers agreed upon priority areas for reinvestment. The 2003 First Ministers ' Accord on Health Care Renewal reaffirmed their commitment to the principles of the Canada Health Act. They indicated the following principles:
"Drawing from this foundation, First Ministers view this Accord as a covenant which will help to ensure that:
The accord set the following priority areas: primary health care, home care, catastrophic drug coverage, access to diagnostic / medical equipment and information technology and an electronic health record. The extent of progress in meeting reform goals has varied across these areas.
Evaluating the accuracy of claims about the system is hampered by several factors. The highly decentralized nature of health care delivery means that good data is not always available. It is often difficult to distinguish compelling but atypical anecdotes from systemic problems. Considerable effort is being made to develop and implement comparable indicators to allow better assessment of progress. However, the Health Council of Canada -- with a mandate to monitor and report on health reform -- complained in 2007 that progress has stalled.
The debate about health care has also become heavily ideological. The Fraser Institute, a right leaning think tank supporting "competitive market solutions for public policy problems '' is a frequent critic of publicly funded Canadian Health Care. It publishes yearly reports about wait times which are then used to argue that the system is both failing and unsustainable. Others criticize their methodology, which is based on physician perceptions rather than actual waits. Other complaints come from the political left, who object to ' privatization ' (by which they usually mean a heavier involvement of for - profit providers). (See, for example, the Canadian Health Coalition web page.) There are frequent debates in the media and on line between advocates and opponents of Canadian healthcare.
Common complaints relate to access, usually to elective surgery (especially hip and knee replacement and cataract surgery) and diagnostic imaging. These have been the primary targets of health care reinvestment, and it appears that considerable progress has been made for certain services, although the implications for procedures not on the target list are unclear. Canadian physicians have been heavily involved, particularly in developing appropriateness criteria to ensure timely access for necessary care. It is estimated to have cost Canada 's economy $ 14.8 billion in 2007 to have patients waiting longer than needed for medical procedures. Barua and Esmail completed a study in October 2013, Waiting Your Turn, Wait Times for Health Care in Canada. The authors surveyed both private and publicly funded outpatient health care offices and found the amount of wait time between general practitioner and specialists. The second segment was determining wait times between consultation and time of procedure. They studied each province and found where the longest and shortest wait times were. Barua and Esmail found that the wait times for health services have increased 95 % from 1993 - 2013. Esmail and Barua also compared the wait times in 2012 to the wait times in 2013. A few provinces wait times decreased but mostly provinces wait times increased slightly. The number of procedures overall that people in 2013 waited for was 928,120. This is a 6.6 % increase from 2012.
A related issue is the volume, and distribution, of health human resources. There are ongoing issues about the distribution of physicians, with the pendulum swinging from arguing that there were too many, to arguing that there were too few. As Ben Chan found, the major factor driving the drop in physician numbers was changes in training programs. Combined with such factors as changes in the hours worked by each physician, and a decrease in the proportion of doctors choosing to go into family practice, there were shortages in some areas, particularly for general practitioners (GP) / family doctors. One response has been to encourage ' primary care reform ', including greater use of multidisciplinary health care teams. There are also ongoing issues regarding nurses. (See Nursing Health Services Research Unit, which links to some reports. CIHI also gives data about nursing.)
Delisting is the term used in Canada when a province decides that a medical procedure will no longer be covered by the health care system in that province.
While health care coverage is country wide, and is required to be portable and to have equal access, there are a few differences between what provinces will cover. In some cases, this has resulted in lost grants to the provinces; in other cases it has not.
An example of a delisted service is circumcision in Ontario. It is still possible to have a boy circumcised in Ontario by a doctor but the parents must pay the cost.
The issue of delisting services is becoming increasingly a political battleground in Canadian health care. In an effort to save health care money some provinces are delisting some services; however, some delisted services are ones that could be considered "medically necessary ''. For example, except for seniors, children, and diabetics eye exams to check vision are no longer covered in Ontario.
Some politicians and think tanks have proposed removing barriers to the existence of a parallel private healthcare system. Others note that such systems act to erode cost control and impede equity. Though polling suggests support for such reforms has been increasing, it has yet to be adopted as official policy by any of the main federal political parties.
Under federal law, private clinics are not legally allowed to charge patients directly for services covered by the Canada Health Act, if they qualify for the public insurance. Regardless of this legal issue, many do offer such services. There are disputes as to whether surgical procedures can be performed. Two related issues have obstructed the growth of such clinics. One is regulatory -- hospital - based quality assurance often failed to encompass them. This gap has been filled in most provinces, but sometimes only after celebrated incidents in which patients died in unregulated clinics, including one physician who performed cosmetic surgery in an Ontario hotel room. The second is economic -- there may be no way for physicians to recoup the additional costs of running a surgical facility from their fees. Here, provinces can choose to offer ' facility fees ' to these clinics, but doing so has often been contentious, particularly if hospitals felt that these costs would be better devoted to allowing them to increase their operating room time.
Note that uninsured persons can pay for care (including medical tourism), and that insured persons can still pay for uninsured services. These are both niche markets.
Opponents of Canadian health care often raise issues such as long wait times, a ' brain - drain ' drawing qualified professionals away from Canada to other jurisdictions where working in the health care field is more profitable, and impairment of the Canadian health care system due to budget cuts. Fox News ran a story in 2007 reporting that during a period of above average numbers of births, at least 40 Canadian mothers of premature babies had to travel to the U.S. for treatment due to insufficient capacity for premature babies in British Columbia neonatal units. Nonetheless, Canada 's health care system covered the health care costs of those mothers affected.
In 2003, the Government in Canada spent $2,998 USD per capita on healthcare as compared to $5,711 USD per capita in the United States, while almost every Canadian citizen is fully covered. In the United States, 11.9 % of adults lack public or private health coverage, despite higher proportional spending along with large private investment.
The lack of competition has given healthcare unions a monopoly on essential services, thus ensuring a very strong bargaining position. Nova Scotia is currently debating healthcare legislation aimed at removing the threat of striking healthcare workers and replacing it with binding arbitration.
One proposed solution for improving the Canadian healthcare system is to increase funding. Proponents of this approach point to the rise of neo-conservative economic policies in Canada and the associated reduction in welfare state expenditure (particularly in the provinces) from the 1980s onwards as the cause of degradation in the system. While some say evidence clearly indicate an overall percentage increase on healthcare spending, the net spending has been drastically decreasing on top of inflation.
Other critics of healthcare state that increased funding will not solve systemic problems in the healthcare system including a rising cost of medical technology, infrastructure, and wages. These critics say that Canada 's proximity to the United States causes a "brain drain '' or migration of Canadian - trained doctors and nurses (as well as other professionals) to the United States, where private hospitals can pay much higher wages and income tax rates are lower (partially because health care is not covered through taxation). Some of these critics argue that increased privatization of healthcare would improve Canada 's health infrastructure. Others argue vehemently against it. For example, large resources are required to train and educate doctors. Since the number of available doctors is therefore limited, doctors working for a private system would not be working under the public system creating little to no net increase in available services.
Critics of greater privatization state that healthcare should be kept public, (public in funding only, as most services are provided by the private sector including doctors who in most cases are private corporations) in part because it separates Canadians from Americans by mandating equality and fairness in health care. This is in contrast to other states where doctors are on a per capita based salary. In this sense the Canadian Healthcare system is merely a publicly funded one where services are provided by a mixture of public and private entities, which most Canadians appreciate and desire. Changing the system to eliminate the balance between public and private service providers to a completely public system is one such alternative.
Since the early 1990s, Ontario has implemented several systematic reforms to reduce health care costs. Similar reforms have been implemented in other provinces.
Currently in Ontario, people with an annual taxable income above $20,000 must pay an annual health care premium ranging from $60 -- $900. Funding for health care in Ontario also comes in part from a dedicated Employer Health Tax (EHT) that ranges from 0.98 % - 1.95 % of employer payroll. Eligible employers are exempted from EHT on the first $400,000 of payroll. British Columbia and Quebec charge similar premiums.
Ontario has increased the number of 24 - hour drop - in medical clinic networks to reduce costs associated with treating off - hours emergencies in hospital emergency rooms.
Many family doctor practices have created their own clinics, offering 24 - hour service for their patients if needed. Each doctor in the practice takes a turn at being "on call '' on a rotating basis. Patients who have family doctors belonging to these practices are able to have a doctor come to their home in extreme situations. There is no additional charge for these services as they are billed to the Province, the same as an office visit.
Hospitals in some major Canadian cities, such as London, Ontario, have restructured their emergency services to share emergency treatment among several hospitals. One hospital may provide full emergency room care, while another sees patients who have broken limbs, minor injuries and yet another sees patients suffering cold, flu, etc.
In 2007, the first nurse practitioner - led office to relieve waiting times caused by a shortage of primary practitioners was opened in Sudbury, Ontario.
Ontario has also attempted to move the system away from bill for service or visit and toward preventive and community - based approaches to healthcare. The Ontario government in the early 1990s helped develop many community health care centres, often in low - income areas, which provide both medical and social support which combines health care with programs such as collective kitchens, Internet access, anti-poverty groups and groups to help people quit smoking.
While funding has decreased for these centres, and they have had to cut back, they have had a lower cost than the traditional fee - for - service approach. Many of these centres are filled to capacity in terms of general doctors, and there are often fairly long waiting lists and the centres also utilize nurse practitioners, who reduce the workload on the doctors and increase efficiency.
Ontario and Quebec have recently licensed midwives, providing another option for childbirth which can reduce costs for uncomplicated births. Midwives remain close to hospital facilities in case the need for emergency care emerges. These births often cost much less than the traditional hospital delivery. Hospitals have also reformed their approach to birthing by adding private birthing areas, often with a hot tub (which is good for relieving pain without medication).
Currently, privately owned and operated hospitals that allow patients to pay out - of - pocket for services can not obtain public funding in Canada, as they contravene the "equal accessibility '' tenets of the Canada Health Act. Some politicians and medical professionals have proposed allowing public funding for these hospitals. Workers ' Compensation Boards, the Canadian Forces, the RCMP, federally incarcerated prisoners, and medical care for which an insurance company has liability (e.g., motor vehicle accidents) all pay for health care outside of the public systems in all provinces.
In Quebec, a recent legal change has allowed this reform to occur. In June 2005, the Supreme Court of Canada overturned a Quebec law preventing people from buying private health insurance to pay for medical services available through the publicly funded system and this ruling does not apply outside the province. See: Chaoulli v. Quebec (Attorney General).
In November 2005, the Quebec government announced that it would allow residents to purchase private medical insurance to comply with this ruling.
Private insurance from companies such as Blue Cross, Green Shield and Manulife have been available for many years to cover services not covered by the Canadian health care system, such as dental care and some eye care. Private insurance is provided by many employers as a benefit.
The Canadian Medical Association (CMA) released a report in July 2007 endorsing private healthcare as a means to improve an ailing healthcare system. Dr. Brian Day, who acted as President of the CMA in 2007 / 2008, is the owner of the largest private healthcare hospital in Canada and a proponent of mixed public and private healthcare in Canada.
It is generally accepted that physicians arriving in Canada from other countries must meet Canadian Health Practitioner standards. So there is concern that doctors from other countries are not trained or educated to meet Canadian standards. Consequently, doctors who want to practise in Canada must meet the same educational and medical qualifications as Canadian - trained practitioners. Others suggest that the Canadian Medical Association, the Ontario Medical Association, and the regulatory bodies (the provincial Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons) have created too much red tape to allow qualified doctors to practise in Canada. Canada 's health system is ranked 30th in the world, suggesting the logic of the doctor shortage defies the statistics. In fact according to a report by Keith Leslie of the Canadian Press in the Chronicle Journal, Nov 21, 2005, over 10,000 trained doctors are working in the United States, a country ranked 37th in the world. It would suggest money or the perception of better working conditions, or both, are resulting in an exodus of Canadian doctors (and nurses) to the USA.
It is important to recognize that many consider the doctor shortage in Canada to be a very severe problem affecting all sectors of health care. It may relate in part to the details of how doctors are paid; a detail often misunderstood. In Canada, almost all doctors receive a fee per - visit, not per - service. It has been suggested that this type of "fee - for - visit '' payment system can encourage complexity, volume visits, repeat visits, referrals, and testing.
One consequence of the shortage in Canada is that a great many patients are left without family doctors, and trained specialists, making early intervention very difficult. As the article in the Toronto Star specially isolates, it is not so much a problem of a doctor shortage but of a shortage of ' licensed doctors '. Michael Urbanski states that Canada already has a hidden reserve of foreign - trained MDs eager to begin medical practice. "However, what 's crucial to understanding the issue of doctor shortage in Ontario is that while the Liberal government is planning to go "poaching '' for other countries ' doctors, there are an estimated 4,000 internationally trained doctors right here in Ontario working at low - wage jobs. ''
A CBC report (6) (August 21, 2006) on the health care system reports the following:
Dr. Albert Schumacher, former president of the Canadian Medical Association estimates that 75 per cent of health - care services are delivered privately, but funded publicly. "Frontline practitioners whether they 're GPs or specialists by and large are not salaried. They 're small hardware stores. Same thing with labs and radiology clinics... The situation we are seeing now are more services around not being funded publicly but people having to pay for them, or their insurance companies. We have sort of a passive privatization.
In a report by Keith Leslie of the Canadian Press in the Chronicle Journal, Nov 21, 2005, commenting on an Ontario Medical Association Report, prepared by the human resources committee states "The year 2005 finds the province in the midst of a deepening physician resources crisis ''. The report continues to report, "the government should make it easier for doctors from other provinces to work in Ontario and... ". Here we have signs of inter-provincial competition affecting the doctor shortage in one province over another. Essentially, privatized healthcare is not a choice of interest for lower income Canadians, it is most likely to be unaffordable and unfair to those who suffer on a social standard.
Though the Canada Health Act provides national guidelines for healthcare, the provinces have exclusive jurisdiction over health under the constitution and are free to ignore these guidelines, although if they ignore the guidelines, the federal government may deny federal funding for healthcare. All provinces currently abide by the Canada Health Act in order to receive this funding; however the Alberta legislature has considered proposals to ignore the Act to allow them to implement reforms not allowed under the Act.
The federal government has no direct role in the delivery of medicine in the provinces and territories so each province and territory has its own independent public health insurance program. Under the Canada Health Act, each province and territory must provide services to members of plans in other provinces and territories.
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who discovered a river while searching for the northwest passage | Henry Hudson - wikipedia
Henry Hudson (c. 1565 -- 1611) was an English sea explorer and navigator during the early 17th century, best known for his explorations of present - day Canada and parts of the northeastern United States.
In 1607 and 1608, Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a rumored Northeast Passage to Cathay (present - day China) via a route above the Arctic Circle. In 1609 he landed in North America and explored the region around the modern New York metropolitan area, looking for a Northwest Passage to Asia on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. He sailed up the Hudson River, which was later named for him, and thereby laid the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region.
Hudson discovered the Hudson Strait and the immense Hudson Bay on his final expedition, while still searching for the Northwest Passage. In 1611, after wintering on the shore of James Bay, Hudson wanted to press on to the west, but most of his crew mutinied. The mutineers cast Hudson, his son, and seven others adrift; the Hudsons and their companions were never seen again.
Besides being the namesake of numerous geographical features, Hudson is also the namesake of the Hudson 's Bay Company that explored and traded in the vast Hudson Bay watershed in the following centuries.
Details of Hudson 's birth and early life are mostly unknown. Some sources have identified Henry Hudson as having been born in about 1565, but others date his birth to around 1570. Other historians assert even less certainty; Peter C. Mancall, for instance, states that "(Hudson) was probably born in the 1560s, '' while Piers Pennington gives no date at all. Hudson is thought to have spent many years at sea, beginning as a cabin boy and gradually working his way up to ship 's captain.
In 1607, the Muscovy Company of England hired Hudson to find a northerly route to the Pacific coast of Asia. At the time, the English were engaged in an economic battle with the Dutch for control of northwest routes. It was thought that, because the sun shone for three months in the northern latitudes in the summer, the ice would melt and a ship could make it across the "top of the world ''.
On 1 May 1607, Hudson sailed with a crew of ten men and a boy on the 80 - ton Hopewell. They reached the east coast of Greenland on 14 June, coasting it northward until the 22nd. Here the party named a headland "Young 's Cape '', a "very high mount, like a round castle '' near it "Mount of God 's Mercy '' and land at 73 ° north latitude "Hold - with - Hope ''. After turning east, they sighted "Newland '' (i.e Spitsbergen) on the 27th, near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later simply named the "Great Indraught '' (Isfjorden). On 13 July, Hudson and his crew estimated that they had sailed as far north as 80 ° 23 ' N, but more likely only reached 79 ° 23 ' N. The following day they entered what Hudson later in the voyage named "Whales Bay '' (Krossfjorden and Kongsfjorden), naming its northwestern point "Collins Cape '' (Kapp Mitra) after his boatswain, William Collins. They sailed north the following two days. On the 16th they reached as far north as Hakluyt 's Headland (which Thomas Edge claims Hudson named on this voyage) at 79 ° 49 ' N, thinking they saw the land continue to 82 ° N (Svalbard 's northernmost point is 80 ° 49 ' N) when really it trended to the east. Encountering ice packed along the north coast, they were forced to turn back south. Hudson wanted to make his return "by the north of Greenland to Davis his Streights (Davis Strait), and so for Kingdom of England, '' but ice conditions would have made this impossible. The expedition returned to Tilbury Hope on the Thames on 15 September.
Many authors have wrongly stated that it was the discovery of large numbers of whales in Spitsbergen waters by Hudson during this voyage that led to several nations sending whaling expeditions to the islands. While he did indeed report seeing many whales, it was not Hudson 's reports but rather those by Jonas Poole in 1610 which led to the establishment of English whaling and the voyages of Nicholas Woodcock and Willem Cornelisz. van Muyden in 1612 that led to the establishment of Dutch, French and Spanish whaling.
In 1608, English merchants of the East India and Muscovy Companies again sent Hudson in the Hopewell to attempt to locate a passage to the Indies, this time to the east around northern Russia. Leaving London on 22 April, the ship traveled almost 2,500 miles, making it to Novaya Zemlya well above the Arctic Circle in July, but even in the summer they found the ice impenetrable and turned back, arriving at Gravesend on 26 August.
According to Thomas Edge, "William (sic) Hudson '' in 1608 discovered an island he named "Hudson 's Tutches '' (Touches) at 71 ° N, the latitude of Jan Mayen. However, records of Hudson 's voyages suggest that he could only have come across Jan Mayen in 1607 by making an illogical detour, and historians have pointed out that Hudson himself made no mention of it in his journal. There is also no cartographical proof of this supposed discovery. Jonas Poole in 1611 and Robert Fotherby in 1615 both had possession of Hudson 's journal while searching for his elusive Hold - with - Hope (which is now believed to have been on the east coast of Greenland), but neither had any knowledge of any discovery of Jan Mayen, an achievement which was only later attributed to Hudson. Fotherby eventually stumbled across Jan Mayen, thinking it a new discovery and naming it "Sir Thomas Smith 's Island '', though the first verifiable records of the discovery of the island had been made a year earlier, in 1614.
In 1609 Hudson was chosen by merchants of the Dutch East India Company in the Netherlands to find an easterly passage to Asia. While awaiting orders and supplies in Amsterdam, he heard rumors of a northwest route to the Pacific through North America. Hudson had been told to sail through the Arctic Ocean north of Russia, into the Pacific and so to the Far East. Hudson departed Amsterdam on 4 April in command of the Dutch ship Halve Maen. He could not complete the specified (eastward) route because ice blocked the passage, as with all previous such voyages, and he turned the ship around in mid-May while somewhere east of Norway 's North Cape. At that point, acting outside his instructions, Hudson pointed the ship west and decided to try to seek a westerly passage through North America.
They reached the Grand Banks of Newfoundland on 2 July, and in mid-July made landfall near what is now LaHave, Nova Scotia. Here they encountered Native Americans who were accustomed to trading with the French; they were willing to trade beaver pelts, but apparently no trades occurred. The ship stayed in the area about ten days, the crew replacing a broken mast and fishing for food. On the 25th a dozen men from the Halve Maen, using muskets and small cannon, went ashore and assaulted the village near their anchorage. They drove the people from the settlement and took their boat and other property (probably pelts and trade goods).
On 4 August the ship was at Cape Cod, from which Hudson sailed south to the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay. Rather than entering the Chesapeake he explored the coast to the north, finding Delaware Bay but continuing on north. On 3 September he reached the estuary of the river that initially was called the "North River '' or "Mauritius '' and now carries his name. He was not the first European to discover the estuary, though, as it had been known since the voyage of Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. On 6 September 1609 John Colman of his crew was killed by Indians with an arrow to his neck. Hudson sailed into the upper bay on 11 September, and the following day began a journey up what is now known as the Hudson River. Over the next ten days his ship ascended the river, reaching a point about where the present - day capital of Albany is located.
On 23 September, Hudson decided to return to Europe. He put in at Dartmouth, England on 7 November, and was detained by authorities who wanted access to his log. He managed to pass the log to the Dutch ambassador to England, who sent it, along with his report, to Amsterdam.
While exploring the river, Hudson had traded with several native groups, mainly obtaining furs. His voyage was used to establish Dutch claims to the region and to the fur trade that prospered there when a trading post was established at Albany in 1614. New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island became the capital of New Netherland in 1625.
In 1610, Hudson obtained backing for another voyage, this time under the English flag. The funding came from the Virginia Company and the British East India Company. At the helm of his new ship, the Discovery, he stayed to the north (some claim he deliberately stayed too far south on his Dutch - funded voyage), reaching Iceland on 11 May, the south of Greenland on 4 June, and then rounding the southern tip of Greenland.
On 25 June, the explorers reached what is now the Hudson Strait at the northern tip of Labrador. Following the southern coast of the strait on 2 August, the ship entered Hudson Bay. Excitement was very high due to the expectation that the ship had finally found the Northwest Passage through the continent. Hudson spent the following months mapping and exploring its eastern shores, but he and his crew did not find a passage to Asia. In November, however, the ship became trapped in the ice in the James Bay, and the crew moved ashore for the winter.
When the ice cleared in the spring of 1611, Hudson planned to use his Discovery to further explore Hudson Bay with the continuing goal of discovering the Passage; however, most of the members of his crew ardently desired to return home. Matters came to a head and much of the crew mutinied in June.
Descriptions of the successful mutiny are one - sided, because the only survivors who could tell their story were the mutineers and those who went along with the mutiny. Allegedly in the latter class was ship 's navigator Abacuk Pricket, a survivor who kept a journal that was to become a key source for the narrative of the mutiny. According to Pricket, the leaders of the mutiny were Henry Greene and Robert Juet. Pricket 's narrative tells how the mutineers set Hudson, his teenage son John, and seven crewmen -- men who were either sick and infirm or loyal to Hudson -- adrift from the Discovery in a small shallop, an open boat, effectively marooning them in Hudson Bay. The Pricket journal reports that the mutineers provided the castaways with clothing, powder and shot, some pikes, an iron pot, some food, and other miscellaneous items.
After the mutiny, Captain Hudson 's shallop broke out oars and tried to keep pace with the Discovery for some time. Pricket recalled that the mutineers finally tired of the David - Goliath pursuit and unfurled additional sails aboard the Discovery, enabling the larger vessel to leave the tiny open boat behind. Hudson and the other seven aboard the shallop were never seen again. Despite subsequent searches / expeditions, including those conducted in 1612 by Thomas Button and in 1668 - 70 by Zachariah Gillam, their fate is unknown.
Pricket 's journal and testimony have been severely criticized for bias, on two grounds. Firstly, prior to the mutiny the alleged leaders of the uprising, Greene and Juet, had been friends and loyal seamen of Captain Hudson. Secondly, Greene and Juet did not survive the return voyage to England. Pricket knew he and the other survivors of the mutiny would be tried in England for piracy, and it would have been in his interest, and the interest of the other survivors, to put together a narrative that would place the blame for the mutiny upon men who were no longer alive to defend themselves.
In any case, the Pricket narrative became the controlling story of the expedition 's disastrous end. Only 8 of the 13 mutinous crewmen survived the return voyage to Europe. They were arrested in England, and some were put on trial, but no punishment was imposed for the mutiny. One theory holds that the survivors were considered too valuable as sources of information to execute, as they had traveled to the New World and could describe sailing routes and conditions. Perhaps for this reason, they were charged with murder -- of which they were acquitted -- rather than mutiny, of which they likely would have been convicted and executed.
The gulf or bay discovered by Hudson is twice the size of the Baltic Sea, and its many large estuaries afford access to otherwise landlocked parts of Western Canada and the Arctic. This allowed the Hudson 's Bay Company to exploit a lucrative fur trade along its shores for more than two centuries, growing powerful enough to influence the history and present international boundaries of Western North America. Hudson Strait became the entrance to the Arctic for all ships engaged in the historic search for the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic side (though modern voyages take more northerly routes).
Along with Hudson Bay, many other topographical features and landmarks are named for Hudson. The Hudson River in New York and New Jersey is named after him, as are Hudson County, New Jersey, the Henry Hudson Bridge, the Henry Hudson Parkway, and the town of Hudson, New York.
Hudson and his marooned crewmates appear as mythic characters in the famous story "Rip Van Winkle '' by Washington Irving. He also appears in the time - travel novel Torn by Margaret Peterson Haddix.
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is it illegal to carry a knife in your car | Knife legislation - Wikipedia
Knife legislation is defined as the body of statutory law or case law promulgated or enacted by a government or other governing jurisdiction that prohibits, criminalizes, or restricts the otherwise legal manufacture, importation, sale, transfer, possession, transport, or use of knives.
The carrying of knives in public is forbidden or restricted by law in many countries. Exceptions may be made for hunting knives, pocket knives, and knives used for work - related purposes (chef 's knives, etc.), depending upon the laws of a given jurisdiction. In turn, the carrying or possessing of certain type of knives perceived as deadly or offensive weapons such as automatic or switchblade knives or butterfly knives may be restricted or prohibited. Even where knives may be legally carried on the person generally, this right may not extend to all places and circumstances, and knives of any description may be prohibited at schools, public buildings or courthouses, and at public events.
In accordance with the Austrian Arms Act of 1996 (Waffengesetz 1996) it is illegal to buy, import, possess or carry weapons that are disguised as another object or as an object of common use (sword canes, e.g., or knives disguised as ink pens, brush handles or belt buckles). For ordinary knives, however, there are no restrictions or prohibitions based on blade length or opening or locking mechanism.
The Arms Act defines weapons as "objects that by their very nature are intended to reduce or eliminate the defensive ability of a person through direct impact '', specifically including all firearms. Consequently, certain knives are considered "weapons '' in accordance with this definition. Except for firearms, however, which are heavily regulated, such "weapons '', including automatic opening lock - blade knives (switchblades), OTF automatic knives, balisongs, and gravity knives are implicitly permitted under the Arms Act, and thus may be bought, possessed and carried by anyone over the age of 18 who has not been expressively banned from owning any weapon (Waffenverbot) by the civilian authorities.
Article 3, § 1 of the 2006 Weapons Act lists the switchblade or automatic knife (couteaux à cran d'arrêt et à lame jaillissante), as well as butterfly knives, throwing knives, throwing stars, and knives or blades that have the appearance of other objects (i.e. sword canes, belt buckle knives, etc.) as prohibited weapons. In addition to specifically prohibited knives, the police and local jurisdictions have broad authority to prohibit the carrying or possession of a wide variety of knives, to include carriage inside a vehicle, if the owner can not establish sufficient legal reason (motif légitime) for doing so, particularly in urban areas or at public events. This discretion extends to even folding knives without a locking blade.
Bulgarian weapon law is maintained on a yearly basis. It is called ZOBVVPI (Bulgarian: "Закон за оръжията, боеприпасите, взривните вещества и пиротехническите изделия '') and it covers ONLY the possession and usage of firearms (including gas and signal ones), and pellet or BB (Bulgarian: "сачми '') pneumatic guns. A state regulation on melee weapons of any kind does not exist, whether knives, swords, bats or electric devices. Neither there is a juridical definition on the terms "melee weapon '' or "cold weapon '' in any Bulgarian law. Hence it is absolutely legal to possess and carry a knife in Bulgaria without having to procure any reason for doing so. Concealed knife carry is OK, anywhere and anytime. Although there are no restrictions on the possession or carrying of any type of knives or swords, it is not widely accepted or considered appropriate to carry a knife openly in public places such as streets or public buildings, stores or restaurants. In urban areas, expect an instant check and hassle if a policeman sees you to openly carry a larger knife, even if you have legal right to do it. From a society point of view, the open carry of knives in Bulgaria is justified only on rural areas, when fishing or hunting, or when the knife serves as a tool in work activities, such as gardening. Some places like courts, banks, clubs, bars, etc. will deny you the access with any type of weapon (knives included) and most of them do n't offer a safekeeping option. It is urban legend in Bulgaria that knives above 10 cm. are illegal to carry on person, so expect the police to try and convince you give up the knife voluntarily, even if such measure is illegal. You should not give up your knife, instead state the purpose of "daily needs '', "utility usage '' or even "self - defense '' for carrying and be clear that you have n't committed any crime. Insist the policeman to cite a law against you carrying a knife in public. Since there is n't any such law in Bulgaria, police most likely will let you keep your knife and send you on your way with a "warning ''. If they insist or are further misbehaving, ask to contact their superior officer prior to giving up your knife or else you wo n't see it again. Actually, there are some random city councils which try to limit knife lengths above 10 centimeters (4 inches) with issuing acts, but these acts are all illegal and have no compliance force, because the councils serve only administrative functions and they do n't have the jurisdiction to invent or impose laws of any kind. Remember that although very liberal in terms of knives (weapons) possession and carry, compared to many European countries, Bulgaria is n't the place where you can defend yourself with deadly force. If the need for self - defense with a knife ever arises, consider it very carefully. Bulgaria has strong restrictive self - defense laws and a "duty to retreat '' is always obligatory. Usually, courts often consider the armed self - defense as "unjustified '' based on the Penal Code and the defending side ends up with an effective jail verdict, even if the cause (treat) for initiating self - defense is proven.
The Canadian Criminal Code criminalizes the possession of knives which open automatically. Section 84 (1) defines "a knife that has a blade that opens automatically by gravity or centrifugal force or by hand pressure applied to a button, spring or other device attached to or in the handle of the knife '' as a prohibited weapon. Only persons who have been granted exemption by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police through the Canadian Firearms Program are allowed to possess (but not acquire) prohibited weapons.
If a person is found in unauthorized possession of a prohibited knife by any law enforcement officer, the person is liable to a maximum of 5 years in jail and the weapon being seized. The Crown can then apply to a Provincial Court judge for the weapon to be forfeited and destroyed. The import and export of prohibited weapons is also strictly regulated and enforced by the Canada Border Services Agency.
Examples of prohibited knives include:
Manually - opened or ' one - handed ' opening knives, including spring - assisted knives, that do not fall within the categories listed as prohibited weapons definition are legal to own and use, however importation of many of these items has been banned by the CBSA.
There is no length restriction on carrying knives within the Criminal Code, but there is a prohibition against carrying a knife if the possessor intends to carry for a purpose dangerous to public peace or for the purpose of committing a criminal offense.
Due to concerns about potential violence at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China began restricting "dangerous knives '', requiring that purchasers register with the government when purchasing these knives. Included in the new restrictions are knives with "blood grooves '', lockblade knives, knives with blades measuring over 22 cm (8.6 in) in length, and knives with blades over 15 cm in length also having a point angle of less than 60 degrees. As of January 2011, according to an authorized Leatherman dealer in Beijing all knives with a locking blade are illegal unless they are part of a larger multi-tool like a leatherman. However, many people still carry locking pocket knives especially when camping with no issues. He suggested carrying locking knives in checked luggage on airplanes, and on your person in trains and subways since they could be confiscated if found in a bag. Foreigners are generally given a bit more leeway in China so if a traveler is caught with a small knife there will probably be no prosecution and at most confiscation.
Czech weapon law from the year 2002 concerns firearms only, with no other legislation concerning knives in existence (with the exception of the paragraphs of the penal code penalizing the use of any weapons in criminal offenses). This means there are no restrictions on the possession or carrying of any types of knives or swords, whether openly or in concealed manner.
In Denmark, fixed - blade knives are legal to own if the blade is no longer than 12 cm (4.75 inches). Blades over this length may only be legally owned if the possessor has a legitimate reason for carrying the knife or a special collector 's permit. However, such knives are still generally illegal to carry in public, whether on one 's person or in a vehicle, unless transported in such a manner as to prevent ready access by the owner (lockbox, locked trunk, etc.) Folding, non-lock blade knives are legal to carry if the blade length does not exceed 7 cm (2.756 in). Locking knives and knives over 7 cm must be transported in public so as not to allow ready access by the owner. Knives with blades that may be opened with one hand (even if the one - hand opening mechanism has been removed), automatic - opening knives (switchblades), push daggers, gravity knives, disguised knives (belt - buckle knife, sword cane, etc.) and knives with ready access by the wearer (neck or belt knives, boot knives, etc.) are illegal to own or possess. Multi-tools featuring one - hand opening blades are also illegal to own or possess. Owning throwing knives and throwing in private or public is subject to permissions.
In France, any knife of any blade length with a fixed blade, or a folding blade with a locking system, falls into unregulated Category D weapon (armes de catégorie D en vente libre). Unregulated category D weapons may be legally purchased if over 18 years of age, but they may not be carried on one 's person, unless carried "for good reason '', for example, as part of the tools of one 's profession. If carried in a vehicle, such knives must be placed in a secure, locked compartment not accessible to the vehicle occupants. In addition, French law provides that authorities may classify any knife as a prohibited item depending upon circumstances and the discretion of the police or judicial authorities. Since "reasonable size '' knives are merely tolerated in most circumstances, authorities may summarily confiscate it.
German knife law establishes three categories of knives: 1) prohibited knives; 2) knives designated as cutting and thrusting weapons; and 3) other knives. Some knives are additionally classified as restricted - use, in that they may be possessed in the home or business, but may not be carried on the person. In addition, paragraph 42 section 5 of the Weapons Act gives each German state the option in certain areas to enact local regulations prohibiting the carrying of weapons "and any dangerous objects '' in so - called "weapons ban '' areas for purposes of protecting public safety and order. "Weapons ban '' areas have been enacted in Berlin and Hamburg.
German law prohibits the manufacture, importation, or sale of butterfly knives, gravity knives, and push daggers (palm knives), as well as knives designed to be disguised as another object, such as a sword cane or belt buckle knife.
Automatic or switchblade knives are generally prohibited, with certain exceptions based on blade length and number of sharpened edges. Switchblades and automatic knives with telescoping blade opening designs are prohibited. Side - opening automatic knives are also prohibited unless 1) the blade is no longer than 8.5 cm, and 2) the blade is single - edged, i.e. a blade without double edges, such as a stiletto or dagger.
Knives designated as cutting and thrusting weapons, but not otherwise specifically prohibited may be possessed by persons of 18 years and older. German law defines a cutting and thrusting weapon as any object intended to reduce or eliminate the ability of a person to attack another person or to defend themselves. This includes swords, sabers, daggers, stilettos, and bayonets. For example, as a bayonet is a military weapon intended to injure or kill people, it is regarded as a weapon by the criminal law. In contrast, a machete is regarded as a tool to clear dense vegetation. Knives classed as cutting and thrusting weapons are generally restricted to possession and use on private property, and may not be carried in public or at certain public events.
All knives that are not illegal may be legally purchased, owned, and used by anyone on private property. However, some knives are restricted from being carried in public, which is defined as exercising actual control of a restricted - class knife outside the home, business, or private property.
Restricted - use knives may be carried if transported in a locked, sealed container, or if there is a commonly accepted legitimate purpose for carrying it, such as participation in a historical reenactment, sporting use (i.e. hunting), or as a necessary tool in a trade or business. The desire to defend oneself, or to use the knife as a tool without proof of necessity for its use is ordinarily not considered a legitimate purpose under the law.
It is illegal to carry a knife for use as a weapon in attack or defense. The only general restriction is intended use, not the properties of the knife itself (in particular, there is no restriction of blade length, despite popular belief). However, in practice there will be significant leeway for interpretation for police officers and judges -- and much will depend on whether an intended use other than as a weapon can be argued -- for which the properties of the knife in question will be very relevant (bad: flick - knife, automated, long blade, neck - knife, tactical). So, carrying a knife that has its main use as a weapon will be illegal. In addition, it is not allowed to carry knives in certain places, such as courtrooms, to football matches, etc. Carrying knives is generally very unusual in towns, but not in the countryside.
"Article 1. Meaning of terms, applicability
...
§ 2. Objects that offer themselves (είναι πρόσφορα) to attack or defense are also considered weapons. In particular:
...
b) Knives of all sorts, except those where ownership is justified by use in the home, profession or education, or art, hunting, fishing or other similar uses. ''
The remaining sections refer to: a) sprays and electro - shockers, c) knuckle dusters, clubs, nunchakus, etc., d) flame throwers or chemical sprays, e) fishing spear - guns.
No license is needed for import, trade or carrying of knives for these uses (Art 7, 5).
See also the constitutional court decision 1299 / 2008 where the intended use of the weapon found in the car of two criminals is the point of discussion.
A useful article from a hunting journal (in Greek).
Under the Weapons Ordinance (HK Laws. Chap 217), certain knives are designated as ' prohibited weapons ', including:
Possession of prohibited weapon is illegal under section 4 of the ordinance and offender is liable to a fine and to imprisonment for 3 years. Any Police officers or Customs officers can seize and detain any prohibited weapon. Once convicted, the weapon is automatically forfeited to the government and can then be disposed of by the Commissioner of Police.
Carrying a knife with blade length over 8 centimetres (3.1 in) is prohibited in public places in Hungary unless justified by sport, work or everyday activity. Automatic Knives, throwing stars and "French knives '' are prohibited regardless of blade length and may be sold only to members of the army, law enforcement and the national security agency. Violation may be punished with a fine up to 50000 HUF. Possession at home and transportation in secure wrapping is allowed for everyone.
Any non-bladed weapon that is used to "increase the strength of a punch '' is illegal to carry (batons, knuckel dusters, nunchakus etc.).
Any fixed knife containing a blade length of 15 cm or more requires permission from the prefectural public safety commission in order to possess. Permission requirements also apply to any type of pocket knife over 6 cm (including Automatic Knives), spears over 15 cm in blade length, and Japanese halberds. All knives with a blade length over 8 cm are prohibited from being carried, under a crime law, with an exception for carrying for duty or other justifiable reasons. Possession is considered a petty crime and is not usually punishable by prison time. However, in cases where assault occurs with the knife, there is a penalty of up to 2 years prison or up to a ¥ 300000 fine. Folding knives with a blade length less than 8 cm (such as Swiss Army knives) are permitted, while SAK with a lock blade are prohibited from being carried.
Latvian legislation "Law On the Handling of Weapons '' defines knives as:
and prohibits
According to Lithuanian law it is legal to possess and carry most types of knives. This includes hunting knives, pocket knives, multi-tools, survivor knives, balisongs etc. as knives are not considered weapons. The only exception are switchblades. It is illegal to carry or possess a switchblade if it meets one of the following criteria: the blade is longer than 8.5 cm; the width in the middle of the blade is less than 14 % of its total length; the blade is double sided.
National Law: As of 2011, Dutch Law prohibits ownership or possession of the following knives:
Local law: In addition to national laws, every Dutch city and urban district has the right to prohibit carrying of any knife that can potentially be used as a weapon in certain "safety risk '' areas. Such a "no - go '' area could include geographically limited urban areas such as bars, cafés, concerts, and public gathering places or events. In public, a knife must be transported in such a manner so that it is not directly usable by the owner, such as storing the knife in a locked case for carrying in a backpack, or placing the locked - up knife in a storage area of a vehicle separate from the passenger compartment.
Notes: Additionally, it is illegal to carry a fixed - blade knife with multiple cutting edges. However such a knife may be kept at home for collector purposes.
According to Norwegian law, one can spend up to 6 months in prison for purposefully bringing a knife or similar sharp tool especially suited for causing bodily harm to a public place, or for helping others do so. The law does not cover knives or other tools worn or used for work, outdoor pursuits or similar reputable purposes. Note that this includes bringing knives in one 's car. It is also illegal to buy, own or store switchblade knives, butterfly knives and stilettos.
All kinds of knives are regarded as dangerous tools, but are not considered weapons under Polish law, so no restriction related to weapons apply. The exception is a blade hidden in an object that does n't look like a weapon (a sword in an umbrella, a dagger in a shoe etc.). It is legal to sell, buy, trade and possess any knives, and Polish law does not prohibit carrying a knife in a public place. However, certain prohibitions in possession of so - called "dangerous tools '' may apply during mass events.
Only certain knives are considered "cold weapons '' and regulated in Russia, the others are common tools and are entirely unregulated, however using them in a violent manner is considered an "improvised weapon '' usage and is an aggravating circumstance when the charges for an aggressive behavior are filed, and the local regulations may prevent bringing of "dangerous objects '' to some events or businesses. The key point of knife regulations in Russia lies in the fact that the determination whether the particular knife represent a weapon or an unregulated tool lies entirely within the opinion of a certified expert or an authorized certification board. In practice this means that there 's no legal difference between the knife as a tool and as a weapon, and most given examples may be considered either, the only difference being the certificate issued by an authorized body, and any knife having this certificate being explicitly legal. Certifying the knives as a tool is n't difficult and most producers and importers do this, issuing a copy of a certificate with the knife during the sale, for presentation to the police officers in case of an inquiry. However, unauthorized possession, creation, sale and transport of bladed weapons were decriminalized in 2001 and is now only a civil offence, carrying the penalty between 500 and 2000 ($15 to $60) roubles and / or a ban on a bladed weapon possession for 6 months to a year. For the knives considered weapons the law forbids only the throwing knives, and the automatic and gravity knives with the blades longer than 9 cm (the shorter blades are allowed, providing the owner having the relevant permission).
The "Weapons and Munitions law '' article 2. lists different types of weapons. It states that: "melee weapons, brass knuckles, dagger, kama, saber, bayonet and other items whose primary purpose is offense '' are considered weapons. Most knives are therefore considered tools and technically legal to possess and carry. However, since any knife could be used a melee weapon and the law does n't differentiate between particular types it is up to the authorities to determine the intent of the individual in possession of the knife and whether there is a "good reason '' to do so. Thus fixed blade knives are considered appropriate for particular professions or when hunting and fishing, but will likely be treated as a weapon in an urban environment. Switchblades, butterfly knives, blades concealed in everyday objects are usually treated as weapons and assisted opening knives may also fall into that category. The appearance of the knife (how aggressive it appears), the length (although there is no legal limit on length), the location where it was carried (large gatherings, schools, public buildings etc.) and the demeanor of the person carrying the knife all factor into the decision on whether the law has been broken. Purchase, possession and carry of a melee weapon is classified as a misdemeanor, subject to a fine of up to 10000 RSD or up to 60 days imprisonment ("Weapons and Munitions law '', article 35. In practice the less akin to a weapon the knife appears, and if carried and used with "good judgment '' the lesser the likelihood of legal consequences.
Carrying a knife in Slovakia is not explicitly prohibited nor are there any prohibited types of knives. However Act No. 372 / 1990 Offences Act states in paragraph 47 that carrying of a "cold weapon '' such as knife, dagger, or sabre on public places is a non-criminal offense to public safety if, from the circumstances of the case or the behaviour of the person, it can be concluded that these weapons can be used for violence or threats of violence. It is up to the individual assessment of any single situation by a policeman whether carrying of such a weapon can lead to violence. This offense can be penalized with maximum 500 EUR. An example of such a situation is visibly carrying of a knife in crowded public places, public meetings, etc.
In Spain there are stringent laws proscribing the carrying of armas blancas, or fighting knives, and prohibiting the manufacture, sale, possession or use of certain knives classified as prohibited weapons. Armas blancas and other sharp - bladed instruments or cutting tools may be freely purchased and owned provided they are not on the list of prohibited weapons, are not purchased or possessed by minors, are kept at home for the exclusive purpose of a collection, and are not transported on the public roads. It is against the law generally to carry, display or use any kind of knife in public, especially knives with pointed blades, unless one is on one 's own property or is working or engaged in a legitimate sporting activity requiring the use of such a knife.
The list of prohibited weapons is found in Anexo I -- Armas prohibidas of the Real Decreto 137 / 1993 Por El Que Se Aprueba EL Reglamento de Armas, which prohibits the manufacture, importation, distribution, sale, possession and use of sword canes, automatic knives (switchblades), as well as daggers of any type. Knives with a double - edged, pointed - tip blade 11 cm (4.33 inches) or less in length (measured from the forward end of the handle to the tip of the blade) are considered to be armas blancas, which may be owned, but not carried in public. The law also prohibits the marketing, advertising, sale, possession, and use of folding knives with a blade length exceeding 11 cm (4.33 in.), measured from the bolster or top of the handle to the tip of the blade. Certain exceptions to the list of prohibited knives exist for legitimate knife collections and historical artifacts registered with the Guardia Civil for possession exclusively at one 's own home.
Civilians are prohibited from possessing knives, machetes, and other bladed weapons officially issued to the police, military, and other official authorities without a special license. Sale of such weapons requires the presentation of an official arms license duly certifying the identity and status of the person entitled to possess such weapons.
Swedish law prohibits the carrying of knives in public areas, including schools and vehicles at these areas, if the carrier intends to use the knife as a weapon in the commission of a crime. Examples of legitimate purposes include artisans who use a knife at work, soldiers in uniform carrying a knife, or normal use of a pocket knife. The same law also regulates some other objects that are made to thrust, cut, or that are otherwise intended for crime against life and health. Furthermore, objects that are "particularly '' intended for crime against life and health, such as switchblades, shurikens and brass knuckles, are not permitted to be given or sold to anyone under the age of 21. Carrying a weapon for self - defence does not count as a legitimate purpose.
The 1689 Bill of Rights ensured that only Parliament and not the King could restrict the right of the people to bear arms. Over the last 60 years, Parliament has enacted a series of increasingly restrictive laws and acts regarding the possession and use of knives and bladed tools. The United Kingdom (to include England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) has one of the most comprehensive set of laws of any developed nation restricting most of the rights to import, purchase, possess, sell, and carry knives. Ambulance service data gathered in 2009 suggests a slow increase in knife crime incidents in the UK although the overall rate remains low.
The Restriction of Offensive Weapons Act 1959 (amended 1961) (ROWA), prohibits the importation, sale, hire, lending, or gift of certain types of knives in England, Wales, and Scotland as of 13 June 1959 under Section 1:
Subsection 2 also makes it illegal to import knives of this type as of 13 June 1959. The above legislation criminalizes the conduct of the original owner or transferor of an automatic - opening or gravity knife, not the new owner or transferee; in addition, the statute does not criminalize possession of such knives other than possession for the purpose of sale or hire. It is therefore not illegal per se to merely possess such a knife, though the difficulties of acquiring one without violating the statute makes it (almost) impossible to obtain one without either committing or abetting an offence.
The Criminal Justice Act 1988 mainly relates to carrying knives in public places, Section 139 being the most important:
The definition of "public place '' is unsettled, but can loosely be defined as anywhere the public have a legitimate right to be whether this access is paid for or not, which could include any populated area within the England and Wales, including one 's motor vehicle, which is defined by law as a ' public place ' unless parked on private property. In a remote or otherwise unpopulated area, a public place could include: 1) an organised wilderness gathering or event; 2) a National Park; 3) Forestry Commission land that is held open to the public; 4) public footpaths; 5) bridleways; and 6) any area where an individual does not need to ask specific permission to walk, camp, or travel from a landowner.
The phrase "good reason or lawful authority '' in Subsection 4 is intended to allow for "common sense '' possession of knives, so that it is legal to carry a knife if there is a bona fide reason to do so. Subsection 5 gives some specific examples of bona fide reasons: a knife for use at work (e.g. a chef 's knife), as part of a national costume (e.g. a sgian dubh for Scottish Highland dress), or for religious reasons (e.g. a Sikh Kirpan). However, even these specific statutory exceptions have proven unavailing to knife owners at times. It is important to note that "good reason or lawful authority '' exceptions may be difficult to establish for those not using a knife in the course of their trade or profession, but merely because the knife is needed in case of emergency or for occasional utility use.
Although English law insists that it is the responsibility of the prosecution to provide evidence proving a crime has been committed, an individual must provide evidence to prove that they had a "good reason or lawful authority '' for carrying a knife (if this is the case) upon being detained. While this may appear to be a reversal of the usual burden of proof, technically the prosecution has already proven the case (prima facie) by establishing that a knife was being carried in a public place (see Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 on Knives, etc.; New powers to tackle gun and knife crime)
As the burden of proving "good reason or lawful authority '' lies with the defendant, it is likely that an individual detained and searched by the police will need to prove the following (sometimes known as the THIS list): Has THIS person got permission; to use THIS article (knife); for THIS use; on THIS land; and by THIS land owner.
The special exception which exists in the Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Sec. 139) for folding knives (pocket knives) with blades less than 3 inches (76mm) long, is another "common sense '' measure accepting that some small knives are carried for general utility; This exemption however only applies to folding knives without a locking mechanism. The wording of the Criminal Justice Act does not mention locking and so the definition of "folding pocket knife '' was settled through case law. In the Crown Court appeal of Harris v. DPP (1992) and the Court of Appeal case of R. v Deegan (1998) the ruling that ' folding ' was intended to mean ' non-locking ' was upheld. As the only higher court in England and Wales to the Court of Appeal is the Supreme Court, the only way the decision in R. v. Deegan could be overturned is by a dissenting ruling by the Supreme Court or by Act of Parliament.
The Offensive Weapons Act 1996 covers the possession of knives within school premises:
The Offensive Weapons Act 1996 imposes an age restriction on the sale of knives:
In Scotland, the Violent Crime Reduction Act 2006 makes it an offence to sell knives to someone under 18 years of age (including any blade, razor blade, any bladed or pointed article, or any item made or adapted for causing personal injury.)
The Knives Act 1997 prohibits the sale of combat knives and restricts the marketing of knives as offensive weapons.
The Prevention of Crime Act 1953 prohibits the possession in any public place of an offensive weapon without lawful authority or reasonable excuse. The term "offensive weapon '' is defined as: "any article made or adapted for use to causing injury to the person, or intended by the person having it with him for such use ''.
Under the Prevention of Crime Act, otherwise ' exempt ' knives carried for "good reason or lawful authority '' may be still deemed illegal if authorities conclude the knife is being carried as an "offensive weapon ''. In recent years, the Prevention of Crime Act 1953 has been reinterpreted by police and public prosecutors, who have persuaded the courts to minimize exceptions to prosecution on the grounds that the defendant had "lawful authority or reasonable excuse '' in order to apply the Act to a wide variety of cases. This new approach now includes prosecution of citizens who have admitted carrying a knife for the sole purpose of self - defence (in the eyes of the law, this is presently viewed as an admission that the defendant intends to use the knife as an "offensive weapon '', albeit in a defensive manner, and in otherwise justifiable circumstances). While the onus lies on the officer to prove offensive intent, prosecutors and courts have in the past taken the appearance and the marketing of a particular brand of knife into account when considering whether an otherwise legal knife was being carried as an offensive weapon. In addition, the Knives Act 1997 now prohibits the sale of combat knives and restricts the marketing of knives as offensive weapons. A knife which is marketed as "tactical '', "military '', "special ops '', etc. could therefore carry an extra liability.
In May 2018 Judge Nic Madge, as part of his during his retirement ceremony at Luton Crown Court, suggested introducing a scheme whereby members of the public could get their kitchen knives modified to be less dangerous. Judge Madge said if his proposals were implemented there would be a "substantial '' reduction in the number of life - threatening injuries caused by stabbings.
In Scotland, the Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995 prevents the carrying of offensive weapons as well as pointed or bladed articles in a public place without lawful authority or reasonable excuse. Defences exist to a charge of possessing a bladed or pointed article in a public place when carried for use at work, as part of a national costume or for religious reasons. As in England and Wales, an exception is allowed for folding pocket knives which have a blade of less than 3 Inches (7.62 cm)
Other relevant Scotland knife legislation includes the Criminal Justice Act 1988 (Offensive Weapons Act) (Scotland) Order 2005, which bans sword canes, push daggers, butterfly (balisong knives), throwing stars, knives that can defeat metal detectors, and knives disguised as other objects, and the Police, Public Order and Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2006, which makes it an offence to sell a knife, knife blade, or bladed or pointed object to a person under eighteen years of age, unless the person is sixteen or older and the knife or blade is "designed for domestic use. '' In 2007, the passage of the Custodial Sentences and Weapons (Scotland) Act 2007 allowed exemption from criminal liability under section 141 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 for selling a prohibited offensive weapon if the sale was made for purposes of theatrical performances and of rehearsals for such performances, the production of films (as defined in section 5B of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988), or the production of television programmes (as defined in section 405 (1) of the Communications Act 2003).
Further legislation in Scotland, known as the Custodial Sentences and Weapons (Scotland) Act 2007, is now in effect (certain parts of this Act came into force on 10 September 2007). This legislation amends the Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982 and makes it compulsory to possess a local authority license to sell knives, swords and blades (other than those designed for ' domestic use '), or to sell any sharply pointed or bladed object "which is made or adapted for use for causing injury to the person. '' Any dealer in non-domestic knives will be required to hold a ' knife dealer 's licence '.
The laws restricting knife ownership, use, possession and sale are nearly identical to the laws of Scotland and the rest of the UK, though contained in different acts. In 2008, in response to a surge in public concern over knife - related crimes, Northern Ireland doubled the prison sentence for persons convicted of possessing a knife deemed to be an offensive weapon in a public place to four years ' imprisonment, and added an evidential presumption in favour of prosecution for possession of a knife.
Under the Switchblade Knife Act of 1958 (amended 1986, codified at 15 U.S.C. § § 1241 -- 1245), switchblades and ballistic knives are banned from interstate shipment, sale, or importation, or possession within the following: any territory or possession of the United States, i.e. land belonging to the U.S. federal government; Indian lands (as defined in section 1151 of title 18); and areas within the maritime or territorial jurisdiction of the federal government, with the exception of federal, state law enforcement agencies and the military. In addition, federal laws may prohibit the possession or carrying of any knife on certain federal properties such as courthouses or military installations. U.S. federal laws on switchblades do not apply to the possession or sale of switchblade knives within a state 's boundaries; the latter is regulated by the laws of that particular state, if any.
Occasional disputes over what constitutes a switchblade knife under federal law has occasionally resulted in U.S. Customs seizures of knives from U.S. importers or manufacturers. In one case the seizure of a shipment of Columbia River Knife & Tool knives resulted in an estimated US $1 million loss to the company before the shipment was released.
Amendment 1447 to the Switchblade Knife Act (15 U.S.C. § 1244), signed into law as part of the FY2010 Homeland Security Appropriations Bill on October 28, 2009, provides that the Act shall not apply to spring - assist or assisted - opening knives (i.e. knives with closure - biased springs that require physical force applied to the blade to assist in opening the knife).
Each American state also has laws that govern the legality of carrying weapons, either concealed or openly, and these laws explicitly or implicitly cover various types of knives. Some states go beyond this, and criminalize mere possession of certain types of knives. Other states prohibit the possession and / or the concealed carrying of knives that feature blade styles or features sufficient to transform them into "dangerous weapons '' or "deadly weapons '', i.e. knives either optimized for lethality against humans or designed for and readily capable of causing death or serious bodily injury. These frequently include knives with specific blade styles with a historical connection to violence or assassination, including thrusting knives such as the dirk, poignard, and stiletto, the bowie knife, and double - edged knives with crossguards designed for knife fighting such as the dagger. Some states make the carrying or possession of any dangerous or deadly weapon with intent to unlawfully harm another a crime.
The origin of many knife laws, particularly in the southern states, comes from attempts by early state legislatures to curtail the practice of knife fighting and dueling with large knives such as the bowie knife, which was commonly carried as an item of personal defense prior to the invention of the revolver. In Alabama, Mississippi, New Mexico, and Virginia, the carrying on one 's person of large and lengthy fighting knives capable of causing grievous wounds such as the Bowie Knife is prohibited by statute, originally in the interest of controlling or eliminating the then - common practice of "dueling '', a term which had degenerated from a rarely used social custom into a generalized description for any knife or gun fight between two contestants. In many jurisdictions, a local tradition of using knives to settle differences or for self - defense resulted in the enactment of statutes that restricted the size and length of the knife and particularly, the length of its blade.
After the Civil War, many restrictions on knife and even gun ownership were imposed by state, county, and city laws and ordinances that were clearly based on fear of weapon possession by certain racial groups, particularly African - American and Hispanic Americans. In some states, so - called "Black Codes '' adopted after the Civil War required blacks to obtain a license before carrying or possessing firearms or Bowie knives. The governments of Texas and other former states of the Confederacy, many of which had recognized the right to carry arms such as Bowie knives openly before the Civil War, passed new restrictions on both gun and knife possession and use. In some cases, these laws were directed at freed slaves and other minorities; in other cases, by reconstruction legislatures anxious to disarm rebellious militias and groups seeking to disenfranchise African - American and other minorities. The April 12, 1871 law passed by the Texas ' Reconstruction legislature is typical, and is the ancestor of the present law restricting knife possession and use in Texas:
Any person carrying on or about his person, saddle, or in his saddle - bags, any pistol, dirk, dagger, sling - shot, sword - cane, spear, brass knuckles, bowie knife, or any other kind of knife, manufactured or sold, for the purpose of offense or defense, unless he has reasonable grounds for fearing an unlawful attack on his person, and that such ground of attack shall be immediate and pressing; or unless having or carrying the same on or about his person for the lawful defense of the State, as a militiaman in actual service, or as a peace officer or policeman, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor... ''
While most gun restrictions were eventually repealed, many knife laws remained in effect in the South. In Texas, this was largely explained by the presence of large numbers of Tejanos. By 1870, Texas whites of the day had almost universally and exclusively adopted the revolver for self - defense, while Tejanos, steeped in the blade culture (el legado Andaluz) of Mexico and Spain and generally without the means to purchase handguns, continued to carry knives. Thus while local and state Texas gun laws and ordinances were gradually relaxed or eliminated during the late 1800s, the old prohibitions against bowie knives, daggers, dirks, and other long - bladed knives remained on the books, since they served to disarm and control a minority group viewed as engaging in lawless behaviors and violence without legal justification. The Texas law remained on the books for almost 150 years, until modified in 2017 to allow carrying these weapons with some restrictions.
Many of today 's state criminal codes restricting knife use and ownership have been amended repeatedly over the years rather than rewritten to remove old classifications and definitions that are largely a historical legacy, a process that frequently results in illogical, confusing, and even conflicting provisions. Thus in Arkansas, a state in which knife fights using large, lengthy blades such as the Bowie and Arkansas Toothpick were once commonplace, a state statute made it illegal for someone to "carry a knife as a weapon '', specifying that any knife with a blade 3.5 inches or longer constituted prima facie evidence that the knife was being carried as a weapon, yet allowed a complete exemption to the law when "upon a journey ''.
While Arkansas eventually repealed its archaic criminal knife possession law in its entirety, other states still periodically amend archaic criminal codes that penalize both historic and present - day behavior involving knife use and ownership; these patchwork statutes can result in lengthy legal disputes over legislative intent and definitions. As one example, Indiana law makes it illegal to possess a ' dagger ', ' dirk ', ' poniard ', ' stiletto ', ' switchblade ', or ' gravity knife ' on school property, or to possess any knife on school property "capable of being used to inflict cutting, stabbing, or tearing wounds '' if that knife "is intended to be used as a weapon '', but provides for a criminal penalty only if a person "recklessly, knowingly, or intentionally '' possesses such a knife on school property. The statute thus requires 1) an examination of the knife and the legislative history of the statute; 2) expert testimony on the individual characteristics of historic knife designs to determine whether the knife in question fits within one of the six specified categories of knife; 3) a determination as to whether the blade can cause a "cutting, stabbing, or tearing wound ''; 4) a determination as to what degree of injury constitutes a "wound '', and 5) two separate determinations of the defendant 's intent by the fact finder -- before guilt or innocence may be adjudged.
Some states prohibit the possession of a folding knife with a quick - opening mechanism such as a gravity knife, butterfly knife, balisong, or switchblade. Other states may impose no restrictions at all, while many allow possession with some restrictions (age, carrying on one 's person, carrying concealed, carrying while a convicted felon, prohibited possessor, or while in the commission of a serious offense, etc.)
The continual advent of new knife designs, such as assisted - opening knives can complicate issues of legality, particularly when state laws have not been carefully drafted to clearly define the new design and how it is to be classified within existing law. This omission has led in the past to cases in which state courts have substituted their own understanding of knife design to interpret legislative intent when applying statutes criminalizing certain types of knives.
In 2014, attention was brought by many newspapers and media outlets to 1950s era legislation leading to many arrests and convictions for possession of the loosely defined gravity knife.
City, county, and local jurisdictions (to include sovereign Indian nations located within a state boundary) may enact their own criminal laws or ordinances in addition to the restrictions contained in state laws, which may be more restrictive than state law. Virtually all states and local jurisdictions have laws that restrict or prohibit the possession or carrying of knives in some form or manner in certain defined areas or places such as schools, public buildings, courthouses, police stations, jails, power plant facilities, airports, or public events.
Local or city ordinances are sometimes drafted to include specific classes of people not covered by the state criminal codes, such as individuals carrying folding knives with locking blades primarily for use as weapons. For example, a San Antonio, Texas city ordinance makes it unlawful for anyone to knowingly carry within city limits "on or about his person '' any folding knife with a blade less than 5.5 inches long with a lock mechanism that locks the blade upon opening. This ordinance is designed to work in tandem with the Texas state statute making illegal the carrying of knives with blades longer than 5.5 inches. The San Antonio ordinance allows police to charge persons carrying most types of lock blade knives without good cause with a criminal misdemeanor violation, allowing police to remove the knife from the possession of the offender, while providing exemptions from the ordinance designed to protect certain classes of people the city assumes to pose no threat to public order. Occasionally, city and county ordinances conflict with state law. In one example, the city of Portland, Oregon initially passed a city ordinance banning all pocket knives, until the measure was overturned by the Oregon Supreme Court as conflicting with state criminal statutes.
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who sing you can dance if you want to | The Safety Dance - wikipedia
"The Safety Dance '' is a song by Canadian new wave / synth - pop band Men Without Hats, released in Canada in 1983 as the second single from Rhythm of Youth. The song was written by lead singer Ivan Doroschuk after he had been kicked out of a club for pogoing.
The song entered the Canadian top 50 in February 1983, peaking at number 11 on May 14. In the meantime, "The Safety Dance '' was released in the US on March 16, but did not enter the US charts for a few months. When it finally did, the record became a bigger hit than it had been in Canada, spending four weeks at its peak position of number 3 in September and October 1983, and staying on the Billboard Hot 100 for 24 weeks. It also reached number 1 on Cash Box, as well as number 1 on the Billboard Dance Chart. "The Safety Dance '' found similar success in other parts of the world, entering the UK charts in August and peaking at number 6 in early November, and entering the New Zealand charts in November, eventually peaking at number 2 in early 1984.
The writer / lead singer, Ivan Doroschuk, has explained that "The Safety Dance '' is a protest against bouncers stopping dancers pogoing to 1980s new wave music in clubs when disco was dying and new wave was up and coming. New wave dancing, especially pogoing, was different from disco dancing, because it was done individually instead of with partners and involved holding the torso rigid and thrashing about. To uninformed bystanders this could look dangerous, especially if pogoers accidentally bounced into one another (the more deliberately violent evolution of pogoing is slamdancing). The bouncers did not like pogoing so they would tell pogoers to stop or be kicked out of the club. Thus, the song is a protest and a call for freedom of expression.
In 2003, on an episode of VH1 's True Spin, Doroschuk responded to two common interpretations of the song. Firstly, he explained "The Safety Dance '' is not a call for safe sex, and that this interpretation is "people reading into it a bit too much. '' Secondly, he explained that it is not an anti-nuclear protest song per se despite the nuclear imagery at the end of the video. Doroschuk stated that "it was n't a question of just being anti-nuclear, it was a question of being anti-establishment. ''
The music video for the song (which uses the shorter single version), directed by Tim Pope, is notable for its English folk revival imagery, featuring Morris dancers, Mummers, Punch and Judy and a maypole. It was filmed in the village of West Kington, in Wiltshire, England. Ivan Doroschuk is the only member of the band actually to perform in the video. Doroschuk, and others in the video, can be seen repeatedly forming an "S '' sign by jerking both arms into a stiff pose, one arm in an upward curve and the other in a downward curve, apparently referring to the first letter in "safety ''. The Morris dancers seen in the video were the Chippenham Town Morris Men, performing a dance called Monkton Park. The dwarf actor is Mike Edmonds, whose T - shirt in the video shows the Rhythm of Youth album cover. The identity of the young blonde woman dancing in the video remained unknown until 2013, when she was identified as Louise Court, a journalist who served as editor - in - chief at Cosmopolitan and became a director at Hearst Magazines UK in 2015.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
In 1984, "Weird Al '' Yankovic released a parody of "The Safety Dance '' entitled "The Brady Bunch '' on his album In 3 - D.
In 2010, a Lipton iced tea commercial featuring Hugh Jackman included The Feeling 's version of the song playing in the background.
The song is performed in "Dream On '', season 1 episode 19 of the TV series Glee. In the episode, wheelchair user Artie (Kevin McHale) fantasizes about being able to dance and leading a flash mob performance of the song in a shopping mall. Ivan Doroschuk credited this version with "reaching a whole other section of people '' to appreciate the song.
The song was also featured in episode 2 of season 19 of South Park, "Where My Country Gone? ''
In X-Men: Apocalypse, it was featured in a deleted scene.
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who came up with the gun free zone | Gun - Free school Zones Act of 1990 - wikipedia
The Gun - Free School Zones Act (GFSZA) is an act of the U.S. Congress prohibiting any unauthorized individual from knowingly possessing a loaded or unsecured firearm at a place that the individual knows, or has reasonable cause to believe, is a school zone as defined by 18 U.S.C. § 921 (a) (25). The law applies to public, private, and parochial elementary schools and high schools, and to non-private property within 1000 feet of them. It provides that the states and their political subdivisions may issue licenses that exempt the licensed individuals from the prohibition.
It was first introduced in the U.S. Senate in February 1990 as S. 2070 by Senator Herb Kohl of Wisconsin and then was incorporated into the Crime Control Act of 1990 that was signed into law by President George H.W. Bush.
The Gun - Free School Zones Act of 1990 was originally passed as section 1702 of the Crime Control Act of 1990. It added 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q); 18 U.S.C. § 922 itself was added by the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968.
The Supreme Court of the United States subsequently held that the Act was an unconstitutional exercise of Congressional authority under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution in United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995). This was the first time in over half a century that the Supreme Court limited Congressional authority to legislate under the Commerce Clause.
Following the Lopez decision, U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno proposed changes to 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) that were adopted in section 657 of the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act of 1997, Pub. L. 104 -- 208, 110 Stat. 3009, enacted September 30, 1996. These changes required that the firearm in question "has moved in or otherwise affects interstate commerce. '' As nearly all firearms have moved in interstate commerce at some point in their existence, critics assert this was merely a legislative tactic to circumvent the Supreme Court 's ruling.
The Supreme Court of the United States held that the original Act was an unconstitutional exercise of Congressional authority under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution in United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995). This was the first time in over half a century that the Supreme Court limited Congressional authority to legislate under the Commerce Clause.
Although the amended GFSZA has yet to be challenged in the U.S. Supreme Court, it has been reviewed and upheld by several federal Circuit Courts. In a 2005 Appellate case, United States v. Dorsey, the minor changes of the revised law were specifically challenged. In Dorsey, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that the minor changes were indeed sufficient to correct the issues that had caused the original 1990 law to be struck down in Lopez, and they upheld Dorsey 's conviction under the revised version of the law. A 2000 ruling made by the Eleventh Circuit in United States v. Tait overturned a conviction for firearm possession in a school zone because the defendant was licensed to do so by the state in which the school zone is located.
Convictions upheld post-Lopez under the revised Gun Free School Zones Act include:
Convictions overturned post-Lopez under the revised Gun Free School Zones Act include:
18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (2) (A) states:
It shall be unlawful for any individual knowingly to possess a firearm that has moved in or that otherwise affects interstate or foreign commerce at a place that the individual knows, or has reasonable cause to believe, is a school zone.
18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (3) (A) states:
Except as provided in subparagraph (B), it shall be unlawful for any person, knowingly or with reckless disregard for the safety of another, to discharge or attempt to discharge a firearm that has moved in or that otherwise affects interstate or foreign commerce at a place that the person knows is a school zone.
Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (2) (B):
(18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (2) (A)) does not apply to the possession of a firearm --
(i) on private property not part of school grounds;
(ii) if the individual possessing the firearm is licensed to do so by the State in which the school zone is located or a political subdivision of the State, and the law of the State or political subdivision requires that, before an individual obtains such a license, the law enforcement authorities of the State or political subdivision verify that the individual is qualified under law to receive the license;
(iii) that is --
(I) not loaded; and
(II) in a locked container, or a locked firearms rack that is on a motor vehicle;
(iv) by an individual for use in a program approved by a school in the school zone;
(v) by an individual in accordance with a contract entered into between a school in the school zone and the individual or an employer of the individual;
(vi) by a law enforcement officer acting in his or her official capacity; or
(vii) that is unloaded and is possessed by an individual while traversing school premises for the purpose of gaining access to public or private lands open to hunting, if the entry on school premises is authorized by school authorities.
Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (3) (B):
(18 U.S.C. § 922 (q) (3) (A)) does not apply to the discharge of a firearm --
(i) on private property not part of school grounds;
(ii) as part of a program approved by a school in the school zone, by an individual who is participating in the program;
(iii) by an individual in accordance with a contract entered into between a school in a school zone and the individual or an employer of the individual; or
(iv) by a law enforcement officer acting in his or her official capacity.
Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 921 (a) (25):
The term "school zone '' means --
(A) in, or on the grounds of, a public, parochial or private school; or
(B) within a distance of 1,000 feet from the grounds of a public, parochial or private school.
Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 921 (a) (26) the term "school '' means a school which provides elementary or secondary education, as determined under state law.
18 U.S.C. § 924 (a) (4) establishes the penalty for violating GFSZA:
Whoever violates the Act shall be fined not more than $5,000, imprisoned for not more than 5 years, or both. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the term of imprisonment imposed under this paragraph shall not run concurrently with any other term of imprisonment imposed under any other provision of law.
A conviction under the GFSZA will cause an individual to become a "prohibited person '' under the Gun Control Act of 1968. It is unlawful for a "prohibited person '' to own, purchase, or possess "firearms '' as defined by US federal law. A US presidential pardon may remove this civil disability.
Individuals traveling on public sidewalks, roads, and highways within 1000 feet of defined schools are subject to the law 's legal restrictions. The First Circuit Court of Appeals sustained a GFSZA conviction in the 2007 case of United States v Nieves - Castaño for a firearm kept in a woman 's apartment, which was part of a public housing project within 1000 feet of a school. In 2012, ATF informed the town of Stratham, New Hampshire, that hunters would be violating GFSZA by hunting on locally approved public hunting land, a town forest, which fell within 1000 feet of a local school.
Most states allow some form of unlicensed carry by persons who are not prohibited by statute from owning or possessing firearms. This may be open - carry, vehicle - carry, or concealed carry without the need for a permit. The Federal GFSZA prohibits unlicensed carry by making it a federal crime for an unlicensed individual to travel into a "Gun Free School Zone unless they meet one of the other criteria defined in Section ' B '. '' The large number of K - 12 schools in developed areas makes it difficult for an individual to travel any distance without entering a Gun Free School Zone.
Although the federal GFSZA does provide an exception for an individual licensed to carry a firearm, this exception only applies in the state that physically issued the permit. Nearly all 50 states have provisions to issue concealed carry permits to citizens. Most of these states also enter into reciprocity agreements with other states where each state agrees to recognize the other 's concealed carry permits. Because the Federal GFSZA requires the permit be issued by the state which the school zone is in, it is difficult for a permit holder to travel outside their state of issuance to a reciprocating state without violating the Federal GFSZA.
The Law Enforcement Officers Safety Act (LEOSA), intended to allow qualified law enforcement officers the ability to carry guns nationwide, does not provide any exceptions to Federal Law per 18 U.S.C. § 926B. GFSZA does not make any exception for an off - duty qualified officer.
GFSZA generally prohibits anyone from discharging a firearm on public property within a school zone. Legal exceptions are made for on - duty law enforcement and contracted school security.
On May 22, 2007, June 24, 2009, and July 21, 2011, US Representative Ron Paul introduced similar bills H.R. 2424, H.R. 3021, and H.R. 2613 that would repeal the Federal Gun Free School Zones Act. No form of those bills has ever passed committee.
In February 2018, US Representative Thomas Massie introduced a similar bill, H.R. 34 titled the "Safe Students Act '', that would repeal the Federal Gun Free School Zones Act.
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who has played in super bowl and world series | Deion Sanders - wikipedia
Deion Luywnn Sanders Sr. (/ ˈdiːɒn /; born August 9, 1967), nicknamed "Primetime '', is a former American football and baseball player who works as an analyst for CBS Sports and the NFL Network. He is currently the offensive coordinator at Trinity Christian - Cedar Hill high school where his sons go to school. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2011.
Sanders played football primarily at cornerback, but also as a kick returner, punt returner, and occasionally wide receiver. He played in the National Football League (NFL) for the Atlanta Falcons, the San Francisco 49ers, the Dallas Cowboys, the Washington Redskins and the Baltimore Ravens, winning the Super Bowl with both the 49ers and the Cowboys. An outfielder in baseball, he played professionally for the New York Yankees, the Atlanta Braves, the Cincinnati Reds and the San Francisco Giants, and participated in the 1992 World Series with the Braves. He attended Florida State University, where he was recognized as a two - time All - American in football, and also played baseball and ran track.
Sanders founded the Prime Prep Academy charter school in 2012 and has coached at the school. The school was closed January 30, 2015, due to financial insolvency. In 2014, he debuted his new show, the Deion Family Playbook.
Sanders was born in Fort Myers, Florida. He attended North Fort Myers High School in North Fort Myers, and was a letterman and All - State honoree in football, basketball and baseball. In 1985, Sanders was named to the Florida High School Association All - Century Team which selected the top 33 players in the 100 - year history of high school football in the state.
The Kansas City Royals selected Sanders out of North Fort Myers High School in the sixth round of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft. He did not sign with the Royals.
Sanders enrolled at Florida State University and played three sports for the Florida State Seminoles: football, baseball, and track. Beginning his freshman year, he started in the Seminoles ' secondary, played outfield for the baseball team that finished fifth in the nation, and helped lead the track and field team to a conference championship.
Under head coach Bobby Bowden, Sanders was a two - time consensus All - American cornerback in 1987 and 1988, and a third team All - American in 1986, intercepting 14 passes in his career, including three in bowl games, and managed to return one interception 100 yards for a touchdown breaking Fred Biletnikoff 's interception return record by one yard. He won the Jim Thorpe Award in 1988. He was also a standout punt returner for Florida State, leading the nation in 1988 with his punt return average, and breaking the school 's record for career punt return yards. Sanders made an interception with 5 seconds left to seal Florida State 's 13 - 7 win over Auburn in the 1989 Sugar Bowl, during the 1988 postseason. Based on those accolades, his jersey at Florida State, # 2, was retired in 1995. He finished his career with 126 punt returns for 1,429 yards. Bowden would later state that Sanders was his "measuring stick for athletic ability ''.
While playing baseball under head coach Mike Martin at Florida State, Sanders hit. 331 in 1986; he was known more for base stealing, compiling 27 stolen bases in 1987.
Sanders once played the first game of a baseball doubleheader, ran a leg of a 4 × 100 relay, then returned to play another baseball game.
Sanders played a nine - year, part - time baseball career, playing left and center field in 641 games with 4 teams. He was originally drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the 6th round of the 1985 draft, but did not sign with them. The New York Yankees selected Sanders in the 30th round of the 1988 Major League Baseball draft, and he signed with the team on June 22. He opened the 1989 season with the Albany - Colonie Yankees of the Class AA Eastern League. Though he planned to leave the Yankees in July to attend NFL training camp, he became embroiled in a contract dispute with the Falcons, and used the Yankees as leverage. He received a promotion to the major leagues, and spent the summer with the Columbus Clippers of the Class AAA International League. He made his major league baseball debut on May 31, 1989.
Sanders made the Yankees ' Opening Day roster for the 1990 season. On May 22, 1990, Sanders became involved in a dispute with Chicago White Sox ' catcher Carlton Fisk. Sanders started by stepping up to the plate with one out and a runner on third, drawing a dollar sign in the dirt before the pitch and then failed to run to first base after hitting a routine pop fly to shortstop, trotting back to the dugout instead. The Yankee fans booed, and Fisk told Sanders to "run the fucking ball out '' and called Sanders a "piece of shit. '' Later in the game, Sanders told Fisk that "the days of slavery are over. '' Fisk was furious. "He comes up and wants to make it a racial issue, there 's no racial issue involved. There is a right way and a wrong way to play this game. ''
By mid-July, Sanders expressed that he was unsure if he would remain with the Yankees or report to NFL training camp for the upcoming NFL season. He requested a $1 million salary for the 1991 season, and the Yankees ended negotiations on a contract extension with Sanders. He left the team, finishing the 1990 season with a. 158 batting average and three home runs in 57 games. In September 1990, the Yankees placed Sanders on waivers with the intention of giving him his release, as Yankees ' general manager Gene Michael said that Sanders ' football career was stunting his baseball development.
Sanders later signed with the Atlanta Braves for the 1991 MLB season. On July 31, Sanders hit a key three - run homer to spark a comeback win against the Pittsburgh Pirates during the Braves ' run to the National League West Division title. However, he had to leave the Braves the very next day to report to the Atlanta Falcons because of a clause in his NFL contract and missed the postseason. Before the 1992 season, Sanders reworked his NFL deal whereby he still reported to the Falcons for training camp in August, but was allowed to rejoin the Braves for the postseason.
During his most productive year in the majors, the 1992 season, he hit. 304 for the team, stole 26 bases, and led the NL with 14 triples in 97 games. During the 1989 season, he hit a major league home run and scored a touchdown in the NFL in the same week, the only player ever to do so. Sanders is also the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series.
In four games of the 1992 World Series, Sanders batted. 533 with 4 runs, 8 hits, 2 doubles, and 1 RBI while playing with a broken bone in his foot. Despite Sanders 's performance, the Braves ultimately lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in six games. In Game 3, he narrowly avoided being a victim of what would have been only the second triple play in World Series history (following Bill Wambsganss 's unassisted triple play in 1920). With Sanders on second base and Terry Pendleton on first, David Justice hit a deep fly ball to center field that Blue Jays center fielder Devon White unexpectedly caught with a leaping effort. Pendleton passed Sanders on the bases for the second out, but umpire Bob Davidson called Sanders safe after he scampered back to second base. Replays showed that Toronto third baseman Kelly Gruber tagged him on the heel before he returned to second.
In 1997, Sanders finished 2nd in the NL with 56 stolen bases in 115 games while with the Cincinnati Reds before leaving baseball for three years.
Sanders returned to the Reds in 2001, but was released after playing in only 29 games and batting just. 173. Following his release from the Reds he signed a minor league contract with the Toronto Blue Jays triple - A affiliate, Syracuse Chiefs. Sanders was hitting. 252 for Syracuse before the Washington Redskins found a loophole in his contract which compelled him to return to the Redskins. His football contract had been negotiated to allow for Sanders to play both baseball and football, but the terms of the contract stated that Sanders could miss NFL training camp and the first few games of the season only if he were playing Major League Baseball. Since he was not then on an MLB roster, Sanders had to leave Syracuse and return to the Redskins so he would not violate his NFL contract. But before arriving at training camp, Sanders informed Redskins personnel he was retiring from professional baseball. In his final professional baseball game, Sanders hit a solo home run and an RBI single in Syracuse 's 12 - 6 win over the Toledo Mud Hens. As those in MLB and the NFL urged Sanders to concentrate on only one sport, he would often explain, "football is my wife and baseball is my mistress. ''
At the 1989 NFL Scouting Combine, Sanders ran a 4.27 second 40 - yard dash. He was the fifth pick overall in the 1989 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons, where he played until 1993. Despite fumbling (and recovering) his first NFL punt (which was re-kicked on a penalty), Sanders ran for a touchdown on his second attempt of his first game. During his time in Atlanta, he intercepted 24 passes (including a career - high 7 in 1993), three of which he returned for touchdowns. In 1992, he also led the league in kickoff return yards (1,067), yards per return (26.7) and return touchdowns (2). On October 11, 1992, Sanders played in a Falcons game in Miami and then flew to Pittsburgh, hoping to play in the Braves ' League Championship Series game against the Pirates that evening and become the first athlete to play in two professional leagues in the same day. Sanders ultimately did not, however, appear in the baseball game that night. Over his five years with the Falcons, Sanders scored ten touchdowns (three defensive, three kick returns, two punt returns, and two receptions).
After five seasons Sanders signed on to play the 1994 season with the San Francisco 49ers, where he had arguably his best season as a professional football player, recording six interceptions and returning them for an NFL best and a then - NFL record 303 yards and three touchdowns. Two of his interceptions were returned for a gain of at least 90 yards, making him the first player to do this in NFL history. On October 16, 1994, Sanders made his dramatic return to the Georgia Dome in a 49er uniform. After getting into a scuffle with his former Falcon teammate Andre Rison, Sanders intercepted a pass from quarterback Jeff George and returned it 93 yards while mockingly staring down the entire Falcons sideline before high - stepping into the end zone. Sanders was later voted the 1994 NFL Defensive Player of the Year and recorded an interception in the 49ers 49 -- 26 victory over the San Diego Chargers in Super Bowl XXIX, earning him his first championship ring.
Following his successful season with the 49ers, Sanders, along with his agent Eugene Parker, courted numerous teams in need of a cornerback. The several teams in the "Deion Sweepstakes '', as it was called by the media, were the Philadelphia Eagles, Oakland Raiders, Miami Dolphins, New Orleans Saints, San Francisco 49ers and the Dallas Cowboys, who had lost their starting cornerback Kevin Smith to injury for the rest of the season.
On September 9, 1995 (which fell in Week 2 of that NFL season), Sanders signed a lucrative contract with the Dallas Cowboys (seven years, $35 million with a $12.999 million signing bonus, because owner Jerry Jones was superstitious of the number 13), essentially making him, at the time, the highest - paid defensive player in the NFL. Sanders later stated in his book Power, Money & Sex: How Success Almost Ruined My Life that the Oakland Raiders offered him more money than any other team, but he chose to play in Dallas for more time on the offensive side of the ball, a chance to win back - to - back Super Bowls, and because of his friendship with Cowboys wide receiver Michael Irvin. Arthroscopic surgery kept him sidelined until his debut in Week 9, which was once again in Atlanta against the Falcons; the Cowboys won, 28 - 13. He went on to help the Cowboys win their third title in four years in Super Bowl XXX against the Pittsburgh Steelers, where he returned a punt for 11 yards and caught a 47 - yard reception on offense, setting up Dallas ' first touchdown of the game and a 27 -- 17 victory. Sanders played four more seasons with Dallas, earning Pro Bowl selection in all of them. On June 2, 2000, he was released in a salary cap move.
Soon after being released by the Cowboys, the Washington Redskins and Daniel Snyder signed Sanders to a hefty $56 million, 7 - year contract. At the end of the 2000 season and an above - average statistical year, Sanders abruptly retired after only playing one year with the Redskins.
In 2004, Sanders announced that he was going to end his retirement, after being lured back to football by Ravens cornerback Corey Fuller, linebacker Ray Lewis and best friend Joe Zorovich. A major reason for doing so was to play with Ray Lewis. He signed a 1 - year deal with the Baltimore Ravens to be a nickelback. Sanders chose to wear the number 37, which matched his age at the time, to preemptively let people know that he was well aware of his relative senior status as an NFL player (additionally, the number 21, used by Sanders throughout his career, was already being worn by Ravens Pro Bowl cornerback Chris McAlister). Against the Buffalo Bills in Week 7 of 2004, Sanders scored his ninth career interception return touchdown, moving him into a tie for second place with Ken Houston and Aeneas Williams, and behind Rod Woodson (with 12) for all - time in the statistical category.
In January 2006, after playing two seasons as a corner and safety for Baltimore in which the Ravens did not qualify for the postseason, Sanders once again retired from the NFL and became an analyst for the NFL Network.
During his 14 - year NFL career, Sanders was a perennial All - Pro and one of the strongest pass defenders ever. He was known for being a relatively poor tackler and he was not much of a factor in run support.
Sanders also occasionally lined up with his team 's offense. During the 1996 season, Sanders skipped the baseball season, concentrating on football, and attended the first NFL training camp of his career to better familiarize himself with the nuances of the wide receiver position. He became only the second two - way starter (after the Cardinals ' Roy Green) in the NFL since Chuck Bednarik for the first half of the season due.
Sanders is the only man to play in both a Super Bowl and a World Series, to hit an MLB home run and score an NFL touchdown in the same week, and to have both a reception and an interception in the Super Bowl. He is one of two players to score an NFL touchdown six different ways.
During his career, Sanders intercepted 53 passes for 1,331 yards (a 25.1 yards per return average), recovered four fumbles for 15 yards, returned 155 kickoffs for 3,523 yards, gained 2,199 yards on 212 punt returns, and caught 60 passes for 784 yards. Sanders amassed 7,838 all - purpose yards and scored 22 touchdowns: nine interception returns, six punt returns, three kickoff returns, three receiving, and one fumble recovery. His 19 defensive and return touchdowns was an NFL record (now held by Devin Hester with 20 return touchdowns). In the postseason, Sanders added 5 more interceptions, as well as 3 receptions for 95 yards, 4 carries for 39 yards, and two touchdowns (one rushing and one receiving). He was selected to eight Pro Bowls and won the NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award in 1994.
Sanders also had a rushing TD in the playoffs (against the Philadelphia Eagles in January 1996). This makes him (including post season) one of only two players in NFL history (Bill Dudley being the other) to score a touchdown six different ways (interception return, punt return, kickoff return, receiving, rushing, and a fumble recovery).
On February 6, 2011, at Super Bowl XLV in Arlington, Texas, Sanders performed the pre-game coin toss.
Sanders did not attend classes or take final exams during the fall semester of his senior year at Florida State, yet played in the Sugar Bowl against Auburn. This caused the Florida State Legislature to create the ' Deion Sanders rule ', whereby a football athlete at any state university could not play in a bowl game if he failed to successfully complete the previous semester.
In 1995, he signed with the Dallas Cowboys for a minimum yearly base salary and a nearly $13 million signing bonus in an attempt to circumvent the NFL 's salary cap. This caused the NFL to institute its own ' Deion Sanders rule ' whereby a prorated portion of a player 's signing bonus counted against the salary cap.
Sanders became known for sporting a "do - rag '' or bandana and for his high - stepping into the end zone followed by his touchdown dance celebrations. At the end of his Hall of Fame speech, he put a bandana on his bust.
His "Prime Time '' nickname was given to him by a friend and high - school teammate, Florida Gators defensive back Richard Fain. The two played pickup basketball games together during the prime time television hour, and Sanders ' athletic display during those games earned him the nickname. His other nickname is "Neon Deion ''.
Following his first Super Bowl victory with the San Francisco 49ers, Sanders hosted Saturday Night Live, broadcast on February 18, 1995.
In January 1995, Sanders became the official spokesman of the Sega Sports line of video games. Sanders has also appeared in television commercials for such companies as Nike, Pepsi, Burger King, Pizza Hut, and American Express. These included a Road Runner Pepsi ad, with Sanders as Wile E. Coyote, and a Pizza Hut commercial in which he appeared with Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones. He also makes a cameo as himself in the film Celtic Pride.
Sanders, known for his custom - made showy suits and flashy jewelry, frequently capitalized on his image. On December 26, 1994, Sanders released Prime Time, a rap album on Bust It Records (MC Hammer 's label, of whom Sanders is a friend) that featured the singles "Must Be the Money '' and "Prime Time Keeps on Tickin ' ''. The album was universally panned by critics, and despite Sanders ' fame, neither the album nor its singles charted in the Top 40.
Sanders also appeared in Hammer 's "Too Legit to Quit '' music video, and his alter - ego "Prime Time '' showed up in Hammer 's "Pumps and a Bump '' video. Hammer, a big sports fan, had launched a new enterprise during his career called Roll Wit It Entertainment & Sports Management and boasted such clients as Evander Holyfield, Deion Sanders and Reggie Brooks. In 1995, Hammer released "Straight to My Feet '' (with Deion Sanders) from the Street Fighter soundtrack (released in December 1994). The song charted # 57 in the UK.
After retiring from the NFL, Sanders worked as a pre-game commentator for CBS ' The NFL Today until 2004, when contract negotiations failed. Sanders turned down a 30 % salary increase demanding to be paid $2.5 million, the highest of any NFL TV analyst. He was replaced by Shannon Sharpe. During Sanders ' run, he participated in several sketches. The first was "Primetime and 21st '', a mock street corner where Sanders (not yet a regular panelist) would give his opinions. Another was his "Sanders Claus '' persona, one of numerous sketches that involved young kids in football jerseys, representing NFL players, receiving a sarcastic gift from Sanders. Deion actually debuted as "Sanders Claus '' in a set of Nike commercials. Sanders still takes presents at Christmas time to local children 's hospitals in his area dressed as "Sanders Claus ''.
Sanders frequently made guest appearances on ESPN, especially on the ESPN Radio Dallas affiliate, and briefly hosted a show called The New American Sportsman. He also hosted the 2002 Miss USA pageant.
Sanders also was co-host of the 2004 GMA Music Awards broadcast, taped in late April 2004, and slated for air on UPN in May 2004. When negotiations with fellow Viacom property CBS failed (see above) two weeks before the broadcast, and he signed a deal with ESPN, UPN promptly canceled the broadcast, and the show aired on the i Network in December 2004 (both UPN and CBS are now owned by CBS Corporation).
Sanders works at NFL Network as an analyst on a number of the network 's shows. Prior to the Sunday night game, Sanders, alongside host Rich Eisen and Steve Mariucci, breaks down all the action from the afternoon games on NFL GameDay. At the conclusion of all the action on Sunday, Sanders, Mariucci, Michael Irvin and host Fran Charles recap the day 's action with highlights, analysis and postgame interviews. For the 2010 season, Sanders joined Eisen, Mariucci and Marshall Faulk on the road for Thursday Night Kickoff presented by Lexus, NFL Network 's two - hour pregame show leading into Thursday Night Football. The group broadcasts live from the stadium two hours prior to all eight live Thursday Night Football games and returns for the Sprint halftime show and Kay Jewelers postgame show. Sanders also has a segment called "Let 's Go Primetime '' on NFL Network.
In 2008, Sanders and his wife starred in the reality show Deion & Pilar: Prime Time Love, centering on them and their five children living in the small town of Prosper, Texas.
Sanders appeared as himself in the fourth season of The League, playing a prospective buyer of Andre 's apartment.
In 2014, Sanders was featured in an episode of Running Wild with Bear Grylls, where he and Grylls hiked in the desert of southern Utah for two days, rappelling down canyon walls and later climbing up a mesa.
Sanders served as an alumni captain for Team Sanders in the 2014 Pro Bowl.
In 2014, he rejoined CBS Sports as a studio analyst for Thursday games only. He still works for the NFL Network on Sundays.
Sanders and his girlfriend Tracey Edmonds were featured together on an episode of Tiny House Nation that first aired on January 21, 2017.
In addition to his sports career, Sanders also had a career in music as a rapper. He released his debut album, Prime Time, through Hammer 's Bust It Records label via Capitol Records, in 1994.
Sanders moved on to other ventures after his retirement. In 2003, Sanders took interest in Devin Hester, a return specialist from Miami. Sanders mentored Hester, counseling and advising him during various points of his collegiate career. The Chicago Bears drafted Hester in the second round of the 2006 NFL Draft. Since then, Hester has broken the record for the most total returns for touchdowns in NFL history with 15 punt returns and 5 kick off returns. Hester has cited Sanders as one of his major inspirations and idols, and thanked him for his training and advice. Hester, also known as "Anytime '', occasionally performs Sanders ' signature touchdown dance and high - steps in homage to his mentor.
Sanders also tried to adopt a high school running back, Noel Devine, who was one of the top recruits in 2007. Sanders was advised against this, but responded, "He does n't have parents; they died. God put this young man in my heart. This is not about sports. This is about a kid 's life. '' He now mentors Devine, and was a factor in Devine 's extended wait to sign a letter - of - intent to West Virginia University. Devine eventually signed to play football for the Mountaineers. Sanders has also been a mentor to Oakland Raiders wide receiver Michael Crabtree, as well as Dallas Cowboys wide receiver, Dez Bryant.
In January 2004, Sanders was hired as an assistant coach to the Dallas Fury, a women 's professional basketball team in the National Women 's Basketball League, even though Sanders had never played organized basketball either in college or the professional level.
On September 2, 2005, in response to the after - effects of Hurricane Katrina, Sanders challenged all professional athletes in the four major sports to donate $1,000 each to relief efforts, hoping to raise between $1.5 and $3 million total. Sanders said "Through unity, we can touch thousands... I have friends and relatives that feel this pain. Help in any way you can. '' In April 2006, Sanders became an owner of the Austin Wranglers, an Arena Football League team.
Sanders has occasionally served as a celebrity spokesperson, such as representing Monitronics, a security system firm, at an industry conference in the spring of 2010.
In 2012, he co-founded Prime Prep Academy, a grouping of charter schools in Texas. The school was plagued by ethical, legal, and financial issues, and closed on January 30, 2015, due to financial insolvency.
Sanders has been married twice -- to Carolyn Chambers (1989 -- 1998), with whom he has two children (Deion Jr. and Deiondra), and Pilar Biggers - Sanders (1999 -- 2013) with whom he has three children (Shilo, Shelomi Golenzer and Shedeur).
Sanders, along with J.M. Black, published his autobiography, Power, Money & Sex: How Success Almost Ruined My Life. World Publishing 1998. The book was inspired after he began counseling with Bishop T.D. Jakes. He notes his agent Eugene E. Parker as another person who influenced his life.
He appeared with his family on the NBC show Celebrity Family Feud which premiered on June 24, 2008.
On September 22, 2011, he served Pilar Biggers - Sanders with divorce papers. He then backed away from the story and denied he and Pilar would be divorcing. By December 17, 2011, he had followed through with filing for divorce. On March 12, 2013, he was awarded primary custody of his two sons, Shilo and Shedeur, and Pilar was awarded primary custody of their daughter Shelomi. However, one week later, a judge awarded custody of Shelomi to him as well. During the divorce battle, Pilar made several accusations of abuse against him on social media and in interviews, leading him to file a Defamation of Character lawsuit against her. In 2015, he seemed to have won when the court awarded him a $2.2 million judgment against his ex-wife in the case. However, in August, 2017, on appeal the case went against him.
Sanders is presented as a devout Christian speaker with a fee range of $30,001 - $50,000. He has been in a relationship with Tracey Edmonds since 2012.
Sanders has made an effort to coach at several different stops. His first being with the charter school Prime Prep Academy in 2012 which he helped found, but was later fired as the coach after a school staffer alleged Sanders assaulted the staffer. Sanders denied the claim and the charter school later shut down in 2015 due to financial mismanagement. In 2015, Sanders was named the CEO of FOCUS Academies and granted the head coaching position at the Triple A Academy where Sanders led them to face his alma mater North Fort Myers high school in Florida and featured a key matchup between several ranked recruits.. On August 17, 2017 it was announced by CBS Sports that Deion Sanders would be switching coaching positions at a new high school to become the offensive coordinator at Trinity Christian - Cedar Hill high school in Cedar Hill, Texas. The move was significant for Sanders as both his sons play at the high school. Sanders will serve on the staff as offensive coordinator under former Dallas Cowboy Aveion Cason.
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who plays stella in last of the summer wine | List of last of the Summer Wine characters - Wikipedia
The following is a list of characters in the BBC sitcom Last of the Summer Wine. The series focused primarily on a trio of old men and their interaction with other characters in the town. Due to the longevity of the series it was often necessary to replace key characters due to an actor 's death, illness, or unavailability for other reasons. Many characters were first seen in "one - off '' appearances and were popular enough or felt to have enough potential for them to be brought back as regulars, in some instances replacing previous members of the cast.
(1973 -- 1975) The first "third man '', and the most childishly argumentative and snobbish, Blamire was the contrast to Compo. Blamire was fired up by displays of youthful enthusiasm, energetic gusto, or any sign of the British spirit. He served as a corporal in the British Army in the Royal Signals regiment during "The Great Fight for Freedom '' as a "supply wallah '' (a storeman) in India and retains his military bearing. He was a Tory and a self - important know - it - all with upper - class aspirations, who often dissociated himself from the other two, especially Compo, as he considered himself superior to them. Because of his sophisticated interests and insistence on table manners, Compo liked to refer to him as a "poof ''. Cyril would often reprimand Compo whenever he addressed him by his given name, as he preferred the "more rounded tone of Mr. Blamire '' and would say that Compo had to touch his "tatty cap '' whenever he did so. Out of all of the third men, Blamire tolerated Compo 's antics the least (though sometimes when he got caught up in them he would join in, such as backchatting Miss Probert on one occasion). In spite of this, Compo and Blamire were close, as shown by Compo 's misery in the episodes immediately after he left. Despite his snobby nature Blamire had more commonsense than most of his successors. Bates left the cast in 1975 due to cancer that left him too ill to perform in any long - term projects aside from It Ai n't Half Hot Mum. So Blamire was written out of the series; it was said that he had left to get married. The last we hear of him is a very organised letter, instructing Clegg and Compo to meet their old classmate, Foggy Dewhurst.
(1976 -- 1985, 1990 -- 1997) The successor to Blamire, Foggy was a former soldier who liked to boast of his military exploits in Burma during the Second World War. In fact, he was a signwriter; and unlike Blamire, many of his old military stories were untrue.
Although he considered himself very regimental and heroic, when confronted Foggy was generally meek and incompetent. Like the previous third man - and all subsequent third men - he considered himself the leader of the trio, and frequently took charge of Compo and Clegg. Foggy was infamous for trying to figure out a solution to the trio 's everyday problems, only to make them much worse. In earlier years Foggy wore a scarf with regimental colours on it. When Wilde left the series in 1985 to star in his own sitcom and to pursue other TV work, it was explained that Foggy had moved to Bridlington to take over his family 's egg - painting business.
Returning in 1990 after the sudden departure of Michael Aldridge, he claimed he had tired of egg painting, and wanted to return to his old life. A regular skit from this period included Foggy crossing paths with a stranger and then rambling about his supposed military career, typically boring each stranger to death. At other times he would try and recreate scenarios from his military days which also confused and bored passing strangers. He would often explain that he was a trained killer, which would inevitably lead to him getting into trouble and on the odd occasion being arrested (stupidly, he could never understand why people always found this explanation strange). During his second stint Foggy was shown to have mellowed somewhat and he did not argue with Compo as much as he had done previously. In 1997, when Wilde 's illness stopped him taking part, he was written out of the series in the Special, "There Goes the Groom '', in which the character was only seen in brief, non-face shots, played by a double; this episode also introduced his successor, Truly.
An unconscious, hung - over Foggy was swept off to Blackpool by the local postmistress. There he inadvertently proposed to her in a verbal slip - up over the wedding rings of which he had taken charge "for safe keeping '' (out of the dubious care of Best Man, Barry). But he must have at least liked her, as he was never heard from again after that. Foggy 's real first name was revealed to be Walter (with the middle initial "C ''); "Foggy '' is a nickname, derived from the traditional song "The Foggy Foggy Dew ''; perhaps also because, in his earlier episodes, he would occasionally "blank out '' everything around him to help him concentrate, particularly when he was thinking up new ideas or finding solutions to problems. This is particularly noticeable in the episode "The Man from Oswestry ''. In one of his earlier episodes, his name is hinted to be Oliver when Clegg finds one of his old army trunks with the initials ' COD '. (Because he was a corporal in the army). Due to his dislike of Compo 's attire and nature he was often seen making insults of disgust to Clegg and often addressed Compo as "him '' or "that man ''.
Foggy was played by Colin Harris in ' There Goes The Groom '.
(1986 -- 1990) The first successor to Foggy. A snobbish inventor, Edie 's and Ros 's brother Seymour always felt it was his duty to educate the masses, and in particular, Compo and Clegg, to whom he was reintroduced by his brother - in - law, Wesley Pegden (who often called him a pillock), shortly before the wedding of Wesley 's daughter. Seymour went to school with Clegg and Compo but lost touch when he went to grammar school. Whereas Cyril and Foggy tried to solve the problems of the residents of Holmfirth, when Seymour was around he always liked to invent, but the resulting inventions invariably led to disaster -- especially for Compo, who was always the reluctant test subject and called him a twit whenever anything went disastrously wrong. Despite this, he was well - liked by the other two and was more willing to play along with their childish antics than his predecessors. He did have occasional bouts of bravery: in one episode he contradicted Pearl, Ivy and Nora Batty in one sitting for which Clegg, Compo and a random passer - by heartily congratulated him.
Seymour usually blamed the failure of his inventions on divine punishment for his once having had an affair with a barmaid. Seymour 's house, outside the town, was modified into a laboratory, filled with new devices and contraptions that seldom, if ever, worked properly. His sister Edie always spoke very highly of him and how he was ' educated ', refusing to take into account his continual failed inventions (though she would secretly be embarrassed by his involvement in the antics of the other two). Because Seymour 's inventions were always built poorly he would normally get Wesley to fix them (or he would just get Wesley to build them in the first place, much to the latter 's annoyance). Seymour had previously been the headmaster of a school, although it is not entirely clear how successful he was in running it. When Compo and Clegg were in his home Seymour would often put on his old headmaster 's gown and treat the two of them like schoolchildren when trying to explain a new invention. He sometimes appeared to take an unhealthy delight in corporal punishment, and was appalled to hear that it has been prohibited.
When Aldridge left the series in 1990 for personal reasons, Seymour was last seen leaving on a bus to take up a new job as interim headmaster at a private school -- just as previous third man Foggy returned.
There were allegedly plans for Seymour to make a comeback, but Michael Aldridge died in 1994. The character was never alluded to again.
(1997 -- 2010) The second (and last) successor to Foggy. A retired policeman, Truly was initially played with a pompous self - importance in all things criminal. However, this aspect of the character was fairly quickly softened, and Truly is more relaxed and fun - loving, and can be more of an equal match at the local pub than his predecessors as third man. He can also be a bit more devious with practical jokes or witty schemes. Likewise, he can be equally sly in getting people out of a scrape or just helping out a friend. He is divorced, and makes disparaging comments about "the former Mrs. Truelove '' (who evidently feels the same way about him, judging by the reaction of her new husband, who appears in one episode, to Truly). The former Mrs Truelove is an unseen character. Because of his previous job in the police, Truly refers to himself as "Truly of the Yard '', he was also once misheard and thought to have said he was "Trudy '' (of the Yard). In early appearances he was initially shown as snobbish and pompous, like his predecessors (sometimes taking out his police notebook in unnecessary situations) but he gradually became a more likeable character and made less snide remarks over Compo 's attire. He also appeared to be more respected than his predecessors by the other regular characters such as Wesley and Howard as well as the local ladies. In the two final series he is demoted to a secondary character along with Norman Clegg, so his role as third man was filled by Hobbo.
(1999, 2000, 2001 -- 2006) Billy Hardcastle was first introduced in the 1999 series as a guest star and also appeared in the 2000 New Year 's special and a guest role in the 2000 series. Because of his popularity, he was made a regular character in the 2001 series.
Billy believes he is a direct descendant of Robin Hood. His first appearance on the show showed him attempting to recruit a band of Merry Men to go with him while he robs from the rich to give to the poor. At the end of the 21st series, Billy moves next door to Truly and is teamed as the third member of the trio. When Billy joined with Clegg and Truly, much of the humour Compo previously brought to the series returned in Billy 's childlike demeanour, although an element of physical humour was still lacking in the series. On his first appearance, Nora was shown to be attracted to him dressed in his Robin Hood costume, which made Compo extremely jealous and decided to dress up as Robin Hood himself. Much of his dialogue bemoaned the domestic presence of "the wife '' or "the wife 's sister '' (two other characters who are never seen, only referred to). Billy was last seen at the end of the 27th series following the departure of Keith Clifford from the show and the character was never alluded to again.
(2003 -- 2010) Alvin Smedley was introduced in the 2003 series as Nora Batty 's new next door neighbour following the death of Compo. When Tom 's former acquaintance, Mrs. Avery, gives up the lease she owns on Compo 's old house, Alvin purchases it. Although he publicly claims to hate Nora Batty, he feels it is his duty to try to bring some joy to her life, often in the form of practical jokes similar to those Compo once played on her. In the 2005 series he joined the main trio thus making them a quartet (this was largely to compensate for Clegg 's decreasing role) but after the 2006 series following Billy Hardcastle 's departure the quartet once again became a trio although in the 2007 and 2008 series he was mostly teamed up with Entwistle. His arrival to the main trio brought a sense physical humour that had been missing since Compo 's death. Despite his childlike personality, he was shown to be more level headed than his predecessors. In the final two series he and Entwistle teamed up with Hobbo, thus making a new trio.
(2002 -- 2010) Electrician and fortune - teller from the land of eastern wisdom, Hull. His original surname was McIntyre, but he changed it so that people would n't mistake him for a Scotsman. When Wesley died, Entwistle took over his job of shuttling the others across the countryside, in a battered red Toyota Hilux pick - up truck, and occasionally constructing the various contraptions the main trio produce. He also seemed to be taking over a character version of Auntie Wainwright, although he mainly sold second - hand washing machines.
Following the departure of Billy Hardcastle in series 28, Entwistle was often paired with Alvin, with many stories revolving around their dealings with Howard or Barry. During this period his role increased and he often hung around with the main trio (sometimes to compensate for Clegg 's decreasing role.) In series 30 and 31, Entwistle became the second man (officially taking over from Clegg) in a new trio when Hobbo arrived and recruited Alvin and Entwistle to form a band of volunteers to respond to emergencies in the village.
(2008 -- 2010) Hobbo is a former milkman with ties to MI5 who was first introduced in the 2008 New Years special, to set up his role in the upcoming 30th series. He is Clegg 's new next door neighbour. Upon first arriving in the village, Hobbo recruits Alvin and Entwistle to form a small band of volunteers who will react to any emergency that arises in the village, thus forming a new trio (with Hobbo taking Truly 's role in the trio). Hobbo is incredibly cautious, and always on the lookout for enemy attack. He fondly remembers his time spent with MI5, when he used to leap from aeroplanes ("Holding crates of milk? '' asks Entwistle) and dive for cover from enemy fire. Throughout his time on the show Hobbo is convinced that Nelly is his mother and he frequently bothers her (or uses other people) for attention, much to her annoyance. Clegg and Truly recall that Hobbo was never much of a milkman but was exemplary at needlework. He was also one of the last new characters to be introduced to the series.
(1975, 1976, 1977 -- 1987) Nora 's perennially shell - shocked husband and Compo 's next - door neighbour, Wally Batty was a short quiet man, kept on a short leash by his wife. His relationship with Nora stood in stark contrast to Compo 's unrequited lust after her; in fact, he often welcomed the prospect of Compo running off with her. Initially mentioned but not seen, he first appeared on screen in 1975. He was generally seen doing chores or stealing a quick moment away from Nora at the pub. Despite being dominated by his wife, Wally had an acerbic wit (like that of Norman Clegg) and was often quick to reply with a sharp - tongued comment when Nora told him off (though this often caused more trouble for him from Nora). Wally had a passion for racing pigeons and owned a motorbike and sidecar, occasionally taking Nora for a spin around the countryside. When Joe Gladwin died in 1987, Wally died off screen, but he is still occasionally mentioned. (Note: in the pilot episode of the series, which was part of the Comedy Playhouse strand, Nora referred to her unseen husband as Harold, not Wally.) Joe Gladwin last appeared in series 9. He died just days before the broadcast of his final appearance.
(2008 -- 2010) Stella is Nora 's sister, she first appeared in the 2008 New Years Special, I Was A Hitman for Primrose Dairies as a replacement for and to compensate for the absence of actress Kathy Staff, (who was unable to continue her role as Nora owing to ill health and subsequent death).
With Nora having departed for Australia, Stella moved in to house - sit for her sister, and had become a new member of the elder women 's talking circle. She is a former pub landlady and appears to take a more free - spirited approach to life than Nora, as evidenced by her brighter wardrobe and hair. The storyline in her first episode saw her trying to give up smoking, and her yearning for a cigarette has continued unabated into subsequent episodes. Despite this she was equally annoyed as Nora by the pranks that Alvin played on her.
Stella has four siblings: Madge, Billy, Clara and Nora (See Nora Batty).
In the episode "Get Out of That, Then '' Young wore a brown wig and played the part of Florrie, wife of Barry 's cousin Lenny (Bobby Ball).
(1973 -- 2010) joint owner of tea - shop with husband Sid, with whom she would often have blazing rows in the kitchen, until his death. She later ran it alone. Physically formidable, she viciously scolded anyone who dared misbehave or criticize the food by throwing them out the cafe or often hitting them on the head with a tray. Generally the wisest and most level - headed of the show 's female social circle, she was also on occasion a target of Compo 's (unwanted) affection, who often said that if it was n't for Nora Batty, he 'd be all over her. This regularly resulted in Compo along with the others (sometimes including Sid) being thrown out or being on the receiving end of her anger in other ways. In earlier episodes she was shown to tolerate the main trio more when they visited the cafe. Eventually she became more strict with them (especially after Sid 's death), although after Compo 's death she became kinder to the trio. When taking into account Kathy Staff 's brief exit from the show in 2001 and later absence from series 30 to series 31 (see above), Jane Freeman as Ivy is the only character other than Clegg (Peter Sallis) to have been present throughout the course of the series (274 episodes, although Clegg is the only one to have appeared in every single episode), since she was not present in "The Man from Oswestry '', "Going to Gordon 's Wedding '', "In Which Romance Springs a Leak '' or the final episode of the last series. In some of the episodes she seemed to have a sort of rivalry with Nora participating in what Nora once called a "slanging match '' Ivy would often criticize Nora 's taste in hats and Nora in turn once said Ivy 's pastry was n't light enough which succeeded in bringing Ivy to the verge of tears. On the other hand, Nora and Ivy are normally best friends with each other like their husbands and the two were regularly seen to be having a coffee together chatting about the downsides of men and life in general. Nora would also sometimes help Ivy and Sid with the café (on one occasion Wally was also shown helping them).
(1973 -- 1983), bluff tea - shop owner, who featured prominently for the first ten years, before Comer 's death in 1984. Ivy remembers him fondly, and often mentions him in conversation. Sid was one of the few characters who actually seemed to enjoy getting involved in the misadventures of the three central characters, and often saw them as an excuse to get out of the cafe for a few hours. However, occasionally he was shown to be extremely irritated by some of their schemes and antics (most notably in the episode "Getting on Sidney 's wire '' where he gets angry with Foggy for ruining his attempts to fit a new doorbell to the cafe and subsequently throws him out). Like Wally Batty he often welcomed Compo 's affection for his wife. In one episode he remarks that he "ca n't help admiring (Compo 's) nerve ''.
Ivy and Sid often shouted and argued with each other (and Ivy was never shy about bringing up Sid 's infidelity), but, as with many of the show 's couples, there was little doubt that they loved each other. Throughout his time in the series Sid and Wally were shown to be best friends and the two of them often joined each other in trying to sneak away from their wives to the pub or any other activity (often involving the main trio). Another long running gag during his time on the show were ongoing rumours of his supposed affair with a local unseen bus conductress (likely to be an early structure for Howard and Marina). Ivy was aware of this and often accused him of being unfaithful. Although Sid once admitted to the trio he was friends with the conductress, he always flatly denied the rumours and despite the odd verbal hint very little evidence of this was ever seen onscreen.
For John Comer 's last ever appearance, in the 1983 feature - length Christmas special, ' Getting Sam Home ', illness caused by cancer affected his speech, and so his lines were dubbed over by another actor, Tony Melody. Comer died two months later in February 1984. Sid 's death was not referred to until "Uncle of the Bride '' on New Year 's Day 1986. It is hinted (after his death) by Ivy that Sid was a supporter of Manchester United (though this was not mentioned when he was alive).
In the 2000 episode "Just a Small Funeral '' as Ivy is getting ready for Compo 's funeral, she finds a photo of Sid in her handbag.
(1984, 1985 -- 1987) Sid and Ivy 's giant, lumbering and very strong nephew, who looked like a younger version of his own late uncle.
The character was first introduced in 1984, to compensate for the death of John Comer (who played Sid on the show). Crusher helped his widowed auntie Ivy out in the cafe for 31⁄2 years. His real name was Milburn, but he insisted on being called "Crusher ''. He was influenced by the Rock and Rollers of the 1950s and was into heavy metal music. Well - meaning but not overly bright, he was rather easily led. Crusher was first seen in the touring stage show around 1984 before being introduced into the 8th series. In the 1988 Christmas Special "Crums '' he was shown to have a girlfriend (though Crusher himself did not appear in this episode as Jonathan Linsley had left the show by then) named Fran (played by Yvette Fielding) who, according to Ivy, was as daft as he is. In his early episodes, he seemed to have a crush on Marina much to Ivy 's displeasure. This stemmed from the fact that Ivy told him to find "some poor lass that 's had a hard time ''.
However Crusher did not return in the tenth series, as Jonathan Linsley left the show to work on other TV projects: most of the character 's humour came from the contrast between his menacing size and his total harmlessness. Following his departure in early 1988 (after the 1987 Christmas special), Ivy ran the cafe alone (with occasional help from Nora Batty).
(Tony Haygarth, 1973) A forgotten character, Chip was Compo 's nephew from the first series episode 3 Pate and Chips. Chip and his wife Connie, played by Margaret Nolan, with their children and dog, take the Yorkshire trio to a large country home for a ' bit of culture ' in a cramped van for transport (much to Cyril 's disgust). When they arrive at the country home Cyril points out that Chip has n't renewed his Road Fund License since 1967.
(Paul Luty, 1976) Big Malcolm is revealed to be, in "The Man From Oswestry '' Compo 's cousin and he appeared in just two 1976 episodes. Within hours of his arrival in "The Man from Oswestry '', Foggy is unfortunate enough to let Big Malcolm overhear him in a pub, saying he will fight to the death anyone who mocks his regimental scarf. Foggy is taken outdoors by Big Malcolm and returns the worse for wear. Several episodes later, Malcolm is one of the family guests in "Going to Gordon 's Wedding ''.
(Philip Jackson, 1976) An oft - forgotten character, Gordon was Compo 's gormless fishing - obsessed nephew, and appeared in a few 1976 episodes, joining the trio on a Bank Holiday trip to Scarborough. He became friendly with a young woman named Josie whilst in Scarborough, and married her in a later episode. In some ways he was a prototype of Barry, who was introduced in the mid-1980s. When he is married, it is revealed he has a sister, Julie. In the same episode his mother states to him that he 's "queer '', much to his annoyance, as he reveals that he knows there 's been some rumors to that effect.
(Liz Goulding, 1976) Another forgotten character, Josie met Compo 's nephew Gordon in the trio 's Bank Holiday trip to Scarborough. She and Gordon go back to Gordon 's room at the Guest House at which they are staying, and start a game of chess. In a later episode, she and Gordon marry, but as the wedding turns more and more disastrous, she turns more and more into her rather foreboding and complaining mother, Madge (Joan Scott). It is unknown what became of her and Gordon after the wedding.
(Margaret Burton, 1976) Compo 's sister - in - law, and Gordon 's mother. A forgotten character, Dolly appeares as the flustering mother of Gordon and her other child, Julie. She is flamboyent in her dress, and screeches instead of shouts. She is the object of Big Malcolm and Eric 's, affections, and hits both Malcolm and Eric with her handbag when they attempt to drag her to two different seats at once. It is revealed her husband, Compo 's brother, left her with Julie and Gordon a few years back. Like Gordon and Josie, it is unknown what happened to her after Gordon 's wedding.
(Barry Hart, 1976) Eric 's exact relationship to Compo is unknown, and he only appears in one episode, but he is shown to have feelings for Gordon 's mother Dolly, and that he drinks a lot, and almost gets in a fight with Big Malcolm. In his only appearance, he is a guest at Gordon 's wedding. Eric is also referred to, but not seen, in the episode of the first series, "Short Back and Palais Glide. '' When the trio are in the police station whilst looking for Mr Wainwright, the desk sergeant asks Compo, "How 's your Eric? ''
(Tom Owen, 2000 -- 2010) Compo 's long - lost son, arriving just after his father 's death, Tom is played by Bill Owen 's real - life son. Tom is a layabout like Compo but seems a bit more enterprising in his attempts to maintain his slothful lifestyle. Originally it was planned that Tom would fill the gap in the three - man line - up left by his father, but it was soon felt that this line - up did not quite work. For most of his time in the series, he was paired with Smiler working for Auntie Wainwright, and also, in one episode, goes to live with Smiler (though it 's not clear if this continued). Of the duo, he designates himself the ' leader ' and the planner (often leaving Smiler to struggle with Auntie Wainwright 's antiquated hand - cart while he strolls on ahead), although in truth, he is not particularly bright himself. After Smiler was written out of the series, Tom continued to work for Aunty Wainwright until the conclusion of the show 's run. Clegg and Truly often take advantage of his desire to live up to his father 's reputation in order to convince him to do rather stupid things. After the death of Compo, Nora feels somewhat maternal towards Tom, and often showers him with affection -- much to the embarrassment of Tom. He also has a scruffy puppet dog called Waldo which he aspires to use in an unconvincing ventriloquist act. When not working for Auntie Wainwright, Tom can usually be found in his allotment shed, avoiding the repo man (he rarely, if ever used his allotment to grow vegetables). When he first arrived in the series, Tom also had a tatty old yellow Renault van, but this was seen in only a couple of his early appearances. (Note: For some years before joining the series as Tom Simmonite, Tom Owen sometimes appeared in small walk - on parts on the show (for instance appearing on the 1991 Christmas special), sometimes with no dialogue, and not always credited.)
(Julie T. Wallace, 2000 -- 2001) Tom 's live - in "associate ''; much larger than him, and something of a battle - axe, yet rather easily manipulated. Although Tom always insisted that she was merely an acquaintance, Mrs Avery always wanted more, and was under the impression that Tom had promised to marry her. After a brief spell of living in the pair 's bus, they moved into the deceased Compo 's home, next - door to Nora Batty. During her stay at Compo 's home, she began a rivalry with Nora, often copying each other (cleaning their windows or vacuuming their rugs). This was not to last; she threw him out and disappeared from the series after only a year on the show.
(Helen Turaya, 2000) Along with Tom Simmonite was Babs, Mrs. Avery 's niece, involved in a couple of schemes. The character was so unpopular that she was axed after just three episodes without explanation.
Seymour Utterthwaite was the third man of the trio from 1986 to 1990. He left the series in 1990 when Foggy Dewhurst returned to the show, but his family had gained so much popularity themselves that they remained on the show.
(1982, 1984, 1985 -- 2002) Edie 's husband, who spent all his time in his workshop / garage.
In one of the most popular and often reused scenes in the series, Edie would call Wesley in from his garage (after much shouting, first in gentle ' posh ' tones, before ending up in harsh yelling) and would lay down a trail of newspaper for him to stand on -- often putting one on the wall just in time as he leaned against it. Wesley generally kept out of Edie 's way in his garage, restoring old motors.
The character first appeared in the 1982 episode ' Car and Garter ' in a cameo role. The writer and producers liked him so much they brought him back for the 1984 Christmas Special ' The Loxley Lozenge ' and again twice in the 1985 episode ' Who 's Looking After The Cafe Then? '. He reappeared in the 1985 feature - length Christmas special ' Uncle Of The Bride ', in which he was established as Edie 's husband, at which point both became regulars from this special thereafter.
Mechanic Wesley was often called upon by the main trio to construct the many bizarre creations they came up with, and to drive them into the hills for test runs. One recurring theme is the occasional explosion caused by projects in Wesley 's shed accompanied by billows of white smoke. On some occasions, Wesley 's hat is also smouldering and smoking. In his early years in the series, Wesley seemed to have a love of loud rock music, which led to the trio desperately trying to call over it to get his attention on a number of occasions. Though he was clearly a very skilled builder and mechanic, much of his projects were poorly and hastily built and he would get easily embarrassed and annoyed by anyone managing to fix something he ca n't (notably, Compo once managed to rewire Edie 's car correctly, much to Wesley 's annoyance). Unlike Edie, Wesley did not speak highly of Seymour (Wesley calling him a pillock) and was often annoyed by Seymour 's requests to construct the latter 's ridiculous inventions as well as Seymour 's pompous school headmaster nature. His attitude towards Foggy was similar to that of Seymour but during later years when Truly was introduced on the show he was shown to be more willing to help the trio out in their schemes. Sometimes Wesley would be extremely secretive about his inventions (largely down to his fear of other people copying them) but they were often exposed by the main trio or Edie and would go to extreme lengths to hide what he was building (on one occasion he kept a guard dog in his shed that chased Barry away).
When Gordon Wharmby died in 2002, the character is said to have also died. Although he was not formally written out, subsequent references to him were in the past tense.
(1986, 1987, 1988 -- 2003), a highly opinionated older woman, sister of Seymour Utterthwaite (who called her Edith) and Wesley 's wife, she was the house - proud hostess of the women 's coffee mornings. She was introduced, along with Seymour, daughter Glenda and son - in - law Barry in the 1986 New Years Day special episode "Uncle of the Bride '' (husband Wesley had been introduced in 1982, 4 years before).
The ladies ' tea parties, where they would sit and discuss life (particularly the shortcomings of men), became a popular staple of the show from the 1990s onwards; they were usually held in Edie 's front room. Wesley restored a convertible car for her to drive, although she was a terrible driver, and was always accusing Wesley of moving things (particularly the gear lever) around. The other ladies (including Glenda) often accompanied her on the roads and as a result of Edie 's poor driving, they would be fearing for their lives. Another running gag was Edie making a big performance of locking the front door, repeatedly pushing it to check that it was locked properly. When her brother Seymour was around Edie would speak very highly of him and his inventions (refusing to count his numerous failed ones) despite the other ladies thinking he is just as daft as the rest of the trio (although when Seymour 's antics became extreme she would secretly be annoyed and embarrassed).
In later years Hird, who was still in the series at the age of 90, suffered poor health, which affected her ability to stand. To cover this, she was often seen sitting down, or, when standing, had something to hold on to (often out of camera shot). For driving and distance shots, her double, Amy Shaw, was used.
When Thora Hird died in 2003, Edie was also said to have died. As with her husband Wesley previously, it was not immediately made obvious, but later references to the character indicated that she had died. In the final three series, a framed photo of Edie can be seen on Barry and Glenda 's mantelpiece.
In one episode Barry talks about ghosts and Glenda asks if he had seen her mother. Barry 's response in the negative includes immense gladness, in that she scared him enough alive.
For the first few series in which she appeared, Edie was extremely concerned with her reputation in the neighbourhood: whenever there was company, Edie would try to put on a posh, educated voice -- which would suddenly vanish when she was shouting for (or at) Wesley. This aspect of Edie 's character was a prototype for Hyacinth Bucket in Keeping Up Appearances (also written by Roy Clarke). Once the latter series was created, this aspect of Edie 's personality was toned down a bit (although not completely) in order to differentiate the two characters.
(Sarah Thomas: 1986, 1987, 1988 -- 1990, 1991 - 2010) daughter of Edie and Wesley. The other women in the group consider that she is somewhat naive, despite her being middle - aged. When her mother was alive, if she attempted to join in a mature conversation, Edie would snap "Drink your coffee! '' She speaks glowingly of her husband Barry, but is often insecure and unsatisfied with him at home, often because of the pressure of her mother and other ladies in the group. She often comes to the defence of men when other women in the group speak the worst about them and does not believe that all men are evil, as they do. Likewise she is generally shown to be kinder to the main trio than the other ladies (particularly when her uncle Seymour was with them and notably in the episode "The McDonaghs of Jamieson Street '' she lends Billy a skirt after his trousers are mauled by a vicious dog). She appears, like her husband, to have a very meek demeanour, but under duress she has proven to be quite a force to be reckoned with. In the very last episode of the programme, Glenda clearly seems to have joined the bossy Yorkshire women 's brigade in her suggestions to Barry and Morton that are, in Barry 's words "not optional ''. Although the rest of the ladies (particularly Pearl) disliked the flirtatious Marina, Glenda was seen to strike up friendship with her on a number of occasions (although this role was generally taken by Miss Davenport in the later series).
(1986 -- 1990, 1996 -- 2010) meek and mild husband of Glenda. Dull and ineffectual, accountant Barry strives for adventure but seems destined for paperwork and domesticity. His one pride is his shiny new car, which he was always trying to keep away from father - in - law Wesley, who could not resist tinkering under the bonnet (although in one episode, he did completely dismantle the engine).
Barry is often trying out new hobbies in an attempt to stop his life being humdrum; and in more recent years, has made a number of attempts to fit in at a local golf club, often upsetting the golf captain "the Major ''. Though he clearly loved his wife he was afraid to kiss her in public, out of fear of being judged by the neighbors. He was also afraid of his mother in law Edie, largely because she (along with the other ladies) would often judge Barry or accuse him of being guilty. In later series Barry became more regularly involved in the schemes of the main trio and in series 28 - 29 was often involved in schemes with Alvin, Entwistle and Howard. After being introduced in the feature - length "Uncle of the Bride '' in 1986, which centres around Barry and Glenda 's wedding, Barry was much - mentioned but not seen for around six years when Mike Grady originally left to pursue several other television projects, before returning as a regular from 1996 thereafter. He is one of the few characters to have left the series but returned in later series.
(2000, 2001 -- 2005) Edie 's and Seymour 's sister, who has always been more romantically adventurous, to Edie 's unending shame. She often speaks of past flings, frequently with married men. She was often paired with Pearl Sibshaw. Ros was last seen at the end of the 26th series following the departure of Dora Bryan owing to ill health. Her role of being paired with Pearl was replaced by June Whitfield 's character Nelly.
Before Ros actually appeared in the series, she had never been mentioned and it was not known that Edie and Seymour even had a sister.
(1985, 1986 -- 2010) Howard is the shy, beady - eyed, constantly conniving, simpering, henpecked husband of Pearl. Doubtless owing to his wife 's domineering nature, Howard often tries to escape from her. Most episodes involve Howard dating peroxide blonde, Marina, behind his wife 's back. In most episodes, Marina would simper, "Oh Howard. '', followed by Howard 's "Oh Marina. '' - sometimes the order was reversed, He is a creative but unconvincing liar. He and Pearl live next door to Clegg, and, much to the annoyance of the latter, Howard is always pestering him for aid in his various schemes to escape Pearl and be with Marina. Over the years he has come up with countless disguises, cover stories and hideaways to allow him to see Marina, all of which have ultimately been doomed or exposed by Pearl. In their earlier appearances, they were frequently shown in disguise with Howard saying, "I think we 've really cracked it this time ''. However, he tends to ignore Marina when he 's out with her, partly out of fear of his wife Pearl, and partly because he gets so deeply caught up in fabricating charades to cover up his affair. As a result, their relationship does not appear to have gone beyond hand - holding and gazing into each other 's eyes (much to the annoyance of Marina), and the occasional kiss in a field, haystack, or mobile hut somewhere, and it is hinted that if Howard ever did get the chance, he would be too cowardly to go through with it anyway. It has also been suggested that Howard loves Pearl underneath it all. In later series Howard was shown to be out of the house more regularly (despite Pearl knowing about his attempted affair with Marina) and eventually became more involved in the schemes of the main trio. Howard first appeared in the Bournemouth summer season show of the series, and was popular enough and felt to have enough potential that he was soon made a regular character. At first, he, Pearl and Marina were used semi-regularly, but as time passed and their popularity grew, they appeared in every episode (particularly after Wally Batty died). Howard and Pearl 's surname was given as Sibshaw in Roy Clarke 's novel ' The Moonbather ' in 1987, but only mentioned once in the entire TV series, in one of the last episodes, when Glenda refers to Howard as Mr. Sibshaw.
(1985, 1986 -- 2010) Howard 's wife, a bit of a shrew and always one step ahead of his crafty schemes, she is often shown to know about his (attempted) affair with Marina, but is almost gleefully obsessed with exposing Howard 's philandering and generally tormenting him. Although she has a fearsome reputation, she, like Nora, occasionally surprises Norman Clegg and others (not including Howard) with displays of kindness, especially after Compo died. She also showed shock when, after seeing Howard in the appropriate uniform, believed he had joined the French foreign legion and outright fainted in a Christmas Special when Compo casually remarked that Howard was in Wesley 's hearse.
When she was first introduced on the show, Pearl was somewhat naive, especially towards Howard 's affair with Marina. When introduced to the ladies ' tea group, Nora, Ivy, and Edie integrated her into the group and, over time, her demeanour has hardened.
(1985, 1986 -- 2010) Busty but over-age, Howard 's love interest Marina works in a local supermarket. Despite her carefree appearance and large chest, Marina is a long - suffering type, having to deal with the disapproval of the prominent village women, the indirect wrath of Pearl, and timorous and neglectful romancing by Howard. She is often thought of as a "tart '', and not without reason. She seems to have a soft spot for Clegg (often referring to him as "Norman Clegg that was '' implying that they have a past), and occasionally briefly leaves Howard for other men. In the episode "A Double For Howard '', she is also content for Eli to kiss her when he impersonates Howard. Marina works as a check - out girl at the local Co-op (although in more recent series, the store 's name has been seen as Lodges); Howard often sneaks there to pass or receive notes from her (or more often sends Norman Clegg in his place; leading on several occasions for Marina to believe mistakenly that Clegg is interested in her romantically). In A Sidecar Named Desire Clegg reveals that he was once trapped in a lift with Marina and she cuddled him for warmth, much to Howard 's ire and jealousy. Though she perceived it to be a romantic incident, it left Clegg terrified of her. Clegg always strongly denies any romantic interest in her. Marina first appeared in the spin - off 1984 Eastbourne summer season show, and soon became a regular character.
(1988, 1989, 1992 -- 2010) Howard 's aunt. A sly and grasping bric - a-brac shop owner. Whilst she and her nephew both have a general predisposition towards sneakiness, Auntie Wainwright is much more adept at applying it.
Clegg is reluctant to go into her shop, since she always sells him something he does n't want, but she usually finds ways to trick him into entering. She is extremely mean, and pretends to be cheated when she gives the slightest discount. At Compo 's funeral, she grabbed Eli by the arm and pretended to be blind in order to avoid giving money to a collection outside the church. Whenever customers entered the shop she would surprise them by talking through a loudspeaker, saying things like "Stay where you are! '', "Do n't touch anything or you will be electrocuted '', (or things of that nature). Though she is largely based in her usual junk shop, she was occasionally shown to own (or she was the tenant of) other shops and even junkyards (which comes to the shock of the trio and other characters). She was also extremely security conscious (even pointing a shotgun at the trio on one occasion).
As with several other characters, she was originally seen in a "one - off '' appearance in the 1988 Christmas Special Crums, however she became so popular that she was brought back for a second appearance at Christmas 1989, eventually becoming a regular from 1992 thereafter.
She may have had a sister called Elsie - this is the name of Howard 's mother.
Note: Auntie Wainwright is no relation to Mr Wainwright from the library. (See Below)
(Stephen Lewis: 1988, 1990, 1991 -- 2007) eternally miserable and none - too - bright comic foil, similar to Lewis ' character Inspector Cyril "Blakey '' Blake in LWT 's hit comedy On The Buses (some episodes of which he co-wrote) from 1969 to 1973. Smiler was first seen as a one - off character in 1988 's ' That Certain Smile ', in which the trio had to sneak a hospitalised Smiler 's beloved dog Bess in to see him. During his first appearance he was almost entirely referred to by everyone else as his real name "Clem ''. The character was popular enough to be brought back on a semi-regular basis, and was a regular throughout the 1990s and most of the 2000s (although his dog died between his first and second appearances). In some early appearances, he was a lollipop man, but for much of his time on the show worked for Auntie Wainwright, with whom he seems to be suffering some sort of indentured servitude. In early appearances, Smiler was also a lodger with Nora Batty, which enraged the jealous Compo. Smiler once described that working for Nora Batty was like being in the Army again, and always on Jankers. He also described it akin to jail at Stalag 14. Smiler also owned a big, but rather beaten up and poorly maintained, white convertible 1972 Chevrolet Impala, in which he sometimes drove around with Tom, and which on occasion has been used in various promotions for Auntie Wainwright. The trio would often cross paths with Smiler and use him for whatever scheme or activity they were doing (largely because of his tall height and gormless nature). Smiler was last seen in the series 28 episode "Sinclair and the Wormley Witches ''. Lewis left the show at the end of series 28 because of ill health. He was last mentioned in the series 29 episode "Of Passion and Pizza '' by Tom 's saying that Smiler had disappeared.
(Blake Butler, 1973, 1976) The rather timid head of the local library, which the trio visited a lot in the show 's early days - Compo nicknamed him ' Old Shagnasty '. Mr Wainwright left at the same time as Mrs Partridge 's departure (see below), but was "transferred back '' to the area in the third series, featuring in two episodes where he was once again romancing his new assistant, Miss Moody. It is shown in Series 1 he, unlike Miss Probert, approves of the books with four - letter words. (Note: Mr Wainwright is not related to Auntie Wainwright.)
(Rosemary Martin: 1973), a librarian at the same library, and who was engaged in an affair with Mr Wainwright which they mistakenly believed was secret. The characters were never really felt to catch on, and disappeared as the library was written out as a favourite haunt of the main trio. However, a few years later, the storyline was resurrected and occasionally used for Howard and Marina. The library was also brought back for Foggy to get thrown out of all the time. She has twelve - year - old son, as of Short Back and Palais Glide.
(June Watson, 1975) One of the librarians who briefly replaced Wainwright and Partridge during the second series. Miss Probert is a radical "feminist '', who is always railing against men to the more timid Miss Jones. Miss Probert has two missions in life; one is discouraging the lending out of books she considers "filthy ''; the other is making a misandrist out of Miss Jones, in whom she seems to take a more than professional interest. Her disappearance from the series is unexplained, and it is presumed she went back to wherever she worked before.
(Janet Davies:, 1975) The other librarian who replaced Mr. Wainwright and Mrs. Partridge in the second series. Miss Jones is a quiet, timid female who is overshadowed by Miss Probert. She previously worked in a children 's library, which she frequently says she wants to return to. She has a pair of pink fly - away glasses that are on a chain around her neck. She does n't like working at the Holmfirth library, because of the four - letter words. She always does what Miss Probert asks her, always without question or protest. Like Miss Probert, her disappearance is unexplained, and it is believed she returned to the children 's library. This is most likely due to the remark she made to Miss Probert about wanting to go back where "Puss in Boots means just that and not like that awful magazine ''.
(Kate Brown, 1976) The librarian who replaced Mrs. Partridge on Mr. Wainwright 's return. She only appeared in two episodes, and it is shown she shares Mr. Wainwrights dreams about revolution. She is the first woman to suffer the sight of Compo 's matchbox. Although middle - aged, she is attractive and she and Mr. Wainwright are believed to one of the original structures for Howard and Marina.
(Josephine Tewson, 2003 -- 2010) After many years of the library setting seldom being used, Miss Davenport was introduced as the new librarian in 2003. A very emotional woman haunted by a string of past rejections, she first appeared as a guest, driving Gavin Hinchcliff around while he skied on the van roof. Originally, Glenda took up the cause of socializing her and tried to fit her in with the coffee - drinker circle of Nora, Ivy, Pearl, and co. They did not take too well to each other; in more recent episodes, she 's bonded with Marina instead, with the pair of them both longing for love in their individual ways. In the episode: "In Which Howard Remembers Where He Left His Bicycle Pump '', it is revealed that Miss Davenport 's first name is "Lucinda ''.
(1987 -- 2002) An extremely long - sighted bumbler, Eli maintained a highly cheerful, friendly attitude despite not having a clue what was going on around him. He generally made only brief cameo appearances, walking into a scene and commenting on his long - sighted misinterpretation of the action, and then walking off again. He was occasionally seen on a bicycle.
On occasion, his long - sightedness caused him to walk into slapstick (and carefully choreographed) mishaps such as walking into the back of a lorry and over the tops of cars, or falling into a skip. For much of his time in the series, Eli also had a Jack Russell dog (which once went missing, leading Eli to mistake a sheep for the dog). Despite his long - sightedness, Eli is eternally cheerful and optimistic, and glad to see anyone who stops to talk to him. In one episode, a passing comment by Compo seemed to suggest that Eli was a sniper during the Second World War.
In the 1995 New Year Special episode featuring Sir Norman Wisdom, ' The Man Who Nearly Knew Pavarotti ', Eli is the conductor of the Holme Silver Band. Originally brought in as a friend of Wally Batty, the character was so popular that Eli remained on the show after the death of actor Joe Gladwin. Eli and Wally appeared together in the series 9 episode, "Jaws '', in 1987.
Eli never appeared again following the death of O'Dea, though the character was not explicitly killed off. He was replaced by two drunks (who were also in earlier episodes of the series, sometimes credited as Villagers), but appeared in only a few episodes.
In the 1988 episode "The Pig Man Cometh '' of All Creatures Great and Small O'Dea played the character Rupe who, like Eli, had defective vision, clearly alluding to his role in Last of the Summer Wine.
(2005, 2006 -- 2010) A more recent addition to the ladies ' coffee - drinking set, and Pearl 's comrade - in - arms. Nelly 's never - seen husband Travis needs constant attention, which Nelly generally administers over her mobile phone. Nelly occasionally provides more "sophisticated '' viewpoints as a result of having lived further south for some time, but even she regards them with some befuddlement. June Whitfield previously made a "one off '' appearance in the series as a different character, Delphi Potts, in the 2001 Christmas Special, ' Potts in Pole Position ', married to Lother, the character of Warren Mitchell, a couple of years before she became a regular as Nelly. In Series 30, she became the object of Hobbo 's obsession when he became convinced that she was his long - lost mother, much to her annoyance. She was one of the only two regular characters (the other being Ivy) not to appear in the final episode.
(2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 -- 2005, 2007, 2008 -- 2010) He first appeared as Herman Teesdale, "the Repo man '', who is always pursuing Tom Simmonite, claiming that he owes money. (May be related to character Jack Harry Teesdale, who appeared in two episodes.)
He is determined but gullible, and Tom always evades him. From 2005 on, he has not only been mentioned by name, but also calls on Barry for social visits, with Barry not being too thrilled at this newfound friendship. In certain episodes in 2005, it is clear that he still repossesses belongings, which Glenda suggests is the reason none of his friendships lasted: he kept repossessing his friends ' goods.
The character returned in a 2007 episode of the show; and again in the 2008 New Year special, saying that he has retired from debt collecting and changed his name to Morton Beemish in order to start a new life for himself. He seeks out the friendship of his former nemesis, Tom (though Tom was still suspicious of him and would often hide from him when he saw sight of him).
In the final two seasons 30 - 31 the character practically lives next door to Barry and Glenda as a near - lodger with Toby Mulberry, (aka The Captain).
(1992, 2001, 2002 -- 03, 2004, 2005 -- 06, 2008 -- 2010) The Captain of the local golf club where Barry is often trying to fit in as a member; but, despite his best efforts to impress him, Barry always manages to annoy or offend the Captain, either by becoming involved with some escapade with the main trio, or by some other social faux pas.
Trevor Bannister is best known for playing Mr Lucas in another comedy favourite, Are You Being Served?, with Frank Thornton from 1972 to 1979, and also starred with Brian Wilde in the short - lived Wyatt 's Watchdogs in 1988.
He had previously played a tailor in the 1992 episode ' Who 's Got Rhythm? '. The Captain returned for the 2008 New Years Special I Was A Hitman For Primrose Dairies, where he received a name, Toby, for the first time. In series 30 he moves in next door to Barry and Glenda and shortly after gains Morton Beemish (aka Herman Teesdale), the former repo man, as a near - lodger, since he 's always there doing tasks around the house. During this time his relationship with Barry appeared to improve and the two (along with Glenda) would often bond over their annoyance of Morton.
(1995, 1996, 2001, 2002 and 2004) Like a number of other characters, Norman Wisdom was originally intended to make one guest appearance in the show, and ended up as a recurring character. He originally played the hapless Billy Ingleton in the 1995 New Year special ' The Man Who Nearly Knew Pavarotti '. He proved so popular that like Auntie Wainwright before him, he was asked to appear in the following year 's special (' Extra! Extra! '). From then on, much - loved comedian Norman Wisdom occasionally pops up, sometimes for the storyline of an episode, at other times in smaller appearances. He is not always credited for smaller appearances.
Local policemen often witness the bizarre goings on, usually related to the main trio, and watch in bemusement. They are generally seen parked up around the moors and trying not to get involved with anything, instead eating (they have even been seen to have a roadside barbecue on occasion) or drinking tea. They would often be in deep conversation speculating bizarre scenarios and whether or not they would come true, only for them to become true largely down to the main trio along with other characters.
(1983, 1988 -- 2010) Kitson first appeared in the 1983 Christmas special ' Getting Sam Home ' and made 2 further guest appearances before becoming a semi-regular character from series 12 onwards. In series 29 he was finally given the name PC Cooper. Cooper tends to be the bigger - headed of the two, but he has many ingenious ways of dealing with petty crimes with minimal disruption to his relaxation. In his first episode he is shown to be a friend of Sid 's (which was the latter 's last appearance on the show before his death).
(1988, 1989, 2004 -- 2010) Emerick first appeared alongside Kitson in ' Downhill Racer '. He made one more appearance in the next series, in the episode ' Three Men and a Mangle ', and later reappeared in 2004 to partner Kitson after Tony Capstick 's death. In series 29 he was finally given the name PC Walsh. Walsh is more level - headed than Cooper and enjoys "taking the mickey '', but he tends to be a little more naïve.
(1987, 1990 -- 2004) Capstick made his first appearance in the 1987 special ' Big Day at Dream Acres ', before becoming a semi-regular alongside Kitson from series 12 in 1990, up to his death in late 2003. His last appearance was the episode ' Yours Truly - If You 're Not Careful '. Capstick 's character was spacey and less intelligent even than the often - oblivious Cooper.
Bright, Morris; Ross, Robert (6 April 2000). Last of the Summer Wine: The Finest Vintage. London: BBC Worldwide. ISBN 0 - 563 - 55151 - 8.
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do champions league losers go to europa league | UEFA Europa League - Wikipedia
The UEFA Europa League is an annual football club competition organised by UEFA since 1971 for eligible European football clubs. Clubs qualify for the competition based on their performance in their national leagues and cup competitions.
Previously called the UEFA Cup, the competition has been known as the UEFA Europa League since the 2009 -- 10 season, following a change in format. For UEFA footballing records purposes, the UEFA Cup and UEFA Europa League are considered the same competition, with the change of name being simply a rebranding.
In 1999, the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup was abolished and merged with the UEFA Cup. For the 2004 -- 05 competition a group stage was added prior to the knockout phase. The 2009 re-branding included a merge with the UEFA Intertoto Cup, producing an enlarged competition format, with an expanded group stage and changed qualifying criteria. The winner of the UEFA Europa League qualifies for the UEFA Super Cup, and since the 2014 -- 15 season the winner of the UEFA Europa League also qualifies for the next edition of the UEFA Champions League. The winner enters at the group stage.
The title has been won by 28 different clubs, 12 of which have won the title more than once. The most successful club in the competition are Sevilla with five titles and the current champions are Manchester United after defeating Ajax in the final to win the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Europa League.
The UEFA Cup was preceded by the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, which was a European football competition played between 1955 and 1971. The competition grew from 11 teams during the first cup (1955 -- 58) to 64 teams by the last cup which was played in 1970 -- 71. It had become so important on the European football scene that in the end it was taken over by UEFA and relaunched the following season as the UEFA Cup.
The UEFA Cup was first played in the 1971 -- 72 season, with an all - English final of Wolverhampton Wanderers against Tottenham Hotspur, with Spurs taking the first honours. The title was retained by another English club, Liverpool, in 1973, who defeated Borussia Mönchengladbach in the final. Borussia would win the competition in 1975 and 1979, and reach the final again in 1980. Liverpool won the competition for the second time in 1976 after defeating Club Brugge in the final.
During the 1980s, IFK Göteborg (1982 and 1987) and Real Madrid (1985 and 1986) won the competition twice each, with Anderlecht reaching two consecutive finals, winning in 1983 and losing to Tottenham Hotspur in 1984. The year 1989 saw the commencement of the Italian clubs ' domination, when Diego Maradona 's Napoli defeated Stuttgart. The 1990s started with two all - Italian finals, and in 1992, Torino lost the final to Ajax on the away goals rule. Juventus won the competition for a third time in 1993 and Internazionale kept the cup in Italy the following year. The year 1995 saw a third all - Italian final, with Parma proving their consistency, after two consecutive Cup Winners ' Cup finals. The only final with no Italians during that decade was in 1996. Internazionale reached the final the following two years, losing in 1997 to Schalke 04 on penalties, and winning yet another all - Italian final in 1998, taking home the cup for the third time in only eight years. Parma won the cup in 1999, which ended the Italian club era.
Liverpool won the competition for the third time in 2001 and Porto triumphed in the 2003 and 2011 tournaments, with the latter against Portuguese team Braga. In 2004, the cup returned to Spain with Valencia being victorious, and then Sevilla succeeded on two consecutive occasions in 2006 and 2007, the latter in a final against fellow Spaniards Espanyol. Either side of Sevilla 's success, two Russian teams, CSKA Moscow in 2005 and Zenit Saint Petersburg in 2008, had their glory and yet another former Soviet club, Ukraine 's Shakhtar Donetsk, won in 2009. Atlético Madrid would themselves win twice in three seasons, in 2010 and 2012, the latter in another all - Spanish final. In 2013, Chelsea would become the first Champions League holders to win the UEFA Cup / Europa League the following year. In 2014, Sevilla won their third cup in eight years after defeating Benfica on penalties. Just one year later, in 2015, Sevilla won their fourth UEFA Cup / Europa League, becoming the most successful club in the competition.
The competition was traditionally open to the runners - up of domestic leagues, but the competition was merged with UEFA 's previous second - tier European competition, the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup, in 1999. Since then, the winners of domestic cup competitions have also entered the UEFA Cup. Further, clubs eliminated in the third qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League and the third - placed teams at the end of the group phase could go on to compete in the UEFA Cup. Winners of some selected domestic League Cup competitions are also admitted.
Since the 2009 -- 10 season, the competition has been known as the UEFA Europa League. At the same time, the UEFA Intertoto Cup, UEFA 's third - tier competition, was discontinued and merged into the new Europa League.
The UEFA Cup, also known as the Coupe UEFA, is the trophy awarded annually by UEFA to the football club that wins the UEFA Europa League. Before the 2009 -- 10 season, both the competition and the trophy were known as ' the UEFA Cup '.
Before the competition was renamed the UEFA Europa League in the 2009 -- 10 season, the UEFA regulations stated that a club could keep the original trophy for a year before returning it to UEFA. After its return, the club could keep a four - fifths scale replica of the original trophy. Upon their third consecutive win or fifth win overall, a club could retain the trophy permanently. However, under the new regulations, the trophy remains in UEFA 's keeping at all times. A full - size replica trophy is awarded to each winner of the competition. Also a club that wins three consecutive times or five times overall will receive a multiple - winner badge. As of 2016 -- 17, only Sevilla has earned the honour to wear the multiple - winner badge, having achieved both prerequired feats in 2016.
The trophy was designed and crafted by Bertoni for the 1972 UEFA Cup Final. It weighs 15 kg and is silver on a yellow marble plinth.
The competition 's first anthem was composed by Yohann Zveig and recorded by the Paris Opera in early 2009. The theme for the re-branded UEFA Cup competition was first officially unveiled at the Grimaldi Forum on 28 August 2009 before the 2009 -- 10 season group stage draw. The anthem is to be played before every Europa League game at a stadium hosting such an event and also before every television broadcast of a Europa League game as a musical element of the competition 's opening sequence.
A new anthem was composed by Michael Kadelbach and recorded in Berlin and was launched as part of the competition 's rebranding at the start of the 2015 -- 16 season.
Qualification for the competition is based on UEFA coefficients, with better entrance rounds being offered to the more successful nations. In practice, each association has a standard number of three berths, except:
Usually, each country 's places are awarded to teams who finish in various runners - up places in its top - flight league and the winner of the main cup competition. Typically the teams qualifying via the league are those in the highest places not eligible for the UEFA Champions League; however, the Belgian league awards one place via a playoff between First A and First B teams. A few countries have secondary cup competitions, but the only ones whose winners are currently granted a UEFA Europa League are England 's and France 's.
A team may qualify for European competitions through more than one route. In all cases, if a club is eligible to enter the UEFA Champions League then the Champions League place takes precedence and the club does not enter the UEFA Europa League. The UEFA Europa League place is then granted to another club or vacated if the maximum limit of teams qualifying for European competitions is exceeded. If a team qualifies for European competition through both winning a cup and league placing, the "spare '' UEFA Europa League place will go to the highest placed league team which has not already qualified for European competition, depending on the rules of the national association, or vacated, if the described limit is reached.
The top three ranked associations may qualify for the fourth berth if both the Champions League and Europa League champions are from that association and do not qualify for European competition through their domestic performance. In that case, the fourth - placed team in that association will join the Europa League instead of the Champions League, in addition to their other qualifying teams.
More recently, clubs that are knocked out of the qualifying round and the group stage of the Champions League can also join the UEFA Europa League, at different stages (see below). Formerly, the reigning champions qualified to defend their title, but since 2015 they qualify for the Champions League. From 1995 to 2015, three leagues gained one extra team via the UEFA Respect Fair Play ranking.
UEFA coefficients were introduced in 1980 and, until 1999, they gave a greater number of berths in UEFA Cup to the more successful nations. Three nations had four places, five nations had three places, thirteen nations had two places, and eleven nations only one place. Since 1999, a similar system has been used for the UEFA Champions League. Before 1980, the entrance criteria of the last Fairs Cup was used.
The competition was traditionally a pure knockout tournament. All ties were two - legged, including the final. Starting with the 1997 -- 98 season, the final became a one - off match, but all other ties remained two - legged.
Before the 2004 -- 05 season, the tournament consisted of one qualifying round, followed by a series of knockout rounds. The sixteen non-qualifiers from the final qualifying round of the Champions League entered at the first round proper; later in the tournament, the survivors were joined by third - place finishers from the (first) group phase of the Champions League.
From the 2004 -- 05 season, the competition started with two knockout qualifying rounds held in July and August. Participants from associations ranked 18 and lower entered the first qualifying round with those from associations ranked 9 -- 18 joining them in the second qualifying round. In addition, three places in the first qualifying round were reserved for the UEFA Fair Play ranking winners (until 2015 -- 16), and eleven places in the second qualifying round for the UEFA Intertoto Cup winners.
Winners of the qualifying rounds then joined teams from the associations ranked 1 -- 13 in the first round proper. In addition, non-qualifiers in the third qualifying round of the Champions League also joined the competition at this point along with the current title - holders (unless they had qualified for the Champions League via their national league), for a total of 80 teams in the first round.
After the first knockout round, the 40 survivors entered a group phase, with the clubs being drawn into eight groups of five each. Unlike the Champions League group phase, the UEFA Cup group phase was played in a single round - robin format, with each club playing two home and two away games. The top three teams in each of the eight groups qualified for the main knockout round along with the eight third - placed teams in the Champions League group phase. From then on a series of two - legged knockout ties were played before a single - legged final, traditionally held on a Wednesday in May, exactly one week before the Champions League final.
In 2009 -- 10 season, the competition was rebranded as the UEFA Europa League in a bid to increase the competition 's profile. An extra 8 teams now qualify for the group stage consisting of 12 groups with four teams each (in a double round robin), with teams finished on the top two place in each group progressing. The competition then progresses in much the same way as the previous format, with four rounds of two - legged knockout rounds and a one - off final held at a neutral ground that meets UEFA 's Category Four stadium criteria. The final is played in May, on the Wednesday ten days before the Champions League final.
Qualification has changed significantly. Associations ranked 7 -- 9 in the UEFA coefficients sent the cup winners and three (two since 2015 -- 16 season) other teams to the UEFA Europa League qualification, all other nations sent a Cup winners and two other teams, except Andorra and San Marino, who sent only a Cup winner and a runner - up, and Liechtenstein, who sent only a Cup winner. Since Gibraltar was accepted as a full UEFA member at the UEFA congress held in London on 24 May 2013, their Cup winner also qualified for Europa League. Usually, the other teams will be the next highest ranked clubs in each domestic league after those qualifying for the UEFA Champions League, however France and England will continue to use one spot for their League Cup winner. With the abolition of the Intertoto Cup, all participants of Europa League are qualified through domestic routes. Generally, the higher an association is ranked in the UEFA coefficients, the later its clubs start in the qualification. However, every team except for the title - holder (up to 2014 -- 15 season) and the highest ranked teams (usually the cup winner and / or the best Europa League qualified team) from the top (six in 2012 -- 15 seasons, 12 since 2015 -- 16 season) associations had to play at least one qualification round.
Apart from the teams mentioned, an additional 15 teams eliminated in the Champions League third qualifying round are transferred to the Europa League play - off round, and the 10 losing teams in the Champions League play - off round are transferred to the Europa League group stage. The 12 winners and the 12 runners - up in the group stage advanced to the knock out round, together with eight third - placed teams from the Champions League group stage.
In 2014, the distribution was changed to broaden the appeal of the competition, namely through giving the Europa League champions a Champions League qualification berth, which is always used ever since. More teams automatically qualify for the group stage. If cup winners already qualified for European competition through league performance, their place through league is vacated and goes to the best ranked teams not qualified for European competition, This means that the cup runners - up is no longer qualified through the cup route. These rules comes to effect from 2015 -- 16 season.
The access list above is provisional, as changes will need to be made in the following cases:
A Europa League place is vacated when a team qualifies for both the Champions League and the Europa League, or qualifies for the Europa League by more than one method. When a place is vacated, it is redistributed within the national association by the following rules (regulations Articles 3.03 and 3.04):
Beginning with the 2018 -- 19 tournament, all domestic champions eliminated in the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Champions League will transfer to the Europa League, rather than just teams that are eliminated in the third - qualifying and play - off rounds. Europa League qualifying will also provide a separate champions route for these teams, allowing more opportunities for domestic league champions to compete against each other.
The Europa League have implemented the extra officials rule since September 2009. Under the rule, there are a total of six officials: the main referee, two assistant referees, fourth official of the sideline, and two extra assistants (one alongside each goal).
Similar to the UEFA Champions League, the prize money received by the clubs is divided into fixed payments based on participation and results, and variable amounts that depend of the value of their TV market.
For the 2016 / 2017 season, group stage participation in the Europa League awarded a base fee of € 2.6 million. A victory in the group pays € 360,000 and a draw € 120,000. Also, each group winner earns € 600,000 and each runner - up € 300,000. Reaching the knock - out stage triggers additional bonuses: € 500,000 for the round of 32, € 750,000 for the round of 16, € 1 million for the quarter - finals and € 1.6 million for the semi-finals. The losing finalists receive € 3.5 million and the champions receive € 6.5 million.
The UEFA Europa League is sponsored by five multinational corporations; the current tournament sponsors are:
Adidas is a secondary sponsor and supplies the official match ball, as it does for all other UEFA competitions. Konami 's Pro Evolution Soccer is also a secondary sponsor as the official Europa League video game.
Since the inception of Europa League brand, the tournament has used its own hoardings (in that year it debuted in the round of 32) like UEFA Champions League. LED hoardings made their debut in the 2012 -- 13 final and will appear in 2015 -- 16 season from the round of 16; in the same season, from the group stage, teams are not allowed to show their sponsors.
Individual clubs may wear jerseys with advertising, even if such sponsors conflict with those of the Europa League. However, only one sponsorship is permitted per jersey unless it is a non profit sponsor (plus that of the manufacturer), and if clubs play a match in a country where the relevant sponsorship category is restricted (such as alcohol in the case of France), then they must remove that logo from their jerseys.
The UEFA Cup finals were played over two legs until 1997. The first final was played on 3 May 1972 in Wolverhampton and 17 May 1972 in London. The first leg between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Tottenham Hotspur was won 2 -- 1 by the away side. The second leg finished as a 1 -- 1 draw, meaning that Tottenham Hotspur became the first UEFA Cup winners.
The one - match finals in pre-selected venues were introduced in 1998. A venue must meet or exceed UEFA Category three standards to host UEFA Cup finals. On two occasions, the final was played at a finalist 's home ground: Feyenoord defeated Borussia Dortmund at De Kuip, Rotterdam, in 2002, and Sporting CP lost to CSKA Moscow at their own Estádio José Alvalade, Lisbon, in 2005.
The winner of the last UEFA Cup final (prior to the competition being rebranded as the UEFA Europa League) was Shakhtar Donetsk on 20 May 2009. The Ukrainian team beat Werder Bremen of Germany 2 -- 1 at Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, Istanbul.
The first ever winner of the rebranded Europa League was Atlético Madrid, beating Premier League side Fulham 2 -- 1 after extra time.
* Club has won all three major UEFA competitions
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which mineral is deficient in india according to 1st five year plan | Five - Year plans of India - Wikipedia
From 1947 to 2017, the Indian economy was premised on the concept of planning. This was carried through the Five - Year Plans, developed, executed, and monitored by the Planning Commission (1951 - 2014) and the NITI Aayog (2015 - 2017). With the prime minister as the ex-officio chairman, the commission has a nominated deputy chairman, who holds the rank of a cabinet Minister. Montek Singh Ahluwalia is the last deputy chairman of the commission (resigned on 26 May 2014). The Twelfth Plan completed its term in March 2017. Prior to the Fourth Plan, the allocation of state resources was based on schematic patterns rather than a transparent and objective mechanism, which led to the adoption of the Gadgil formula in 1969. Revised versions of the formula have been used since then to determine the allocation of central assistance for state plans. The new government led by Narendra Modi, elected in 2014, has announced the dissolution of the Planning Commission, and its replacement by a think tank called the NITI Aayog (an acronym for National Institution for Transforming India).
Five - Year Plans (FYPs) are centralized and integrated national economic programs. Joseph Stalin implemented the first Five Year Plan in the Soviet Union in the late 1920s. Most communist states and several capitalist countries subsequently have adopted them. China and India both continue to use FYPs, although China renamed its Eleventh FYP, from 2006 to 2010, a guideline (guihua), rather than a plan (jihua), to signify the central government 's more hands - off approach to development. India launched its First FYP in 1951, immediately after independence under socialist influence of first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
The First Five - Year Plan was one of the most important because it had a great role in the launching of Indian development after Independence. Thus, it strongly supported agriculture production and it also launched the industrialization of the country (but less than the Second Plan, which focused on heavy industries). It built a particular system of mixed economy, with a great role for the public sector (with an emerging welfare state), as well as a growing private sector (represented by some personalities as those who published the Bombay Plan).
The first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the First Five - Year Plan to the Parliament of India and needed urgent attention. The First Five - year Plan was launched in 1951 which mainly focused in development of the primary sector. The First Five - Year Plan was based on the Harrod -- Domar model with few modifications.
The total planned budget of Rs. 2069 crore (2378 crore later) was allocated to seven broad areas: irrigation and energy (27.2 %), agriculture and community development (17.4 %), transport and communications (24 %), industry (8.4 %), social services (16.6 %), rehabilitation of landless farmers (4.1 %), and for other sectors and services (2.5 %). The most important feature of this phase was active role of state in all economic sectors. Such a role was justified at that time because immediately after independence, India was facing basic problems -- deficiency of capital and low capacity to save.
The target growth rate was 2.1 % annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth; the achieved growth rate was 3.6 % the net domestic product went up by 15 %. The monsoon was good and there were relatively high crop yields, boosting exchange reserves and the per capita income, which increased by 8 %. National income increased more than the per capita income due to rapid population growth. Many irrigation projects were initiated during this period, including the Bhakra, Hirakud, Mettur Dam and Damodar Valley dams. The World Health Organization (WHO), with the Indian government, addressed children 's health and reduced infant mortality, indirectly contributing to population growth.
At the end of the plan period in 1956, five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were started as major technical institutions. The University Grants Commission (UGC) was set up to take care of funding and take measures to strengthen the higher education in the country. Contracts were signed to start five steel plants, which came into existence in the middle of the Second Five - Year Plan. The plan was quasi successful for the government.
The Second Plan was particularly in the development of the public sector and "rapid Industrialisation ''. The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by the Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long - run economic growth. It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at the Indian Statistical Institute. The plan assumed a closed economy in which the main trading activity would be centred on importing capital goods.
Hydroelectric power projects and five steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, and Rourkela were established with the help of Russia, Britain (the U.K) and West Germany respectively. Coal production was increased. More railway lines were added in the north east.
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and Atomic Energy Commission of India was established as research institutes. In 1957 a talent search and scholarship program was begun to find talented young students to train for work in nuclear power.
The total amount allocated under the Second Five - Year Plan in India was Rs. 48 billion. This amount was allocated among various sectors: power and irrigation, social services, communications and transport, and miscellaneous.
"The target growth rate was 4.5 % and the actual growth rate was 4.27 %. ''
The Third Five - year Plan, stressed agriculture and improvement in the production of wheat, but the brief Sino - Indian War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the defence industry and the Indian Army. In 1965 -- 1966, India fought a War with Pakistan. There was also a severe drought in 1965. The war led to inflation and the priority was shifted to price stabilisation. The construction of dams continued. Many cement and fertilizer plants were also built. Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat.
Many primary schools were started in rural areas. In an effort to bring democracy to the grass - root level, Panchayat elections were started and the states were given more development responsibilities.
State electricity boards and state secondary education boards were formed. States were made responsible for secondary and higher education. State road transportation corporations were formed and local road building became a state responsibility.
The target growth rate was 5.6 %, but the actual growth rate was 2.4 %.
Due to miserable failure of the Third Plan the government was forced to declare "plan holidays '' (from 1966 -- 67, 1967 -- 68, and 1968 -- 69). Three annual plans were drawn during this intervening period. During 1966 -- 67 there was again the problem of drought. Equal priority was given to agriculture, its allied activities, and industrial sector. The government of India declared "Devaluation of Rupee '' to increase the exports of the country. The main reasons for plan holidays were the war, lack of resources, and increase in inflation after that plan holiday was created.
At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister. The Indira Gandhi government nationalised 14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced agriculture. In addition, the situation in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was becoming dire as the Indo - Pakistan War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War took funds earmarked for industrial development. India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test (Pokhran - 1) in Rajasthan on May 18, 1974, partially in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal. The fleet had been deployed to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and extending the war.
The target growth rate was 5.6 %, but the actual growth rate was 3.3 %.
The Fifth Five - Year Plan laid stress on employment, poverty alleviation (Garibi Hatao), and justice. The plan also focused on self - reliance in agricultural production and defence. In 1978 the newly elected Morarji Desai government rejected the plan. The Electricity Supply Act was amended in 1975, which enabled the central government to enter into power generation and transmission.
The Indian national highway system was introduced and many roads were widened to accommodate the increasing traffic. Tourism also expanded. The twenty - point programme was launched in 1975. It was followed from 1974 to 1979.
The Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) was introduced in the first year of the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974 -- 78). The objective of the programme is to provide certain basic minimum needs and thereby improve the living standards of the people.
The target growth rate was 4.4 % and the actual growth rate was 4.8 %.
The Janata Party government rejected the Fifth Five - Year Plan and introduced a new Sixth Five - Year Plan (1978 -- 1980). This plan was again rejected by the Indian National Congress government in 1980 and a new Sixth Plan was made. The Rolling Plan consists of three kind of plans that were proposed. The First Plan is for the present year which comprises the annual budget and Second is a plan for a fixed number of years, which may be 3, 4 or 5 years. Plan number two is kept changing as per the requirements of the Indian economy. The Third Plan is a perspective plan which is for long terms i.e. for 10, 15 or 20 years. Hence there is no fixation of dates in for the commencement and termination of the plan in the rolling plans. The main advantage of the rolling plans is that they are flexible and are able to overcome the rigidity of fixed five year plans by mending targets, the object of the exercise, projections and allocations as per the changing conditions in the country 's economy. The main disadvantage of this plan is that if the targets are revised each year, it becomes very difficult to achieve them which are laid down in the five - year period and it turned out to be a complex plan. Frequent revisions resulted in lack of stability in the economy which is essential for its balanced development and progress.
The Sixth Five - Year Plan marked the beginning of economic liberalisation. Price controls were eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices and an increase in the cost of living. This was the end of Nehruvian socialism. The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development was established for development of rural areas on 12 July 1982 by recommendation of the Shivaraman Committee. Family planning was also expanded in order to prevent overpopulation. In contrast to China 's strict and binding one - child policy, Indian policy did not rely on the threat of force. More prosperous areas of India adopted family planning more rapidly than less prosperous areas, which continued to have a high birth rate.
The Sixth Five - Year Plan was a great success to the Indian economy. The target growth rate was 5.2 % and the actual growth rate was 5.7 %. The only Five - Year Plan which was done twice.
The Seventh Five - Year Plan was led by the Congress Party with Rajiv Gandhi as the prime minister. The plan laid stress on improving the productivity level of industries by upgrading of technology.
The main objectives of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were to establish growth in areas of increasing economic productivity, production of food grains, and generating employment through "Social Justice ''.
As an outcome of the Sixth Five - Year Plan, there had been steady growth in agriculture, controls on the rate of inflation, and favourable balance of payments which had provided a strong base for the Seventh Five - Year Plan to build on the need for further economic growth. The Seventh Plan had strived towards socialism and energy production at large. The thrust areas of the Seventh Five - Year Plan were: social justice, removal of oppression of the weak, using modern technology, agricultural development, anti-poverty programmes, full supply of food, clothing, and shelter, increasing productivity of small - and large - scale farmers, and making India an independent economy.
Based on a 15 - year period of striving towards steady growth, the Seventh Plan was focused on achieving the prerequisites of self - sustaining growth by the year 2000. The plan expected the labour force to grow by 39 million people and employment was expected to grow at the rate of 4 % per year.
Some of the expected outcomes of the Seventh Five - Year Plan India are given below:
Under the Seventh Five - Year Plan, India strove to bring about a self - sustained economy in the country with valuable contributions from voluntary agencies and the general populace.
The target growth rate was 5.0 % and the actual growth rate was 6.01 %. and the growth rate of per capita income was 3.7 %.
The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political situation at the centre and the years 1990 -- 91 and 1991 -- 92 were treated as Annual Plans. The Eighth Plan was finally formulated for the period 1992 -- 1997.
1989 -- 91 was a period of economic instability in India and hence no five - year plan was implemented. Between 1990 and 1992, there were only Annual Plans. In 1991, India faced a crisis in foreign exchange (forex) reserves, left with reserves of only about US $ 1 billion. Thus, under pressure, the country took the risk of reforming the socialist economy. P.V. Narasimha Rao was the tenth Prime Minister of the Republic of India and head of Congress Party, and led one of the most important administrations in India 's modern history, overseeing a major economic transformation and several incidents affecting national security. At that time Dr. Manmohan Singh (later Prime Minister of India) launched India 's free market reforms that brought the nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge. It was the beginning of liberalization, privatisation and globalization (LPG) in India.
Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan. Under this plan, the gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning deficit and foreign debt. Meanwhile, India became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January 1995. The major objectives included, controlling population growth, poverty reduction, employment generation, strengthening the infrastructure, institutional building, tourism management, human resource development, involvement of Panchayati rajs, Nagar Palikas, NGOs, decentralisation and people 's participation.
Energy was given priority with 26.6 % of the outlay.
The target growth rate was 5.6 % and the actual growth rate was 6.8 %.
To achieve the target of an average of 5.6 % per annum, investment of 23.2 % of the gross domestic product was required. The incremental capital ratio is 4.1. The saving for investment was to come from domestic sources and foreign sources, with the rate of domestic saving at 21.6 % of gross domestic production and of foreign saving at 1.6 % of gross domestic production.
The Ninth Five - Year Plan came after 50 years of Indian Independence. Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister of India during the Ninth Five - Year Plan. The Ninth Five - Year Plan tried primarily to use the latent and unexplored economic potential of the country to promote economic and social growth. It offered strong support to the social spheres of the country in an effort to achieve the complete elimination of poverty. The satisfactory implementation of the Eighth Five - Year Plan also ensured the states ' ability to proceed on the path of faster development. The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw joint efforts from the public and the private sectors in ensuring economic development of the country. In addition, the Ninth Five - Year Plan saw contributions towards development from the general public as well as governmental agencies in both the rural and urban areas of the country. New implementation measures in the form of Special Action Plans (SAPs) were evolved during the Ninth Five - Year Plan to fulfill targets within the stipulated time with adequate resources. The SAPs covered the areas of social infrastructure, agriculture, information technology and Water policy.
Budget
The Ninth Five - Year Plan had a total public sector plan outlay of ₹ 859,200 crore (US $130 billion). The Ninth Five - Year Plan also saw a hike of 48 % in terms of plan expenditure and 33 % in terms of the plan outlay in comparison to that of the Eighth Five - Year Plan. In the total outlay, the share of the center was approximately 57 % while it was 43 % for the states and the union territories.
The Ninth Five - Year Plan focused on the relationship between the rapid economic growth and the quality of life for the people of the country. The prime focus of this plan was to increase growth in the country with an emphasis on social justice and equity. The Ninth Five - Year Plan placed considerable importance on combining growth oriented policies with the mission of achieving the desired objective of improving policies which would work towards the improvement of the poor in the country. The Ninth Five - Year Plan also aimed at correcting the historical inequalities which were still prevalent in the society.
Objectives
The main objective of the Ninth Five - Year Plan was to correct historical inequalities and increase the economic growth in the country. Other aspects which constituted the Ninth Five - Year Plan were:
Strategies
Performance
The Ninth Five - Year Plan looks through the past weaknesses in order to frame the new measures for the overall socio - economic development of the country. However, for a well - planned economy of any country, there should be a combined participation of the governmental agencies along with the general population of that nation. A combined effort of public, private, and all levels of government is essential for ensuring the growth of India 's economy.
The target growth was 7.1 % and the actual growth was 6.8 %.
The main objectives of the Tenth Five - Year Plan:
Out of total plan outlay, ₹ 921,291 crore (US $140 billion) (57.9 %) was for central government and ₹ 691,009 crore (US $110 billion) (42.1 %) was for states and union territories.
The Twelfth Five - Year Plan of the Government of India has been decided to achieve a growth rate of 8.2 % but the National Development Council (NDC) on 27 December 2012 approved a growth rate of 8 % for the Twelfth Five - Year Plan.
With the deteriorating global situation, the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission Montek Singh Ahluwalia has said that achieving an average growth rate of 9 percent in the next five years is not possible. The Final growth target has been set at 8 % by the endorsement of the plan at the National Development Council meeting held in New Delhi.
"It is not possible to think of an average of 9 % (in the 12th plan). I think somewhere between 8 and 8.5 percent is feasible, '' Ahluwalia said on the sidelines of a conference of State Planning Boards and departments. The approached paper for the 12th Plan, approved last year, talked about an annual average growth rate of 9 %.
"When I say feasible... that will require major effort. If you do n't do that, there is no God given right to grow at 8 percent. I think given that the world economy deteriorated very sharply over the last year... the growth rate in the first year of the 12th Plan (2012 -- 13) is 6.5 to 7 percent. ''
He also indicated that soon he should share his views with other members of the Commission to choose a final number (economic growth target) to put before the country 's NDC for its approval.
The government intends to reduce poverty by 10 % during the 12th Five - Year Plan. Ahluwalia said, "We aim to reduce poverty estimates by 9 % annually on a sustainable basis during the Plan period ''. Earlier, addressing a conference of State Planning Boards and Planning departments, he said the rate of decline in poverty doubled during the 11th Plan. The commission had said, while using the Tendulkar poverty line, the rate of reduction in the five years between 2004 -- 05 and 2009 -- 10, was about 1.5 % points each year, which was twice that when compared to the period between 1993 -- 95 to 2004 -- 05. The plan aims towards the betterment of the infrastructural projects of the nation avoiding all types of bottlenecks. The document presented by the planning commission is aimed to attract private investments of up to US $1 trillion in the infrastructural growth in the 12th five - year plan, which will also ensure a reduction in the subsidy burden of the government to 1.5 percent from 2 percent of the GDP (gross domestic product). The UID (Unique Identification Number) will act as a platform for cash transfer of the subsidies in the plan.
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where do warrant officers fall in the chain of command | Command hierarchy - wikipedia
A command hierarchy is a group of people who carry out orders based on others authority within the group. It can be viewed as part of a power structure, in which it is usually seen as the most vulnerable and also the most powerful part.
In a military context, the chain of command is the line of authority and responsibility along which orders are passed within a military unit and between different units. Orders are transmitted down the chain of command, from a higher - ranked soldier, such as a commissioned officer, to lower - ranked personnel who either execute the order personally or transmit it down the chain as appropriate, until it is received by those expected to execute it. "Command is exercised by virtue of office and the special assignment of members of the Armed Forces holding military rank who are eligible to exercise command. ''
In general, military personnel give orders only to those directly below them in the chain of command and receive orders only from those directly above them. A service member who has difficulty executing a duty or order and appeals for relief directly to an officer above his immediate commander in the chain of command is likely to be disciplined for not observing the chain of command. Similarly, an officer is usually expected to give orders only to his or her direct subordinate, even if it is just to pass an order down to another service member lower in the chain of command than said subordinate.
The concept of chain of command also implies that higher rank alone does not entitle a higher - ranking service member to give commands to anyone of lower rank. For example, an officer of unit "A '' does not directly command lower - ranking members of unit "B '', and is generally expected to approach an officer of unit "B '' if he requires action by members of that unit. The chain of command means that individual members take orders from only one superior and only give orders to a defined group of people immediately below them.
If an officer of unit "A '' does give orders directly to a lower - ranked member of unit "B '', it would be considered highly unusual (a faux pas, or extraordinary circumstances, such as a lack of time or inability to confer with the officer in command of unit "B '') as officer "A '' would be seen as subverting the authority of the officer of unit "B ''. Depending on the situation or the standard procedure of the military organization, the lower - ranked member being ordered may choose to carry out the order anyway, or advise that it has to be cleared with his or her own chain of command first, which in this example would be with officer "B ''. Refusal to carry out an order is almost always considered insubordination, the only exception usually allowed is if the order itself is illegal (i.e., the person carrying out the order would be committing an illegal act). (See Superior Orders.)
In addition, within combat units, line officers are in the chain of command, but officers in specialist fields (such as medical, dental, legal, supply, and chaplain) are not, except within their own specialty. For example, a medical officer in an infantry battalion would be responsible for the combat medics in that unit but would not be eligible to command the battalion or any of its subordinate units.
The term is also used in a civilian management context describing comparable hierarchical structures of authority.
In sociology command hierarchy is seen as the most visible element of a "power network '',. In this model, social capital is viewed as being mobilized in response to orders that move through the hierarchy leading to the phrase "command and control ''.
Regardless of the degree of control or results achieved, and regardless of how the hierarchy is justified and rationalized, certain aspects of a command hierarchy tend to be similar:
However, people of such compatible views often have similar systemic biases because they are from the same culture. Such problems as groupthink or willingness to accept one standard of evidence internal to the group, but require drastically higher evidence from outside, are common.
In part to address these problems, much modern management science has focused on reducing reliance on command hierarchy especially for information flow, since the cost of communications is now low, and the cost of management mistakes is higher -- especially under globalization -- than at any point in the past. It is also easier to replace managers, so they have a personal interest in more distributed responsibility and perhaps more consensus decision making.
Ubiquitous command and control posits for military organizations, a generalisation from hierarchies to networks which allows for the use of hierarchies when they are appropriate, and non-hierarchical networks when they are inappropriate. This includes the notion of mission agreement, to support "edge in '' as well as "top - down '' flow of intent.
http://www.whs.mil/library/mildoc/AR%20600-20,%2020%20August%201986.pdf
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who is the youngest player to have scored a goal in the fifa world cup | List of FIFA World Cup records - wikipedia
This is a list of records of the FIFA World Cup and its qualification matches.
Teams having equal quantities in the tables below are ordered by the tournament the quantity was attained in (the teams that attained the quantity first are listed first). If the quantity was attained by more than one team in the same tournament, these teams are ordered alphabetically.
Note: There are no official records for cautions issued in tournaments before the introduction of yellow cards in 1970.
* one of the wins was after extra time
* one of the wins was after extra time
* one of the wins was after extra time
Teams eliminated by penalty shoot - outs are not considered as defeated.
Continental Records
Teams listed in bold won the tournament. Fewer than half of all World Cup tournaments have been won by the highest scoring team.
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what does the green on the torres strait islander flag represent | Torres Strait Islander flag - wikipedia
The Torres Strait Islander Flag is an official flag of Australia, and is the flag that represents Torres Strait Islander people. It was designed in 1992 by Bernard Namok. It won a local competition held by the Islands Coordinating Council, and was recognised by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission in June 1992.
The Government of Australia granted it Flag of Australia status, under the Flags Act 1953 (Cth), by proclamation on 14 July 1995.
Due to an "administrative oversight '', the 1995 proclamation was not lodged so that it would continue in force indefinitely; hence it automatically expired on 1 January 2008. It was therefore almost identically replaced, on 25 January 2008, with effect as from 1 January.
In the 2008 proclamation, the flag "is recognised as the flag of the Torres Strait Islander people of Australia and a flag of significance to the Australian nation generally '' and appointed "to be the flag of the Torres Strait Islander people of Australia and to be known as the Torres Strait Islander Flag ''. The design is reproduced in Schedule 1 and described in Schedule 2.
Although Namok has since died, the Torres Strait Islander Flag is still subject to copyright under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). The copyright was administered by the Island Coordinating Council until 2008, when that body was superseded by the Torres Strait Island Regional Council, which is willing to permit reproductions of the flag that are accurate and that acknowledge Namok as the designer.
The green panels at the top and the bottom of the flag symbolise the land, while the blue panel in the centre represents the waters of the Torres Strait. The thin black stripes between the green and blue panels signify the Torres Strait Islanders themselves. The white five - pointed star at the centre of the flag represents the five major island groups, and the white dhari (dancer 's headdress) around it also symbolises the Torres Strait Islands people. White symbolises peace, while the star is a symbol for navigation.
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what marvel movie to watch after the avengers | List of Marvel Cinematic Universe films - wikipedia
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films are an American series of superhero films, based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. The films have been in production since 2007, and in that time Marvel Studios has produced 20 films, with 12 more in various stages of production. It is the highest - grossing film franchise of all time, having grossed over $17.4 billion at the global box office.
Kevin Feige has produced every film in the series. Avi Arad served as a producer on the first two releases, Gale Anne Hurd also produced The Incredible Hulk, Amy Pascal produced the Spider - Man films, and Stephen Broussard produced Ant - Man and the Wasp. The films are written and directed by a variety of individuals and feature large, often ensemble, casts. Many of the actors, including Robert Downey Jr., Chris Evans, Chris Hemsworth, Samuel L. Jackson, and Scarlett Johansson signed contracts to star in numerous films.
The first film in the series was Iron Man (2008), which was distributed by Paramount Pictures. Paramount also distributed Iron Man 2 (2010), Thor (2011) and Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), while Universal Pictures distributed The Incredible Hulk (2008). Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures began distributing the films with the 2012 crossover film The Avengers, which concluded Phase One of the franchise. Phase Two includes Iron Man 3 (2013), Thor: The Dark World (2013), Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), and Ant - Man (2015).
Captain America: Civil War (2016) is the first film in the franchise 's Phase Three, and is followed by Doctor Strange (2016), Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017), Spider - Man: Homecoming (2017), Thor: Ragnarok (2017), Black Panther (2018), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Ant - Man and the Wasp (2018), with Captain Marvel (2019) and an untitled Avengers film (2019) still scheduled for the phase. Sony Pictures distributes the Spider - Man films, which they continue to own, finance, and have final creative control over.
Spider - Man: Far From Home has been scheduled for 2019, alongside Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 in 2020, with an additional two untitled films also scheduled for 2020, three untitled films scheduled for 2021, and three untitled films scheduled for 2022. Feige has indicated that Marvel may abandon the phase grouping after the conclusion of Phase Three.
Billionaire industrialist Tony Stark builds himself a suit of armor after he is taken captive by a terrorist organization. Free from his captors, he decides to upgrade and don his armor in order to hunt down weapons that were sold under the table.
In April 2006, Marvel hired Jon Favreau to direct Iron Man, with the writing teams of Art Marcum and Matt Holloway and Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby writing competing scripts. Favreau consolidated both into one script, which was then polished by John August. Robert Downey, Jr. was cast in the title role in September 2006, after growing out a goatee and working out to convince the filmmakers he was right for the part. Principal photography began on March 12, 2007, with the first few weeks spent on Stark 's captivity in Afghanistan, which was filmed in Inyo County, California. Production also occurred on the former Hughes Company soundstages in Playa Vista, Los Angeles, California, with additional filming at Edwards Air Force Base and Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Iron Man premiered at the Greater Union theater in George Street, Sydney, on April 14, 2008, and was released internationally on April 30, and in the United States on May 2.
The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury, who approaches Stark regarding the "Avenger Initiative ''. Favreau said that he included the scene as "a little tip of the hat for the fans... a way to sort of tee up The Avengers. '' Jackson was only on set for a day, with a skeleton crew to avoid the news of his cameo leaking. Captain America 's shield is also visible in the background of a scene; it was added by an ILM artist as a joke, and Favreau decided to leave it in the film.
After being exposed to gamma radiation that causes him to transform into the monstrous Hulk, scientist Bruce Banner goes on the run and isolates himself from his love, Betty Ross. Hunted by the military, Banner seeks to cure himself and prevent his condition from being weaponized.
In January 2006, Marvel reclaimed the film rights for the Hulk character from Universal Pictures after Universal failed to meet a deadline to develop a sequel to director Ang Lee 's 2003 film Hulk. Universal retained distribution rights for future Hulk films. Instead of moving forward with a sequel, Marvel hired Louis Leterrier to direct The Incredible Hulk, a reboot. Leterrier initially turned down the job out of respect for Lee, but later reconsidered and signed on. The script was written by Zak Penn, who drafted a treatment for the 2003 film. In April 2006, Edward Norton entered negotiations to portray Bruce Banner and rewrite Penn 's script, although Penn received sole credit for the screenplay. Production began on July 9, 2007 and filming primarily took place in Toronto, with additional filming in New York City and Rio de Janeiro. The film premiered at the Gibson Amphitheatre on June 8, 2008, and was released on June 13.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of Iron Man 2 and Thor, the former of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Downey briefly reprised his role from Iron Man as Tony Stark in a cameo appearance at the end of the film. Downey said that the filmmakers "were just cross-pollinating our superheroes. It happens to be a scene where I basically approach (actor William Hurt 's character General Ross), and we may be considering going into some sort of limited partnership together. The great thing is he -- and I do n't want to give too much away -- but he 's in disrepair at the time I find him. It was really fun seeing him play this really powerful character who 's half in the bag. '' In addition, Captain America is briefly seen frozen in ice in an alternate opening of the film, included in the DVD release.
After Tony Stark reveals himself to be Iron Man, the U.S. government demands he hand over his technology. Meanwhile, a rival industrialist and a Russian scientist conspire to use his own technology against him.
Immediately following the successful release of Iron Man in May 2008, Marvel Studios announced it was developing a sequel, Iron Man 2. Favreau returned as director and Justin Theroux was hired to write the screenplay, which would be based on an original story by Favreau and Downey. In October 2008, Downey signed a new four - picture deal, that retroactively included the first film, to reprise his role and Don Cheadle was hired to replace Terrence Howard as James Rhodes. Jackson signed on to reprise his role as Nick Fury from the Iron Man post-credits sequence in up to nine films, and Scarlett Johansson was cast as the Black Widow, as part of a multi-film commitment. Principal photography began April 6, 2009, at the Pasadena Masonic Temple in Pasadena, California. The majority of filming took place at Raleigh Studios in Manhattan Beach, California. Other locations included Edwards Air Force Base, Monaco, and the Sepulveda Dam. Iron Man 2 premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 26, 2010, and was released internationally between April 28 and May 7 before releasing in the United States on May 7.
The film is set six months after the events of Iron Man, and takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Thor. The filmmakers continued to refer to other Marvel films by again including Captain America 's shield. Favreau explained, "We introduced Captain America 's shield briefly in one shot in the last film. So now it really was in his room, so we had to figure out how to deal with the reality that the shield was in his workshop. '' A scene toward the end of Iron Man 2 in a S.H.I.E.L.D. safe house contains several Easter eggs, ranging from footage from The Incredible Hulk displayed on a monitor to pointers on a map indicating several locales related to other Marvel films, including one pointing toward a region of Africa in reference to the Black Panther. A young Peter Parker appears as the child wearing an Iron Man mask whom Stark saves from a drone; the appearance was confirmed in June 2017 by Spider - Man actor Tom Holland, Kevin Feige and Spider - Man: Homecoming director Jon Watts. The film 's post-credits scene showed the discovery of Thor 's hammer in a crater.
Thor, crown prince of Asgard, is banished to Earth and stripped of his powers after he reignites a dormant war. As his brother, Loki, plots to take the throne for himself, Thor must prove himself worthy and reclaim his hammer Mjölnir.
Mark Protosevich was hired to develop a script for Thor in April 2006, after the rights were acquired from Sony Pictures. In August 2007 Marvel hired Matthew Vaughn to direct the film, however he exited the project in May 2008. In September 2008, Kenneth Branagh entered into negotiations to replace Vaughn. In May 2009, Chris Hemsworth was in negotiations to portray the titular character, and Tom Hiddleston was set to play his brother, Loki. Both actors were contracted to star in several films. Marvel hired the writing team of Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz to write a new script for the film, which was then rewritten by Don Payne. Production began on January 11, 2010 in Los Angeles, California, before moving to Galisteo, New Mexico in March. Thor had its world premiere on April 17, 2011 at the Event Cinemas theatre in George Street, Sydney and a U.S. premiere on May 2 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California. The film was released internationally from April 21 to 30, and on May 6 in the United States.
The film takes place simultaneously with the events of The Incredible Hulk and Iron Man 2, the latter of which is set six months after the events of Iron Man. Clark Gregg, who appeared in Iron Man and Iron Man 2 as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson, reprised the role in Thor. About his role in Thor he stated, "Agent Coulson was one of the guys who was n't really in the comic books, and he (had) a very kind of small role in Iron Man. And I was just very lucky that they chose to expand that character and (chose) to put him more into the universe of it. '' After signing on to appear as Clint Barton / Hawkeye in The Avengers, Jeremy Renner made a cameo appearance as the character during a scene in Thor. Branagh said that they "were always going to have a guy in a basket above the action where Thor breaks in the S.H.I.E.L.D. camp '', and that he was thrilled when the producers told him they wanted to use Renner 's Hawkeye for that role. The film ends with a post-credits scene featuring Loki, watching as Erik Selvig and Nick Fury discuss the Tesseract. The scene was directed by Joss Whedon, who directed The Avengers. Stellan Skarsgård, who played Selvig, said the scene was not included when he first read the screenplay for Thor, and that he was sent pages for the scene after agreeing to appear in The Avengers.
In 1942, Steve Rogers is deemed physically unfit to enlist in the U.S. Army and fight the German Reich in World War II. Recruited for a secret military operation, he is physically transformed into a super-soldier dubbed Captain America and must battle the Red Skull, head of a Nazi science division known as Hydra.
In April 2006, Marvel hired David Self to write the script for a Captain America film. Joe Johnston signed on to direct in November 2008, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely were hired to rewrite the script. In March 2010, Chris Evans was cast as Captain America and Hugo Weaving was cast as the Red Skull. Production began on June 28, 2010 in the United Kingdom, with locations in London, Caerwent, Manchester and Liverpool. The film premiered on July 19, 2011, at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and was released in the United States on July 22, and in international markets starting July 27.
The Tesseract from the Thor post-credits scene appears as a MacGuffin in Captain America: The First Avenger. In the film, Dominic Cooper portrays a young Howard Stark, the father of Tony Stark, who hosts an early version of the Stark Expo, the fair Tony hosts in Iron Man 2. The final scene of the film includes a brief appearance by Jackson 's Nick Fury followed by a teaser trailer for Marvel 's The Avengers after the credits.
Nick Fury, the director of S.H.I.E.L.D., gathers the superheroes Iron Man, Thor, Captain America, the Hulk, Black Widow and Hawkeye to fight Thor 's brother Loki, who plots to subjugate the Earth.
Zak Penn, who wrote The Incredible Hulk, was hired to write a script for The Avengers in June 2007. In April 2010, Joss Whedon closed a deal to direct the film, and to rework Penn 's script. Marvel announced that Edward Norton would not be reprising the role of Bruce Banner / Hulk, and in July 2010, Mark Ruffalo was cast in his place. Downey, Evans, Hemsworth, Johansson, Renner, Hiddleston and Jackson reprised their respective roles from previous films. Principal photography began in April 2011 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, before moving to Cleveland, Ohio in August, and New York City in September. The premiere was held on April 11, 2012 at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California, and the film was released in the United States on May 4.
Gwyneth Paltrow, who portrayed Pepper Potts in Iron Man and Iron Man 2, was included in the film at Downey 's insistence. Prior to this, Whedon had not intended the film to include supporting characters from the heroes ' individual films, commenting, "You need to separate the characters from their support systems in order to create the isolation you need for a team. '' Avi Arad said that Sony Pictures and Disney discussed incorporating the OsCorp Tower from The Amazing Spider - Man into the climax of The Avengers, but Feige said that "the deal was never close to happening. '' The supervillain Thanos appears in a mid-credits scene, portrayed by Damion Poitier.
Tony Stark faces a powerful enemy, the Mandarin, who attacks and destroys his mansion. Left to his own devices and battling posttraumatic stress disorder, Stark struggles to get to the bottom of a series of mysterious explosions.
In late 2010, Marvel and Disney announced that they were developing a third Iron Man film. In February 2011, Marvel hired Shane Black to direct Iron Man 3. Black co-wrote the film 's script with Drew Pearce. Downey, Paltrow, and Cheadle reprised their roles from Iron Man 2, while Guy Pearce and Ben Kingsley joined the cast as Aldrich Killian and Trevor Slattery, respectively. Filming began in May 2012, in North Carolina. Additional filming took place in southern Florida, China, and Los Angeles. Iron Man 3 premiered at Le Grand Rex in Paris, France on April 14, 2013 and at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California on April 24. The film was released internationally on April 25, and in the United States on May 3.
The film is set in December 2013, after the events of The Avengers. In the film Tony Stark experiences PTSD - like symptoms following the Battle of New York in The Avengers. Black explained, "that 's an anxiety response to feeling inferior to The Avengers, but also to being humbled by sights he can not possibly begin to understand or reconcile with the realities he 's used to... There 's a line in the movie about ' ever since that big guy with the hammer fell out of the sky, the rules have changed '. That 's what we 're dealing with here. '' Bruce Banner appears in a post-credits scene, with Ruffalo reprising the role. About the scene, Ruffalo said "They were about to wrap the movie and I saw Robert (Downey, Jr.) at the Academy Awards... and he said, ' What do you think about coming and doing a day? ' I said, ' Are you kidding me? Bang, let 's do it! ' We sort of spitballed that scene, then I came in and we shot for a couple of hours and laughed. ''
Thor reunites with astrophysicist Jane Foster as a series of portals, linking worlds at random, begin to appear. He discovers that Malekith and his army of Dark Elves have returned after thousands of years, and they seek a powerful weapon known as the Aether. Thor must join forces with his now - imprisoned brother Loki to stop them.
A sequel to Thor was first announced in June 2011, with Hemsworth reprising his role as Thor. Hiddleston confirmed he would return as Loki in September, and Alan Taylor signed on to direct the film in December. The film 's title was announced as Thor: The Dark World in July 2012 at the San Diego Comic - Con International, and Christopher Eccleston was cast as Malekith a month later. Production started in September 2012 in Bourne Wood, Surrey, with additional filming taking place in Iceland and London. The film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22, 2013. It was internationally released on October 30, 2013 and on November 8, 2013 in the United States.
The film is set one year after the events of The Avengers. Evans briefly makes a cameo appearance in the film as Captain America when Loki shapeshifts into him while mocking Thor. Hiddleston wore the Captain America costume while standing in for Evans, before Evans came to shoot the scene. Hiddleston said, "I did an impression of Loki in the Captain America costume, and then they showed Chris (Evans) my performance on tape. It 's him doing an impression of me doing an impression of him. And it 's brilliant. '' James Gunn, the director of Guardians of the Galaxy, directed the mid-credits scene that featured the Collector, played by Benicio del Toro. Asked about shooting the scene, Gunn said, "I got the script that morning, and I did it in two hours at the end of a day of second unit shooting (for Guardians of the Galaxy). ''
Steve Rogers, now working with S.H.I.E.L.D., teams up with Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow and Sam Wilson / Falcon to expose a deep conspiracy which involves a mysterious assassin known only as the Winter Soldier.
A sequel to 2011 's Captain America: The First Avenger was announced in April 2012. Anthony and Joe Russo were hired to direct in June, and in July it was officially titled Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Evans and Jackson were set to reprise their respective roles as Captain America and Nick Fury, and Johansson would again play the Black Widow. Sebastian Stan, who portrayed Bucky Barnes in Captain America: The First Avenger, returned as the Winter Soldier. Production started in April 2013 in Manhattan Beach, California, and filming also took place in Washington, D.C. and Cleveland, Ohio. The film premiered in Los Angeles on March 13, 2014. Captain America: The Winter Soldier was released internationally on March 26 and in the United States on April 4.
The film is set two years after the events of The Avengers. Stephen Strange, the alter - ego of the Marvel superhero Doctor Strange, is mentioned by name in the film by the character Jasper Sitwell. A remodeled Stark Tower from The Avengers, now known as Avengers Tower, also makes an appearance in the film. Whedon directed a post-credits scene featuring Baron Wolfgang von Strucker (Thomas Kretschmann), List (Henry Goodman), Quicksilver (Aaron Taylor - Johnson), and the Scarlet Witch (Elizabeth Olsen), who appear in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The revelation in the film that S.H.I.E.L.D. had been infiltrated by Hydra informed the final six episodes of the first season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., a television series set in the MCU.
Peter Quill / Star - Lord and a group of misfits, including Gamora, Rocket, Drax the Destroyer and Groot, fight to keep a powerful orb from the clutches of the villainous Ronan.
Nicole Perlman began writing a screenplay in 2009. Marvel Studios announced it was developing a Guardians of the Galaxy film in July 2012. The film is directed by James Gunn, based on his and Perlman 's screenplay. In February 2013, Chris Pratt was cast in the lead role, as Peter Quill / Star - Lord. The film was shot at Shepperton Studios and in London from July to October 2013, and post-production work was completed on July 7, 2014. The film premiered on July 21, 2014 in Hollywood. Guardians of the Galaxy was released in the United Kingdom on July 31, 2014, and in the United States on August 1.
The film is set in 2014. Josh Brolin provides the voice and performance capture for Thanos, the supervillain who appeared in The Avengers mid-credits scene. Gunn noted that the film would be connected to Avengers: Infinity War. Several other objects of significance appear in the Collector 's museum, including a Chitauri from The Avengers and a Dark Elf from Thor: The Dark World, among other characters. About their appearances Gunn said, "There 's a lot of stuff in the Collector 's Museum. And for me, it was mostly just really fun. As a Marvel fan, giving the actual fans something that they can freeze frame on their Blu - Ray at home and just kind of pick out everything that 's in there. So there are, I mean, seriously all those boxes have something interesting in them, so it 's pretty fun. '' Ronan 's race, the Kree, were first introduced in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "T.A.H.I.T.I. ''.
Captain America, Iron Man, Thor, the Hulk, Black Widow, and Hawkeye must work together as the Avengers to defeat Ultron, a technological enemy bent on human extinction, while encountering the powerful twins Pietro and Wanda Maximoff, as well as the new entity Vision.
A sequel to The Avengers was announced by Disney in May 2012, shortly after the first film 's release. In August 2012, Joss Whedon was signed to return as writer and director. In June 2013, Downey signed a deal to reprise the role of Iron Man for the second and third Avengers films. On July 20, 2013, at San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon announced that the subtitle of the film would be Age of Ultron. In August 2013, James Spader was announced to portray Ultron. Second unit filming began on February 11, 2014 in Johannesburg, South Africa. Principal photography began in March 2014 at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, with additional footage filmed at Fort Bard and various other locations in the Aosta Valley region of Italy, and Seoul, South Korea. Filming was completed on August 6, 2014. Avengers: Age of Ultron had its world premiere in Los Angeles on April 13, 2015, and was released internationally beginning April 22, and on May 1 in the United States.
The film confirms that the gem in Loki 's scepter is an Infinity Stone, specifically the Mind Stone, and Brolin reappears as Thanos in the mid-credit scene wielding an Infinity Gauntlet. It also features references to Vibranium and Wakanda, both connections to Black Panther, introducing both to the universe ahead of Black Panther 's solo film. Additionally, Andy Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue in the film, traditionally a Black Panther antagonist.
Thief Scott Lang must aid his mentor Dr. Hank Pym in safeguarding the mystery of the Ant - Man technology, which allows its user to decrease in size but increase in strength, from various menaces and plot a heist to defend the Earth.
Ant - Man is directed by Peyton Reed with a screenplay written by Edgar Wright & Joe Cornish and Adam McKay & Paul Rudd, from a story by Wright & Cornish, that includes both Scott Lang and Hank Pym. Edgar Wright was initially slated to direct and write the film, but left the project in May 2014 due to creative differences. In January 2013, Feige stated that Ant - Man would be the first film in Phase Three of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. However, in October 2014, it was revealed that the film would be the last film of Phase Two. Pre-production started in October 2013, and principal photography took place from August to December 2014, in San Francisco, Fayette County, Georgia at Pinewood Atlanta, and Downtown Atlanta. In December 2013, Rudd was cast as Ant - Man, followed in January 2014 with the casting of Michael Douglas as Pym and the confirmation of Rudd as Lang. Ant - Man had its world premiere in Los Angeles on June 29, 2015, and was released in France on July 14, and in the United States on July 17.
The film is set several months after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Scott Lang attempts to infiltrate the new Avengers headquarters in Upstate New York featured in Age of Ultron, and confronts Sam Wilson / Falcon, played by Anthony Mackie. McKay and Rudd decided to add Falcon to Ant - Man after watching Captain America: The Winter Soldier. The Russo brothers filmed the post-credit scene, which was footage from Captain America: Civil War, and features Mackie as Falcon, Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America, and Sebastian Stan as Bucky Barnes / Winter Soldier.
The Avengers become fractured into two opposing teams, one led by Captain America and another by Iron Man, after extensive collateral damage prompts politicians to pass an act regulating superhuman activity with government oversight and accountability for the Avengers while also facing against a new enemy, Helmut Zemo, who seeks revenge upon the Avengers.
By January 2014, Anthony and Joe Russo had signed on to return to direct a third Captain America installment, which they confirmed in March 2014, with Chris Evans returning as Captain America, Feige returning to produce, and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely writing the screenplay. In October 2014, the title was officially announced as Captain America: Civil War along with the reveal that Downey would appear in the film as Tony Stark / Iron Man. The film is an adaptation from the "Civil War '' storyline in the comics. It is also the first film of Phase Three. Filming began in April 2015 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in August 2015. Captain America: Civil War had its premiere in Hollywood on April 12, 2016, was released internationally beginning April 27, and was released on May 6 in the United States.
The film is set one year after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron. Captain America: Civil War introduces Tom Holland as Peter Parker / Spider - Man and Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther to the MCU, who appear in solo films in 2017 and 2018, respectively. William Hurt reprises his role as Thunderbolt Ross from The Incredible Hulk, and is now the US Secretary of State. For the mid-credits scene, in which Black Panther offers Captain America and Bucky Barnes asylum in Wakanda, Joe and Anthony Russo received input from Black Panther director Ryan Coogler on the look and design of Wakanda.
After Stephen Strange, the world 's top neurosurgeon, is involved in a car accident that ruins his career, he sets out on a journey of healing, where he encounters the Ancient One, who teaches Strange the use of Mystic Arts and to defend the Earth from mystical threats.
In June 2010, Thomas Dean Donnelly and Joshua Oppenheimer were hired to write the screenplay for a film starring the character Doctor Strange. In January 2013, Kevin Feige confirmed that Doctor Strange would be a part of their Phase Three slate of films. In June 2014, Scott Derrickson was hired to direct. In December 2014, Benedict Cumberbatch was cast in the eponymous role, and Jon Spaihts was confirmed to rewrite the script. In December 2015, C. Robert Cargill revealed he was a co-writer on the film, and the following April, revealed that Derrickson also wrote the script. Pre-production began in June 2014, with filming beginning in November 2015 in Nepal, before moving to Longcross Studios in the UK later in the month. Filming concluded in New York City in April 2016. Doctor Strange had its premiere in Hong Kong on October 13, 2016, and was released in the United Kingdom on October 25, 2016, and on November 4 in the United States.
Derrickson stated that the events of the film take "roughly '' a year, ending "up to date with the rest of the MCU ''. Doctor Strange introduces the Eye of Agamotto, a mystical relic that can manipulate time and is revealed to be an Infinity Stone at the end of the film, specifically the Time Stone. The film 's mid-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Hemsworth as Thor, meeting with Strange, which was footage from Thor: Ragnarok. The scene was directed by Ragnarok director Taika Waititi.
The Guardians of the Galaxy travel throughout the cosmos and struggle to keep their newfound family together while helping Peter Quill learn more about his true parentage and facing against new enemies.
In July 2014, Guardians of the Galaxy co-writer Nicole Perlman confirmed that Gunn would return to write and direct the sequel. Chris Pratt returns for the sequel as Peter Quill / Star - Lord, along with the other Guardians from the first film as well as additional cast members. They are joined by Pom Klementieff as Mantis, and Kurt Russell as Ego. In June 2015, the film 's title was revealed as Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Filming began in February 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in June 2016. Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 premiered in Tokyo on April 10, 2017, and was released on May 5, 2017.
The film is set two - to - three months after the events of Guardians of the Galaxy, in 2014. One of the film 's post-credit sequences hints at the introduction of Adam Warlock, after Gunn originally intended for Warlock to make a full appearance in Vol. 2. He noted that Warlock could appear in future Guardians films, and is considered "a pretty important part '' of the cosmic side of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The Grandmaster, played by Jeff Goldblum, is seen dancing in the end credits, before his appearance in Thor: Ragnarok.
Peter Parker tries to balance being the hero Spider - Man with his high school life under guidance of Tony Stark as he deals with the threat of the Vulture.
On February 9, 2015, Sony Pictures and Marvel announced that Sony would be releasing a Spider - Man film co-produced by Marvel Studios president Feige and Amy Pascal, with Sony Pictures continuing to own, finance, distribute, and have final creative control of the Spider - Man films. In April 2015, Feige confirmed the character would be Peter Parker and added that Marvel had been working to add Spider - Man to the MCU since at least October 2014, when they announced their full slate of Phase Three films, saying, "Marvel does n't announce anything officially until it 's set in stone. So we went forward with that Plan A in October, with the Plan B being, if (the deal) were to happen with Sony, how it would all shift. We 've been thinking about (the Spider - Man film) as long as we 've been thinking about Phase Three. '' In June 2015, Tom Holland was cast in the role of Spider - Man and Jon Watts was hired to direct the film, and the next month, John Francis Daley & Jonathan Goldstein were hired to write the screenplay. Additional screenwriters include Watts & Christopher Ford and Chris McKenna & Erik Sommers. In April 2016, the title was revealed to be Spider - Man: Homecoming. Production began in June 2016 at Pinewood Atlanta, and concluded in October 2016. Spider - Man: Homecoming premiered on June 28, 2017 in Hollywood, and was released in the United Kingdom on July 5, and the United States on July 7, 2017.
The film is set several months after the events of Captain America: Civil War, which is eight years after the events of The Avengers. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that characters from previous MCU films would appear in the film, with Robert Downey Jr. confirmed to reprise his role as Tony Stark / Iron Man shortly thereafter. Favreau, Paltrow, and Evans also reprise their roles as Happy Hogan, Pepper Potts, and Steve Rogers / Captain America, respectively. The clean - up crew Damage Control appear in the film (after previously being referenced in Iron Man and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.) ahead of an intended television series about them. Various weaponry and artifacts from previous films are referenced throughout the film that Toomes and his crew repurpose for their weapons. In Parker 's high school, one of his classes has a lesson about the Sokovia Accords, and portraits of Bruce Banner, Howard Stark and Abraham Erskine are seen within the school.
Thor, trapped on another world without Mjölnir, must survive a gladiatorial duel against the Hulk and return to Asgard in time to stop the villainous Hela and the impending Ragnarök.
In January 2014, Marvel announced that a third Thor film was in development, with Craig Kyle and Christopher L. Yost writing the screenplay, and was officially announced as Thor: Ragnarok in October 2014. By October 2015, Taika Waititi entered in negotiations to direct Thor: Ragnarok. In December 2015, Stephany Folsom was hired to rewrite the script. A year later, in January 2017, it was revealed that Eric Pearson wrote the screenplay, with Kyle, Yost and Folsom receiving story credit. Pearson, Kyle and Yost would ultimately receive screenwriting credit for the film. Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Idris Elba and Anthony Hopkins reprise their roles as Thor, Loki, Heimdall and Odin, respectively, and are joined by Cate Blanchett as Hela. Production began in July 2016 in Australia at Village Roadshow Studios, and wrapped in late October 2016. Thor: Ragnarok premiered in Los Angeles on October 10, 2017, began its international release on October 24, 2017 in the United Kingdom, and was released on November 3, 2017 in the United States.
The film is set four years after the events of Thor: The Dark World, two years after the events of Avengers: Age of Ultron, and around the same time period as Captain America: Civil War and Spider - Man: Homecoming. Producer Brad Winderbaum noted that "Things happen on top of each other now in Phase Three. They 're not as interlocked as they were in Phase One. '' Mark Ruffalo and Benedict Cumberbatch appear in the film as Bruce Banner / Hulk and Doctor Stephen Strange, respectively. The film reveals that the Infinity Gauntlet first seen in Odin 's vault in Thor was a fake, while also introducing Thanos ' ship Sanctuary II in a post-credits scene.
T'Challa returns home as sovereign of the nation of Wakanda only to find his dual role of king and protector challenged by a long - time adversary in a conflict that has global consequences.
Documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey was hired to write a script for Black Panther in January 2011. In October 2014, the film was announced and Chadwick Boseman was revealed to be portraying T'Challa / Black Panther. In January 2016, Ryan Coogler was announced as director, and the following month, Joe Robert Cole was confirmed as the film 's screenwriter. In April 2016, Feige confirmed that Coogler was a co-screenwriter. Filming began in January 2017 at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in Atlanta, and concluded in April 2017. Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and began its international release on February 13, 2018, and was released on February 16, 2018 in the United States. The film also had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film.
The film is set one week after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Florence Kasumba, Serkis, Martin Freeman, and John Kani reprise their roles as Ayo, Ulysses Klaue, Everett K. Ross and T'Chaka respectively from previous MCU films. The film 's post-credits scene features a cameo appearance by Sebastian Stan, reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
The Avengers join forces with the Guardians of the Galaxy to try to stop Thanos from collecting all of the Infinity Stones.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 1. In April 2015, Marvel announced that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be shortened to simply Avengers: Infinity War. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming for Infinity War began in January 2017 in Atlanta, and lasted until July 2017. Additional filming also took place in Scotland. Avengers: Infinity War premiered in Los Angeles on April 23, 2018. It was released worldwide on April 27, 2018, with a few debuts beginning as early as April 25 in a handful of countries.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War. Marvel had been planting the seeds for Infinity War since their early films, by introducing the Infinity Stones as MacGuffins: the Tesseract / Space Stone in Captain America: The First Avenger, Loki 's Scepter / Mind Stone in The Avengers, the Aether / Reality Stone in Thor: The Dark World, the Orb / Power Stone in Guardians of the Galaxy, and the Eye of Agamotto / Time Stone in Doctor Strange. Additionally, Thanos is shown holding an empty Infinity Gauntlet in Avengers: Age of Ultron. The Red Skull from Captain America: The First Avenger appears in the film, played by Ross Marquand instead of Hugo Weaving, and is the keeper of the final Infinity Stone, the Soul Stone. The post-credits scene features Nick Fury transmitting a distress signal on a device, which has the insignia of Captain Marvel.
Scott Lang tries to balance his home life with his responsibilities as Ant - Man, when Hope van Dyne and Hank Pym present him with a new mission, requiring him to team up with Van Dyne as the Wasp.
Ant - Man and the Wasp was announced in October 2015. Peyton Reed confirmed that he would return to direct in November 2015, and that Paul Rudd and Evangeline Lilly would reprise their roles as Scott Lang / Ant - Man and Hope van Dyne / Wasp, respectively. In December 2015, Andrew Barrer, Gabriel Ferrari, and Rudd were confirmed to write the screenplay, with Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers revealed to have also contributed to the script in August 2017. In February 2017, Michael Douglas confirmed he would reprise his role as Hank Pym in the film. Michelle Pfeiffer was revealed as having been cast as Janet van Dyne in July 2017. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta with additional filming in San Francisco, and ended in November 2017. Stephen Broussard also served as a producer on the film. Ant - Man and the Wasp had its premiere in Hollywood on June 25, 2018, and was released in the United States on July 6, 2018.
The film is set two years after the events of Captain America: Civil War and before the events of Avengers: Infinity War. In the mid-credits scene, Hank Pym, Hope van Dyne and Janet van Dyne are disintegrated as a result of the events of Avengers: Infinity War.
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In June 2012, Marvel announced a 10 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One -- Avengers Assembled '', for release on September 25, 2012. The box set includes all six of the Phase One films -- Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger, and Marvel 's The Avengers -- on Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D, in a replica of Nick Fury 's briefcase from The Avengers. In August 2012, luggage company Rimowa GmbH, who developed the briefcase for The Avengers, filed suit against Marvel Studios and Buena Vista Home Entertainment in U.S. federal court, complaining that "Marvel did not obtain any license or authorization from Rimowa to make replica copies of the cases for any purpose. '' The set was delayed to early 2013 for the packaging to be redesigned. The box set, with a redesigned case, was released on April 2, 2013. In addition, the box set included a featurette on the then - upcoming Phase Two films, showing footage and concept art, as well as previously unreleased deleted scenes from all of the Phase One films.
In July 2015, Marvel announced a 13 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection '', for release on December 8, 2015, exclusive to Amazon.com. The box set includes all six of the Phase Two films -- Iron Man 3, Thor: The Dark World, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Guardians of the Galaxy, Avengers: Age of Ultron, and Ant - Man -- on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D and a digital copy, in a replica of the Orb from Guardians of the Galaxy, plus a bonus disc and exclusive memorabilia. Material on the bonus disc includes all of the Marvel One - Shots with commentary, deleted scenes and pre-production creative features for each of the films, featurettes on the making of the post-credit scenes for the films, and first looks at Captain America: Civil War, Doctor Strange, and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
From August 30 to September 6, 2018, in conjunction with Marvel Studios ' 10 year anniversary celebrations, all 20 films released at the time (Iron Man through Ant - Man and the Wasp) were screened in IMAX. The films were shown in release order, with four films per day. The final days of the festival were theme related, with one showing "origin '' films (Iron Man, Spider - Man: Homecoming, Black Panther, and Doctor Strange), one showing "team - ups '' (Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, Captain America: Civil War, The Avengers, and Avengers: Infinity War), and the final day showing Iron Man and The Avengers as chosen by the fans. The festival also saw Iron Man, The Incredible Hulk, and Captain America: The First Avenger released in IMAX for the first time.
Carol Danvers becomes Captain Marvel, one of the galaxy 's strongest heroes, after the Earth is caught in the center of an intergalactic conflict between two alien worlds.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Ms. Marvel. In October 2014, Marvel announced the film would be titled Captain Marvel and feature Carol Danvers. In April 2015, Nicole Perlman and Meg LeFauve were announced as screenwriters. At the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con, Brie Larson was confirmed to play the role of Carol Danvers. In April 2017, Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck were hired to direct. That August, Geneva Robertson - Dworet was revealed to be taking over as the film 's screenwriter, replacing Perlman and LeFauve. Liz Flahive, Carly Mensch, Boden and Ryan Fleck are also credited as screenwriters on the film. Location filming occurred in January 2018, while principal photography began in March in Los Angeles and concluded in July. The film is scheduled to be released on March 8, 2019.
The film is set in the 1990s. Jackson, Djimon Hounsou, Lee Pace, and Clark Gregg reprise their roles as Nick Fury, Korath, Ronan the Accuser, and Phil Coulson, respectively, while the Skrull species are introduced to the MCU.
The film was announced in October 2014 as Avengers: Infinity War -- Part 2. In April 2015, it was revealed that Anthony and Joe Russo would direct the film and in May, that Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely would write the screenplay. In July 2016, Marvel revealed the title would be changed, being known simply at that time as the Untitled Avengers film. Brolin reprises his role as Thanos, and is part of an ensemble cast featuring many actors who have appeared in other MCU films. Filming began in August 2017 in Atlanta, and ended in January 2018. The film is scheduled to be released on May 3, 2019.
In December 2016, Sony Pictures scheduled a sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming for release on July 5, 2019. A year later, Watts was confirmed to be returning to direct the film. Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers, two of the writers of the first film, returned to write the script. Holland revealed the film 's title as Spider - Man: Far From Home in late June 2018. Filming began in July 2018, in England, with filming occurring in Hertfordshire and London, and will last until December 2018.
The film is set after the untitled Avengers film. Jackson and Cobie Smulders reprise their roles as Nick Fury and Maria Hill, respectively, from previous MCU films.
In April 2016, Kevin Feige stated that "Guardians 3 is (one film that 's) up there '' being considered for release beyond 2019. In March 2017, Gunn stated that a third Guardians film would happen "for sure '', and the following month confirmed he would return to write and direct Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. However, in July 2018, Disney and Marvel severed ties with Gunn following the resurfacing of controversial tweets from 2008 and 2009 making light of topics such as rape and pedophilia. Marvel plans to continue to use Gunn 's script for the film. Production was put on hold in August 2018, ahead of filming planning to begin in January or February 2019, for an expected release date in 2020.
Disney has scheduled multiple release dates for untitled Marvel Studios films. These include: May 1, July 31, and November 6, 2020; February 12, May 7, and November 5, 2021; and February 18, May 6, and July 29, 2022. In October 2016, Feige said it was a combination of knowing what films would occupy the 2020 dates and allowing some flexibility, saying, "We know what (films) we 'd like them to be for 2020. Over the years, where we 're aiming we 've been lucky enough that it 's usually been the same thing but we always leave ourselves the opportunity to bob and weave and adapt if we have to. But we know where we 're headed for 2020 and we have ideas and we 're beginning to solidify the years beyond that. '' Feige and Marvel have additional storylines planned through 2028, resulting in 20 films "on the docket that are completely different from anything that 's come before -- intentionally. ''
In October 2014, in terms of Phase Four films, Feige said, for the time being, "We 're not going to talk specifically about the story of any of those films, the plot of any of those films, what happens to any of the characters in any of those films. In fact, even to talk about any of those characters -- who will be involved in those movies -- will be a bit of a spoiler as to what may or may not happen to them in earlier movies. '' In April 2016, Feige added, "We 're only working on what 's been announced through the end of 2019. And it is still a big chess board for 2020 and beyond. '' A year later, Feige noted, "We have an idea (of what the MCU looks like post-Infinity War), and it 's gon na be very, very different '', but cautioned that Marvel would not be "actively discussing anything past untitled Avengers '' besides dating the sequel to Spider - Man: Homecoming and that James Gunn would be working on Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3. He also was not sure if Marvel would continue to group the films in phases once Phase Three concluded, that "it might be a new thing ''. Feige noted Marvel hoped to reveal additional films after the release of the untitled Avengers film. A second sequel to Homecoming is also planned.
In February 2014, Feige stated that after exploring Black Widow 's past in Age of Ultron, he would like to see it explored further in a solo film. Marvel has done some development work for the potential film, including a "pretty in depth '' treatment by Nicole Perlman, and by May 2016, Feige stated that Marvel was "creatively and emotionally '' committed to creating the solo film. By January 2018, Jac Schaeffer was hired to write the script for the potential film. That July, Cate Shortland was hired to direct, with Johansson reprising her role as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow.
By April 2018, Marvel had met with multiple screenwriters to craft a film based on the Eternals, with a focus on the character Sersi. Feige stated that a film based on the group was "one of many many many things that we are actively beginning to have creative discussions about to see if we believe in them enough to put them on a slate. '' A month later, Matthew and Ryan Firpo were hired to write the script for the project.
In May 2013, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Marvel had a working script for Blade. In July 2015, Wesley Snipes, who played Blade in three films before the character 's rights reverted to Marvel, stated that he had discussions with Marvel to reprise the role.
A film based on the Runaways went through a number of iterations. Brian K. Vaughan was originally hired to write a screenplay based on the property in May 2008. In April 2010, Marvel hired Peter Sollett to direct the film, and Drew Pearce was hired to write a script in May. The following October, development on the film was put on hold, with Pearce revealing in September 2013 that the Runaways film had been shelved in favor of The Avengers, with the earliest it could release being Phase Three. In October 2014, after announcing all of Marvel 's Phase Three films without Runaways, Feige stated the project was "still an awesome script that exists in our script vault '', adding, "We 'd love to do something with Runaways some day. In our television and future film discussions, it 's always one that we talk about, because we have a solid draft there. But again, we ca n't make them all. '' In August 2016, Marvel Television announced Marvel 's Runaways from the streaming service Hulu, with the series receiving a full season order in May 2017. It premiered in November 2017.
In April 2013, Feige mentioned the Inhumans as a property out of which he was "confident '' a film would be made. Inhumans as a concept would first be introduced to the MCU in 2014 through the second season of the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. By August 2014, the studio was ready to move forward in development with the film, with a screenplay written by Joe Robert Cole. In October 2014, the film was announced for Phase Three and scheduled for release July 2019. By October 2015, Cole was no longer involved with the film and any potential drafts that he may have written would not be used. In April 2016, Inhumans was removed from the release schedule, and would no longer be a part of Phase Three. In July 2016, Feige said Inhumans would "certainly '' be a part of the discussion regarding the film ideas for 2020 and 2021, adding the following November that he was still optimistic the film could be released in Phase Four. In November 2016, Marvel Television announced the series Marvel 's Inhumans, which premiered on ABC in September 2017, after the first two episodes were screened in IMAX. The series was not intended to be a reworking of the film. ABC canceled Inhumans after one season in May 2018.
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who says sounds good feels good in hey everybody | Hey Everybody! - Wikipedia
"Hey Everybody! '' is a song by Australian rock band 5 Seconds of Summer. The song is the second single from the band 's second album Sounds Good Feels Good. The song contains elements from "Hungry Like the Wolf '' by Duran Duran, who were given a writing credit on the song.
The band performed the track on Alan Carr: Chatty Man Stand Up to Cancer special, broadcast on 26 October 2015, and TFI Friday on 6 November 2015. It was later performed at the American Music Awards, on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge, Sirius XM Radio, at the Radio 1 Teen Awards, on On Air with Ryan Seacrest, Elvis Duran and The Late Late Show with James Corden.
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when does a brave new world take place | Brave New World - wikipedia
Brave New World is a dystopian novel written in 1931 by English author Aldous Huxley, and published in 1932. Largely set in a futuristic World State of genetically modified citizens and an intelligence - based social hierarchy, the novel anticipates huge scientific developments in reproductive technology, sleep - learning, psychological manipulation, and classical conditioning that are combined to make a utopian society that goes challenged only by a single outsider. Huxley followed this book with a reassessment in an essay, Brave New World Revisited (1958), and with Island (1962), his final novel.
In 1999, the Modern Library ranked Brave New World fifth on its list of the 100 best English - language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, Robert McCrum writing for The Observer included Brave New World chronologically at number 53 in "the top 100 greatest novels of all time '', and the novel was listed at number 87 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Brave New World 's title derives from Miranda 's speech in William Shakespeare 's The Tempest, Act V, Scene I:
O wonder! How many goodly creatures are there here! How beauteous mankind is! O brave new world, That has such people i n't.
Translations of the title often allude to similar expressions used in domestic works of literature: the French edition of the work is entitled Le Meilleur des mondes (The Best of All Worlds), an allusion to an expression used by the philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and satirised in Candide, Ou l'Optimisme by Voltaire (1759).
Huxley wrote Brave New World while living in Sanary - sur - Mer, France, in the four months from May to August 1931. By this time, Huxley had already established himself as a writer and social satirist. He was a contributor to Vanity Fair and Vogue magazines, and had published a collection of his poetry (The Burning Wheel, 1916) and four successful satirical novels: Crome Yellow (1921), Antic Hay (1923), Those Barren Leaves (1925), and Point Counter Point (1928). Brave New World was Huxley 's fifth novel and first dystopian work.
Huxley said that Brave New World was inspired by the utopian novels of H.G. Wells, including A Modern Utopia (1905), and Men Like Gods (1923). Wells 's hopeful vision of the future 's possibilities gave Huxley the idea to begin writing a parody of the novels, which became Brave New World. He wrote in a letter to Mrs. Arthur Goldsmith, an American acquaintance, that he had "been having a little fun pulling the leg of H.G. Wells '', but then he "got caught up in the excitement of (his) own ideas. '' Unlike the most popular optimist utopian novels of the time, Huxley sought to provide a frightening vision of the future. Huxley referred to Brave New World as a "negative utopia '', somewhat influenced by Wells 's own The Sleeper Awakes (dealing with subjects like corporate tyranny and behavioural conditioning) and the works of D.H. Lawrence.
George Orwell believed that Brave New World must have been partly derived from the 1921 novel We by Yevgeny Zamyatin. However, in a 1962 letter to Christopher Collins, Huxley says that he wrote Brave New World long before he had heard of We. According to We translator Natasha Randall, Orwell believed that Huxley was lying. The scientific futurism in Brave New World is believed to be cribbed from Daedalus by J.B.S. Haldane.
The events of the Depression in Britain in 1931, with its mass unemployment and the abandonment of the gold currency standard, persuaded Huxley to assert that stability was the "primal and ultimate need '' if civilisation was to survive the present crisis. The Brave New World character Mustapha Mond, Resident World Controller of Western Europe, is named after Sir Alfred Mond. Shortly before writing the novel, Huxley visited Mond 's technologically advanced plant near Billingham, north east England, and it made a great impression on him.
Huxley used the setting and characters in his science fiction novel to express widely held opinions, particularly the fear of losing individual identity in the fast - paced world of the future. An early trip to the United States gave Brave New World much of its character. Not only was Huxley outraged by the culture of youth, commercial cheeriness and sexual promiscuity, and the inward - looking nature of many Americans, he had also found the book My Life and Work by Henry Ford on the boat to America, and he saw the book 's principles applied in everything he encountered after leaving San Francisco.
The novel opens in the World State city of London in AF (After Ford) 632 (AD 2540 in the Gregorian calendar), where citizens are engineered through artificial wombs and childhood indoctrination programmes into predetermined classes (or castes) based on intelligence and labour. Lenina Crowne, a hatchery worker, is popular and sexually desirable, but Bernard Marx, a psychologist, is not. He is shorter in stature than the average member of his high caste, which gives him an inferiority complex. His work with sleep - learning allows him to understand, and disapprove of, his society 's methods of keeping its citizens peaceful, which includes their constant consumption of a soothing, happiness - producing drug called soma. Courting disaster, Bernard is vocal and arrogant about his criticisms, and his boss contemplates exiling him to Iceland because of his nonconformity. His only friend is Helmholtz Watson, a gifted writer who finds it difficult to use his talents creatively in their pain - free society.
Bernard takes a holiday with Lenina outside the World State to a Savage Reservation in New Mexico, in which the two observe natural - born people, disease, the aging process, other languages, and religious lifestyles for the first time. (The culture of the village folk resembles the contemporary Native American groups of the region, descendants of the Anasazi, including the Puebloan peoples of Acoma, Laguna and Zuni.) Bernard and Lenina witness a violent public ritual and then encounter Linda, a woman originally from the World State who is living on the reservation with her son John, now a young man. She, too, visited the reservation on a holiday many years ago, but became separated from her group and was left behind. She had meanwhile become pregnant by a fellow - holidaymaker (who is revealed to be Bernard 's boss, the Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning). She did not try to return to the World State, because of her shame at her pregnancy. Despite spending his whole life in the reservation, John has never been accepted by the villagers, and his and Linda 's lives have been hard and unpleasant. Linda has taught John to read, although from the only two books in her possession -- a scientific manual and the complete works of Shakespeare. Ostracised by the villagers, John is able to articulate his feelings only in terms of Shakespearean drama, especially the tragedies of Othello, Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet. Linda now wants to return to London, and John, too, wants to see this "brave new world ''. Bernard sees an opportunity to thwart plans to exile him, and gets permission to take Linda and John back. On their return to London, John meets the Director and calls him his "father '', a vulgarity which causes a roar of laughter. The humiliated Director resigns in shame before he can follow through with exiling Bernard.
Bernard, as "custodian '' of the "savage '' John who is now treated as a celebrity, is fawned on by the highest members of society and revels in attention he once scorned. Bernard 's popularity is fleeting, though, and he becomes envious that John only really bonds with the literary - minded Helmholtz. Considered hideous and friendless, Linda spends all her time using soma, while John refuses to attend social events organised by Bernard, appalled by what he perceives to be an empty society. Lenina and John are physically attracted to each other, but John 's view of courtship and romance, based on Shakespeare 's writings, is utterly incompatible with Lenina 's freewheeling attitude to sex. She tries to seduce him, but he attacks her, before suddenly being informed that his mother is on her deathbed. He rushes to Linda 's bedside, causing a scandal, as this is not the "correct '' attitude to death. Some children who enter the ward for "death - conditioning '' come across as disrespectful to John until he attacks one physically. He then tries to break up a distribution of soma to a lower - caste group, telling them that he is freeing them. Helmholtz and Bernard rush in to stop the ensuing riot, which the police quell by spraying soma vapor into the crowd.
Bernard, Helmholtz, and John are all brought before Mustapha Mond, the "Resident World Controller for Western Europe '', who tells Bernard and Helmholtz that they are to be exiled to islands for antisocial activity. Bernard pleads for a second chance, but Helmholtz welcomes the opportunity to be a true individual, and chooses the Falkland Islands as his destination, believing that their bad weather will inspire his writing. Mond tells Bernard that exile is actually a reward. The islands are full of the most interesting people in the world, individuals who did not fit into the social model of the World State. Mond outlines for John the events that led to the present society and his arguments for a caste system and social control. John rejects Mond 's arguments, and Mond sums up John 's views by claiming that John demands "the right to be unhappy ''. John asks if he may go to the islands as well, but Mond refuses, saying he wishes to see what happens to John next.
Jaded with his new life, John moves to an abandoned hilltop tower, near the village of Puttenham, where he intends to adopt a solitary ascetic lifestyle in order to purify himself of civilization, practising self - flagellation. This soon draws reporters and eventually hundreds of amazed sightseers, hoping to witness his bizarre behaviour; one of them is implied to be Lenina. At the sight of the woman he both adores and loathes, John attacks her with his whip. The onlookers are wildly aroused by the display and John is caught up in the crowd 's soma - fueled frenzy. The next morning, he remembers the previous night 's events and is stricken with remorse. Onlookers and journalists who arrive that evening discover John dead, having hanged himself.
John -- the illicit son of the Director and Linda, born and reared on the Savage Reservation ("Malpais '') after Linda was unwittingly left behind by her errant lover. John ("the Savage '', as he is often called) is an outsider both on the Reservation -- where the natives still practice marriage, natural birth, family life and religion -- and the ostensibly civilised World State, based on principles of stability and shallow happiness. He has read nothing but the complete works of William Shakespeare, which he quotes extensively, and, for the most part, aptly, though his allusion to the "Brave New World '' (Miranda 's words in The Tempest) takes on a darker and bitterly ironic resonance as the novel unfolds. John is intensely moral according to a code that he has been taught by Shakespeare and life in Malpais but is also naïve: his views are as imported into his own consciousness as are the hypnopedic messages of World State citizens. The admonishments of the men of Malpais taught him to regard his mother as a whore; but he can not grasp that these were the same men who continually sought her out despite their supposedly sacred pledges of monogamy. Because he is unwanted in Malpais, he accepts the invitation to travel back to London and is initially astonished by the comforts of the World State. However, he remains committed to values that exist only in his poetry. He first spurns Lenina for failing to live up to his Shakespearean ideal and then the entire utopian society: he asserts that its technological wonders and consumerism are poor substitutes for individual freedom, human dignity and personal integrity. After his mother 's death, he becomes deeply distressed with grief, surprising onlookers in the hospital. He then ostracizes himself from society and attempts to purify himself of "sin '' (desire), but is finally unable to do so and hangs himself in despair.
Bernard Marx -- a sleep - learning specialist at the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre. Although Bernard is an Alpha - Plus (the upper class of the society), he is a misfit. He is unusually short for an Alpha; an alleged accident with alcohol in Bernard 's blood - surrogate before his decanting has left him slightly stunted. Bernard 's independence of mind stems more from his inferiority complex and depressive nature than from any depth of philosophical conviction. Unlike his fellow utopians, Bernard is often angry, resentful, and jealous. At times, he is also cowardly and hypocritical. His conditioning is clearly incomplete. He does n't enjoy communal sports, solidarity services, or promiscuous sex. He does n't even get much joy out of soma. Bernard is in love with Lenina but he does n't like her sleeping with other men, even though "everyone belongs to everyone else ''. Bernard 's triumphant return to utopian civilisation with John the Savage from the Reservation precipitates the downfall of the Director, who had been planning to exile him. Bernard 's triumph is short - lived. Success goes to his head. Despite his tearful pleas, he is ultimately banished to an island for his non-conformist behaviour.
Helmholtz Watson -- a handsome and successful Alpha - Plus lecturer at the College of Emotional Engineering and a friend of Bernard. He feels unfulfilled writing endless propaganda doggerel, and the stifling conformism and philistinism of the World State make him restive. Helmholtz is ultimately exiled to the Falkland Islands -- a cold asylum for disaffected Alpha - Plus non-conformists -- after reading a heretical poem to his students on the virtues of solitude and helping John destroy some Deltas ' rations of soma following Linda 's death. Unlike Bernard, he takes his exile in his stride and comes to view it as an opportunity for inspiration in his writing.
Lenina Crowne -- a young, beautiful fetus technician at the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre. She is part of the 30 % of the female population that are not freemartins (sterile women). Lenina is promiscuous and popular but somewhat quirky in her society: she had a four - month relation with Henry Foster, choosing not to have sex with anyone but him for a period of time. She is basically happy and well - conditioned but will use soma to suppress unwelcome emotions, as is expected. Lenina has a date with Bernard, to whom she feels ambivalently attracted, and she goes to the Reservation with him. On returning to civilization, she tries and fails to seduce John the Savage. John loves and desires Lenina but he is repelled by her forwardness and the prospect of pre-marital sex, rejecting her as an "impudent strumpet ''. Lenina visits John at the lighthouse but he attacks her with a whip, unwittingly inciting onlookers to do the same. Her exact fate is left unspecified.
Mustapha Mond -- Resident World Controller of Western Europe, "His Fordship '' Mustapha Mond presides over one of the ten zones of the World State, the global government set up after the cataclysmic Nine Years ' War and great Economic Collapse. Sophisticated and good - natured, Mond is an urbane and hyperintelligent advocate of the World State and its ethos of "Community, Identity, Stability ''. Among the novel 's characters, he is uniquely aware of the precise nature of the society he oversees and what it has given up to accomplish its gains. Mond argues that art, literature, and scientific freedom must be sacrificed to secure the ultimate utilitarian goal of maximising societal happiness. He defends the genetic caste system, behavioural conditioning, and the lack of personal freedom in the World State: these, he says, are a price worth paying for achieving social stability, the highest social virtue because it leads to lasting happiness.
Fanny Crowne -- Lenina Crowne 's friend (they have the same last name because only ten thousand last names are in use in the World State). Fanny voices the conventional values of her caste and society, particularly the importance of promiscuity: she advises Lenina that she should have more than one man in her life because it is unseemly to concentrate on just one. Fanny then, however, warns Lenina away from a new lover whom she considers undeserving, yet she is ultimately supportive of the young woman 's attraction to the savage John.
Henry Foster -- One of Lenina 's many lovers, he is a perfectly conventional Alpha male, casually discussing Lenina 's body with his coworkers. His success with Lenina, and his casual attitude about it, infuriate the jealous Bernard. Henry ultimately proves himself every bit the ideal World State citizen, finding no courage to defend Lenina from John 's assaults despite having maintained an uncommonly longstanding sexual relationship with her.
Benito Hoover -- Another of Lenina 's lovers. She remembers that he is particularly hairy when he takes his clothes off.
The Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning (DHC), also known as Thomas "Tomakin '' -- He is the administrator of the Central London Hatchery and Conditioning Centre, where he is a threatening figure who intends to exile Bernard to Iceland. His plans take an unexpected turn, however, when Bernard returns from the Reservation with Linda (see below) and John, a child they both realize is actually his. This fact, scandalous and obscene in the World State not because it was extramarital (which all sexual acts are) but because it was procreative, leads the Director to resign his post in shame.
Linda -- John 's mother, decanted as a Beta - Minus in the World State, originally worked in the DHC 's Fertilizing Room, and subsequently lost during a storm while visiting the New Mexico Savage Reservation with the Director many years before the events of the novel. Despite following her usual precautions, Linda became pregnant with the Director 's son during their time together and was therefore unable to return to the World State by the time that she found her way to Malpais. Having been conditioned to the promiscuous social norms of the World State, Linda finds herself at once popular with every man in the pueblo (because she is open to all sexual advances) and also reviled for the same reason, seen as a whore by the wives of the men who visit her and by the men themselves (who come to her nonetheless). Her only comforts there are mescal brought by Popé as well as peyotl. Linda is desperate to return to the World State and to soma, wanting nothing more from her remaining life than comfort until death.
The Arch - Community - Songster -- The secular equivalent of the Archbishop of Canterbury in the World State society.
The Warden -- An Alpha - Minus, the talkative chief administrator for the New Mexico Savage Reservation. He is blond, short, broad - shouldered, and has a booming voice.
Darwin Bonaparte -- a "big game photographer '' (i.e. filmmaker) who films John flogging himself. Darwin Bonaparte is known for two other works: "feely of the gorillas ' wedding '', and "Sperm Whale 's Love - life ''. He has already made a name for himself but still seeks more. He renews his fame by filming the savage, John, in his newest release "The Savage of Surrey ''. His name alludes to Charles Darwin and Napoleon Bonaparte.
These are non-fictional and factual characters who lived before the events in this book, but are of note in the novel:
The limited number of names that the World State assigned to its bottle - grown citizens can be traced to political and cultural figures who contributed to the bureaucratic, economic, and technological systems of Huxley 's age, and presumably those systems in Brave New World.
Upon publication, Rebecca West praised Brave New World as "The most accomplished novel Huxley has yet written '', Joseph Needham lauded it as "Mr. Huxley 's remarkable book '', and Bertrand Russell also praised it, stating, "Mr. Aldous Huxley has shown his usual masterly skill in Brave New World. ''
However, Brave New World also received negative responses from other contemporary critics, although his work was later embraced.
In an article in the 4 May 1935 issue of the Illustrated London News, G.K. Chesterton explained that Huxley was revolting against the "Age of Utopias ''. Much of the discourse on man 's future before 1914 was based on the thesis that humanity would solve all economic and social issues. In the decade following the war the discourse shifted to an examination of the causes of the catastrophe. The works of H.G. Wells and George Bernard Shaw on the promises of socialism and a World State were then viewed as the ideas of naive optimists. Chesterton wrote:
After the Age of Utopias came what we may call the American Age, lasting as long as the Boom. Men like Ford or Mond seemed to many to have solved the social riddle and made capitalism the common good. But it was not native to us; it went with a buoyant, not to say blatant optimism, which is not our negligent or negative optimism. Much more than Victorian righteousness, or even Victorian self - righteousness, that optimism has driven people into pessimism. For the Slump brought even more disillusionment than the War. A new bitterness, and a new bewilderment, ran through all social life, and was reflected in all literature and art. It was contemptuous, not only of the old Capitalism, but of the old Socialism. Brave New World is more of a revolution against Utopia than against Victoria.
Similarly, in 1944 economist Ludwig von Mises described Brave New World as a satire of utopian predictions of socialism: "Aldous Huxley was even courageous enough to make socialism 's dreamed paradise the target of his sardonic irony. ''
In 1999, the Modern Library ranked Brave New World fifth on its list of the 100 best English - language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, Robert McCrum writing for The Observer included Brave New World chronologically at number 53 in "the top 100 greatest novels of all time '', and the novel was listed at number 87 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
The World State is built upon the principles of Henry Ford 's assembly line: mass production, homogeneity, predictability, and consumption of disposable consumer goods. While the World State lacks any supernatural - based religions, Ford himself is revered as the creator of their society but not as a deity, and characters celebrate Ford Day and swear oaths by his name (e.g., "By Ford! ''). In this sense, some fragments of traditional religion are present, such as Christian crosses, which had their tops cut off to be changed to a "T ''. In England, there is an Arch - Community - Songster of Canterbury, obviously continuing the Archbishop of Canterbury, and in America the Christian Science Monitor continues publication as The Fordian Science Monitor. The World State calendar numbers years in the "AF '' era -- "Anno Ford '' -- with the calendar beginning in AD 1908, the year in which Ford 's first Model T rolled off his assembly line. The novel 's Gregorian calendar year is AD 2540, but it is referred to in the book as AF 632.
From birth, members of every class are indoctrinated by recorded voices repeating slogans while they sleep (called "hypnopædia '' in the book) to believe their own class is superior, but that the other classes perform needed functions. Any residual unhappiness is resolved by an antidepressant and hallucinogenic drug called soma.
The biological techniques used to control the populace in Brave New World do not include genetic engineering; Huxley wrote the book before the structure of DNA was known. However, Gregor Mendel 's work with inheritance patterns in peas had been rediscovered in 1900 and the eugenics movement, based on artificial selection, was well established. Huxley 's family included a number of prominent biologists including Thomas Huxley, half - brother and Nobel Laureate Andrew Huxley, and his brother Julian Huxley who was a biologist and involved in the eugenics movement. Nonetheless, Huxley emphasises conditioning over breeding (nurture versus nature); human embryos and fetuses are conditioned through a carefully designed regimen of chemical (such as exposure to hormones and toxins), thermal (exposure to intense heat or cold, as one 's future career would dictate), and other environmental stimuli, although there is an element of selective breeding as well.
Social critic Neil Postman contrasted the worlds of Nineteen Eighty - Four and Brave New World in the foreword of his 1985 book Amusing Ourselves to Death. He writes:
What Orwell feared were those who would ban books. What Huxley feared was that there would be no reason to ban a book, for there would be no one who wanted to read one. Orwell feared those who would deprive us of information. Huxley feared those who would give us so much that we would be reduced to passivity and egotism. Orwell feared that the truth would be concealed from us. Huxley feared the truth would be drowned in a sea of irrelevance. Orwell feared we would become a captive culture. Huxley feared we would become a trivial culture, preoccupied with some equivalent of the feelies, the orgy porgy, and the centrifugal bumblepuppy. As Huxley remarked in Brave New World Revisited, the civil libertarians and rationalists who are ever on the alert to oppose tyranny "failed to take into account man 's almost infinite appetite for distractions. '' In 1984, Orwell added, people are controlled by inflicting pain. In Brave New World, they are controlled by inflicting pleasure. In short, Orwell feared that our fear will ruin us. Huxley feared that our desire will ruin us.
Journalist Christopher Hitchens, who himself published several articles on Huxley and a book on Orwell, noted the difference between the two texts in the introduction to his 1999 article "Why Americans Are Not Taught History '':
We dwell in a present - tense culture that somehow, significantly, decided to employ the telling expression "You 're history '' as a choice reprobation or insult, and thus elected to speak forgotten volumes about itself. By that standard, the forbidding dystopia of George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty - Four already belongs, both as a text and as a date, with Ur and Mycenae, while the hedonist nihilism of Huxley still beckons toward a painless, amusement - sodden, and stress - free consensus. Orwell 's was a house of horrors. He seemed to strain credulity because he posited a regime that would go to any lengths to own and possess history, to rewrite and construct it, and to inculcate it by means of coercion. Whereas Huxley... rightly foresaw that any such regime could break because it could not bend. In 1988, four years after 1984, the Soviet Union scrapped its official history curriculum and announced that a newly authorized version was somewhere in the works. This was the precise moment when the regime conceded its own extinction. For true blissed - out and vacant servitude, though, you need an otherwise sophisticated society where no serious history is taught.
Brave New World Revisited (Harper & Brothers, US, 1958; Chatto & Windus, UK, 1959), written by Huxley almost thirty years after Brave New World, is a non-fiction work in which Huxley considered whether the world had moved toward or away from his vision of the future from the 1930s. He believed when he wrote the original novel that it was a reasonable guess as to where the world might go in the future. In Brave New World Revisited, he concluded that the world was becoming like Brave New World much faster than he originally thought.
Huxley analysed the causes of this, such as overpopulation, as well as all the means by which populations can be controlled. He was particularly interested in the effects of drugs and subliminal suggestion. Brave New World Revisited is different in tone because of Huxley 's evolving thought, as well as his conversion to Hindu Vedanta in the interim between the two books.
The last chapter of the book aims to propose action which could be taken to prevent a democracy from turning into the totalitarian world described in Brave New World. In Huxley 's last novel, Island, he again expounds similar ideas to describe a utopian nation, which is generally known as a counterpart to his most famous work.
The American Library Association ranks Brave New World as No. 52 on their list of most challenged books.
The following list includes some notable incidents in which it has been censored, banned, or challenged:
In 2009, Ridley Scott and Leonardo DiCaprio announced that they would collaborate on a new adaptation of the book. However, as of 2013, the project has been on hold while Scott has been involved with other projects.
In May 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Steven Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment will bring Brave New World to the SyFy TV channel as a scripted series, written (adapted) by Les Bohem.
Brave New World title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database:
Notes
Bibliography
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what is the name of the wall in jerusalem | Western Wall - wikipedia
The Western Wall, Wailing Wall, or Kotel, known in Islam as the Buraq Wall, is an ancient limestone wall in the Old City of Jerusalem. It is a relatively small segment of a far longer ancient retaining wall, known also in its entirety as the "Western Wall ''. The wall was originally erected as part of the expansion of the Second Jewish Temple begun by Herod the Great, which resulted in the encasement of the natural, steep hill known to Jews and Christians as the Temple Mount, in a large rectangular structure topped by a huge flat platform, thus creating more space for the Temple itself and its auxiliary buildings. For Muslims, it is the site where the Islamic Prophet Muhammad tied his steed, al - Buraq, on his night journey to Jerusalem before ascending to paradise, and constitutes the Western border of al - Haram al - Sharif.
The Western Wall is considered holy due to its connection to the Temple Mount. Because of the Temple Mount entry restrictions, the Wall is the holiest place where Jews are permitted to pray, though the holiest site in the Jewish faith lies behind it. The original, natural, and irregular - shaped Temple Mount was gradually extended to allow for an ever - larger Temple compound to be built at its top. This process was finalised by Herod, who enclosed the Mount with an almost rectangular set of retaining walls, built to support extensive substructures and earth fills needed to give the natural hill a geometrically regular shape. On top of this box - like structure Herod built a vast paved esplanade which surrounded the Temple. Of the four retaining walls, the western one is considered to be closest to the former Temple, which makes it the most sacred site recognised by Judaism outside the former Temple Mount esplanade. Just over half the wall 's total height, including its 17 courses located below street level, dates from the end of the Second Temple period, and is commonly believed to have been built around 19 BCE by Herod the Great, although recent excavations indicate that the work was not finished by the time Herod died in 4 BCE. The very large stone blocks of the lower courses are Herodian, the courses of medium - sized stones above them were added during the Umayyad era, while the small stones of the uppermost courses are of more recent date, especially from the Ottoman period.
The term Western Wall and its variations are mostly used in a narrow sense for the section traditionally used by Jews for prayer; it has also been called the "Wailing Wall '', referring to the practice of Jews weeping at the site over the destruction of the Temples. During the period of Christian Roman rule over Jerusalem (ca. 324 -- 638), Jews were completely barred from Jerusalem except to attend Tisha be-Av, the day of national mourning for the Temples, and on this day the Jews would weep at their holy places. The term "Wailing Wall '' was thus almost exclusively used by Christians, and was revived in the period of non-Jewish control between the establishment of British Rule in 1920 and the Six - Day War in 1967. The term "Wailing Wall '' is not used by Jews, and increasingly not by many others who consider it derogatory.
In a broader sense, "Western Wall '' can refer to the entire 488 - metre - long (1,601 ft) retaining wall on the western side of the Temple Mount. The classic portion now faces a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter, near the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount, while the rest of the wall is concealed behind structures in the Muslim Quarter, with the small exception of a 25 ft (8 m) section, the so - called Little Western Wall. The segment of the Western retaining wall traditionally used for Jewish liturgy, known as the "Western Wall '', derives its particular importance to it having never been fully obscured by medieval buildings, and displaying much more of the original Herodian stonework than the "Little Western Wall ''. In religious terms, the "Little Western Wall '' is presumed to be even closer to the Holy of Holies and thus to the "presence of God '' (Shechina), and the underground Warren 's Gate, which has been out of reach since the 12th century, even more so.
Whilst the wall was considered Muslim property as an integral part of the Haram esh - Sharif and waqf property of the Moroccan Quarter, a right of Jewish prayer and pilgrimage existed as part of the Status Quo.
The earliest source mentioning this specific site as a place of worship is from the 16th century. The previous sites used by Jews for mourning the destruction of the Temple, during periods when access to the city was prohibited to them, lay to the east, on the Mount of Olives and in the Kidron Valley below it. From the mid-19th century onwards, attempts to purchase rights to the wall and its immediate area were made by various Jews, but none was successful. With the rise of the Zionist movement in the early 20th century, the wall became a source of friction between the Jewish and Muslim communities, the latter being worried that the wall could be used to further Jewish claims to the Temple Mount and thus Jerusalem. During this period outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace, with a particularly deadly riot in 1929 in which 133 Jews were killed and 339 injured. After the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War the Eastern portion of Jerusalem was occupied by Jordan. Under Jordanian control Jews were completely expelled from the Old City including the Jewish quarter, and Jews were barred from entering the Old City for 19 years, effectively banning Jewish prayer at the site of the Western Wall. This period ended on June 10, 1967, when Israel gained control of the site following the Six - Day War. Three days after establishing control over the Western Wall site the Moroccan Quarter was bulldozed by Israeli authorities to create space for what is now the Western Wall plaza.
Charles Wilson, 1881
Early Jewish texts referred to a "western wall of the Temple '', but there is doubt whether the texts were referring to the outer, retaining wall called today "the Western Wall '', or to the western wall of the actual Temple. The earliest Jewish use of the Hebrew term "ha - kotel ha - ma'aravi '', "the Western Wall '', as referring to the wall visible today, was by the 11th - century poet Ahimaaz ben Paltiel. The name "Wailing Wall '', and descriptions such as "wailing place '', appeared regularly in English literature during the 19th century. The name Mur des Lamentations was used in French and Klagemauer in German. This term itself was a translation of the Arabic el - Mabka, or "Place of Weeping '', the traditional Arabic term for the wall. This description stemmed from the Jewish practice of coming to the site to mourn and bemoan the destruction of the Temple and the loss of national freedom it symbolized.
Late in the 19th century, the Arabs began referring to the wall as the al - Buraq Wall, and after the intensification of Arab - Jewish tensions in the 1920s this became the standard Arabic name, replacing the traditional El - Mabka. The new name was based on the tradition that inside the wall was the place where Muhammad tethered his miraculous winged steed, al - Buraq. The tradition on which this is based only states that the Prophet, or the angel Jibra'il (Gabriel), tethered the steed at the gate of the mosque, meaning: at the gate of the Temple Mount. The location of the entry gate identified as the one used by Muhammad varied throughout the centuries, from the eastern and southern walls, to the southwest corner, and finally to the western wall, and specifically to Barclay 's Gate immediately adjacent to the "Wailing Place '' of the Jews. Israeli archaeologist Meir Ben - Dov concluded that the Muslim association with Western Wall began in the late nineteenth century in response to renewed Jewish identification with the site.
The Western Wall commonly refers to a 187 - foot (57 m) exposed section of ancient wall situated on the western flank of the Temple Mount. This section faces a large plaza and is set aside for prayer. In its entirety, however, the entire western retaining wall of the Herodian Temple Mount complex stretches for 1,600 feet (488 m), most of which is hidden behind residential structures built along its length. Other revealed sections include the southern part of the Wall, which measures approximately 80 metres (262 ft), and another much shorter section known as the Little Western Wall, which is located close to the Iron Gate. The wall functions as a retaining wall, supporting and enclosing the ample substructures built by Herod the Great around 19 BCE. Herod 's project was to create an artificial extension to the small quasi-natural plateau on which the First and Second Temples stood, transforming it into the almost rectangular, wide expanse of the Temple Mount visible today.
At the Western Wall Plaza, the total height of the Wall from its foundation is estimated at 105 feet (32 m), with the exposed section standing approximately 62 feet (19 m) high. The Wall consists of 45 stone courses, 28 of them above ground and 17 underground. The first seven visible layers are from the Herodian period. This section of wall is built from enormous meleke limestone blocks, possibly quarried at either Zedekiah 's Cave situated under the Muslim Quarter of the Old City or at Ramat Shlomo 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) northwest of the Old City. Most of them weigh between 2 and 8 short tons (1.8 and 7.3 t) each, but others weigh even more, with one extraordinary stone located slightly north of Wilson 's Arch measuring 13 metres (43 ft) and weighing approximately 517 tonnes (570 short tons). Each of these ashlars is framed by fine - chiseled borders. The margins themselves measure between 5 and 20 centimetres (2 and 8 in) wide, with their depth measuring 1.5 centimetres (0.59 in). In the Herodian period, the upper 10 metres (33 ft) of wall were 1 metre (39 in) thick and served as the outer wall of the double colonnade of the Temple platform. This upper section was decorated with pilasters, the remainder of which were destroyed when the Byzantines reconquered Jerusalem from the Persians in 628.
The next four courses, consisting of smaller plainly dressed stones, are Umayyad work (8th century, Early Muslim period). Above that are 16 -- 17 courses of small stones from the Mamluk period (13 -- 16th century) and later.
According to the Hebrew Bible, Solomon 's Temple was built atop what is known as the Temple Mount in the 10th century BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, and the Second Temple completed and dedicated in 516 BCE. Around 19 BCE Herod the Great began a massive expansion project on the Temple Mount. In addition to fully rebuilding and enlarging the Temple, he artificially expanded the platform on which it stood, doubling it in size. Today 's Western Wall formed part of the retaining perimeter wall of this platform. In 2011, Israeli archaeologists announced the surprising discovery of Roman coins minted well after Herod 's death, found under the foundation stones of the wall. The excavators came upon the coins inside a ritual bath that predates Herod 's building project, which was filled in to create an even base for the wall and was located under its southern section. This seems to indicate that Herod did not finish building the entire wall by the time of his death in 4 BCE. The find confirms the description by historian Josephus Flavius, which states that construction was finished only during the reign of King Agrippa II, Herod 's great - grandson. Given Josephus ' information, the surprise mainly regarded the fact that an unfinished retaining wall in this area could also mean that at least parts of the splendid Royal Stoa and the monumental staircase leading up to it could not have been completed during Herod 's lifetime. Also surprising was the fact that the usually very thorough Herodian builders had cut corners by filling in the ritual bath, rather than placing the foundation course directly onto the much firmer bedrock. Some scholars are doubtful of the interpretation and have offered alternative explanations, such as, for example, later repair work.
Herod 's Temple was destroyed by the Romans, along with the rest of Jerusalem, in 70 CE, during the First Jewish -- Roman War.
During much of the 2nd -- 5th centuries of the Common Era, after the Roman defeat of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, Jews were banned from Jerusalem. There is some evidence that Roman emperors in the 2nd and 3rd centuries did permit them to visit the city to worship on the Mount of Olives and sometimes on the Temple Mount itself. When the empire started becoming Christian under Constantine I, they were given permission to enter the city once a year, on the ninth day of the month of Av, to lament the loss of the Temple at the wall. The Bordeaux Pilgrim, who wrote in 333 CE, suggests that it was probably to the perforated stone or the Rock of Moriah, "to which the Jews come every year and anoint it, bewail themselves with groans, rend their garments, and so depart ''. This was because an imperial decree from Rome barred Jews from living in Jerusalem. Just once per year they were permitted to return and bitterly grieve about the fate of their people. Comparable accounts survive, including those by the Church Father, Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329 -- 390) and by Jerome in his commentary to Zephaniah written in 392 CE. In the 4th century, Christian sources reveal that the Jews encountered great difficulty in buying the right to pray near the Western Wall, at least on the 9th of Av. In 425 CE, the Jews of the Galilee wrote to Byzantine empress Aelia Eudocia seeking permission to pray by the ruins of the Temple. Permission was granted and they were officially permitted to resettle in Jerusalem.
Several Jewish authors of the 10th and 11th centuries write about the Jews resorting to the Western Wall for devotional purposes. Ahimaaz relates that Rabbi Samuel ben Paltiel (980 - 1010) gave money for oil at "the sanctuary at the Western Wall. '' Benjamin of Tudela (1170) wrote "In front of this place is the Western Wall, which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies. This is called the Gate of Mercy, and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court. '' The account gave rise to confusion about the actual location of Jewish worship and some suggest that Benjamin in fact referred to the Eastern Wall along with its Gate of Mercy. While Nahmanides (d. 1270) did not mention a synagogue near the Western Wall in his detailed account of the temple site, shortly before the Crusader period a synagogue existed at the site. Obadiah of Bertinoro (1488) states "the Westen Wall, part of which is still standing, is made of great, thick stones, larger than any I have seen in buildings of antiquity in Rome or in other lands. ''
Shortly after Saladin 's 1187 siege of the city, in 1193, the sultan 's son and successor al - Afdal established the land adjacent to the wall as a charitable trust. It was named after an important mystic Abu Madyan Shu'aib and dedicated to Moroccan settlers who had taken up residence there. Houses were built only 4 metres (13 ft) away from the wall. The first mention of the Islamic tradition that Buraq was tethered at the site is from the 14th century. A manuscript by Ibn Furkah, (d. 1328), refers to Bab al - Nab (lit. "Gate of the Prophet ''), an old name for a gate along the southwestern wall of the Haram al - Sharif.
In 1517, the Turkish Ottomans under Selim I conquered Jerusalem from the Mamluks who had held it since 1250. Selim 's son, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, ordered the construction of an imposing wall to be built around the entire city, which still stands today. Various folktales relate Suleiman 's quest to locate the Temple site and his order to have the area "swept and sprinkled, and the Western Wall washed with rosewater '' upon its discovery. At the time, Jews received official permission to worship at the site and Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan built an oratory for them there. In 1625 organised prayers at the Wall are mentioned for the first time.
Over the centuries, land close to the Wall became built up. Public access to the Wall was through the Moroccan Quarter, a labyrinth of narrow alleyways. In May 1840 a firman issued by Ibrahim Pasha forbade the Jews to pave the passageway in front of the Wall. It also cautioned them against "raising their voices and displaying their books there. '' They were, however, allowed "to pay visits to it as of old. ''
Rabbi Joseph Schwarz (he) writing in the mid-19th - century records:
This wall is visited by all our brothers on every feast and festival; and the large space at its foot is often so densely filled up, that all can not perform their devotions here at the same time. It is also visited, though by less numbers, on every Friday afternoon, and by some nearly every day. No one is molested in these visits by the Mahomedans, as we have a very old firman from the Sultan of Constantinople that the approach shall not be denied to us, though the Porte obtains for this privilege a special tax, which is, however, quite insignificant.
Over time the increased numbers of people gathering at the site resulted in tensions between the Jewish visitors who wanted easier access and more space, and the residents, who complained of the noise. This gave rise to Jewish attempts at gaining ownership of the land adjacent to the Wall.
In the late 1830s a wealthy Jew named Shemarya Luria attempted to purchase houses near the Wall, but was unsuccessful, as was Jewish sage Abdullah of Bombay who tried to purchase the Western Wall in the 1850s. In 1869 Rabbi Hillel Moshe Gelbstein settled in Jerusalem. He arranged that benches and tables be brought to the Wall on a daily basis for the study groups he organised and the minyan which he led there for years. He also formulated a plan whereby some of the courtyards facing the Wall would be acquired, with the intention of establishing three synagogues -- one each for the Sephardim, the Hasidim and the Perushim. He also endeavoured to re-establish an ancient practice of "guards of honour '', which according to the mishnah in Middot, were positioned around the Temple Mount. He rented a house near the Wall and paid men to stand guard there and at various other gateways around the mount. However this set - up lasted only for a short time due to lack of funds or because of Arab resentment. In 1874, Mordechai Rosanes paid for the repaving of the alleyway adjacent to the wall.
In 1887 Baron Rothschild conceived a plan to purchase and demolish the Moroccan Quarter as "a merit and honor to the Jewish People. '' The proposed purchase was considered and approved by the Ottoman Governor of Jerusalem, Rauf Pasha, and by the Mufti of Jerusalem, Mohammed Tahir Husseini. Even after permission was obtained from the highest secular and Muslim religious authority to proceed, the transaction was shelved after the authorities insisted that after demolishing the quarter no construction of any type could take place there, only trees could be planted to beautify the area. Additionally the Jews would not have full control over the area. This meant that they would have no power to stop people from using the plaza for various activities, including the driving of mules, which would cause a disturbance to worshippers. Other reports place the scheme 's failure on Jewish infighting as to whether the plan would foster a detrimental Arab reaction.
In 1895 Hebrew linguist and publisher Rabbi Chaim Hirschensohn became entangled in a failed effort to purchase the Western Wall and lost all his assets. The attempts of the Palestine Land Development Company to purchase the environs of the Western Wall for the Jews just before the outbreak of World War I also never came to fruition. In the first two months following the Ottoman Empire 's entry into the First World War, the Turkish governor of Jerusalem, Zakey Bey, offered to sell the Moroccan Quarter, which consisted of about 25 houses, to the Jews in order to enlarge the area available to them for prayer. He requested a sum of £ 20,000 which would be used to both rehouse the Muslim families and to create a public garden in front of the Wall. However, the Jews of the city lacked the necessary funds. A few months later, under Muslim Arab pressure on the Turkish authorities in Jerusalem, Jews became forbidden by official decree to place benches and light candles at the Wall. This sour turn in relations was taken up by the Chacham Bashi who managed to get the ban overturned. In 1915 it was reported that Djemal Pasha, closed off the wall to visitation as a sanitary measure. Probably meant was the "Great '', rather than the "Small '' Djemal Pasha.
In December 1917, Allied forces under Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem from the Turks. Allenby pledged "that every sacred building, monument, holy spot, shrine, traditional site, endowment, pious bequest, or customary place of prayer of whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained and protected according to the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred ''.
In 1919 Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann approached the British Military Governor of Jerusalem, Colonel Sir Ronald Storrs, and offered between £ 75,000 and £ 100,000 (approx. £ 5m in modern terms) to purchase the area at the foot of the Wall and rehouse the occupants. Storrs was enthusiastic about the idea because he hoped some of the money would be used to improve Muslim education. Although they appeared promising at first, negotiations broke down after strong Muslim opposition. Storrs wrote two decades later:
"The acceptance of the proposals, had it been practicable, would have obviated years of wretched humiliations, including the befouling of the Wall and pavement and the unmannerly braying of the tragi - comic Arab band during Jewish prayer, and culminating in the horrible outrages of 1929 ''
In early 1920, the first Jewish - Arab dispute over the Wall occurred when the Muslim authorities were carrying out minor repair works to the Wall 's upper courses. The Jews, while agreeing that the works were necessary, appealed to the British that they be made under supervision of the newly formed Department of Antiquities, because the Wall was an ancient relic.
In 1926 an effort was made to lease the Maghrebi waqf, which included the wall, with the plan of eventually buying it. Negotiations were begun in secret by the Jewish judge Gad Frumkin, with financial backing from American millionaire Nathan Straus. The chairman of the Palestine Zionist Executive, Colonel F.H. Kisch, explained that the aim was "quietly to evacuate the Moroccan occupants of those houses which it would later be necessary to demolish '' to create an open space with seats for aged worshippers to sit on. However, Straus withdrew when the price became excessive and the plan came to nothing. The Va'ad Leumi, against the advice of the Palestine Zionist Executive, demanded that the British expropriate the wall and give it to the Jews, but the British refused.
In 1928 the Zionist Organisation reported that John Chancellor, High Commissioner of Palestine, believed that the Western Wall should come under Jewish control and wondered "why no great Jewish philanthropist had not bought it yet ''.
In 1922, a status quo agreement issued by the mandatory authority forbade the placing of benches or chairs near the Wall. The last occurrence of such a ban was in 1915, but the Ottoman decree was soon retracted after intervention of the Chacham Bashi. In 1928 the District Commissioner of Jerusalem, Edward Keith - Roach, acceded to an Arab request to implement the ban. This led to a British officer being stationed at the Wall making sure that Jews were prevented from sitting. Nor were Jews permitted to separate the sexes with a screen. In practice, a flexible modus vivendi had emerged and such screens had been put up from time to time when large numbers of people gathered to pray.
On September 24, 1928, the Day of Atonement, British police resorted to removing by force a screen used to separate men and women at prayer. Women who tried to prevent the screen being dismantled were beaten by the police, who used pieces of the broken wooden frame as clubs. Chairs were then pulled out from under elderly worshipers. The episode made international news and Jews the world over objected to the British action. Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld, the Chief Rabbi of the ultraorthodox Jews in Jerusalem, issued a protest letter on behalf of his community, the Edah HaChareidis, and Agudas Yisroel strongly condemning the desecration of the holy site. Various communal leaders called for a general strike. A large rally was held in the Etz Chaim Yeshiva, following which an angry crowd attacked the local police station in which they believed Douglas Valder Duff, the British officer involved, was sheltering.
Commissioner Edward Keith - Roach described the screen as violating the Ottoman status quo that forbade Jews from making any construction in the Western Wall area. He informed the Jewish community that the removal had been carried out under his orders after receiving a complaint from the Supreme Muslim Council. The Arabs were concerned that the Jews were trying to extend their rights at the wall and with this move, ultimately intended to take possession of the Al - Aqsa Mosque. The British government issued an announcement explaining the incident and blaming the Jewish beadle at the Wall. It stressed that the removal of the screen was necessary, but expressed regret over the ensuing events.
A widespread Arab campaign to protest against presumed Jewish intentions and designs to take possession of the Al Aqsa Mosque swept the country and a "Society for the Protection of the Muslim Holy Places '' was established. The Vaad Leumi responding to these Arab fears declared in a statement that "We herewith declare emphatically and sincerely that no Jew has ever thought of encroaching upon the rights of Moslems over their own Holy places, but our Arab brethren should also recognise the rights of Jews in regard to the places in Palestine which are holy to them. '' The committee also demanded that the British administration expropriate the wall for the Jews.
From October 1928 onward, Mufti Amin al - Husayni organised a series of measures to demonstrate the Arabs ' exclusive claims to the Temple Mount and its environs. He ordered new construction next to and above the Western Wall. The British granted the Arabs permission to convert a building adjoining the Wall into a mosque and to add a minaret. A muezzin was appointed to perform the Islamic call to prayer and Sufi rites directly next to the Wall. These were seen as a provocation by the Jews who prayed at the Wall. The Jews protested and tensions increased.
A British inquiry into the disturbances and investigation regarding the principal issue in the Western Wall dispute, namely the rights of the Jewish worshipers to bring appurtenances to the wall, was convened. The Supreme Muslim Council provided documents dating from the Turkish regime supporting their claims. However, repeated reminders to the Chief Rabbinate to verify which apparatus had been permitted failed to elicit any response. They refused to do so, arguing that Jews had the right to pray at the Wall without restrictions. Subsequently, in November 1928, the Government issued a White Paper entitled "The Western or Wailing Wall in Jerusalem: Memorandum by the Secretary of State for the Colonies '', which emphasised the maintenance of the status quo and instructed that Jews could only bring "those accessories which had been permitted in Turkish times. ''
A few months later, Haj Amin complained to Chancellor that "Jews were bringing benches and tables in increased numbers to the wall and driving nails into the wall and hanging lamps on them. ''
In the summer of 1929, the Mufti Haj Amin Al Husseinni ordered an opening be made at the southern end of the alleyway which straddled the Wall. The former cul - de-sac became a thoroughfare which led from the Temple Mount into the prayer area at the Wall. Mules were herded through the narrow alley, often dropping excrement. This, together with other construction projects in the vicinity, and restricted access to the Wall, resulted in Jewish protests to the British, who remained indifferent.
On August 14, 1929, after attacks on individual Jews praying at the Wall, 6,000 Jews demonstrated in Tel Aviv, shouting "The Wall is ours. '' The next day, the Jewish fast of Tisha B'Av, 300 youths raised the Zionist flag and sang Hatikva at the Wall. The day after, on August 16, an organized mob of 2,000 Muslim Arabs descended on the Western Wall, injuring the beadle and burning prayer books, liturgical fixtures and notes of supplication. The rioting spread to the Jewish commercial area of town, and was followed a few days later by the Hebron massacre. 133 Jews were killed and 339 injured in the Arab riots, and in the subsequent process of quelling the riots 110 Arabs were killed by British police. This was by far the deadliest attack on Jews during the period of British Rule over Palestine.
In 1930, in response to the 1929 riots, the British Government appointed a commission "to determine the rights and claims of Muslims and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall '', and to determine the causes of the violence and prevent it in the future. The League of Nations approved the commission on condition that the members were not British.
The Jews requested that the Commission take the following actions:
The Commission noted that ' the Jews do not claim any proprietorship to the Wall or to the Pavement in front of it (concluding speech of Jewish Counsel, Minutes, page 908). '
David Yellin, Head of the Hebrew Teachers Seminary, member of the Ottoman parliament, and one of the first public figures to join the Zionist movement openly, testified before the Commission. He stated:
"Being judged before you today stands a nation that has been deprived of everything that is dear and sacred to it from its emergence in its own land -- the graves of its patriarchs, the graves of its great kings, the graves of its holy prophets and, above all, the site of its glorious Temple. Everything has been taken from it and of all the witnesses to its sanctity, only one vestige remains -- one side of a tiny portion of a wall, which, on one side, borders the place of its former Temple. In front of this bare stone wall, that nation stands under the open sky, in the heat of summer and in the rains of winter, and pours out its heart to its God in heaven. ''
The Commission concluded that the wall, and the adjacent pavement and Moroccan Quarter, were solely owned by the Muslim waqf. However, Jews had the right to "free access to the Western Wall for the purpose of devotions at all times '', subject to some stipulations that limited which objects could be brought to the Wall and forbade the blowing of the shofar, which was made illegal. Muslims were forbidden to disrupt Jewish devotions by driving animals or other means. Yitzchak Orenstein, who held the position of Rabbi of the Kotel, recorded in April 1930 that "Our master, Rabbi Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld came to pray this morning by the Kosel and one of those present produced a small chair for the Rav to rest on for a few moments. However, no sooner had the Rav sat down did an Arab officer appear and pull the chair away from under him. '' During the 1930s, at the conclusion of Yom Kippur, young Jews persistently flouted the shofar ban each year and blew the shofar resulting in their arrest and prosecution. They were usually fined or sentenced to imprisonment for three to six months. The Shaw commission determined that the violence occurred due to "racial animosity on the part of the Arabs, consequent upon the disappointment of their political and national aspirations and fear for their economic future. ''
During the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War the Old City together with the Wall was controlled by Jordan. Article VIII of the 1949 Armistice Agreement provided for Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall. However, for the following nineteen years, despite numerous requests by Israeli officials and Jewish groups to the United Nations and other international bodies to attempt to enforce the armistice agreement, Jordan refused to abide by this clause. Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories. An exception was made for Christians to participate in Christmas ceremonies in Bethlehem. Some sources claim Jews could only visit the wall if they traveled through Jordan (which was not an option for Israelis) and did not have an Israeli visa stamped in their passports. Only Jordanian soldiers and tourists were to be found there. A vantage point on Mount Zion, from which the Wall could be viewed, became the place where Jews gathered to pray. For thousands of pilgrims, the mount, being the closest location to the Wall under Israeli control, became a substitute site for the traditional priestly blessing ceremony which takes place on the Three Pilgrimage Festivals.
During the Jordanian rule of the Old City, a ceramic street sign in Arabic and English was affixed to the stones of the ancient wall. Attached 2.1 metres (6 ft 11 in) up, it was made up of eight separate ceramic tiles and said Al Buraq Road in Arabic at the top with the English "Al - Buraq (Wailing Wall) Rd '' below. When Israeli soldiers arrived at the wall in June 1967, one attempted to scrawl Hebrew lettering on it. The Jerusalem Post reported that on June 8, Ben - Gurion went to the wall and "looked with distaste '' at the road sign; "this is not right, it should come down '' and he proceeded to dismantle it. This act signaled the climax of the capture of the Old City and the ability of Jews to once again access their holiest sites. Emotional recollections of this event are related by David ben Gurion and Shimon Peres.
Following Israel 's victory during the 1967 Six - Day War, the Western Wall came under Israeli control. Brigadier Rabbi Shlomo Goren proclaimed after its capture that "Israel would never again relinquish the Wall '', a stance supported by Israeli Minister for Defence Moshe Dayan and Chief of Staff General Yitzhak Rabin. Rabin described the moment Israeli soldiers reached the Wall:
"There was one moment in the Six - Day War which symbolized the great victory: that was the moment in which the first paratroopers -- under Gur 's command -- reached the stones of the Western Wall, feeling the emotion of the place; there never was, and never will be, another moment like it. Nobody staged that moment. Nobody planned it in advance. Nobody prepared it and nobody was prepared for it; it was as if Providence had directed the whole thing: the paratroopers weeping -- loudly and in pain -- over their comrades who had fallen along the way, the words of the Kaddish prayer heard by Western Wall 's stones after 19 years of silence, tears of mourning, shouts of joy, and the singing of "Hatikvah '' ".
Forty - eight hours after capturing the wall, the military, without explicit government order, hastily proceeded to demolish the entire Moroccan Quarter, which stood 4 metres (13 ft) from the Wall. The Sheikh Eid Mosque, which was built over one of Jerusalem 's oldest Islamic schools, the Afdiliyeh, named after one of Saladin 's sons, was pulled down to make way for the plaza. It was one of three or four that survived from Saladin 's time. 650 people consisting of 106 Arab families were ordered to leave their homes at night. When they refused, bulldozers began to demolish the buildings with people still inside, killing one person and injuring a number of others.
According to Eyal Weizman, Chaim Herzog, who later became Israel 's sixth president, took much of the credit for the destruction of the neighbourhood:
When we visited the Wailing Wall we found a toilet attached to it... we decided to remove it and from this we came to the conclusion that we could evacuate the entire area in front of the Wailing Wall... a historical opportunity that will never return... We knew that the following Saturday (sic Wednesday), June 14, would be the Jewish festival of Shavuot and that many will want to come to pray... it all had to be completed by then.
The narrow pavement, which could accommodate a maximum of 12,000 per day, was transformed into an enormous plaza that could hold in excess of 400,000.
Several months later, the pavement close to the wall was excavated to a depth of two and half metres, exposing an additional two courses of large stones.
A complex of buildings against the wall at the southern end of the plaza, that included Madrasa Fakhriya and the house that the Abu al - Sa'ud family had occupied since the 16th century, were spared in the 1967 destruction, but demolished in 1969. The section of the wall dedicated to prayers was thus extended southwards to double its original length, from 28 to 60 metres (92 to 197 ft), while the 4 metres (13 ft) space facing the wall grew to 40 metres (130 ft).
The narrow, approximately 120 square metres (1,300 sq ft) pre-1948 alley along the wall, used for Jewish prayer, was enlarged to 2,400 square metres (26,000 sq ft), with the entire Western Wall Plaza covering 20,000 square metres (4.9 acres), stretching from the wall to the Jewish Quarter.
The new plaza created in 1967 is used for worship and public gatherings, including Bar mitzvah celebrations and the swearing - in ceremonies of newly full - fledged soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces. Tens of thousands of Jews flock to the wall on the Jewish holidays, and particularly on the fast of Tisha B'Av, which marks the destruction of the Temple and on Jerusalem Day, which commemorates the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the delivery of the Wall into Jewish hands.
Conflicts over prayer at the national monument began a little more than a year after Israel 's victory in the Six - Day War, which again made the site accessible to Jews. In July 1968 the World Union for Progressive Judaism, which had planned the group 's international convention in Jerusalem, appealed to the Knesset after the Ministry of Religious Affairs prohibited the organization from hosting mixed - gender services at the Wall. The Knesset committee on internal affairs backed the Ministry of Religious Affairs in disallowing the Jewish convention attendees, who had come from over 24 countries, from worshiping in their fashion. The Orthodox held that services at the Wall should follow traditional Jewish law for segregated seating followed in synagogues, while the non-Orthodox perspective was that "the Wall is a shrine of all Jews, not one particular branch of Judaism. ''
At the southern end of the Western Wall, Robinson 's Arch along with a row of vaults once supported stairs ascending from the street to the Temple Mount. Because it does not come under the direct control of the Rabbi of the Wall or the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the site has been opened to religious groups that hold worship services that would not be approved by the Rabbi or the Ministry in the major men 's and women 's prayer areas against the Wall.
The need for such an area became apparent when in 1989, after repeated attacks by haredim, activists belonging to a group called Women of the Wall petitioned to secure the right of women to pray at the wall without restrictions. In a 2003 directive, Israel 's Supreme Court disallowed any women from reading publicly from the Torah or wearing traditional prayer shawls at the plaza itself, but instructed the Israeli government to prepare the site of Robinson 's Arch to host such events. The site was inaugurated in August 2004 and has since hosted services by Reform and Conservative groups, as well as services by the Women of the Wall. In May 2013 a judge ruled that the 2003 Israeli Supreme Court ruling prohibiting women from carrying a Torah or wearing prayer shawls had been misinterpreted and that Women of the Wall prayer gatherings at the wall should not be deemed as disturbing the public order.
In November 2010, the government approved a NIS 85m ($23 m) scheme to improve access and infrastructure at the site.
The Isaiah Stone, located under Robinson 's Arch, has a carved inscription in Hebrew from Isaiah 66: 14: וראיתם ושש לבכם ועצמותיכם כדשא תפרחנה ("And when ye see this your heart shall rejoice and your bones shall flourish like an herb '').
In April 2013, Jewish Agency for Israel leader Natan Sharansky spearheaded a concept that would expand and renovate the Robinson 's Arch area into an area where people may "perform worship rituals not based on the Orthodox interpretation of Jewish tradition. '' On August 25, 2013, a new 4,480 square foot prayer platform named "Azarat Yisrael Plaza '' was completed as part of this plan, with access to the platform at all hours, even when the rest of the area 's archeological park is closed to visitors. After some controversy regarding the question of authority over this prayer area, the announcement was made that it would come under the authority of a future government - appointed "pluralist council '' that would include non-Orthodox representatives. In January 2016, the Israeli Cabinet approved a plan to designate a new space at the Kotel that would be available for egalitarian prayer and that would not be controlled by the Rabbinate. Women of the Wall welcomed the decision, although Sephardic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Amar of Jerusalem said creating a mixed - gender prayer section was paramount to destroying it. The Chief rabbinate said it would create an alternate plan. In June 2017, it was announced that the plan approved in January 2016 had been suspended.
In 2005, the Western Wall Heritage Foundation initiated a major renovation effort under Rabbi - of - the - Wall Shmuel Rabinovitch. Its goal was to renovate and restore the area within Wilson 's Arch, the covered area to the left of worshipers facing the Wall in the open prayer plaza, in order to increase access for visitors and for prayer.
The restoration to the men 's section included a Torah ark that can house over 100 Torah scrolls, in addition to new bookshelves, a library, heating for the winter, and air conditioning for the summer. A new room was also built for the scribes who maintain and preserve the Torah scrolls used at the Wall. New construction also included a women 's section, overlooking the men 's prayer area, so that women could use this separate area to "take part in the services held inside under the Arch '' for the first time.
On July 25, 2010, a Ner Tamid, an oil - burning "eternal light, '' was installed within the prayer hall within Wilson 's Arch, the first eternal light installed in the area of the Western Wall. According to the Western Wall Heritage Foundation, requests had been made for many years that "an olive oil lamp be placed in the prayer hall of the Western Wall Plaza, as is the custom in Jewish synagogues, to represent the menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem as well as the continuously burning fire on the altar of burnt offerings in front of the Temple, '' especially in the closest place to those ancient flames.
A number of special worship events have been held since the renovation. They have taken advantage of the cover, temperature control, and enhanced security. However, in addition to the more recent programs, one early event occurred in September 1983, even before the modern renovation. At that time U.S. Sixth Fleet Chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff was allowed to hold an unusual interfaith service -- the first interfaith service ever conducted at the Wall during the time it was under Israeli control -- that included men and women sitting together. The ten - minute service included the Priestly Blessing, recited by Resnicoff, who is a Kohen. A Ministry of Religions representative was present, responding to press queries that the service was authorized as part of a special welcome for the U.S. Sixth Fleet.
After the 1967 Arab -- Israeli war, Rabbi Yehuda Meir Getz was named the overseer of proceedings at the wall. After Rabbi Getz 's death in 1995, Rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz was given the position.
Rabbinic tradition teaches that the western wall was built upon foundations laid by the biblical King Solomon from the time of the First Temple. A Midrash compiled in Late Antiquity refers to a western wall of the Temple which "would never be destroyed '', and Lamentations Rabbah mentions how Rome was unable to topple the western wall due to the Divine oath promising its eternal survival. Another Midrash quotes a 4th - century scholar: "Rav Acha said that the Divine Presence has never departed from the Western Wall '', and the Zohar similarly writes that "the Divine Presence rests upon the Western Wall ''.
Some medieval rabbis claimed that today 's Western Wall is a surviving wall of the Temple itself and cautioned Jews from approaching it, lest they enter the Temple precincts in a state of impurity. Many contemporary rabbis believe that the rabbinic traditions were made in reference to the Temple Mount 's Western Wall, which accordingly endows the Wall with inherent holiness. Most secular scholars believe however that these traditions originally pertained to a western wall of the Temple itself, and since the 1500s, were gradually applied to the surviving retaining Western Wall of the Mount.
Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kaindenover discusses the mystical aspect of the Hebrew word kotel when discussing the significance of praying against a wall. He cites the Zohar which writes that the word kotel, meaning wall, is made up of two parts: "Ko '', which has the numerical value of God 's name, and "Tel '', meaning mount, which refers to the Temple and its Western Wall.
Eighteenth - century scholar Jonathan Eybeschutz writes that "after the destruction of the Temple, God removed His Presence from His sanctuary and placed it upon the Western Wall where it remains in its holiness and honour ''. It is told that great Jewish sages, including Isaac Luria and the Radvaz, experienced a revelation of the Divine Presence at the wall.
Many contemporary Orthodox scholars rule that the area in front of the Wall has the status of a synagogue and must be treated with due respect. This is the view upheld by the authority in charge of the wall. As such, men and married women are expected to cover their heads upon approaching the Wall, and to dress appropriately. When departing, the custom is to walk backwards away from the Wall. On Saturdays, it is forbidden to enter the area with electronic devices, including cameras, which infringe on the sanctity of the Sabbath.
Some Orthodox Jewish codifiers warn against inserting fingers into the cracks of the Wall as they believe that the breadth of the Wall constitutes part of the Temple Mount itself and retains holiness, while others who permit doing so claim that the Wall is located outside the Temple area.
In the past, some visitors would write their names on the Wall, or based upon various scriptural verses, would drive nails into the crevices. These practices stopped after rabbis determined that such actions compromised the sanctity of the Wall. Another practice also existed whereby pilgrims or those intending to travel abroad would hack off a chip from the Wall or take some of the sand from between its cracks as a good luck charm or memento. In the late 19th century the question was raised as to whether this was permitted and a long responsa appeared in the Jerusalem newspaper Havatzelet in 1898. It concluded that even if according to Jewish Law it was permitted, the practices should be stopped as it constituted a desecration. More recently the Yalkut Yosef rules that it is forbidden to remove small chips of stone or dust from the Wall, although it is permissible to take twigs from the vegetation which grows in the Wall for an amulet, as they contain no holiness. Cleaning the stones is also problematic from a halachic point of view. Blasphemous graffiti once sprayed by a tourist was left visible for months until it began to peel away.
There was once an old custom of removing one 's shoes upon approaching the Wall. A 17th - century collection of special prayers to be said at holy places mentions that "upon coming to the Western Wall one should remove his shoes, bow and recite... ''. Rabbi Moses Reicher wrote that "it is a good and praiseworthy custom to approach the Western Wall in white garments after ablution, kneel and prostrate oneself in submission and recite "This is nothing other than the House of God and here is the gate of Heaven. '' When within four cubits of the Wall, one should remove their footwear. '' Over the years the custom of standing barefoot at the Wall has ceased, as there is no need to remove one 's shoes when standing by the Wall, because the plaza area is outside the sanctified precinct of the Temple Mount.
In Judaism, the Western Wall is venerated as the sole remnant of the Holy Temple. It has become a place of pilgrimage for Jews, as it is the closest permitted accessible site to the holiest spot in Judaism, namely the Even ha - shetiya or Foundation Stone, which lies on the Temple Mount. According to one rabbinic opinion, Jews may not set foot upon the Temple Mount and doing so is a sin punishable by Kareth. While almost all historians and archaeologists and some rabbinical authorities believe that the rocky outcrop in the Dome of the Rock is the Foundation Stone, some rabbis say it is located directly opposite the exposed section of the Western Wall, near the El - kas fountain. This spot was the site of the Holy of Holies when the Temple stood.
According to Jewish Law, one is obliged to grieve and rend one 's garment upon visiting the Western Wall and seeing the desolate site of the Temple. Bach (17th century) instructs that "when one sees the Gates of Mercy which are situated in the Western Wall, which is the wall King David built, he should recite: Her gates are sunk into the ground; he hath destroyed and broken her bars: her king and her princes are among the nations: the law is no more; her prophets also find no vision from the Lord ''. Some scholars write that rending one 's garments is not applicable nowadays as Jerusalem is under Jewish control. Others disagree, pointing to the fact that the Temple Mount is controlled by the Muslim waqf and that the mosques which sit upon the Temple site should increase feelings of distress. If one has n't seen the Wall for over 30 days, the prevailing custom is to rend one 's garments, but this can be avoided if one visits on the Sabbath or on festivals. According to Donneal Epstein, a person who has not seen the Wall within the last 30 days should recite: "Our Holy Temple, which was our glory, in which our forefathers praised You, was burned and all of our delights were destroyed ''.
The Sages of the Talmud stated that anyone who prays at the Temple in Jerusalem, "it is as if he has prayed before the throne of glory because the gate of heaven is situated there and it is open to hear prayer. '' Jewish Law stipulates that the Silent Prayer should be recited facing towards Jerusalem, the Temple and ultimately the Holy of Holies, as God 's bounty and blessing emanates from that spot. It is generally believed that prayer by the Western Wall is particularly beneficial since it was that wall which was situated closest to the Holy of Holies. Rabbi Jacob Ettlinger writes "since the gate of heaven is near the Western Wall, it is understandable that all Israel 's prayers ascend on high there... as one of the great ancient kabbalists Rabbi Joseph Gikatilla said, when the Jews send their prayers from the Diaspora in the direction of Jerusalem, from there they ascend by way of the Western Wall. '' A well - known segula (efficacious remedy) for finding one 's soulmate is to pray for 40 consecutive days at the Western Wall, a practice apparently conceived by Rabbi Yisroel Yaakov Fisher.
The Scroll of Ahimaaz, a historical document written in 1050 CE, distinctly describes the Western Wall as a place of prayer for the Jews. In around 1167 CE during the late Crusader Period, Benjamin of Tudela wrote that "In front of this place is the western wall, which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies. This is called the Gate of Mercy, and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court ''. In 1625 "arranged prayers '' at the Wall are mentioned for the first time by a scholar whose name has not been preserved. Scrolls of the Law were brought to the Wall on occasions of public distress and calamity, as testified to in a narrative written by Rabbi Gedaliah of Semitizi who went to Jerusalem in 1699.
The writings of various travellers in the Holy Land, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, tell of how the Wall and its environs continued to be a place of devotion for the Jews. Isaac Yahuda, a prominent member of the Sephardic community in Jerusalem recalled how men and women used to gather in a circle at the Wall to hear sermons delivered in Ladino. His great - grandmother, who arrived in Palestine in 1841, "used to go to the Western Wall every Friday afternoon, winter and summer, and stay there until candle - lighting time, reading the entire Book of Psalms and the Song of Songs... she would sit there by herself for hours. '' In the past women could be found sitting at the entrance to the Wall every Sabbath holding fragrant herbs and spices in order to enable worshipers to make additional blessings. In the hot weather they would provide cool water. The women also used to cast lots for the privilege of sweeping and washing the alleyway at the foot of the Wall. Throughout the ages, the Wall is where Jews have gathered to express gratitude to God or to pray for divine mercy. On news of the Normandy landings on June 6, 1944 thousands of Jews went to the Wall to offer prayers for the "success of His Majesty 's and Allied Forces in the liberation of all enemy - occupied territory. '' On October 13, 1994, 50,000 gathered to pray for the safe return of kidnapped soldier Nachshon Wachsman. August 10, 2005 saw a massive prayer rally at the Wall. Estimates of people protesting Israel 's unilateral disengagement plan ranged from 50,000 to 250,000 people. Every year on Tisha B'Av large crowds congregate at the Wall to commemorate the destruction of the Temple. In 2007 over 100,000 gathered. During the month of Tishrei 2009, a record 1.5 million people visited the site.
While during the late 19th century, no formal segregation of men and women was to be found at the Wall, conflict erupted in July 1968 when members of the World Union for Progressive Judaism were denied the right to host a mixed - gender service at the site after the Ministry of Religious Affairs insisted on maintaining the gender segregation customary at Orthodox places of worship. The progressives responded by claiming that "the Wall is a shrine of all Jews, not one particular branch of Judaism. '' In 1988, the small but vocal Women of the Wall launched a campaign for recognition of non-Orthodox prayer at the Wall. Their form and manner of prayer elicited a violent response from some Orthodox worshippers and they were subsequently banned from holding services at the site. In response to the repeated arrest of women, including Anat Hoffman found flouting the law, the Jewish Agency observed ' the urgent need to reach a permanent solution and make the Western Wall once again a symbol of unity among the Jewish people, and not one of discord and strife. '' Some commentators called for the closure of the site unless an acceptable solution to the controversy was found. In 2003 Israel 's Supreme Court upheld the ban on non-Orthodox worship at the Wall and the government responded by allocating Robinson 's Arch for such purposes. But in 2012, critics still complained about the restrictions at the Western Wall, saying Israel had "turned a national monument into an ultra-Orthodox synagogue, '' and in April 2013 the Jerusalem District Court ruled that as long as there was no other appropriate area for pluralistic prayer, prayer according to non-Orthodox custom should be allowed at the Wall. This led to the expansion and renovation of the Robinson 's Arch prayer area which would be placed under the authority of a Pluralist Council. In August 2013, a platform named "Azarat Yisrael Plaza '' was completed to facilitate non-Orthodox worship.
There is a much publicised practice of placing slips of paper containing written prayers into the crevices of the Wall. The earliest account of this practice is attributed to Rabbi Chaim ibn Attar, (d. 1743). More than a million notes are placed each year and the opportunity to e-mail notes is offered by a number of organisations. It has become customary for visiting dignitaries to place notes too.
Shortly after the Western Wall came under Israeli control in 1967, a tefillin stand was erected with permission from Rabbi Yehuda Meir Getz, the first rabbi of the Kotel. The stand offers visitors the chance to put on Tefillin, a daily Jewish ritual. In the months following the Six - Day War an estimated 400,000 Jews observed this ritual at the stand. The stand is staffed by multilingual volunteers and an estimated 100,000 visitors put on tefillin there annually.
Islamic reverence for the site is derived from the belief that the Prophet Muhammad tied his miraculous steed Buraq nearby during his night journey to Jerusalem. Various places have been suggested for the exact spot where Buraq was tethered, but for several centuries the preferred location has been the al - Buraq mosque, which is just inside the wall at the south end of the present Western Wall plaza. The mosque is located above an ancient passageway, which once came out through the long - sealed Barclay 's Gate whose huge lintel is still visible directly below the Maghrebi gate.
When a British Jew asked the Egyptian authorities in 1840 for permission to re-pave the ground in front of the Western Wall, the governor of Syria wrote:
Carl Sandreczki, who was charged with compiling a list of place names for Charles Wilson 's Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem in 1865, reported that the street leading to the Western Wall, including the part alongside the wall, belonged to the Hosh (court / enclosure) of al Burâk, "not Obrâk, nor Obrat ''. In 1866, the Prussian Consul and Orientalist Georg Rosen wrote that "The Arabs call Obrâk the entire length of the wall at the wailing place of the Jews, southwards down to the house of Abu Su'ud and northwards up to the substructure of the Mechkemeh (Shariah court). Obrâk is not, as was formerly claimed, a corruption of the word Ibri (Hebrews), but simply the neo-Arabic pronunciation of Bōrâk,... which, whilst (Muhammad) was at prayer at the holy rock, is said to have been tethered by him inside the wall location mentioned above. ''
The name Hosh al Buraq appeared on the maps of Wilson 's 1865 survey, its revised editions of 1876 and 1900, and other maps in the early 20th century. In 1922, it was the street name specified by the official Pro-Jerusalem Council.
Some scholars believe that when Jerusalem came under Christian rule in the 4th century, there was a purposeful "transference '' of respect for the Temple Mount and the Western Wall in terms of sanctity to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, while the sites around the Temple Mount became a refuse dump for Christians. However, the actions of many modern Christian leaders, including Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI, who visited the Wall and left prayer messages in its crevices, have symbolized for many Christians a restoration of respect and even veneration for this ancient religious site.
Most Jews, religious and secular, consider the wall to be important to the Jewish people since it was originally built to hold the Second Temple. They consider the capture of the wall by Israel in 1967 as a historic event since it restored Jewish access to the site after a 19 - year gap. There are, however, some haredi Jews who hold different views. Most notable are the adherents of the Satmar hasidic dynasty who retain the views espoused by their Grand Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum, who would not approach the Wall after the 1967 conquest because of his opposition to Zionism, although he did visit the site during his visits to the Holy Land in the 1920s.
In 1994, Shlomo Goren wrote that the tradition of the wall as a Jewish prayer site was only 300 years old, the Jews being compelled to pray there after being forbidden to assemble on the mount itself.
A poll carried out in 2007 by the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies indicated that 96 % of Israeli Jews were against Israel relinquishing the Western Wall. During a speech at Israel 's Mercaz HaRav yeshivah on Jerusalem Day in 2009, Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu declared:
"The flag that flies over the Kotel is the Israeli flag... Our holy places, the Temple Mount -- will remain under Israeli sovereignty forever. ''
In December 1973, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia stated that "Only Muslims and Christians have holy places and rights in Jerusalem ''. The Jews, he maintained, had no rights there at all. As for the Western Wall, he said, "Another wall can be built for them. They can pray against that ''. Raed Salah, leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel wrote that:
"The Western Wall -- all its various parts, structures and gates -- are an inseparable part of the al - Aqsa compound... The Western Wall is part of Al - Aqsa 's western tower, which the Israeli establishment fallaciously and sneakily calls the ' Wailing Wall '. The wall is part of the holy al - Aqsa Mosque ''.
According to the Palestinian National Authority, the Jews did not consider the Wall as a place for worship until after the Balfour Declaration was issued in 1917. The PA - appointed Mufti of Jerusalem, Sheikh Ekrima Sa'id Sabri, believes that the Wall belongs to the Muslims alone. In 2000 he related that
"No stone of the Al - Buraq wall has any relation to Judaism. The Jews began praying at this wall only in the nineteenth century, when they began to develop (national) aspirations. ''
A year later he stated:
"There is not a single stone in the Wailing Wall relating to Jewish History. The Jews can not legitimately claim this wall, neither religiously nor historically. The Committee of the League of Nations recommended in 1930, to allow the Jews to pray there, in order to keep them quiet. But by no means did it acknowledge that the wall belongs to them. ''
In 2006, Dr. Hassan Khader, founder of the Al Quds Encyclopedia, told PA television that the first connection of the Jews to the Wall is "a recent one, which began in the 16th century... not ancient... like the roots of the Islamic connection ''.
In November 2010, an official paper published by the PA Ministry of Information denied Jewish rights to the Wall. It stated that "Al - Buraq Wall is in fact the western wall of Al - Aksa Mosque '' and that Jews had only started using the site for worship after the 1917 Balfour Declaration.
Yitzhak Reiter writes that "the Islamization and de-Judaization of the Western Wall are a recurrent motif in publications and public statements by the heads of the Islamic Movement in Israel. ''
While recognizing the difficulties inherent in any ultimate peace agreement that involves the status of Jerusalem, the official position of the United States includes a recognition of the importance of the Wall to the Jewish people, and has condemned statements that seek to "delegitimize '' the relationship between Jews and the area in general, and the Western Wall in particular. For example, in November 2010, the Obama administration "strongly condemned a Palestinian official 's claim that the Western Wall in the Old City has no religious significance for Jews and is actually Muslim property. '' The U.S. State Department noted that the United States rejects such a claim as "factually incorrect, insensitive and highly provocative. ''
Gates 1. Jaffa 2. Zion 3. Dung 4. Golden 5. Lions 6. Herod 7. Damascus 8. New (Double, Single, Tanners ') Al - Mawazin
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who plays lord frey in game of thrones | David Bradley (actor) - wikipedia
David John Bradley (born 17 April 1942) is an English actor. He is known for playing Argus Filch in the Harry Potter film series, Walder Frey in the HBO series Game of Thrones and Abraham Setrakian in The Strain, although he is also an established stage actor with a career that includes a Laurence Olivier Award for his role in a production of King Lear.
Other acting credits include the BBC series Our Friends in the North, the ITV series Broadchurch (for which he won the best supporting actor award at the 2014 British Academy Television Awards), and the films Hot Fuzz, The World 's End and Captain America: The First Avenger.
In 2012, he played Solomon in the episode of Doctor Who called "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship ''. In 2013, Bradley portrayed William Hartnell in the Doctor Who docudrama An Adventure in Space and Time. He returned to Doctor Who portraying the First Doctor in "The Doctor Falls '' and the 2017 Christmas Special "Twice Upon a Time ''. He also portrayed William Hartnell 's First Doctor in a series of audio stories released by Big Finish entitled The First Doctor Adventures starting in January 2018.
Bradley was born in York, where he attended the Catholic St George 's Secondary Modern School, at which he was a member of the choir. He first performed on stage in musical productions as a member of a youth club and with the Rowntree Youth Theatre. Upon leaving school he completed a five - year apprenticeship with the optical instruments maker Cooke, Troughton & Simms and he remained with the firm until 1966 when he moved to London to train as an actor at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.
Bradley joined the Royal Shakespeare Company and performed at Laurence Olivier 's National Theatre Company in the early 1970s. He first appeared on television in 1971, as a police officer in the successful comedy Nearest and Dearest. He was awarded a Laurence Olivier Award in 1991 for his supporting role as the Fool in King Lear at the Royal National Theatre. He appeared in the Royal National Theatre 's 1997 production of The Homecoming, as well as productions of The Caretaker at Sheffield Theatres and the Tricycle Theatre from 2006 to 2007.
Bradley played fictional Labour Member of Parliament Eddie Wells in the 1996 award - winning BBC Two serial Our Friends in the North. In 1996, he appeared as gangster Alf Black in Band of Gold. In 1998, he appeared in the BBC adaptation of Vanity Fair as the miserly Sir Pitt Crawley, and Our Mutual Friend as the villainous Rogue Riderhood. Other television appearances include the 2001 series The Way We Live Now, directed by David Yates, who would work with Bradley five years later on the Harry Potter films.
From 2002 -- 04, Bradley starred as Jake in the BBC comedy series Wild West. Bradley acted in the 2004 musical drama serial Blackpool on BBC One. He appeared in the 2005 BBC drama Mr. Harvey Lights a Candle, playing the role of a morose coach driver who takes an unruly party of pupils on a trip to Salisbury Cathedral, and the 2006 BBC drama Sweeney Todd. He had a small role in a 2005 episode of the series Taggart. In 2003, he played Tom in the Midsomer Murders episode "The Green Man ''. He appeared as the electrolarynx - using gangster Stemroach in the BBC comedy series Ideal and as Electric in the BBC 's Thieves Like Us, as well as the BBC One series True Dare Kiss in 2007 -- 08.
Bradley appeared in the 2002 film Nicholas Nickleby, and had a small role in the 2007 comedy film Hot Fuzz as a farmer who illegally hoards weapons. He played Cohen the Barbarian in a Sky One adaptation of The Colour of Magic in 2008. That same year he appeared as Spooner in a production of No Man 's Land at the Gate Theatre, Dublin, which later transferred to London 's West End.
In 2009, Bradley appeared as an animal rights activist in the popular BBC drama Ashes to Ashes, and appeared in BBC 's The Street later that year. Bradley portrayed Will Somers, Henry VIII 's court fool, in an episode of the Showtime series The Tudors in 2009. In 2010, he appeared in the film Another Year, which earned him a nomination for Best Supporting Actor from the London Film Critics Circle Awards. In 2011, 2013 and 2016, Bradley appeared as Lord Walder Frey in the HBO series Game of Thrones. In January 2017, it was confirmed that Bradley would appear in the seventh season of the show later that year.
Bradley played Solomon, a ruthless buccaneer, in the 2012 Doctor Who episode "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship ''. He previously provided voice work for The Sarah Jane Adventures serial Death of the Doctor. It was announced in January 2013 that Bradley had been cast as actor William Hartnell in An Adventure in Space and Time, a BBC docudrama about the creation of Doctor Who in 1963. The special aired in November 2013, adding to the buildup to the 50th anniversary episode of Doctor Who later that month.
From 2014, Bradley plays Professor Abraham Setrakian, a Holocaust survivor turned vampire hunter in Guillermo del Toro 's TV series The Strain. He will voice the Lord High Admiral Suvarov in the PC RPG The Mandate.
In 2015, Bradley was announced a public supporter of Chapel Lane Theatre Company based in Stratford - Upon - Avon, UK.
In 2017, in the final episode of the tenth series of Doctor Who, "The Doctor Falls '', Bradley returned to portray the First Doctor, having previously been portrayed by Hartnell, who originally played the character. He reprised this role in the 2017 Christmas special, "Twice Upon a Time ''. This makes him the third actor to play the role in the television programme, after William Hartnell and Richard Hurndall since the premiere of Doctor Who in 1963, and at the age of 75, he is the also the oldest actor to play the role of the Doctor.
Bradley serves as the President of Second Thoughts Drama Group, which performs in and around Stratford - upon - Avon. On 17 July 2012, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Warwick. On 19 November 2015, he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from York St John University.
He is an avid fan of football clubs Aston Villa and York City. On 22 November 2014, he took part in a video paying tribute to Aston Villa on the club 's 140th birthday.
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countries that allow 18 year olds to drink | Legal drinking age - Wikipedia
The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume alcoholic beverages. These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary between different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks.
Kazakhstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Paraguay, Solomon Islands, India (certain states), the United States (except U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico), Yemen (Aden and Sana'a), Japan, Iceland, Canada (certain Provinces and Territories), and South Korea have the highest set drinking ages; however, some of these countries do not have off - premises drinking limits. Austria, Antigua and Barbuda, Belgium, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Ethiopia, Gibraltar, Luxembourg and Nicaragua have the lowest set drinking ages.
The most commonly known reason for the law behind the legal drinking age is the effect on the brain in adolescents. because the brain is still maturing, alcohol can have a negative effect on the memory and long - term thinking. Alongside that, it can cause liver failure, and create a hormone imbalance in teens due to the constant changes and maturing of hormones during puberty.
The most common minimum age to purchase alcohol in Africa is 18. Although it varies from the lowest age limit in Ethiopia being only 15 years, Zimbabwe with a minimum purchase age of 16 years, Gambia with an age limit of 17 years and Uganda where the minimum legal purchase age is 18 but minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider with a meal at a restaurant. Cameroon and Egypt are the only countries in Africa with a minimum purchase age of 21 years. However Algeria, Angola (except Luando Province), Central African Republic, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea - Bissau, Morocco, Togo, Tunisia and the Western Sahara have no laws on the book restricting the sale of alcohol to minors. In Libya, Somalia and Sudan the sale, production and consumption of alcohol is completely prohibited.
It is illegal to sell alcoholic beverages to anyone under the age of 18. It is also illegal for minors to buy and consume alcohol.
The minimum age to purchase and consume varies, but the most common age is 18 years. However, in North America the age limits varies between 18 and 21 years of age. Throughout the United States the minimum legal age to purchase any alcoholic beverage from a shop, supermarket, liquor store, bar, club or any other licensed premises is 21 years of age. In Canada each province can decide which minimum age limit is to be set to buy or consume alcohol. Most provinces have a minimum age of 19 years, while Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec have set a minimum age of 18 years. In South America all countries have set a minimum purchase age of 18 years, except for Guyana where minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider in a restaurant provided they buy a meal, and Paraguay the only country with a minimum legal purchase and drinking age of 20 years.
Federal law explicitly provides for religious exceptions. As of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws. However, non-alcoholic beer in many (but not all) states, such as Idaho, Texas, and Maryland, is considered legal for those under the age of 21.
By a judge 's ruling, South Carolina appears to allow the possession and consumption of alcohol by adults 18 to 20 years of age, but a circuit court judge has said otherwise.
The states of Washington and Wisconsin allows the consumption of alcohol in the presence of parents.
Some U.S. states have legislation that make providing to and possession of alcohol by persons under twenty - one a gross misdemeanor with a potential penalty of a $5,000 fine or up to a year in jail.
The legal age for drinking alcohol is 18 in Abu Dhabi (although a Ministry of Tourism by - law allows hotels to serve alcohol only to those over 21), and 21 in Dubai and the Northern Emirates (except Sharjah, where drinking alcohol is illegal).
It is a punishable offence to drink, or to be under the influence of alcohol, in public.
Most countries within Europe have set 18 as the minimum age to purchase alcohol. Although Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Gibraltar, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Serbia and Switzerland (except Ticino) maintain a minimum purchase age below 18 years permitting minors either full or limited access to alcohol. In 2005, 2007 and recently in 2015 the European Union has failed to enact a law forcing member states to raise their purchase age to 18 years. But in the past years several European countries have raised their drinking / purchase age or enacted laws restricting the access to alcohol for minors:
By tradition, youths are privately allowed to drink alcohol after their confirmation. If a shop or bar fails to ask for an ID card and is identified having sold alcohol to an underage, it is subject to fine. A national ID card, obtained in the local town hall, can serve as age verification. This card is rarely used though since a passport or drivers license is more commonly used.
Both the legal drinking and purchasing age in the Faroe Islands is 18.
Police may search minors in public places and confiscate or destroy any alcoholic beverages in their possession. Incidents are reported to the legal guardian and social authorities, who may intervene with child welfare procedures. In addition, those aged 15 or above are subject to a fine.
In private, offering alcohol to a minor is considered a criminal offence if it results in drunkenness and the act can be deemed reprehensible as a whole, considering the minor 's age, degree of maturity and other circumstances.
Alcohol with more than 60 % ABV is generally not sold in Norway, although exceptions may be made by the government for specific products.
Alcohol possessed by minors may be confiscated as evidence. Drinking in public is prohibited, though this is rarely enforced in recreational areas.
None
None 18 18 20,
It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.
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when did stacy's mom song come out | Stacy 's Mom - Wikipedia
"Stacy 's Mom '' is a pop rock song recorded by the American rock band Fountains of Wayne for their third studio album, Welcome Interstate Managers. "Stacy 's Mom '' was released to radio on May 20, 2003. The song was released as the lead single from Welcome Interstate Managers on September 29, 2003 through S - Curve Records and Virgin Records. "Stacy 's Mom '' was written by bassist Adam Schlesinger and vocalist Chris Collingwood, both of whom produced the song alongside Mike Denneen. Its subject matter was inspired by a friend of Schlesinger 's when he was young who had a crush on his grandmother. A power pop song, the group hoped to emulate the sound of the Cars with the track.
"Stacy 's Mom '' reached number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's highest - charting hit in the United States. Additionally, the song peaked within the top 10 in Ireland, and the top 20 in the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over 500,000 copies. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Vocal Pop Performance. The song was accompanied with a music video in which model Rachel Hunter plays the titular role. "Stacy 's Mom '' was the only mainstream hit by Fountains of Wayne.
The song has been frequently misattributed to pop punk band Bowling for Soup, who in 2011 released their own cover version of the song.
"Stacy 's Mom '' was written by Chris Collingwood and Adam Schlesinger. Stylistically it is power pop. Part of the song 's inspiration was a friend Schlesinger had growing up who thought Schlesinger 's grandmother was hot. "One of my best friends, when we were maybe 11 or 12, came to me and announced that he thought my grandmother was hot. And I said, ' Hey, you 're stepping over the line, ' but at that point in life, I would n't put it past anyone, '' he recalled. He hoped to strike a balance "between humor and personality '' with the song. In writing the song, he was hoping to take influence from new wave and power pop music: "I was thinking a little bit about "Mrs. Robinson '' and sonically I was thinking about the Cars, a Rick Springfield sort of thing. '' He acknowledged that stylistically, the song "owes a debt '' to the Cars ' "Just What I Needed ''; its opening guitar riff is similar. Cars frontman Ric Ocasek thought that the intro was a sample from "Just What I Needed '' but the band says they performed it in the studio and just "got it right. ''
"Stacy 's Mom '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 the week of October 11, 2003 at number 59, making this their first song to appear on that chart. It entered the top 40 the week after by moving twenty - one spots to number 38 and moved nine spots to number 31 on the week of October 25, 2003. It peaked at number 21 the week of November 21, 2003 and stayed there for two weeks. It stayed on the chart for seventeen weeks.
It was one of the first songs to reach the No. 1 spot on the "Most Downloaded Songs '' list of the iTunes Music Store. It reached No. 11 in the UK Singles Chart. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Vocal Pop Performance at the 2004 awards. The single 's sales were last estimated at 888,000, according to Nielsen SoundScan, in 2011.
Richard Harrington of The Washington Post dubbed it "nicely naughty. '' Ben Greenman, writing for The New Yorker, considered it the "second - catchiest song ever written about a girlfriend 's parent, '' after "Mrs. Robinson ''. The song ranks No. 350 on Blender 's 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born and No. 88 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the ' 00s.
The music video, directed by Chris Applebaum, features several comedic scenes illustrating the boy 's attempts to get closer to Stacy 's mother. "We looked at a lot of treatments and some directors were trying to be kind of arty and subtle with it, but Chris Applebaum went completely for the jugular, '' said Schlesinger. Model Rachel Hunter plays the title role, which she accepted because she was a fan of the band and the song. The group had previously hoped to get Paulina Porizkova for the role. The clip was shot in Los Angeles in late May 2003. "It was 7 a.m., and there was Rachel Hunter doing a striptease on the kitchen counter, '' remembered Schlesinger. The video was first sent to television in July 2003.
The video begins with the boy (Shane Haboucha), Stacy (Gianna Dispenza) and some other children standing at a school crossing. Stacy 's mother (Rachel Hunter) then pulls up in a red convertible in front of them to pick up Stacy. The boy and his friends gaze at her in awe. The boy later goes over to Stacy 's house and is seen lying on a pool toy in her backyard swimming pool while wearing large, dark sunglasses. Through a window he sees Stacy 's mother, and then watches her undress. Stacy gives the boy a bottle of soda and, as he sees Stacy 's mother remove her bra, he spills soda on himself. As his eyes are hidden by his shades, Stacy laughs, thinking that he is just clumsy. After a scene with the band during the chorus, Stacy, in red heart - shaped sunglasses and swimsuit, is shown sunbathing while the boy mows her lawn. Stacy 's mother comes out wearing just a towel and is given a massage on both her back and front. The masseur gives the boy a look of amusement, since he gets to look at Stacy 's mother naked and the boy does not. The boy is distracted by the massage and ends up knocking over Stacy 's birdhouse with the lawnmower. The video then cuts to him and Stacy watching Fountains of Wayne on TV, before the boy imagines Stacy 's mother, while scrubbing the floors, as a pole dancer teasing him. Near the end of the video it is implied that the boy begins to masturbate by the bathroom window while Stacy 's mother climbs out of the pool in her red bikini. Moments later, Stacy opens the bathroom door, ignoring a sign saying Ocupado, and catches him in the act. Stacy quickly closes the door and starts smiling, implying that she believes the boy is masturbating to her and not her mother.
Fountains of Wayne had asked Ric Ocasek to be in the video for the song. Schlesinger explains that while Ocasek claims that he "politely declined ''; he actually just never responded to the request. There are several references to The Cars in the video: a license plate reads "I ♥ RIC '', a reference to Ric; one of the boys in the opening scene has dark hair, sunglasses, and clothes such that he looks like an adolescent version of Ocasek; the trademark Elliot Easton "bouncing '' (at approximately 1: 15 into the video) and hairdo as he plays his guitar for The Cars; and the re-creation of the Fast Times scene, which featured The Cars ' "Moving in Stereo ''. Further links to The Cars and New Wave music are given by the magazine Nu Wave that is featured in the video, the Roland Juno - 6 keyboard (a synthesizer of the 1980s), and the record sleeve showing ' Stacy 's Mom ' in a car. The video reached No. 1 on both MTV 's TRL and VH1 's VSpot Top 20 Countdown.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In 2011, pop punk band Bowling for Soup released a cover version of "Stacy 's Mom '' as a B - side to their single "I 've Never Done Anything Like This ''.
The cover version came about because the original Fountains of Wayne song was often misattributed to Bowling For Soup. The song was misidentified as a Bowling for Soup song on YouTube and other video sites. In multiple interviews, Bowling For Soup bandleader Jaret Reddick has said that he regularly encountered fans at their concerts who mistakenly thought "Stacy 's Mom '' was a Bowling for Soup song. In 2011, they recorded and released a cover version of the song. Jaret said that by finally releasing their own version of the song, "I 've basically just taken care of a large part of the population that 's been wrong for years, and I 've made them right. '' Alluding to the mistaken identity issue, the cover art for the song release reads: "Finally you can say this is your favorite song by BFS and not look like an idiot! ''
Bowling for Soup has since made the song part of their live set list.
The song was included on the setlist for Guitar Hero: Van Halen as a guest act. It also appeared in the 4th episode of the 1st season of the television series Psych, Woman Seeking Dead Husband, Smokers Ok, No Pets. The song was parodied on The Howard Stern Show to mock Wack Pack character Hanzi (Imran Kahn). It has also been performed by Postmodern Jukebox ft. Casey Abrams. A cover of the song by the Northeastern University pep band has become an unofficial theme song for the Northeastern Huskies men 's ice hockey team. At each game, the pep band plays the song during a stoppage of play with the fan sections continuing to sing through the chorus without accompaniment once gameplay begins again.
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how far is burns oregon from bend oregon | High desert (Oregon) - wikipedia
The Oregon high desert is a region of the U.S. state of Oregon, located east of the Cascade Range and south of the Blue Mountains, in the central and eastern parts of the state. Divided into a southern region and a northern region, the desert covers most of five Oregon counties and averages 4,000 feet (1,200 m) above sea level. The southwest region is part of the Great Basin and the southeast is the lower Owyhee River watershed. The northern region is part of the Columbia Plateau, where somewhat more rainfall allows the largest industry on private land to be the cultivation of alfalfa and hay. Public land within the region is owned primarily by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), which manages more than 30,000 square miles (78,000 km), including five rivers designated as Wild and Scenic.
While the high desert is somewhat dry, it is only arid relative to Western Oregon. The region averages 15 inches (380 mm) of annual rainfall; the Alvord Desert, however, gets only 7 inches (180 mm) of rain each year. Contrary to its name, most of the high desert is not dry enough to truly qualify as desert, and biologically, most of the region is classified as scrubland or steppe.
At 9,733 feet (2,967 m) above sea level, the summit of Steens Mountain is the highest point in the high desert. The broad fault - block mountain is characteristic of the basin and range plate tectonics of the high desert. About 16 million years ago, during the early Miocene epoch, lava flows from volcanic eruptions covered about half the surface area of Oregon. The Earth 's crust then began stretching, giving way to further volcanic activity from 15 million to 2 million years ago. Several ice ages over this time formed the large lakes in the high desert.
The climate of the high desert provides habitat for mammals such as pronghorn, coyote, mule deer, black - tailed jackrabbit, and cougar. Birds common in the region include sage grouse, California quail, and prairie falcon. The western juniper is the most common tree in the region, and big sagebrush and common woolly sunflower are the region 's most widespread plants.
The high desert of Oregon is located in the central and southeastern part of the state. It covers approximately 24,000 square miles (62,000 km), extending approximately 200 miles (320 km) from central Oregon east to the Idaho border and 130 miles (210 km) from central Oregon to the Nevada border to the south. Most of the region is located in Crook, Deschutes, Harney, Lake, and Malheur counties.
The high desert gets its name from its generally high elevation, averaging about 4,000 feet (1,200 m) across the region. It is bordered by the eastern foothills of the Cascade Range to the west. The Blue Mountains are the geographical boundary to the north, marking the northern end of the high desert 's semi-arid plateau. The southern high desert is part of North America 's Basin and Range Province, which extends south through Nevada and Arizona, into Mexico. It contains large alkali lakes and tall cliffs, some with a prominence of more than 2,000 feet (610 m). Steens Mountain, in Harney County, is the highest point within the region; its summit is 9,733 feet (2,967 m) above sea level. To the east, the high desert country of the Columbia Plateau extends across the Snake River and into Idaho.
A number of rivers flow through the high desert region. These include the Deschutes River and its tributary the Crooked River, as well as the Malheur, Owyhee, and John Day rivers, which are all within the Columbia River watershed. Since the high desert encompasses the portion of the hydrographic Great Basin located in Oregon, smaller rivers in the high desert flow into closed basins. The Chewaucan River, the Donner und Blitzen River, and the Silvies River each flow into some of the high desert 's salt lakes.
The largest landowner in eastern Oregon is the U.S. government. The Bureau of Land Management administers over 13.6 million acres (55,000 km) in the bureau 's Burns, Lakeview, Prineville, and Vale districts, most of which are in the state 's high desert country. In addition, Congress has designated specific sections of the Crooked, Deschutes, Donner und Blitzen, Malheur, and Owyhee rivers as part of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.
Agriculture is the largest industry in the region. Livestock ranches utilize large tracts of private and government land for grazing. Ranchers raise cattle and sheep in many parts of the region. Because of low rainfall, most crops require irrigation. Agricultural crops include alfalfa and other hay crops, wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, onions, sugar beets, and mint.
Between 17 and 15 million years ago, magma from deep beneath eastern Oregon rose to the Earth 's surface, causing a period of significant volcanic activity. A series of lava floods erupted from fissures near the Oregon - Idaho - Washington border. The resulting lava flows traveled up to 400 miles (640 km) from their source. Some individual flows covered as much as 10,000 square miles (26,000 km) to a depth of 100 feet (30 m). Eventually, these lava flows covered half the state of Oregon, creating a formation known as the Columbia River Basalt Group, the geologic foundation beneath much of the high desert.
After the original eruptions subsided, the Earth 's crust began to stretch and crack. Between 15 and 2 million years ago, this created hundreds of new volcanoes that added additional layers of lava on top of the Columbia River Basalt and left behind hundreds of lava tubes. These new flows blanketed the southeastern third of the state. Many of the volcanoes and smaller cinder cones from this period still exist in eastern Oregon. Afterwards, subsequent rifting produced large fault - block mountains throughout the region. The escarpment - type mountains and high - elevation valleys created by these faults produced the basin and range landscape that makes up much of Oregon 's high desert country.
During the last two million years, a series of ice ages altered the landscape. As each ice sheet melted, runoff and increased rainfall filled many of the region 's closed basins, forming large pluvial lakes. The Goose Lake, Harney, and Klamath basins were filled along with many other smaller basins. Some of the lakes covered as much as 1,000 square miles (2,600 km). However, as the climate became drier, these large lakes shrank away. Goose Lake, Harney Lake, Malheur Lake, Summer Lake, Lake Abert, and the Warner Lakes are remnants of ancient pluvial lakes.
Annual precipitation throughout Oregon 's high desert region is relatively low, averaging less than 15 inches (380 mm) per year in most areas. Bend, the region 's largest city, only receives 12 inches (300 mm) of precipitation per year. Burns receives about 11 inches (280 mm) of precipitation annually, while Rome, in central Malheur County, and the official weather station at Whitehorse Ranch in southern Harney County receive only 8 inches (200 mm) in an average year. Some of the mountainous areas, however, receive significantly more precipitation in the form of snow. For example, the high - elevation city of Lakeview has an average annual snowfall of nearly 68 inches (1,700 mm).
The majority of high desert areas receive most precipitation in the winter months, decreasing steadily through late summer into the fall. Some areas in the eastern and southern parts of the region receive peak precipitation in the late spring and early summer. For example, at Hart Mountain in Lake County, the wettest time of the year is March through June. The driest months throughout Oregon 's high desert are July through September; however, there are still isolated thunderstorms during that period.
The indigenous people of the high desert region are the Northern Paiute people. These Native Americans were once semi-nomadic hunter - gatherers who relied on nuts, roots, seeds, berries, and eggs, and animals such as deer, pronghorn, geese, quail, rabbits, and bear, following their food to high and low elevations depending on the time of year. They make sandals, traps, and fishing nets, and weave baskets. Made out of sagebrush, willow, tule plant, Indian hemp, and sumac fibers, the baskets are tight enough to carry water. Archaeological evidence from near Fort Rock has shown that people wove baskets in the area at least 9,000 years ago.
Throughout the 18th century and into the early 19th century, the Northern Paiute had numerous conflicts with tribes who lived to the northwest. The Wasco - Wishram and other Chinook tribes often encroached on the high desert landscape of the Northern Paiute territory. After one such incident in 1811, the Northern Paiute migrated north to the Columbia River and attacked Wasco canoes. Around this time, the Northern Paiute numbered approximately 7,500. The Snake War, a war between the natives and white settlers in the region in the 1860s, killed roughly two thirds of the population of the Northern Paiute. The whites won the war and then set aside the Malheur Reservation for the Northern Paiute and other Oregon Native American tribes.
White settlers who had traveled to Oregon along the Oregon Trail began to live in the high desert region in the 1850s and the 1860s, after they had begun farming and logging in the Willamette Valley and other lands in western Oregon. Thousands of these emigrants reached the area from the west, crossing the Cascade Range to make land claims in eastern Oregon. The high desert area was settled by whites later than western Oregon in part because of Elijah White 's failure to find a pass east through the Cascades. Once they had claimed more land, pioneers and members of the American government negotiated treaties with natives in the high desert and elsewhere in Oregon, often forcing them off their native lands and on to reservations.
In 1866, American soldiers established Camp Warner, a military camp near present - day Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge in Lake County. They were sent from Boise, Idaho, to build a military camp in the high desert, and built it east of the Warner Lakes, because they doubted that they could cross the series of wetlands. Maj. Gen. George Crook disapproved of the soldiers ' decision. He built a road across the lakes and moved the camp to the western side of them.
Of the four major cities in the high desert, Prineville was established earliest. Its post office originally opened under the name, "Prine '', in 1871. It was named for Barney Prine, a whisky and metal merchant in the area. Lakeview 's post office was then established in 1876. At that time, Goose Lake was larger, and it was visible from the post office. The Burns post office opened in 1884 and the city was established in 1891. It was named for the Scottish poet Robert Burns. Bend 's name was derived from the phrase, "Farewell Bend, '' the location where pioneers traveling through the area last saw the Deschutes River. The Bend post office was established in 1904.
In 1878, the Bannock people and northern Shoshone tribes participated in the Bannock War, a war against white settlers in the region over the destruction of camas root -- a major source of food for the natives -- by white settlers ' hogs. The Bannock and the Northern Paiute suffered from violence during the conflict, and once the white settlers had won the war, the natives were allotted into various reservations. The Northern Paiute were sent to the Yakama Indian Reservation, and in later years have been dispersed throughout several reservations in the western United States.
White settlers created the 13,736 - acre (5,559 ha) Burns Paiute Reservation, just north of Burns, in 1897. The reservation was established in 1972. It is home to the descendants of the Wada Tika band of Northern Paiutes. As of 1992, it had 356 members. As of 1980, there were 57 descendants of the Northern Paiute tribe living outside of the reservation.
In the 19th century, Oregon 's high desert area was called the Great Sandy Desert (a misnomer, as there is very little sand in the region), the Rolling Sage Plain, and the Artemisia Desert. Over the years, the region has also been known as Oregon 's Empty Quarter, the Great Wide Open, and Oregon 's Cowboy Country. Today, many local residents call it the Oregon Outback. However, the old names are occasionally still used. A 1996 National Geographic magazine "Map of the United States Physical Landscape '' used the pioneer name, Great Sandy Desert, to identify the southeastern quarter of Oregon. However, the region is most commonly known as Oregon 's "High Desert ''. "High Desert '' is the official name for a plain in Deschutes County, as recognized by the United States Board on Geographic Names. Variant names for the High Desert are "Great Sandy Desert '' and "Rolling Sage Plains ''.
The Oregon Badlands Wilderness, 15 miles (24 km) east of Bend, has vegetation typical of the high desert region. The native plants are adapted to survive on less than 12 inches (300 mm) of rain per year. The area is dominated by big sagebrush and rabbitbrush along with hardy grasses like Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, and bunchgrass. In the spring, there are native wildflowers such as yellow Oregon sunshine, dwarf purple monkeyflower, sulfur buckwheat, Indian paintbrush, and mariposa lilies. Other high desert wildflowers common throughout the region include buttercups, larkspur, phlox, primroses, and coral mallow. The Oregon Badlands Wilderness also contains the oldest known tree in Oregon, a western juniper estimated to be more than 1,600 years old.
Hundreds of animal species are found in Oregon 's high desert environment. In the Hart Mountain National Antelope Refuge alone, there are over 300, including 239 bird species and 42 mammals. Throughout the high desert region, mule deer, pronghorn, coyotes, American badgers, and black - tailed jackrabbits are common. Elk, bighorn sheep, cougars, bobcats, gray foxes, red foxes, North American porcupines, and North American beavers are also found in some parts of the high desert.
Smaller mammals native to the area include long - tailed weasels, woodchucks, cottontail rabbits, pygmy rabbits, golden - mantled ground squirrels, antelope squirrels, Townsend 's ground squirrels, yellow - pine chipmunks, Ord 's kangaroo rats, and northern pocket gophers. Mice species include Great Basin pocket mouse, northern grasshopper mouse, western harvest mouse, deer mouse, meadow mouse, and creeping vole. There are also numerous bat species that live in Oregon 's high desert country.
Common high - desert birds include sage grouse, quail, and sage thrasher. Near high - desert lakes and in riparian areas, there are American dusky flycatchers, yellow warblers, orange - crowned warblers, house wrens, spotted towhees, Brewer 's blackbirds, western meadowlarks, swallows, and nighthawks, mountain chickadees, Cassin 's finches, black - headed grosbeaks, green - tailed towhees, yellow - rumped warblers, MacGillivray 's warblers, mountain bluebirds, common ravens, northern flickers, and white - headed woodpeckers are common in parts of the region. Birds of prey include owls, hawks, prairie falcons, golden eagles, and bald eagles.
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what is the use of rational team concert | Rational Team Concert - Wikipedia
Rational Team Concert is a software development team collaboration tool developed by the Rational Software brand of IBM, who first released it in 2008. The software is available in both client versions, a web version, and on Cloud. It provides a collaborative environment that software development teams use to manage all aspects of their work -- such as plans, tasks, revision control, build management, and reports.
Rational Team Concert is built on IBM Jazz, an extensible technology platform that helps teams integrate tasks across the software life cycle.
Rational Team Concert is built on a client - server architecture. Software development teams use it to track aspects of their work such as work items, source control, reporting, and build management in a single product. Rational Team Concert integrates with several other products, including:
Rational Team Concert presents an Eclipse - based client interface, a Microsoft Visual Studio client interface, and a Web interface. Additionally, since version 4.0 it provides a windows shell integration within Windows Explorer for source control of files within the Rational Team Concert repository. The client interfaces provide an integrated development environment that developers use to build and deliver artifacts. Users can access the Web interface to administer servers and projects, access project areas, browse repository information, update tasks, or read about recent events.
Rational Team Concert provides a single, integrated environment for several aspects of the software development process, including agile planning, process definition, source control, defect tracking, build management, and reporting. Users can use the software to track and manage the relationships between artifacts, promote best practices for development, and gather project information.
In the product, users create work items to track tasks, such as enhancements, defects, or plan items. Among many other things, users can include these work items in plans for specific milestones and can link work items to source code. When a user creates or changes a work item, all members in the associated team are notified.
Users can share team information in the product by tracking team activity, posting detailed information, or configuring which information is visible.
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who did the congress charge with drafting a policy for dividing the northwest territory | Northwest Ordinance - wikipedia
The Northwest Ordinance (formally An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States, North - West of the River Ohio, and also known as The Ordinance of 1787) enacted July 13, 1787, was an act of the Congress of the Confederation of the United States. It created the Northwest Territory, the first organized territory of the United States, from lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains, between British North America and the Great Lakes to the north and the Ohio River to the south. The upper Mississippi River formed the Territory 's western boundary.
It was the response to multiple pressures: the westward expansion of American settlers, tense diplomatic relations with Great Britain and Spain, violent confrontations with Native Americans, the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, and the empty treasury of the American government. It superseded the Land Ordinance of 1784 (of which Thomas Jefferson was the principal author). The 1787 law relied on a strong central government, which was assured under the new Constitution that took effect the following year. In August 1789, it was replaced by the Northwest Ordinance of 1789, in which the new United States Congress reaffirmed the Ordinance with slight modifications.
Considered one of the most important legislative acts of the Confederation Congress, it established the precedent by which the Federal government would be sovereign and expand westward with the admission of new states, rather than with the expansion of existing states and their established sovereignty under the Confederation government. It also set legislative precedent with regard to American public domain lands. The U.S. Supreme Court recognized the authority of the Northwest Ordinance of 1789 within the applicable Northwest Territory as constitutional in Strader v. Graham, but did not extend the Ordinance to cover the respective states once they were admitted to the Union.
The prohibition of slavery in the territory had the practical effect of establishing the Ohio River as the boundary between free and slave territory in the region between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. This division helped set the stage for national competition over admitting free and slave states, the basis of a critical question in American politics in the 19th century until the Civil War.
The territory was acquired by Great Britain from France following victory in the Seven Years ' War and the 1763 Treaty of Paris. Great Britain took over the Ohio Country, as its eastern portion was known, but a few months later closed it to new European settlement by the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The Crown tried to restrict settlement of the thirteen colonies between the Appalachians and the Atlantic, which raised colonial tensions among those who wanted to move west. With the colonials ' victory in the American Revolutionary War and signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the United States claimed the territory, as well as the areas south of the Ohio. The territories were subject to overlapping and conflicting claims of the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Virginia dating from their colonial past. The British were active in some of the border area until after the Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812.
The region had long been desired for expansion by colonists. The states were encouraged to settle their claims by the US government 's de facto opening of the area to settlement following the defeat of Great Britain. In 1784, Thomas Jefferson, a delegate from Virginia, proposed that the states should relinquish their particular claims to all the territory west of the Appalachians, and the area should be divided into new states of the Union. Jefferson 's proposal to create a federal domain through state cessions of western lands was derived from earlier proposals dating back to 1776 and debates about the Articles of Confederation. Jefferson proposed creating ten roughly rectangular states from the territory, and suggested names for the new states: Cherronesus, Sylvania, Assenisipia, Illinoia, Metropotamia, Polypotamia, Pelisipia, Washington, Michigania and Saratoga. The Congress of the Confederation modified the proposal, passing it as the Land Ordinance of 1784. This ordinance established the example that would become the basis for the Northwest Ordinance three years later.
The 1784 ordinance was criticized by George Washington in 1785 and James Monroe in 1786. Monroe convinced Congress to reconsider the proposed state boundaries; a review committee recommended repealing that part of the ordinance. Other politicians questioned the 1784 ordinance 's plan for organizing governments in new states, and worried that the new states ' relatively small sizes would undermine the original states ' power in Congress. Other events such as the reluctance of states south of the Ohio River to cede their western claims resulted in a narrowed geographic focus.
When passed in New York in 1787, the Northwest Ordinance showed the influence of Jefferson. It called for dividing the territory into gridded townships, so that once the lands were surveyed, they could be sold to individuals and speculative land companies. This would provide both a new source of federal government revenue and an orderly pattern for future settlement.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the concept of fee simple ownership, by which ownership was in perpetuity with unlimited power to sell or give it away. This was called the "first guarantee of freedom of contract in the United States ''.
Passage of the ordinance, which ceded all unsettled lands to the federal government and established the public domain, followed the relinquishing of all such claims over the territory by the states. These territories were to be administered directly by Congress, with the intent of their eventual admission as newly created states. The legislation was revolutionary in that it established the precedent for new lands to be administered by the central government, albeit temporarily, rather than under the jurisdiction of the individually sovereign original states, as it was with the Articles of Confederation. The legislation also broke colonial precedent by defining future use of the natural navigation, transportation and communication routes; it did so in a way that anticipated future acquisitions beyond the Northwest Territories, and established federal policy. Article 4 states: "The navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying places between the same, shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabitants of the said territory as to the citizens of the United States, and those of any other States that may be admitted into the confederacy, without any tax, impost, or duty therefor. ''
The most significant intended purpose of this legislation was its mandate for the creation of new states from the region. It provided that at least three but not more than five states would be established in the territory, and that once such a state achieved a population of 60,000 it would be admitted into representation in the Continental Congress on an equal footing with the original thirteen states. The first state created from the Northwest Territory was Ohio, in 1803, at which time the remainder was renamed Indiana Territory. The other four states were Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. A portion (about a third) of what later became the state of Minnesota was also part of the territory.
The ordinance of Congress called for a public university as part of the settlement and eventual statehood of the Ohio Territory, further stipulating, "Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. '' In 1786, Manasseh Cutler became interested in the settlement of western lands by American pioneers to the Northwest Territory. The following year, as agent of the Ohio Company of Associates that he had been involved in creating, he organized a contract with Congress whereby his associates (former soldiers of the Revolutionary War) might purchase 1,500,000 acres (610,000 ha) of land at the mouth of the Muskingum River with their Certificate of Indebtedness. Cutler also took a leading part in drafting the Ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest Territory, which was finally presented to Congress by Massachusetts delegate Nathan Dane. To smooth passage of the Northwest Ordinance, Cutler bribed key congressmen by making them partners in his land company. By changing the office of provisional governor from an elected to an appointed position, Cutler was able to offer the position to the president of Congress, Arthur St. Clair. In 1797, settlers from Marietta traveled upstream via the Hocking River to establish a location for the school, choosing Athens due to its location directly between Chillicothe and Marietta. Originally named in 1802 as the American Western University, the school never opened. Instead, Ohio University was formally established on February 18, 1804, when its charter was approved by the Ohio General Assembly. Its establishment came 11 months after Ohio was admitted to the Union. The first three students enrolled in 1809. Ohio University graduated two students with bachelor 's degrees in 1815.
Before the population of a territory reached 5,000, there would be a limited form of government. There would be a governor, a secretary, and three judges, all appointed by Congress. The governor will have a "freehold estate therein, in one thousand acres of land ''. The secretary and the judges will have a "freehold estate therein, in five hundred acres of land ''. The governor would be commander - in - chief of the militia, appoint magistrates and other civil officers, and help create and publish laws as they see fit for their territory. They would have a three - year term. The secretary would be in charge of keeping and preserving the acts and laws passed by the territorial legislatures, the public records of the district and to transit authentic copies of such acts and proceedings every six months to the secretary of the Continental Congress. They would have a four - year term. The judges would be in charge will help the governor create and pass acts and laws and in making official court rulings. Their terms did not have a set time period. As soon as the population of a territory reached 5000 free, male inhabitants, then they would receive authority to elect representatives from their counties or townships for the general assembly. For every 500 free, males there would be one representative, until there were 25 representatives. Then the Congress will control the number and proportion of the representatives from that legislature. No male can be a representative unless they have been a citizen of the United States for at least three years or lived in the district for three years. In both cases the male in question would have to own at least 200 acres of land within the same district. These representatives shall serve for a term of two years. If a representative died or was removed from office, a new one would be elected to serve out the remainder time.
The natural rights provisions of the ordinance foreshadowed the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. Many of the concepts and guarantees of the Ordinance of 1787 were incorporated in the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. In the Northwest Territory, various legal and property rights were enshrined, religious tolerance was proclaimed, and it was enunciated that since "Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. '' The right of habeas corpus was written into the charter, as was freedom of religious worship and bans on excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment. Trial by jury and a ban on ex post facto laws were also rights recognized.
Art. 6. There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: Provided, always, That any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original States, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as aforesaid.
The language of the ordinance prohibits slavery, but also contained a clear fugitive slave clause as well. Efforts in the 1820s by pro-slavery forces to legalize slavery in two of the states created from the Northwest Territory failed, but an "indentured servant '' law allowed some slaveholders to bring slaves under that status; they could not be bought or sold. Southern states voted for the law because they did not want to compete with the territory over tobacco as a commodity crop; it was so labor - intensive that it was grown profitably only with slave labor. Additionally, slave states ' political power would merely be equalized, as there were three more slave states than there were free states in 1790.
In two parts, the Northwest Ordinance mentions the Native Americans within this region. The first pertains to the demarcation of counties and townships out of lands that the Indians were regarded as having lost or relinquished title:
Section 8. For the prevention of crimes and injuries, the laws to be adopted or made shall have force in all parts of the district, and for the execution of process, criminal and civil, the governor shall make proper divisions thereof; and he shall proceed from time to time as circumstances may require, to lay out the parts of the district in which the Indian titles shall have been extinguished, into counties and townships, subject, however, to such alterations as may thereafter be made by the legislature.
The second describes the preferred relationship with the Indians:
Article III. Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. The utmost good faith shall always be observed towards the Indians; their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and, in their property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress; but laws founded in justice and humanity, shall from time to time be made for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them.
Many Native Americans in Ohio, who were not parties, refused to acknowledge treaties signed after the Revolutionary War that ceded lands north of the Ohio River inhabited by them to the United States. In a conflict sometimes known as the Northwest Indian War, Blue Jacket of the Shawnees and Little Turtle of the Miamis formed a confederation to stop white expropriation of the territory. After the Indian confederation had killed more than 800 soldiers in two battles -- the worst defeats ever suffered by the U.S. at the hands of the Indians -- President Washington assigned General Anthony Wayne command of a new army, which eventually defeated the confederation and thus allowed European - Americans to continue settling the territory.
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when did the actor from lazy town die | Stefán Karl Stefansson - wikipedia
Stefán Karl Stefánsson (/ ˈstɛfən ˈstɛfənsən /; Icelandic: (ˈstɛːfaun ˈkhartl̥ ˈstɛːfaunsɔn); 10 July 1975 -- 21 August 2018) was an Icelandic actor and singer, best known for playing antagonist Robbie Rotten on the children 's television series LazyTown.
Stefán Karl 's career started in 1994. At the age of 19, he worked as a puppeteer for television. During his years as a puppeteer, he had also been studying at the Drama Academy of Iceland. However, he was unsatisfied with the perspectives of Icelandic drama standards. He recalls that his principal at his high school said that "acting is not about making faces and changing your face '', which he disagreed with.
Later, Stefán Karl had been invited by Magnús Scheving, an Icelandic gymnast, to portray one of the characters in the second LazyTown play. Scheving created the plays due to his concerns about Iceland 's younger generation lacking sufficient physical exercise. Stefán Karl explained that "(Scheving) wanted the kids to get healthier, so he created this musical called LazyTown. He played Sportacus, the fitness fanatic, and I was Robbie Rotten, the guy who liked to stay indoors and sleep ''. After initial success with the musical, Nickelodeon eventually made a deal with the creators of LazyTown to air the first 40 episodes of LazyTown along with a special studio built in Iceland. During the first few years of LazyTown in the early 2000s, Stefán Karl initially knew no English, but soon became fluent.
Stefán Karl lived in Los Angeles with wife Steinunn Ólína Þorsteinsdóttir, three daughters, and one son.
He was first diagnosed with bile duct cancer in 2016, and underwent surgery to remove the metastases in 2017; the disease returned in 2018. In June 2018, he was awarded the Order of the Falcon.
Stefán Karl announced in October 2016 that he had been diagnosed with bile duct cancer; a GoFundMe campaign was subsequently created by LazyTown head writer Mark Valenti to pay his living costs when he became too ill to work. The campaign was popularized by various YouTube users uploading parodies of Stefán Karl 's work, which led to the songs "We Are Number One '' and "The Mine Song '' from LazyTown becoming Internet memes. In August 2017, Stefán Karl stated he was in remission. He clarified on his GoFundMe campaign that while his metastases had been removed after successful liver surgery in June 2017, he still had the disease and had refused further adjuvant therapy.
In March 2018, Stefán Karl was diagnosed with inoperable cholangiocarcinoma, and said that he was undergoing chemotherapy to prolong his life. In April 2018, he announced that he personally chose to discontinue chemotherapy, and proceeded to shut down all his social media accounts.
He died on 21 August 2018 at the age of 43. His wife stated that "Per Stefan 's wishes, there will be no funeral. His earthly remains will be scattered in secrecy in a distant ocean. ''
It was announced by his manager, Cheryl Edison, that the Stefán Karl Academy & Center for the Performing Arts would be launched in Switzerland in 2019 as a memorial to his career.
Stefán Karl has been credited in various works including plays, television series, films, and games.
According to IMDb:
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what is the current budget of united states | 2017 United States federal budget - wikipedia
The 2017 United States federal budget is the United States federal budget for fiscal year 2017, which lasts from October 1, 2016 to September 30, 2017. President Barack Obama submitted a budget proposal to the 114th Congress on February 9, 2016. The 2017 fiscal year overlaps the end of the Obama administration and the beginning of the Trump administration.
The federal budget outlines the government 's plans for spending and revenue. In the United States, the federal budget request is first introduced by the president. The federal budget and all appropriations must then be written and approved by the United States Congress. In Congress the process begins with the House Budget Committee and the Senate Budget Committee creating their own budget. After both houses pass a budget resolution, representatives and senators come up with a conference report negotiating between both the House and Senate versions. Budget resolutions do not go to the president for a signature or veto. This budget does not directly enact the actual spending of the federal government, but it sets the amounts that each congressional committee is allowed to spend on the programs, agencies and departments for which it is responsible. Actual spending is driven by the final appropriations bills.
The Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA) had established spending caps on defense and non-defense spending, which were first applied in FY2013. Just before midnight on October 26, 2015, Republican and Democratic leaders reached an agreement, the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015, to increase the budget caps imposed by the BCA for fiscal years by $50 billion in FY2016 and $30 billion in FY2017, and temporarily suspend the debt limit until March 15, 2017. The increased spending was to be offset by changes in Medicare, Social Security disability insurance, selling off oil from the strategic petroleum reserves, and other changes.
The Obama administration 's proposed budget for 2017 proposed spending $4.2 trillion and raising $3.6 trillion in tax revenue. The administration 's stated priorities are creating jobs, building 21st century transportation, investing in medical research, addressing climate change, and increased funding for national security.
Congress did not pass a regular budget resolution for the 2017 fiscal year during the 114th Congress, but did so early in the 115th Congress, over three months after the fiscal year had actually begun.
On September 28, 2016, Congress passed a continuing resolution which extended funding at previous years levels up to December 9, 2016. The continuing resolution avoided a government shutdown and directed funding specifically for protection against the Zika virus and flood relief in Louisiana. The resolution did not include funding some members of Congress requested for the lead crisis in Flint, Michigan. The continuing resolution was named as the Continuing Appropriations and Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies Appropriation Act, 2017, and Zika Response and Preparedness Act.
In November 2016, shortly after the 2016 presidential election, the incoming Trump administration advocated for a second continuing resolution funding the government only until the end of March, to allow the incoming administration influence over the 2017 budget. The House Republican leadership acceded to this plan, although some lawmakers expressed concern that delaying the final appropriations legislation would distract Congress from other priorities during the beginning of Trump 's administration. The final bill, the Further Continuing and Security Assistance Appropriations Act, 2017, extended funding through April 28, 2017. It was passed by the House and Senate on December 8 and 9, 2016, respectively. The passage of the bill in the Senate was delayed after Democrats objected to the fact that an extension of health benefits for retired miners would not last until the end of the year, but a compromise was made to take up the matter in January.
On January 12, 2017, the Senate voted 51 to 48 to pass a FY2017 budget resolution, S. Con. Res. 3, that contained language allowing the repeal of the Affordable Care Act through the budget reconciliation process, which disallows a filibuster in the Senate. The resulting bill, the American Health Care Act of 2017 was initially publicly released by House Republicans on March 6, 2017. The bill was initially withdrawn on March 24 after it failed to gain sufficient House Republican support to pass it, but continuing attempts at compromise led to a new attempt to pass it in early May.
The Trump administration released its preliminary 2018 federal budget request on March 16, 2017. The budget also proposed changes to the BCA spending caps for FY2017, with defense spending increasing by $25 billion (from $551 to $576 billion), and non-defense spending decreasing by $15 billion (from $519 billion to $504 billion).
On April 28, 2017, Congress passed a one - week continuing resolution that extended funding through May 5, 2017. On May 1, a bipartisan agreement was announced on the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017, which included all of the remaining appropriations bills.
Near the end of the fiscal year, on September 8, additional disaster funding due to Hurricane Harvey was enacted as part of the Continuing Appropriations Act, 2018 and Supplemental Appropriations for Disaster Relief Requirements Act, 2017.
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